JOURNAL

OF MATHEMATICAL

BEHAVIOR

14, 41-73

(1995)

Purpose in School Algebra

ALAN
The University

BELL
of Nottingham

Algebra is commonly regarded as a problem area for many students, which has led
teachers in schools to question its necessity, whereas lecturers of tertiary-level courses
continue to complain of incoming students lack of algebraic skill.
In considering how this situation should be addressed, I need first to clarify the aims
and objectives of the school algebra course. I then review the research evidence on
students performance and proceed to some suggestions for curriculum modifications that
might be helpful.

AIMS OF SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

I give a few examples of tasks to focus the discussion. Most of these are from
examination papers for the most able 25% of 16-year-olds. Which of these would
you regard as representing the aims of a school algebra course?
Example 1:
(a) Show that the sum of a number of four digits and the number formed by
reversing the digits is always divisible by 11.
(b) The greatest and least of four consecutive numbers are multiplied together; so
also are the middle pair. Show that the difference of the two products is always 2.
Example 2:
(a) A boat rows a certain distance upstream at 2 mph, stops for an hour, and
returns at 4 mph. The total time is 3.5 hours. What is the distance each way?
(b) Same questions with speeds 2.6 mph and 4.1 mph.
Example 3:
(a) The cost per hour of running a ship is a fixed amount of La together with a
variable amount of fbV3 which depends upon the speed (V miles per hour) of the
ship. The total cost of a journey of d miles at a uniform speed of V miles per hour is
fC. Prove that C = d (a/V + bV2).
Given that a = 3.3, V = 15, d = 3000, and C = 1300, calculate b correct to two
significant figures.

Correspondence
and requests for reprints should be sent to Alan Bell, Shell Centre for
Mathematical Education, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NC7 2RD, United Kingdom.

41

42

BELL

Example 4:
Show that, if 2s = a + b + c,
(a) s(s - a) + (s - b) (s - c) = bc
s2 - (s - a)2
b+c
(b) (s - c)~ - (s - b)2 =- b - c

Example 5:

PIZZA PRICES
Size

Diameter of
Pizza Plate

Mini
Small
Medium
Large
Family

20 cm
25 cm
21.5 cm
30.5 cm
38 cm

cost
$ 4.00
$ 5.00
$ 7.50
$ 8.60
$10.50

Explore the relations between diameter and cost, and discuss which size is good
value.

The first of these examples requires the problem

braically, using knowledge of place value, as

to be represented

alge-

1000~ + 1OOb+ 10~ + d + (IOOOd + 100~ + lob + a)

which leads, in two steps, to
1001 (a + 6) + 110 (b + c)

which is easily verified to be a multiple of 11.

The second part of the question involves expressing
as n, IZ + 1, II + 2, n + 3, leading to

the consecutive

numbers

n (n + 3) - (n + l)(n + 2)
which on multiplication
shows that the difference is 2, independent of n.
This problem thus demands formulation in algebraic terms, some manipulation, and finally interpretation of the conclusion. This is a typical example of the
use of algebra to establish generalizations-except
that the full process includes
the discovery of the generalization,
not simply its proof.

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

43

The second example is intended in a similar way to typify the process of

forming and solving an equation to obtain a value as the solution to a problem.
The equation is d/2 + d/4 = 512, leading to d = 3l/3, which can be checked, the
two times being % and 5/6, adding to 5/2. (The second version is given simply to
show how harder numbers influence the feasibility of attempting numerical
rather than algebraic solutions. The first version might possibly be attempted
without algebra.)
Example 3 is one kind of question in which functional relationships are being
used in a situation with some links to the real world. A fuller treatment of this
might start by hypothesizing the form of the cost function, perhaps working from
some real or plausible data. The determination of the constant b might well be
part of a practically important modeling task, but unless its place in the whole
activity is discussed, one may raise the question: What is the point of this?
Example 5 might be a more valid task in the field of functions. Here some
hypotheses about the functional relationships between diameter, area, volume,
and cost need to be generated and tested against the data.
Example 4 is included to raise the question of a quite different kind of
algebraic objective. What should be the relation between this and the other more
global tasks which generate the need for manipulative facility?
The uses of algebraic symbolism and algebraic thinking go beyond the types
discussed here; for example, tasks in geometry and trigonometry often require
the use of algebraic representation and processing, as when the angle size of an
n-sided regular polygon is expressed as (2 - 4/n) right angles or 23.4 = h sin 15
has to be rearranged. Indeed, a moments thought about its role in coordinate
geometry, in calculus, in the expression of physical laws, and in quantitative
design problems of every kind, makes it clear that the mastery of the algebraic
language is indispensable to further mathematical work, and that uncertainty or
error in its use is as much of a handicap at these levels as is slowness or
uncertainty in handling numbers at an earlier stage. Also important is knowing
how to read an expression or formula so as to recognize how one variable
depends on another. (For example, y = x + b, or y = UJ?, or V = m-2h. In the
latter formula, if r is doubled what happens to V if h is fixed, or to h if V is
fixed?)
These exemplify the wider uses of algebra as a language for the expression of
mathematical statements. But formal mathematical languages such as algebra are
unique in having transformation
rules that reveal implications through symbol
manipulation,
without conscious reasoning being applied to the represented concepts .
Indeed, the analogy between natural language and algebraic language may be
taken farther, in that natural language has a number of characteristic modes of
use-for
description,
expression,
reasoned argument, persuasion-each
of
which needs to be experienced and developed by the learner. These may be

44

BELL

compared with the three modes of algebraic use illustrated by Examples

5 and which we shall take as our curriculum framework:
l

l
l

1, 2, and

Generalizing.
Forming and solving equations.
Working with functions and formulae.

