GURU NANAK DEV UNIVERSITY (REGIONAL CAMPUS)

SYNOPSIS

REPORT

ON
EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

Bachelors of Technology
In

Submitted to
Mr. SHASHI RANA
Name of the Student: Hiteshwar Dutt
Name of the Training Guide:
Dapinder Lalotra
University Roll Number: 2010ECA1721

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2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Success is a sweet fruit, which everyone want to strives to taste. To achieve this goal,
one has to put in physical and mental efforts. Each time I write this report, gain strong
appreciation for the following fact: I could not do it without the help of many talented
and dedicated people. So I wish to express my appreciation for those whose help has
been most valuable.
Firstly, I would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to Mr.Harjit Singh
(head of company), who explained us everything about training process as the
company and made us familiar with the company staff. We are equally grateful to Er.
Sunil kumar (instructor),who shorted out many of our problems regarding the training
and gave us the proper material to work with.
We are also grateful to(training and placement officer)for arranging the
six week training for us and providing us with all necessary information about the
same.
Finally I would like to say thanks to all the people of the company for their kind
operation.

ABSTRACT
The usual reason for embedding a computer is to interact with the
environment, often by monitoring and controlling external machinery. Many
embedded systems have substantially
different design constraints than desktop computing applications. No single
characterization applies to the diverse spectrum of embedded systems. Some
combination of cost pressure, long life-cycle, real-time requirements, reliability
requirements, and design culture dysfunction can make it difficult to be successful
applying traditional computer design methodologies and tools to embedded
applications there is currently little tool support for expanding embedded computer
design to the scope of holistic embedded system design. Knowing the strengths and
weaknesses of current approaches can set expectations appropriately, identify risk
areas to tool adopters, and suggest ways in which tool builders can meet industrial
needs?
Many embedded systems have requirements that differ significantly
both in details and in scope from desktop computers. The demands of the specific
application and the interface with external equipment may dominate the system
design. Long life-cycles and in some cases extreme cost sensitivity require more
attention to optimization based on these goals rather than maximizing the
computational throughput.
Recent interest in hardware/software co design is a step in the right
direction, as it permits tradeoffs between hardware and software that are critical for
more cost-effective embedded systems.

Introduction:-

We are living in the Embedded World. You are surrounded with many embedded
products and your daily life largely depends on the proper functioning of these gadgets.
Television, Radio, CD player of your living room, Washing Machine or Microwave
Oven in your kitchen, Card readers, Access Controllers, Palm devices of your work space
enable you to do many of your tasks very effectively. Apart from all these, many
controllers embedded in your car take care of car operations between the bumpers and
most of the times you tend to ignore all these controllers.
Theoretically, an embedded controller is a combination of a piece of microprocessor
based hardware and the suitable software to undertake a specific task.
These days designers have many choices in microprocessors/ microcontrollers.
Especially, in 8 bit and 32 bit, the available variety really may overwhelm even an
experienced designer. Selecting a right microprocessor may turn out as a most difficult
first step and it is getting complicated as new devices continue to pop-up very often.
In the 8 bit segment, the most popular and used architecture is Intel's 8031. Market
acceptance of this particular family has driven many semiconductor manufacturers to
develop something new based on this particular architecture. Even after 25 years of
existence, semiconductor manufacturers still come out with some kind of device using
this 8031 core.

 EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Embedded system employs a combination of software & hardware to perform a

specific function. It is a part of a larger system which may not be a computer Works
in a reactive & time constrained environment.

Any electronic system that uses a CPU chip, but that is not a general-purpose
workstation, desktop or laptop computer is known as embedded system. Such systems
generally use microprocessors; microcontroller or they may use custom-designed
chips or both. They are used in automobiles, planes, trains, space vehicles, machine
tools, cameras, consumer and office appliances, cell phones, PDAs and other
handhelds as well as robots and toys. The uses are endless, and billions of
microprocessors are shipped every year for a myriad of applications. In embedded
systems, the software is permanently set into a read-only memory such as a ROM or
flash memory chip, in contrast to a general-purpose computer that loads its programs
into RAM each time.

