Excavations*

507. Excavations*
507.1. Site Layout and Control
[1]For

construction projects, it is very important to lay out a site survey. Such

a survey must include control points that are used as reference points for
both horizontal and vertical control of the project. Permanent bench marks
must be set up for vertical control and well-marked points must be used for
horizontal control.
The purpose of horizontal control is to accurately determine points for the
various facilities of an engineering project. On a large facility, one should
establish a grid network and use it for this control.
Vertical control methods determine the dierence in elevation between
points. If available, a level reference surface or datum must be established
and referenced from a known bench mark. Dierences in elevation, with
corrections, are subtracted from or added to this known elevation, resulting
in the elevation of the points.
The construction layout survey is the nal preconstruction operation. It
provides alignments, grades, and locations that guide construction
operations. The survey includes determining exact placement of the
centerline, laying out curves, setting all remaining stakes, grades, and
shoulders, staking out necessary structures, laying out culvert sites and
performing other work required to begin construction.
507.1.1. Construction Stakes

Construction stakes are used for centerline, slope, oset, shoulder, grade,
reference, ditch, culvert, and intermediate slakes and for temporary bench
marks. Typically, these stakes are approximately 1 inch 3 inches in cross
section and 2 ft in length. Finished grade stakes and temporary bench marks
are 2 inches 2 inches by 12 inches.
The primary functions of construction stakes are to indicate facility
alignment control elevations, guide equipment operators, and eliminate
unnecessary work. They also determine the width of clearing required by
indicating the limits of the cut and ll at right angles to the centerline of a
road.
Survey crews mark and place construction stakes to conform to the planned
line and grade of the proposed facility. A uniform system must be used so the
information on the stakes can be properly interpreted by the construction
crew.
Construction stakes indicate:
The stationing or location of any part of the facility in relation to its
starting point. If the stake is located at a critical point such as a point of
curvature (PC), point of intersection (PI), or point of tangency (PT) of a
curve, this should be noted on the stake.
The height of cut or ll from the existing ground surface to the top of the
subgrade for centerline stakes or to the shoulder grade for shoulder or
slope stakes.
The horizontal distance from the centerline to the stake location.
The side-slope ratio used on slope stakes.
507.1.2. Ditch Stake
The example of a ditch stake shown in Figure 507.1 is marked with the
following information:

Figure 507.1. Typical example of a ditch stake.

1. Oset distance to intercept point of back-slope with natural ground
2. Cut to bottom of ditch from stake
3. Back slope of ditch
4. Base width
5. Ditch typical from plans
6. Vertical distance () between intercept point and oset ditch stake point +
oset ditch stake point higher than intercept point oset ditch stake
point lower than intercept point
7. Station

507.1.3. Slope Stake

The example of slope stake shown in Figure 507.2 is marked with the
following information:

Figure 507.2. Typical examples of slope stakes cut and ll sections.

1. Oset distance (horizontal distance between catch point and slope stake)
2. Total ll or cut from base point to intercept point with natural ground
3. Total horizontal distance of slope
4. Rate of slope
5. Total distance from centerline to intercept point
6. Vertical distance () between intercept point and oset stake point +
oset stake point higher than intercept point oset stake point lower
than intercept point

7. Station
8. Superelevation

507.2. Terminology
Benching: Excavating the sides of an excavation to form one or a series of
horizontal levels or steps, usually with vertical or near-vertical surfaces
between levels, as a method of protecting employees from cave-ins.
Cave-in: The separation of a mass of soil or rock material from the side of
an excavation, or the loss of soil from under a trench shield or support
system, in sucient quantity so that it could entrap, bury, or otherwise
injure and immobilize a person.
Cross braces: The horizontal members of a shoring system installed
perpendicular to the sides of the excavation, the ends of which bear
against either uprights or wales.
Kickout: The accidental release or failure of a cross brace.
Sheeting: The interconnected or closely spaced members of a shoring
system that retain the earth in position and in turn are supported by other
members of the shoring system.
Shoring: A structure that supports the sides of an excavation, preventing
cave-ins.
Trench: A narrow excavation (in relation to its length) made below the
surface of the ground. In general, the depth is greater than the width, but
the width of a trench (measured at the bottom) is not greater than 15 ft.
A stairway, ladder, ramp or, other safe means of egress shall be located in
trench excavations that are 4 ft or more in depth so as to require no more
than 25 ft of lateral travel for employees.
Uprights: The vertical members of a trench shoring system placed in
contact with the earth and usually positioned so that individual members
do not contact each other. Uprights placed so that individual members are
closely spaced, in contact with or interconnected to each other, are often
called "sheeting."