Students need to become competent in handling these processes, not just in

the symbol manipulations represented by Example 4. Moreover, it appears that
conceptual obstacles arise less frequently and are easier to overcome when the
work is embedded in appropriate meaningful activities of these kinds. This claim
will be discussed more fully in the last main section of this article. In the next
section, I review the evidence from research regarding the nature and extent of
difficulties that students experience in the learning of algebra in existing courses.
I first look at research indicating how far students are able to handle the three
general processes previously listed-generalizing,
forming and solving equations, and working with functions and formulae. Then I report some work that
cuts across the three main categories.

RESEARCH
Generalizing
Generalizing
the algebraic
generalization
tested, using
ducted. The
situations.

ON GENERAL

ALGEBRAIC

STRATEGIES

was the focus of a study by Lee and Wheeler (1987). It concerned

thinking of 15-year-old students, focusing on their conceptions of
and justification.
Three hundred and fifty four students were
12 problems, and 25 individual interviews were subsequently conproblems demanded the use of algebraic language in reasoning about

The first problem used was:

Is the statement

2.x+ I
2x+1+7=8

definitely true?
possibly true?
never true?

Say how you know.

The general conclusion
here was definitely true, but for two distinct
reasons-either
the 2~s were canceled, or cross-multiplying
led to an equation
which was then solved, or at least seen to be solvable. Those who canceled were
asked to check by putting a numerical value for n, but no one was able to use this
to recognize that the equation is true for x = 0 but for no other value. Hence, the
concept of an equation-like statement being true for some values of x, but not for

PURPOSE IN SCHOOL ALGEBRA

45

all, and that these might be identified by direct checking, was absent. The
predisposition of the students was toward applying learned procedures for canceling the fraction or for solving the equation.
Another question asked:
What are the main differences
(x (X -

between the following

two algebraic statements?

1)(X + 2) = 4
1)(x + 2) = x2 + X - 2

Both statements were treated primarily as equations to solve; no student remarked on the fact that one was an identity and the other true for (two) particular
values of X.
The dominance of manipulation over reasoning as shown also in the following
item:
Suppose you worked out the following equation as shown below and came to
the conclusion that 20 = 4.

._L+_?__=
2-x

2+x

5(2 + x) + 5(2 - x) = 4
5(2 + x + 2 - X) = 4
5(4) = 4
20 = 4

How do you explain this result?

Here, over half the students appeared to accept the validity of the line 20 = 4;
more than half of these accepted the entire procedure. Only about 20% indicated,
implicitly or explicitly, that 20 = 4 was unacceptable. Some were nonplussed by
the nonappearance
of a value for x at the end, and wondered whether x was
perhaps 20, or 4, or both. None of them thought to test 4, or 20, or any other
number by substitution.
The inability to read and use algebraic symbolism in a meaningful way was
shown in the Lee and Wheeler (1987) study in a sequence of questions on odd
and even numbers. The first of these follows:
Show, using algebra, that the sum of two consecutive
follow each other) is always an odd number.

numbers (i.e., numbers that

46

BELL

About half of the students tested were able to express consecutive numbers as a,
a + 1 and to obtain 2a + 1; they then tried various substitutions and manipulations, but few could give a general argument to show that this sum must be odd.
In another question, fewer still could explain why x(x + 1) is even.
Thus, the central purpose of algebra was perceived by these students as the
performance of some manipulation;
its use as a mode of expression of some
generalizations,
allowing discussion of the conditions of their truth, or as the
basis of an argument, was absent.
Another study of typical 15-year-old students ability to explain and justify
generalizations
also showed a low level of application of algebra. One of the
tasks required deriving and explaining the fact that if the same number is added
to 10, and subtracted from 10, the sum of the two results is always 20. Only 3 of
4 1 students even attempted to represent the situation algebraically; the remainder
used verbal explanations, often failing to distinguish data from conclusion (Bell,
1976).
Forming and Solving Equations
The forming of equations was the subject of a study by Galvin and Bell (1977).
Here the evidence showed a strong tendency for students to write the arithmetical
calculations required to solve the problem. Writing an equation to represent the
problem, and then working with the equation instead of with the original problem, was a major obstacle. Perhaps this is the most important difference between
arithmetic and algebra. Galvin and Bell stated:
It appeared that equations represented a quite distinctive form of expression which
was unlikely to be adopted by the pupils spontaneously unless they both recognised
that this expression led to the possibility of algorithms for solution, and also that
they had had some practice in the solution of such equations resulting in the
solution of the corresponding problem, that is they needed to know that equations
could be manipulated and solved in order to decide that it was worthwhile trying to
formulate the problem in this way. (p. ii)

The other question that arose was whether it is more advantageous to use
suggestive letters, such as h for head and b for body, or conventional ones, like x
and y. It appeared that the use of suggestive letters facilitated the initial writing of
equations, but was less helpful at the subsequent stage of manipulation.
In
proceeding from h = b/2 + 4 and b = h + 4 to the combined equation b = b/2
+ 4 + 4, it is necessary to stop thinking about h as head, b as body, and to think
of them as symbols which are manipulated and moved around according to
algebraic rules.
Functions and Formulae
Parts of the Lee and Wheeler (1987) study touched on functions in looking for
the ability to recognize and express a functional relationship in sequences of

