Further Pure 4 Notes : Robbie Peck

Matrix Algebra

𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶, 𝐵 + 𝐶 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐴, 𝐴 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶

(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 where T denotes a transposed matrix

(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 where A-1 denotes the inverse matrix of A.

Transformations

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
⇒ The image of 𝑖 is and image of 𝑗 is
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ⇒ The image of 𝑖 is 𝑑 and image of 𝑗 is 𝑒 and of 𝑘 𝑓
𝑔 𝑕 𝑖 𝑔 𝑕 𝑖

There are many standard transformation matrices, most of which are in the formula book.

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 , 0 0 1 and 1 0 0 are reflections in 𝑥 = 𝑦, 𝑦 = 𝑧 and 𝑥 = 𝑧
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

Vectors

𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 cos 𝜃 is used to find the angle between two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏.

𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑛 is used to find 𝑛, the vector perpendicular to 𝑎 and 𝑏.

⇒ If 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 0, then ⇒ sin 𝜃 = 0 and ⇒ 𝜃 = 0 + 180𝑛 ⇒ 𝑎 and 𝑏 are parallel.

For vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 𝑏 × 𝑎 = −𝑎 × 𝑏

1
Area of a triangle 𝑎×𝑏 for two vectors a and b
2

Area of a Parallelogram 𝑎×𝑏 for two vectors a and b

𝑎∙𝑏×𝑐 = 𝑎×𝑏⋅𝑐 =𝑎×𝑐∙𝑏

Parallelepiped volume 𝑎∙𝑏×𝑐

Determinants

𝑀 is negative if the transformation 𝑀 involves a reflection.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 and 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

Rules of determinant manipulation

1. 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑇
2. adding any multiple of a row (or column) to another row (or column) does not alter 𝑀 .
3. Interchanging two rows (or columns) does not alter 𝑀 .
4. Multiplying a row (or column) by a scalar multiplies 𝑀 by that scalar

𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐵

Application of vectors and determinants

Volume of a cuboid 𝑎∙𝑏×𝑐

Volume of a parallelepiped 𝑎∙𝑏×𝑐

1
Volume of a pyramid 𝑎∙𝑏×𝑐
3

1
Volume of a tetrahedron 𝑎∙𝑏×𝑐
6

1
Volume of triangular prism 𝑎∙𝑏×𝑐
2

If 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 0 then the vectors are on the same plane; a, b & c are coplanar.
Lines and Planes

Lines: Parametric format: 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏 Vector Product: 𝑟−𝑎 ×𝑏 =0

𝑥−𝑎 1 𝑦 −𝑎 2 𝑧−𝑎 3
Direction ratio: = = (Can be derived from vector product)
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

𝑏𝑖 𝑏𝑖
= is the direction cosine of the line. The sum of the squares is 1.
𝑏 2 2 2
𝑏1 +𝑏2 +𝑏3

Planes: Parametric format: 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏 + 𝜇𝑐

By multiplying by 𝑛, perpendicular to r (i.e. b and c) we have 𝑟. 𝑛 = 𝑎. 𝑛 + 𝜆𝑏. 𝑛 + 𝜇𝑐. 𝑛

⇒ 𝑟. 𝑛 = 𝑎. 𝑛 = 𝑑 the Cartesian format

To find the angle between a line and a plane, find the angle between the normal (observed
from Cartesian or derived from Parametric) and the line.

𝐴𝑃 ×𝐴𝐵
The shortest distance from point P to line AB is , A and B are two points on the line.
𝐴𝐵

The shortest distance from two lines is found by: Finding vector 𝐴𝐵 from a point on one line
𝐴𝐵 ∙𝑛
to a point on the other, finding vector 𝑛 perpendicular to both line, then calculating .
𝑛

Inverse Matrices

𝑎 𝑏 1 𝑑 −𝑏
If A = , then A-1 = ⇒ 𝑀−1
𝑐 𝑑 𝑎𝑑 −𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

Any matrix with no inverse is called a singular matrix.

For a 3 by 3 matrix:

1- Find the matrix of minor determinants.

+ − +
2- Alter the sign in this pattern − + −
+ − +
3- Transpose and divide by 𝑀

(𝐴𝐵𝐶 … )−1 = … 𝐶 −1 𝐵−1 𝐴−1

Linear Equations

The planes can either:

meet at a triangular prism with no solutions
form a sheaf (with a common line of solutions)
or intersect at a unique point.

The matrix equation will be of the form 𝐴𝑟 = 𝑏, then 𝐴−1 𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴−1 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

If vectors are combinations of other vectors, they are linearly dependent.

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎 𝑐
The best way to test is to examine for 2 , 𝑏2 & 2 , if 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 = 0 then A,B & C
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
are linearly dependent.

Invariant Lines and the more general case; eigenvectors

Invariant points are points left unchanged after transformation 𝑀. Found by solving 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑥

Invariant lines are lines of which the points stay on the line after transformation 𝑀. Found by
𝑥 0 1 𝑥
solving 𝑀 = 𝑥′ . All parallel lines are also invariant lines. E.g. which
𝑚𝑥 𝑚𝑥′ 1 0 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
makes so 𝑥 = 𝑚(𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑐 for all x.
𝑥

If Matrix and vector satisfy 𝑀𝑣 = 𝜆𝑣, the 𝑣 is an eigenvector and 𝜆 an eigenvalue.

The eigenvectors of 𝑀 determines the direction of all invariant lines through the origin.

𝑀𝑣 = 𝜆𝑣 ⇒ 𝑀 − 𝜆𝐼 𝑣 = 0 If 𝑀 − 𝜆𝐼 has an inverse then 𝑣 = 0 but 𝑣 ≠ 0 hence:

𝑀 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0 can be used to determine the eigenvalues, 𝜆, of 𝑀. And hence eigenvectors

can be found from 𝑀 − 𝜆𝐼 = 0

𝑉𝑖1 𝑉𝑖2 𝜆1 0
Matrix 𝑀 satisfies 𝑀 = 𝑉𝐷𝑉 −1 where 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑉𝑗 2 and D =
𝑗1 0 𝜆2

If 𝑀 = 𝑉𝐷𝑉 −1 , then 𝑀𝑛 = 𝑉𝐷𝑛 𝑉 −1