A specialized computer system that is part of a larger system or machine typically, an

embedded system is housed on a single microprocessor board with the programs
stored in ROM. Virtually all appliances that have a digital Interface -- watches,
microwaves, VCRs, cars -- utilize embedded systems. Some embedded systems
include an operating system, but many are so specialized that the entire logic can be
implemented as a single program. Embedded systems programming is the
development of programs intended to be part of a larger operating system or, in a
somewhat different usage, to be incorporated on a microprocessor that can then be
included as part of a variety of hardware devices. Several other definitions are:
A combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps additional
mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a dedicated function. In some cases,
embedded systems
Are part of a larger system or product, as in the case of an antilock braking system in
a car. Contrast with general-purpose computer.

 A specialized computer system which is dedicated to a specific task. Embedded

systems range in size from a single processing board to systems with operating
systems (ex, Linux, Windows NT Embedded). Examples of embedded systems are
medical equipment and manufacturing equipment.
A computer system that is a component of a larger machine or system. Embedded
systems can respond to events in real time. Most digital appliances, such as watches
or cars, utilize an embedded system.
Hardware and software that forms a component of some larger system and is
expected to function without human intervention. Typically an embedded system
consists of a single board microcomputer with software in ROM, which starts running
a dedicated application as soon as power is turned on and does not stop until power is
turned off.
An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and software,
either fixed in capability or programmable, that is specifically designed for a
particular kind of application device. Industrial machines, automobiles, medical
equipment, cameras, household appliances, airplanes, vending machines, and toys (as
well as the more obvious cellular phone and PDA) are among the myriad possible
hosts of an embedded system.
A phrase that refers to a device that contains computer logic on a chip inside it.
Such equipment is electrical or battery powered. The chip controls one or more
functions of the equipment, such as remembering how long it has been since the
device last received maintenance,
An embedded system is a special purpose computer system, which is completely
encapsulated by the device it controls. An embedded system has specific requirements
and performs pre-defined tasks, unlike a general-purpose personal computer.
5 An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system, which is completely
encapsulated by the device it controls. An embedded system has specific requirements
and performs pre-defined tasks, unlike a general-purpose personal computer.

o EMBEDDED SYSTEM APPLICATIONS: Consumer electronics, e.g., cameras, cell phones etc
Consumer products, e.g. washers, microwave ovens etc.
Automobiles (anti-lock braking, engine control etc.)
Industrial process controller &defence applications.
Computer/Comm. products, e.g. printers, FAX machines etc.
Medical Equipments.
ATMs
Aircrafts

o TYPES OF MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE:

There are two types of Microcontroller architecture designed for embedded system
development. These are:

1) RISC- Reduced instruction set computer

2) CISC- Complex instruction set computer

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CISC AND RISC:
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. Most PC's use CPU based
on this architecture. For instance Intel and AMD CPU's are based on CISC
architectures. Typically CISC chips have a large amount of different and
complex instructions. In common CISC chips are relatively slow (compared to
RISC chips) per instruction, but use little (less than RISC) instructions. MCS51 family microcontrollers based on CISC architecture.
RICS stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. The philosophy behind it
is that almost no one uses complex assembly language instructions as used by
CISC, and people mostly use compilers which never use complex instructions.
Therefore fewer, simpler and faster instructions would be better, than the
large, complex and slower CISC instructions. However, more instructions are
needed to accomplish a task. Atmels AVR microcontroller based on RISC
architecture.
COMPUTER DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Embedded computers typically have tight constraints on both functionality and
implementation. In particular, they must guarantee real time operation reactive to
external events, conform to size and weight limits, budget power and cooling
consumption, satisfy safety and reliability requirements, and meet tight cost targets.

Real time/reactive operation

Real time system operation means that the correctness of a
computation depends, in part, on the time at which it is delivered. The Signal
Processing and Mission Critical example systems have a significant requirement for
real time operation in order to meet external I/O and control stability requirements.
Reactive computation means that the software executes in response to external
events.

These events may be periodic, in which case scheduling of events to

guarantee performance may be possible. On the other hand, many events may be a
periodic, in which case the maximum event arrival rate must be estimated in order to
accommodate worst case situations. Most embedded systems have a significant
reactive component.

Design challenge:

Worst case design analyses without undue pessimism in the face of hardware
with statistical performance characteristics (e.g., cache memory).

Small size, low weight

In transportation and portable systems, weight may be critical for fuel
economy or human endurance. Among the examples, the Mission Critical system has
much more stringent size and weight requirements than the others because of its use
in a flight vehicle, although all examples have restrictions of this type.