PURPOSE IN SCHOOL ALGEBRA

47

numbers, in dot patterns, and in tables of values. They remarked that though
seeing a pattern was not a problem, students lacked flexibility in generating
sufficient possible patterns, in selecting useful ones, and in checking their validity (p. 146).
The generation of possible variables and relations in practical situationsmathematical modeling-is
a strong interest among curriculum developers, but
not very much research exists documenting students difficulties in perceiving the
relevance of algebra to such situations or their ability to see how to make
appropriate applications.
However, material designed to display and evaluate
these modeling abilities was developed by Treilibs, Burkhardt, and Low (1980).
Their problems included one about the advice to give the management of a large
supermarket which is trying to estimate how many of the checkout tills should be
operating at any given time. As well as tests of the students ability to solve the
complete problems, subtests also dealt with generating variables, selecting variables, generating relationships, selecting relationships, and specifying questions.
On a sample of able 17-year-olds, all the tests (except selecting relationships) had
low correlations with mathematical attainment as measured by school tests and
teacher ratings, indicating that the development of the ability to apply algebra in
this way is a neglected area in the school curriculum.
Conceptual Obstacles
Firth (1975) showed that many lCyear-old students responded to a request to
add 15 to X by asserting that they could not do so until they knew the value of x;
they could not accept the unclosed x + 15 as an answer. However, subsequent
research has shown that this need not be a serious problem, given experience of
working in suitable contexts. For example, Sutherland (1992) showed that loyear-old pupils working with a computer spreadsheet can use such expressions;
see also the later part of this article. Another item investigated in Bell and Low
(1982), following Collis (1975), is
ll-6=0-11

This showed two kinds of error. At one level, the response was 5, indicating a
fixation on the early notion that = means makes. This directional approach
to the equals sign has been shown to persist even at college level (Kieran, 1981;
Mevarech & Yitschak, 1983; both quoted in Kieran, 1990). At another level, the
response was 6 showing the persistence of an assumption of commutativity
of subtraction probably deriving from experience with natural numbers. Each of
these errors has been shown to belong to a substantial complex of misconceptions .
The so-called students and professors problem (Clement, 1982) has received much attention in the research literature over the last 10 years. In the

48

BELL

original study, several groups of university

with the problem:

engineering

students were presented

Write an equation using the variables S and P to represent the following statement:
There are six times as many students as professors at this university. Use S for the
number of students and P for the number of professors.

It was found that 37% of the students answered incorrectly, and of these, 68%
represented the problem as 6S = P. A related result was reported by Mevarech
and Yitschak (1983), who found that 38% of the 150 college students they tested
answered that, given the equation 3k = m, k is greater than m.
MacGregor (1991) also studied this phenomenon. In a test based on her work, I
found some 40% of secondary-school students selecting the reversed response to a
similar additive question (a smaller minority selected the commuted 6 - m = k):
I have m dollars and you have k dollars. I have $6 more than you. Which
equation must be true?
6k = m

6m = k

k+6=m

m+6=k

6-m=k

The first and most obvious explanation offered for these errors is that students
tend to transliterate the verbal form: six students to every professor + 6s = P.
However, subsequent research showed that though this misconception governed
some cases, the error still occurred in translating from tabular or diagrammatic
representations
into algebra. In these cases, the error appears to relate to an
associative link perceived in the statement 6S = P, the larger number S being
associated with 6. Wollman (1983) and MacGregor (1990) separately conducted
teaching experiments that show that improvements results from generating numbers to fit the equation, reflecting on which is the larger quantity, and expressing
the relationship verbally in different ways.
The incorrect direct transliteration of verbal statements into algebra, where
3a + 4b could be derived from 3 apples and 4 bananas (irreverently known as
fruit-salad algebra), has been shown to be a frequent source of error (Galvin &
Bell, 1977; Kiichemann,
1981), and is of course encouraged by some algebra
texts. In Kiichemanns test, only 10% of 14-year-olds correctly symbolized the
following problem, writing 5b + 6r = 90, whereas 17% gave instead b + r =
90:
Blue pencils cost 5 pence each and red pencils cost 6 pence each. I buy some blue
and some red pencils and altogether it costs me 90 pence.
If b is the number of blue pencils bought and if r is the number of red pencils
bought, what can you write down about b and r?

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

49

Misconceptions
regarding the commutativity
of the subtraction and (particularly) the division operations, and their notations, have been widely documented (Bell, Fischbein, & Greer, 1984; Bell, Greer, Grimison, & Mangan,
1989; Brown, 1981). At this point, I will only remark that whereas in an arithmetic problem any confusion or error in the order of a division operation, for
example, using 7.2 + 3 for 3 + 7.2, may be detected from the size of the answer;
in considering the rearrangements of D = S X T to T = DIS or SID, the error is
less easy to spot. In a question asking which of six such rearrangements
of
formulae were also true, only 6% of secondary-school students chose the correct
two (Bell & Onslow, 1987).
Breakdowns in the equation concept at a higher level have been studied by
Filloy and Rojano (1985; see also Kieran, 1990). They showed that, whereas
equations containing a single occurrence of the variable (such as 3x - 5 = 22)
can often be solved intuitively, or by backtracking or unpacking, those in which
the variable appears twice, on both sides, as in examples of the type 3x - 5 = 2~
+ 22 or, indeed, 3x - 5 = 22 - 2x, need a more detached concept of equation.
Some algebraic errors appear initially to be more technical failures, or memory lapses. Examples of such errors are adding fractions by adding numerators and
denominators,
false canceling of part of a term, manipulating directed numbers
according to the implicit rule drop sign while operating (e.g., - 11 - 6 =
-( 11 - 6) = -5), and treating exponents as multipliers (3* = 6). These all arise
from a failure to make important conceptual distinctions, and hence need to be
treated by an appeal to meanings rather than to the simple reassertion of a correct
rule.
Some Survey Results
Some specific data follow from the British national survey of 15-year-olds
man, Martini, Tuson, & Cresswell, 1980-1982).
I.
2.

3.