Wales: Horizontal members of a shoring system placed parallel to the

excavation face whose sides bear against the vertical members of the
shoring system or earth.

507.3. Classication of Soil and Rock Deposits

For evaluation of excavations each soil and rock deposit should be classied
as stable rock, type A, type B, or type C in accordance with the denitions set
forth below:

Stable rock: This classication is used for natural solid mineral matter that
can be excavated with vertical sides and remains intact while exposed.

Type A soil: This classication is used for cohesive soils with an

unconned compressive strength of 1.5 tons/ft 2 (144 kPa) or greater.
Examples of cohesive soils are clay, silty clay, sandy clay, clay loam and, in
some cases, silty clay loam, and sandy clay loam.
No soil may be classied as type A if (1) the soil is ssured, or (2) the soil is
subject to vibration from heavy trac, pile driving, or similar eects, or (3)
the soil has been previously disturbed, or (4) the soil is part of a sloped,
layered system where the layers dip into the excavation on a slope of 4H:1V
or greater, or (5) the material is subject to other factors that would require
it to be classied as a less stable material.

Type B soil: This classication is used for (1) cohesive soil with an
unconned compressive strength greater than 0.5 tons/ft 2 (48 kPa) but less
than 1.5 tons/ft 2 (144 kPa), or (2) granular cohesionless soils including
angular gravel (similar to crushed rock), silt, silt loam, sandy loam and, in
some cases, silty clay loam, and sandy clay loam, (3) previously disturbed
soils except those which would otherwise be classed as type C soil, (4) soil
that meets the unconned compressive strength or cementation
requirements for type A, but is ssured or subject to vibration, or (5) dry
rock that is not stable, or (6) material that is part of a sloped, layered
system where the layers dip into the excavation on a slope less steep than
4H:1V, but only if the material would otherwise be classied as type B.

Type C soil: This classication is used for (1) cohesive soil with an
unconned compressive strength of 0.5 tons/ft 2 (48 kPa) or less, or (2)
granular soils including gravel, sand, and loamy sand, or (3) submerged

soil or soil from which water is freely seeping, or (4) submerged rock that
is not stable, or (5) material in a sloped, layered system where the layers
dip into the excavation or a slope of 4H:1V or steeper.

507.4. Maximum Allowable Slopes

Table 507.1 shows maximum allowable slopes for excavations less than 20 ft
deep.

Table 507.1. Maximum Allowable Slopes for Excavations less than 20

ft
Maximum allowable slopes (H:V)
Soil or rock type

for excavations less than 20 ft

deep

Stable rock

Vertical (90)

Type A

3/4 : 1 (53)

Type B

1 : 1 (45)

Type C

1 1/2 : 1 (34)

507.4.1. Exceptions
A short-term maximum allowable slope of 1 H :2V (63) is allowed in
excavations in type A soil that are 12 ft or less in depth.
Short-term maximum allowable slopes for excavations greater than 12 ft in
depth shall be 3/4H :1V (53).
507.4.2. Excavations in Type A Soil
All simple slope excavation 20 ft or less in depth shall have a maximum
allowable slope of 3/4:1. Exception: Simple slope excavations which are open
24 h or less (short term) and which are 12 ft or less in depth shall have a
maximum allowable slope of 1/2:1.