Design challenges:

Non-rectangular, non-planar geometries.

Packaging and integration of digital, analog, and power circuits to reduce size.
Safe and reliable
Some systems have obvious risks associated with failure. In mission-critical

applications such as aircraft flight control, failure of the embedded computer.

However, many embedded systems that could cause personal or property
damage. This vulnerability is often resolved at the system level.
10

o History of 8051

Intel Corporation introduced an 8-bit microcontroller called 8051 in 1981 this

controller had 128 bytes of RAM, 4k bytes of on chip ROM, two timers, one serial
port, and four ports all are on single chip. The 8051 is an 8 bit processor, meaning that
the CPU can work on only 8 bit data at a time. Data larger than 8 bits broken into 8 bit
pieces to be processed by CPU. It has for I/O 8 bit wide.

Features of the 8051:-

Quantity

1) ROM

4K bytes

2) RAM

128 bytes

3) Timer

4) I/O pins

32

5) Serial port

6) Interrupt sources

11

o 8051

ARCHITECTURE

OVERVIEW

The 8051 family is one of the most common microcontroller architectures used
worldwide. 8051 based microcontrollers are offered in hundreds of variants from
many different silicon manufacturers 7.

The 8051 is based on an 8-bit CISC core with Harvard architecture. It's an 8-bit CPU,
optimized for control applications with extensive Boolean processing (single-bit logic
capabilities), 64K program and data memory address space and various on-chip
peripherals.

The 8051 microcontroller family offers developers a wide variety of high-integration

and cost-effective solutions for virtually every basic embedded control application.
From traffic control equipment to input devices and computer networking products,
8051 u.c deliver high performance together with a choice of configurations and
options matched to the special needs of each application.

Whether it's low power operation, higher frequency performance, expanded on-chip
RAM, or an application-specific requirement, there's a version of the 8051
microcontroller that's right for the job. When it's time to upgrade product features and
functionality, the 8051 architecture puts you on the first step of a smooth and costeffective upgrade path - to the enhanced performance of the 151 and 251
microcontrollers.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 8081:-

Block diagram of 8051

o PIN CONFIGURATION OF 8051

13

 There are four ports P0, P1, P2 and P3 each use 8 pins, making them 8-bit ports.
All the ports upon RESET are configured as output, ready to be used as output ports.
To use any of these ports as an input port, it must be programmed.

14

 Port 0:- Port 0 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 32-39) .It can be used for input
or output. To use the pins of port 0 as both input and output ports, each pin
must be connected externally to a 10K ohm pull-up resistor. This is due to the
fact that P0 is an open drain, unlike P1, P2, and P3.Open drain is a term used
for MOS chips in the same way that open collector is used for TTL chips.
With external pull-up resistors connected upon reset, port 0 is configured as an
output port. For example, the following code will continuously send out to
port 0 the alternating values 55H and AAH
Port 0 as input: - With resistors connected to port 0, in order to make it an
input, the port must be programmed by writing 1 to all the bits. In the
following code, port 0 is configured first as an input port by writing 1's to it,
and then data is received from the port and sent to P1.

Dual Role of Port 0:-Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be

used for both address and data. When connecting an 8051/31 to an external
memory, port 0 provides both address and data. The 8051 multiplexes address
and data through port 0 to save pins. ALE indicates if P0 has address or data.
When ALE = 0, it provides data D0-D7, but when ALE =1 it has address and
data with the help of a 74LS373 latch.
Port 1:- Port 1 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 1 through 8). It can be used as
input or output. In contrast to port 0, this port does not need any pull-up
resistors since it already has pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset, Port 1 is
15

configured as an output port. For example, the following code will

continuously send out to port1 the alternating values 55h &AAh

Port 1 as input:-To make port1 an input port, it must be programmed as such

by writing 1 to all its bits. In the following code port1 is configured first as an
input port by writing 1s to it, then data is received from the port and saved in
R7 ,R6 & R5.
Port 2 :-Port 2 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 21- 28). It can be used as input
or output. Just like P1, P2 does not need any pull-up resistors since it already
has pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset, Port 2 is configured as an output
port. For example, the following code will send out continuously to port 2 the
alternating values 55h and AAH. That is all the bits of port 2 toggle
continuously.
Port 2 as input:- To make port 2 an input, it must programmed as such by
writing 1 to all its bits. In the following code, port 2 is configured first as an
input port by writing 1s to it. Then data is received from that port and is sent
to P1 continuously.