(Fox-

Evaluating d3 when d = 3 (44% correct; 16% gave 9; 25% other; 15% no

answer).
(a) I am x years old. Peter is two years older. What is his age? (49% gave
x + 2; 10% gave 2.x)
(b) Similar question but with 1 more, 3 less, twice (all about 45% correct).
(c) Represent the number which is n bigger than 3 (27% correct; 24%
n > 3).
(a) What is x if 2x + 7 = 45? (73% correct)
(b) 2.x + 3x + 4x = 2.x + 21, what is x? (50% correct)
(c) If A = L X B tells us how to work out A, what formula tells us how to
work out L? (39% correct)

Any manipulations
beyond these levels tended to have 30% facility with some
25% or more omissions.

50

BELL

AN APPROACH

TO THE ALGEBRA

CURRICULUM

With this background of research on the current state of understanding

and
misunderstanding
of algebra, I offer suggestions for a curriculum and a pedagogy
aimed at dealing with these problems. In general, the approach advocated is to
learn the algebraic language in a way similar to that in which the mother tongue
is learned; that is, by using it in order to communicate, with oneself and with
others, in the course of activities defined by the three main modes of activity
already described: (a) generalizing, (b) forming and solving equations, and (c)
working with functions and formulae.
As I have indicated, each of these strands embodies its own characteristic
purposes, and its own set of general strategies and procedures for achieving
them. There is, of course, some overlap, but fluent use of the language and
methods of algebra certainly includes the ability to handle each of these types of
situation confidently. One might make an analogy with the various uses of
language for description, instruction, expression, discussion, persuasion, and so
on. (The now common recognition of language competence as including speaking, listening, reading, and writing can also suggest illuminating ways of thinking about mathematical activity.)
I also propose a pedagogy consisting of an alternation between broad activities embodying the main purposes of algebraic activity (and in particular, of
these three strands), and more focused activities aimed at acquiring particular
concepts or skills. I have called this diagnostic teaching. These focused activities, consisting mainly of provoked cognitive conflicts and intensive discussions
of critical conceptual points, have been shown to be strikingly more effective for
longer term retention than more usual methods (Bell, 1993a, 1993b; Bell,
Onslow, Pratt, Purdy, & Swan, 1985). In this article I consider broad activities
aimed at developing strategic abilities to handle the three strands we have been
discussing. My claim is that these provide a context in which specific misconceptions can be more easily dealt with.

Generalizing
What needs to be learned about generalizing is the process of exploring a given
situation for patterns and relationships, organizing the data systematically, recognizing the relations and expressing them verbally and symbolically, and seeking
explanation and appropriate kinds of justification or proof according to level.
Examples include, at the earlier stages, relations such as these illustrated by
9 = 4 + 5 = 3 + 6 = 2 + 7; 9 + 5 = 14 ==> 19 + 5 = 24; the digit patterns in
5, 10, 15,20 . . . and in 9, 18,27,36
. . . ; various patterns in the addition and
multiplication
tables; Pascals triangle; and spiral patterns. The same process
applies to the study of the number field itself, with the recognition and expression of the general laws of associativity, commutativity, inverses, and so on.
Divisibility properties, such as that the sum of any three consecutive numbers
is divisible by 3, provide good examples of the power of algebra to prove general

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

51

ALGEBRA

properties. Here the method of expressing the number following n as IE + 1 will

arise, but this does not appear to be a serious obstacle when it is dealt with in
context. Similarly, expressing the number with digits x and y as 10x + y is
needed for a certain class of problems.
Harder generalizations will appear in problems such as that of determining the
number of games needed if each of, say, 22 teams is to play against each other
once. Trial of a few simple cases, then systematic organization of the trial data
and a search for pattern follow.
I now give some fuller examples related to the table of counting numbers 1 to
100, the multiplication
table, and the calendar.
Days and Dates. The generalizations
in Days and Dates (see Figure 1)
appear not to have been previously noticed by many 1 I-tol2-year-olds,
so mak-

DAYS AND DATES

Today is the 3rd of October and its my
birthday

Monday.

on the 23rd.

Today is a

So my birthday

will be on a

Sunday!
c

Great for a party!

Peter

f course.

1
2

If you go 20 days on, its always one day earlier in

Is Rachel right?
What happens

Explain.
if you go forward

(a) 10 days; (b) M days; (c) 40 days; (d) 100 days?

3

Explain

the rule which

governs these problems.

Figure

1.

BELL

52

LINE PATTERNS
Take a copy of the Multiplication

Square.

Find the box showing

14
21
28
0
Notice that 14 + 28 = 42
and2x21

=42

Try this other box in the same vertical line

28
35
42

Is it still true that T + B = 2M?

Try a few more, in the same line.
Try some similar boxes in other lines.
Try horizontal

boxes also: Does

L
left

Try lines of 4 and 5 numbers.

right

2M?
middle

Write what you find.

Use letters if you wish.

Figure 2A.
ing this link with
awareness

a possible

of mathematical

everyday
relations

situation

is a good

way of encouraging

in the real world.

Line Patterns and Corners and Middles. Line Patterns and Comers and
Middles (see Figures 2a & 2b) have proved to be good ways of getting pupils to
use algebraic language in situations where it forms a natural means of communication. Note that opportunities for checking, and understanding the possibility of
relations being true always, sometimes, or never, are built in also.
Some more extended individual explorations of these situations are shown in
Figure 3. These are from 13- and 14-year-old& but the examples could be used
earlier with faster pupils.
In Figure 3, Julia compares the sums of numbers in two similar L-shaped
boxes in the calendar. The difference in the numerical case is 44. We might

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

CORNERS

ALGEBRA

53

AND MIDDLES
Cut

out a frame to put

over this table.