All benched excavations 20 ft or less in depth shall have a maximum allowable

slope of 3/4 to 1. These slopes may have simple or multiple benches.
All excavations 8 ft or less in depth which have unsupported vertically sided
lower portions shall have a maximum vertical side of 3 1/2 ft.
All excavations more than 8 ft but not more than 12 ft in depth with
unsupported vertically sided lower portions shall have a maximum allowable
slope of 1:1 and a maximum vertical side of 3 1/2 ft.
All excavations 20 ft or less in depth which have vertically sided lower
portions that are supported or shielded shall have a maximum allowable
slope of 3/4:1. The support or shield system must extend at least 18 in above
the top of the vertical side.
507.4.3. Excavations in Type B Soil
All simple slope excavations 20 ft or less in depth shall have a maximum
allowable slope of 1:1.
All benched excavations 20 ft or less in depth shall have a maximum allowable
slope of 1:1. These slopes may have simple or multiple bench.
All excavations 20 ft or less in depth which have vertically sided lower
portions shall be shielded or supported to a height at least 18 in above the
top of the vertical side.
All such excavations shall have a maximum allowable slope of 1:1.
507.4.4. Excavations in Type C Soil
All simple slope excavations 20 ft or less in depth shall have a maximum
allowable slope of 1 1/2:1.
All excavations 20 ft or less in depth which have vertically sided lower
portions shall be shielded or supported to a height at least 18 in above the
top of the vertical side.
All such excavations shall have a maximum allowable slope of 1 1/2:1.

507.5. Underpinning

Structures sometimes have foundations that require rehabilitation because

of either increased loads from the superstructure or localized damage to
parts of the foundation. In order to achieve greater bearing capacity, it may
be necessary for foundation components to reach a deeper, stronger soil
stratum. The most cost-eective alternative may be an underpinning of the
structure. Underpinning is the installation of temporary or permanent
supports to an existing foundation to provide either additional depth or an
increase in bearing capacity. Other conditions which may necessitate
underpinning are construction of a new project with a deeper foundation
adjacent to an existing building, excessive settlement, or addition of
basement below an existing structure.
Settlement may be caused by a lowering of the water table, caused by
drawdown due to pumping. On the other hand, a rise of the water table can
cause a lowering of bearing capacity of certain soils, causing additional
settlement.
There are two basic concepts of underpinning: (1) mass concrete
underpinning, which is suitable for relatively shallow depths of underpinning
in dry stable ground conditions. Bases are excavated and constructed in a
trench excavated directly under the footing, and (2) beam and base method
of underpinning in which a reinforced concrete beam is constructed below,
above, or in replacement of the existing footing. The beam then transfers the
load of the building to mass concrete bases, which are constructed at
designed strategic locations.
507.5.1. Underpinning of a Damaged Pile Foundation
When the tops of timber piles are damaged (decay), the underpinning
sequence looks as shown in Fig. 507.3.

Figure 507.3. Underpinning of a foundation.

Step 1: Shore existing construction, excavate approach pit and expose
existing piles.
Step 2: Remove top portion of piles and cut piles at new cut-o elevation.
Step 3: Install steel plates and wedge strut.
Step 4: Transfer load to piles using wedges.
Step 5: Pour encasement concrete and backll approach pit.
507.5.2. Temporary Support with Maintenance Jacking
Light structures (e.g., wood-frame garages) that fall within the inuence line
of the adjacent excavation and which do not warrant the expense of an
underpinning installation may be supported on timber or concrete mats (see
Fig. 507.4).

Figure 507.4. Temporary support with jacks.

If settlement occurs, the structure will be kept at the same level by means of
mechanical or hydraulic jacks. At completion of the work in the adjacent lot,
the jacks are replaced with short steel columns, and the void is lled with
concrete.
507.5.3. Bracket Pile Underpinning
When both the existing and future structures belong to the same owner, the
use of bracket piles is very economical (most municipal building codes do not
allow a building to be supported on the foundation that is located on
someone else's property).
The steel bracket piles are driven or placed adjacent to the future structure
in preaugered holes which are then backlled with a lean sand-cement mix.
The load is transferred from the structure into the pile through a steel
bracket welded to the side of the pile (see Fig. 507.5).

Figure 507.5. Bracket pile underpinning.

This type of underpinning can be utilized for structures up to two stories
high, depending on the weight of the building and the quality of the bearing
material at subgrade or the new structure. The toe penetration of the piles is
determined by the vertical load distribution of the bracket pile.
The spacing of the piles depends on the load distribution in the existing
structure. The maximum spacing should not exceed 8 ft.

[1]For

a detailed treatment of compaction, see Chap. 202. For earthwork

topics, including the use of mass diagrams, see Chap. 212.

Citation
EXPORT

Indranil Goswami: Civil Engineering All-In-One PE Exam Guide: Breadth and Depth,
Second Edition. Excavations*, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2012),
AccessEngineering

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