I6 24 32 46 46 56(641 72 60 I6 90

9 I6 27 36 49 54 63172111 90 99 106
10 26 JO 46 90:bO 7OllOi 90,100 110.120
11 22133 44~53~66(77~66~99~ilO~I~~32
12 24136 46 (CO/ 721 64/96/106~110(132]144

B-A=C-B
(the B number

- the A number)

= (the C number - the B number)

Check that this is true in both the boxes shown.

Check

other

places

on the table.
So B - A = C - B is always

Consider

This is never
.

Consider

true.

Check this.

E = 2A

This is sometimes
.

true

A t D=F+I

true.

Check this.

With your partner, make a list of 6 relations

another pair to decide whether
sometimes

true.

and challenge

they are always, never or

But sure of your answers first.

Try to get some of each type.

Figure 2%
expect another numerical example at this point, but instead she introduces n for
the number in the central cell, and obtains the difference as (4x + 22) (4x - 22) = 44, showing that the pattern is true everywhere on the square.
Students were encouraged to experiment and find their own patterns for

54

BELL

Julia is exploring

patterns found by making L shaped boxes around some numbers

an old calendar. Notice how she has gene!Aised the pattern with algebra in two
dBerent ways. This shows that she has real&d that letters can stand for generalise

kt7t$.tX*\t
k+Z = 4xtkY
Xi\Y+xt\S+x+ntx*-J+A
$+a

haded the bracketted eqressions,

by thinking of their global
mcuring(~LmoreChanSr,taLB22leuthan4r).Somepupiistuddfficultierhere,
whichwerediswsedinWopa&Sons.
As WeU as thinking about meanings, pupil
experimmted by substituting numbers such as 10,3, KtO....for x.
iulia SwZSfu&!

Figure 3.

different shapes on the calendar, and to include some which did not give a regular
pattern. The second example (see Figure 4) is one in which the nongenerality of
the pattern is shown by the algebra. The difference x - 3 means, as the student

PURPOSEIN

SCHOOL ALGEBRA

55

says, the answer isnt always 13, but, in the case I took, x - 3 = 13. So the
difference will vary, depending on where the shape is.
These nongeneral relations show more vividly than the general ones how the
use of a letter as a generalized number demonstrates the generality or nongenerality of the proposed pattern.
A more ambitious pattern, using multiplication,
is produced by James (see
Figure 5).

56

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

57

ALGEBRA

At this point, the broad pattern-finding

activity alternated with the more
focused activity, in this case discussing how to multiply brackets. Throughout,
periods of exploratory work alternated with lessons on specific manipulations.
Subtracting brackets had been discussed at an earlier point. These laws were
approached in an experimental mode first, using cognitive conflict, expressions
such as 13 - (6 - 2) being compared with 13 - 6 - 2 and the discrepancy
discussed, before giving a lot of exercises to practice the correct translation.
Similarly, products such as 17 X 13 were discussed to lead into (a + b) (c + 6).
The pedagogical principle involved here is that when the x is introduced it
is clear that it stands for the number in a certain cell of the table;
the purpose of the manipulation is to establish the generality of the pattern. Thus,
we avoid the incomprehension
which often arises when manipulative exercises
are given in the absence of the meaning-giving
formulation and interpretation
stages. A similar rationale covers the spreadsheet situation (Sutherland, 1992).
Arithmagons. This is another situation rich in possibilities for generalization.
We get into using generalized numbers in a concrete setting, and into recognizing
equivalent equations, without recourse to prescribed rules. The first task in
Arithmagons
(see Figure 6) is to fill the circles A, B, C, and D so that the
number in each square is equal to the sum of the numbers in the adjacent circles.
Students will find different solutions and these are tabulated on the board, as
shown in Figure 6.
After some consideration
it is usually clear that, if we are working with
nonnegative integers, 0, 1, 2, and 3 are the only possibilities for A and C, so that
this is indeed the full set of possibilities. Looking for a generalization,
we see
that the number of these is F + 1 or, in general, one more than the smallest of E,
F, G, and H. Next, students are asked what relations they can find between the
columns of the table that are true for every row, for example, B - C = 4. A list
something like the following emerges:
c = 4

(1)

A+B=7

(4)

A + C = 3

(7)

D = A + 6

(2)

A+B+C+D=16

(5)

B - 4 = C

(8)

C + D = 9

(3)

C+4=B

(6)

B -

Note that we are now using A, B, C, and D to denote any member of the column
having that label; these are generalized numbers in a concrete setting.
We can then ask the question, Is this the complete set? The fact that B - C
= 4, C + 4 = B, and B - 4 = C are essentially replicates of the same
information may be noted; we can delete two of these. The absence of B + D =
13 (9) may be noted. The possibility of obtaining some of these from others may
be raised. For example, (3) and (5) entail (4), (1) and (3) may be seen to imply
(9), and so on. A minimal set may be found from which the whole set of relations

58

BELL

Figure 6.

can be generated. In this way, a very important idea is met in a quite elementary
setting and an intuitive familiarity with the possible transformations of a given
additive relationship is built up. Later, a systematic look at such a set leads to the
identification of formal rules that summarize the possible transformations of the
given additive relationship.
Forming and Solving Equations
The earliest examples may be missing number problems such as 8 + ? = 11 or
? - 7 = 5. The corresponding verbal or situational problems at this stage are not
normally solved by representing the problem symbolically and then transforming
it, but by a mental transformation into the solution form. Thus, a problem asking
how many marbles Jane had at first if she gave away 7 and had 5 left, would be
answered directly by adding 7 and 5. As the work progresses to more complex
problems, involving first one operation, then several, the same tension arises
between the questions which can be resolved mentally and those which require
symbolic representation
by one or more equations which are then solved by

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

59

manipulation. Learning the solution methods for the different types of equation is
important here.
At a later stage still, this process is central to design problems where there are
sizes or quantities to be chosen and constraints to be met. An example is the
problem of designing a box of a given shape to have a given volume. A more
complex case is the general transportation problem where various quantities of
goods are to be carried as cheaply as possible from a number of sources to a
number of destinations,
the cost of each journey being known. This involves
forming and solving a set of linear equations. The same general process is at the
core of many of the problems and puzzles that have fascinated humankind
throughout the history of mathematics. Here are two early ones:
Baker 1568 AD:
One man demaunded of another in the morning what oclok it was y other made
him this answr; yf you doo adde (sayth hee) the r/4 of the howers which be past
midnight with the % of the howers which are to come until noone, you shall haue
the just hower, that is to saye, you shall know what oclok it is.
Calandri 1491 AD:
A lion can eat a sheep in one day, a leopard can eat it in two days, and a wolf in
three days. How long will it take all three?

The first of these leads to the equation

/4 h + % (12 - h) = h

and the somewhat unsatisfying solution S1/17.

The second may be solved by
considering the reciprocals of the given rates, that is, a leopards daily meal is l/z
of a sheep, a wolfs is V3 of a sheep, so in a day all three eat 15/6 sheep or one
sheep in VII day.
Bath-filling problems, and problems about electric resistances in parallel,
have the same structure: They require what we might call the reciprocal method
(or the harmonic method by analogy with the harmonic mean).
These two problems perhaps illustrate how algebraic symbolism becomes
advantageous for more complex problems. They also remind us of the motivating
power of a good puzzle, which we should aim to retain in school work.
Childrens first introduction to the notion of extracting an unknown number
from a statement expressing constraints may well be through missing-addend
questions. Later, steps toward more systematic equation forming and solving
may be taken by setting up diagrammatic situations containing hidden numbers.
These have the advantage that (a) they are self-checking and (b) the unknowns
have an obvious concrete existence, thus avoiding the difficulties associated with

60

BELL

having to decide what quantity to denote by x, and how to translate from verbal
information into symbolic statements. Arithmagons provide one example and
others follow.
Other Examples of Diagrammatic Situations. Other examples of possible
situations are Pyramids and Number Routes. In Pyramids the construction
rule is that a lower number is the sum of the two adjacent ones above it (see
Figure 7).
The mode of writing the equation may be suggested by the teacher, but is
normally readily adopted. The collection of terms and the solution of the equation may similarly be the subject of discussion but are normally accepted as selfevidently good by the pupils. By changing the construction rule from A + B to
A + 2B, and then to A - B, more difficult manipulations
arise. These need
dealing with by focused discussions and with experiments showing the validity
of laws such as 2(A + B) = 2.A + 2B and A - (B - C) = A - B + C.
Number Routes is another type of concrete setting for equations (see Figure
8). Number Routes can be made harder by, for example, having addition or
subtraction before multiplication, which gives rise to the need for the distributive
law, and by making longer paths and more complex networks. Students can be
asked to make up their own examples, pitching them at a level of difficulty
suitable for themselves.
Forming Equations From Verbal Problems. The research quoted previously
shows that many students regard the purpose of all questions in algebra as the

x+4

5+x
21

21

5+x+x+4=21

2x+9=21
2x=12
x=6
Put
Figure 7.

in 6 for x; it is seen to be correct

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

61

ALGEBRA

(S x 7)- 111 = F
(S x
So(S
or

4) = F
X

7)-111= s x 4

7s - 111 = 4s

so 3s - 111
and s = 111/3= 37
Check:

37 = 259

259 - 111 = 148

37 x 4 = 148
Figure 8.

performance of some piece of manipulation.

To avoid this danger in work on
equations it is important that students experience the full activity of: beginning
with a problem, forming the equation, and then solving it and interpreting the
result. The activities discussed here have included letters from the outset. I now
consider cases where equations must be formed from verbal situations. Students
(about 13 years of age) were given two generic examples, which were discussed,
and then were asked to make up (in groups) similar problems to be solved by
other groups. The first two problems given were the following:

1.
2.

There
There
There
more

are
are
are
than

two piles of stones. The second has 19 more stones than the first.
133 stones altogether. Find the number in each pile.
3 piles; the first has 5 less than the third, and the second has 15
the third. There are 31 altogether.

Students were asked to solve the two problems, no method being specified.
Most solved the first numerically, getting, correctly, 57 and 76 or, wrongly,
47/2 and 66/2. I then showed them the algebraic method, taking x to represent
the number in the first pile, implying n + 19 in the second, obtaining 2x + 19 =
133, and solving to give 57 and 76 in the two piles. They were then asked to take
x for the second pile.
This gave x - 19 + x = 133, x = 76, and the same numbers 57 and 76 for the
two piles. The aim here was to display the possibility of different assignments of
x, to observe the different expressions and equations which resulted, to note the
appearance of the same solution for the size of the two piles, and thus to get some
insight into the relation between the algebra and the problem.

62

BELL

Following this they were asked to work, in groups of three, at solving the next
question, taking each of the three piles in turn as X, and to compare their results.
On the following day, each group was asked to make up and solve three similar
problems, two easy and one hard, to be attempted by another group.
This led to a lot of insight into the way different assignments of x affected the
expressions, turning + into - and multiples into fractions. It also led to an
unexpected degree of richness in the problem statements. As well as four bean
bags, and the numbers of pupils in three rival schools, we had A nuclear
scientist must complete 4 experiments to save the world, and has 23 days to do
them in. The first will take twice as long as the second. . .
To conclude, we may say that the main initial difficulties lay in expressing
relations such as Pile 3 has 15 more stones than Pile 2 when Pile 2 was x,
making Pile 3 x + 15; and more so when Pile 3 was x, needing a reversal to
make Pile 2 have X - 15; 10 less than x + 15 was a step up in difficulty.
However, although this was observed to be a serious obstacle for some students
in the early lessons, on being offered the answer they soon picked up the idea
and, in the school examination question on this work, no student failed to
formulate an equation, though there were some reversal mistakes.
Recognizing Equivalent Equations. The research quoted previously shows a
strong need for activities in which algebraic expressions and equations are treated
with common sense and normal understanding rather than by a number of special
rules that are liable to misinterpretation
and not subject to normal critical appraisal. I sketch briefly one such activity. Arithmagons provides another.
Giving Clues is another generic situation that leads naturally to the intuitive
recognition of equivalent equations. It also provides a body of experience on
which the study of sets of linear equations can be built.

(L - 3)/M = N

3M-L=

4N-M=2

These equations were put on the board; the teacher stated that he had chosen
three numbers, had denoted them by L, M, and N, and had written down these
three clues by which they might be found. The game was for each person to try to
find the numbers (by trial and error or by any other method). When a person had
found them and had checked that they satisfied all three equations, she was not to
say what the numbers were, but was to make up a new clue and offer it to be
added to the list.
It took some 5 min for the first person to find the numbers; after that clues

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

63

came along quite quickly. As more clues were added to the list, these provided
additional help to those who had not yet found the numbers.
L=2M+N

N-L=2M

L-2M=

2M=L-N

N+L=3M

2L = 4M + 2N

L=M2+N

10

L-4N=1

11

L+M+N=8

12

L = SN

13

L-4N=N

14

2N = M

15

L-N=4N

16

The discussion of this list included (as well as identifying duplicates) considering which were good or useful clues, that is, those containing just two of the
letters. One letter clues were rejected as give-aways.
Subsequent work led to considering ways of starting with such a set and
having a general routine for finding the hidden numbers. This led to combining
equations so as to get a pair both of which contain the same letters, such as (11)
and (13), then combining or comparing them. The method of matching worked
toward a pair such as
x+4y=9
x + 6y = 15,

from which 5 = 6 can be seen intuitively.

I close this section by giving some examples of problems made up by pupils;
they indicate the experimental approach that the pupils had, and their sense of
control over the situation (see Figure 9).
Making up problems gives the pupils a strong sense of ownership of the
mathematics,
and an outlet for creativity and humor. It also has a diagnostic

64

BELL

k'f~ ai(L
SCW fm,t?:'sq
,w,
abcwl

3 a@W Ond

2 Lorc&uS

2 b(inonaS
Ond

1 CQ@X

%,P
hW

19 ,-.a+
~7

mjynj

1 camrot ond 2 Qrf/rs kol-~ jl ~0fia.

mU MWj MjjWf dc.s4UIWGlut I-W-4.

&+ Lb=39

This is an interesting
example, and
successfully
solved.
EIut note the
attraction
for adding all the equations,
which might not have been helpful
bad
the second equation
been different.

# Lb+ c ='+7
c +Ls=tS

U-and Y

This pupil seems to be enjoying

himself,
but has not noticed,
so
far, that he has too few equations.
There is an opportunity
here for
the teacher to discuss this point.

Figure

9.

value, showing the teacher what aspects of the situation have been recognized by
the pupils.
Working With Functions and Formulae
In work on functions and formulae, the typical situation is either a practical
situation that generates a sequence of numbers in some way, for example, a row
of squares made with matchsticks, or polygons of increasing size made on
pegboard, or sets of practical or experimental data, such as prices of a ferry
crossing for cars of different lengths. The usual task is to determine the rule
defining the function, to express it verbally (and later, symbolically) so as to be
able to interpolate and extrapolate from the data actually given to predict other
cases. The shape of the corresponding graph may be of interest and comparisons
may be made between the shape of the graphs obtained and those of known

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

65

functions. When an organized set of sequences is studied it becomes clear that

their difference patterns play an important part in recognizing and classifying the
types. Thus, one gathers knowledge of a variety of kinds of function; linear,
square, inverse, exponential, and wave (sine or cosine), together with the appropriate algebraic formulae. Equation solving to determine values comes in as a
part of this study.
Examples of such material will be discussed later. But, first, note that some
attention is also devoted to formula reading. I suggest some questions that can
form starting points for focused discussion on this point.

2.
3.

If three numbers, A, B, and C are related so that A X B = C, in what other

ways can the relations be expressed?
If A = L X B, how do you get L if you know A and B?
If V = w2h, and h is doubled while r is fixed, what happens to V?

4.

fixed, what must happen to h?

Which of the following formulae do you think is most likely to be correct?

1.

Similarly, if r is doubled while h is fixed? And if r is doubled but V kept

Underline your answer. Give reasons (k, n, and b are constants).

Force exerted on pedals when riding a bike with speed v mph.
F = kv F = kv2 F = k/v F = klv2
Pull of the earth on
P = kh P = kh2
Number of marbles
N = kd N = kld

a satellite at height h.
F = k/h F = k/h2
of diameter d in a kilogram.
N = kld2 N = kid

Stopping distance of a car from a speed of v mph.

D = av + blv2 D = av + bv2 D = av

Among the broader activities on functions, the properties of sequences and

functions arising from practical or experimental data or from pure mathematical
situations are explored. Different ways of growing are compared and related to
difference patterns, graphs, and formulae; we may use the knowledge built up
both to understand better the way in which the situation works and to predict
values in particular cases. As before, the approach is essentially exploratory, the
students posing many of their own questions and checking the correctness and
completeness of their own findings.
The standard process for finding the expression for T,, (see Figure 10) sometimes causes difficulty. It can be eased if the reverse activity is experienced first,
that is, if various formulae are used to generate sequences, and the relation
between the type of formula and the difference pattern of the sequence becomes
familiar. The material (in Figure 11) has been used. A harder example is shown

66

BELL

Making

cl

Seauences

d33

cfk,...

Tn

e T T

..

3 ...........

4
3

9
5

.. ..........

Tn

total

12
4

16
4

...........

Using matchsticks, cubes, dot or square grids make a sequence of objects which grow in some regular
way. Identify the pattern along the sequence; consider successive
takes you aaoss

differences.

Find the rule which

the sequence - from n to Tn.

Figure 10.

in the Bridge Cables problem, illustrated in Figure 12 (see p. 68). Reconciling

the different forms (see Figure 13, p. 69) gives rise to a need for the development
of manipulation.
Similar treatments are possible in the previous easier cases. For
exponential functions, see the examples provided in Figure 14 (see p. 70).
In Warmsnug Double Glazing (see Figure 15, p. 71), just as in the previous
examples, a function has to be found from a set of data (from The Language of
Functions and Graphs, Swan, 1985).

CONCLUSION
I have illustrated and discussed tasks oriented toward fostering the broad aims of
school algebra and at several points I have indicated how particular aspects of

SEQUENCES I

LIST OF FORMULAE
I.

t(n) = 7n - 3

a.

t(n) = 3.7 - 0.4n

2.

t(_n)= 3nZ

9.

t(n) f 2 + 3"

3.

t(n)

4.

= 10 x 2"

10.

t(n) = 4n

t(n) = 6 - 2n

li.

t(n]

c
3.

t(n)

12.

t(n) = (2 x n) + 6

6.

t(n) = (n + 2](n - 1)

13.

t(n) = n '+4n-6

7.

t(n) = n 2 - 4n

14.

t(n) = 327n - 3

f 6

= n - Sn' + 17

Generate the sequences corresponding

to each of these formulae. Find their difference patterns.

Relate the type of sequence - its way of growing - to the type of formula. Sketch and compare the
graphs.

(Use graphic calculator if available). Then try to reverse process. Get the form of the

formula from the previous experimentation. Adjust the coefficients by putting in some values of n.

s,
sz
S,
S.
Ss
Sr
ST
Sr
S*
510
511
SIZ
SIP

2. 4. 6. 3, 10
1, Ai, 9, 16, 2s
4, 7, 10. 13, 16
4, 12. 20, 23, 36
6, 24, 54. 36. i3
2. 4, 3. 16. 32
1, 4, a, 4, 4
6. 16. 30. 48. 70
3. 6. 9. 12. is
95. 39. 33. 77, il
1. 9, 2s. 49. 31
2, 20. 38, 56. i4
3, 5, 9. TS. 23

SV.
sir
su
517

3. 6. 12, 24, 48
4. a, 14, 22. 32
10, 3. 5. 4, 2
1, 3, 6, 10, 15
jl8 25. 28, 33, 38. 43
SU 6, a. 14. 26, 50
SlD 16. 13. 7, 4. !
51 3. S.2, 7.4, 9.5. il.3
srr a, 1, 5, 5. 3
Szr 4, 16. 37, 76. i39
s:* 2. 3. l-8. 31. ZI
Szs 57.4.
39.7.
122. 154.3, 166.6

Figure 11.

67

Suspension bridge ablu

When maldng a able for a suspensionbridge,
many s&s
are assembledinto a hexagonal
formationand then compacted together.

This diagram illustratesa size 9 able

made up of 61 strands.
How many strandsare needed for a size 10 cable?
How many for a site n cable?

Figure 12.

68

PURPOSE

IN SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

69

1. Developing a sequence.
...

2 Looking for structure.

-1

n
3n(n-I)+1

n-l
nCZ(n-

l)Z+(n-

1)

There are many other ways of seeing the diagram.

For example, can you see how you can get

notation and of algebraic manipulation

might be dealt with, by focused and
generally self-checking activities, in such a context. I have not addressed the
question of building up fluency, either with particular manipulative processes or
in the deployment of the three major strategies. I consider it to be important and
see it as a regular result of focused activities devoted to particular algebraic laws.
But the question of how to facilitate the development of fluency, from trying out
possible manipulative laws, including self-checking using numbers, to the automatic symbol-moving
procedures used by experts without loss of the link with
understanding,
demands further research.

Note (CJ

cl

c4

cs

c7

c*

Cl

Frequency (HJ Z7
(a&w=)

664

=,

=,

c,

c,

c,

130.6

261.6

523.2

10464

2092.6

c,
4185-6

-Row number
Numkrr of squares

46

24

12

---

-X

16

64-

256

1024

---

-a

32

126

512

---

InternatIonalPaper Sizes
A

Area (I+)

A0
A,

1
05

2
A,
A,
A*
AT
A,
A,
A,,

0125
0.25
0062
0031
O-016
O-006
0004
o-002
0.001

Lengh (mm)

WidM (mm)

1169
641

&l
594

420
594
297
210
146
105
74
52
37

420
297
210
148
105
74
52
37
26

Consider the relationship between fhe paper size number (n) and its area

figure
70

14.

WARMSNUG

DOUBLE GLAZING

(The windows on this sheet are all

drawn to scale: 1 cm represents 1 foot).

How have Warmsnug arrived at

the prices shown on these windows?

Which window has been given

an incorrect price? How much
should it cost?

Explain your reasoning clearly.

Figure 15.

72

BELL

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Bell, A.W. (1993b). Some experiments in diagnostic teaching. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
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IN SCHOOL

ALGEBRA

73

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