Dual role of port 2:- In systems based on the 8751, 8951, and DS5000, P2 is
used as simple I/O. However, in 8031-based systems, port 2 must be used
along with P0 to provide the 16-bit address for the external memory. As
shown in pin configuration 8051, port 2 is also designed as A8-A15, indicating
the dual function. Since an 8031 is capable of accessing 64K bytes of external
memory, it needs a path for the 16 bits of the address. While P0 provides the
lower 8 bits via A0-A7, it is the job of P2 to provide bits A8-A15 of the
address. In other words, when 8031 is connected to external memory, P2 is
used for the upper 8 bits of the 16 bit address, and it cannot be used for I/O.
Port 3:- port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins, pins 10 through 17. It can be used as
input or output. P3 does not need any pull-up resistors, the same as P1 and P2
did not. Although port 3 is configured as an output port upon reset. Port 3 has
16

the additional function of providing some extremely important signals such as

interrupts.
This information applies both 8051 and 8031 chips. There functions are as
follows:-

PORT 3

Function

pin

1) P3.0

RxD

10

2) P3.1

TxD

11

3) P3.2

___

12

Int0
4) P3.3

___

13

Int1
5) P3.4

T0

14

6) P3.5

T1

15

7) P3.6

___

16

WR
8) P3.7

___

17

RD

P3.0 and P3.1 are used for the RxD and TxD serial communications signals. Bits P3.2
and P3.3 are set aside for external interrupts. Bits P3.4 and P3.5 are used for timers 0
and 1. Finally P3.6 and P3.7 are used to provide the WR and RD signals of external
memories connected in 8031 based systems.
ALE/PROG :- Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low
byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the
program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation,
ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/ 6 the oscillator frequency and may be
used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE
pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE
operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit
set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the

17

pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the
microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN :- Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory.
When the AT89S8252 is executing code from external program memory,
PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations
are skipped during each access to external data memory.
EA/VPP:-External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to
enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations
starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is
programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to
VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming when 12-volt
programming is selected.
XTAL1:- Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal
clock operating circuit.
XTAL2 :-Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

o FEATURES: Compatible with MCS-51Products

8K bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Downloadable Flash Memory
- SPI Serial Interface for Program Downloading
- Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
2K bytes EEPROM
- Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles
4.0V to 6V Operating Range
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
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 Three-Level Program Memory Lock

256 x 8 bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Three 16 bit Timer/Counters
Nine Interrupt Sources
Programmable UART Serial Channel
SPI Serial Interface
Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes
Interrupt Recovery From Power Down
Programmable Watchdog Timer
Dual Data Pointer
Power Off Flag
256 x 8 bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Three 16 bit Timer/Counters

o HARDWARE INTERFACINGS AND PROGRAMMING:19

There are two types of programming language used for microcontroller programming:

1) Low Level Language(Assembly Language)

2) High Level Language(C Language )

o INTERFACING OF VARIOUS DEVICES:-

1) LED Interfacing

C code for Blinking LEDs connected on PORT2:

20

#include<reg51.h>
void delay(unsigned int time);
void main(void)

0{
While(1)
{
P2=0xff;
delay(20);
P2=0x55;
}
}
void delay(unsigned int time)
{
Unsigned intI,j;
For(i=0;i<time;i++)
For(j=0;j<=1275;j++);
}

2) Hardware interfacing of LCD(JHD162A):

On most displays, the pins are numbered on the LCDs printed circuit board, but if
not, it is quit easy to locate pin1. Since the pin is connected to ground, it often has a
thicker PCB track connected to it, and it is generally connected to the metal work at
some point.

21

The function of each of the connections is shown in the table below: Pins 1 & 2 are the power supply lines, VSS & VDD. The VDD pin should be
connected to the positive supply & VSS to the 0V supply or ground.

Although the LCD module data sheets specify 5V D.C. supply (at only a few
milliamps), supplies of 6V & 4.5V both work well, and even 3V is sufficient for some
modules. Consequently, these modules can be effectively and economically powered
by batteries.
Pin 3 is a control pin, VEE, which is used to alter the contrast of the display.
Ideally, these pin should be connected to a variable voltage supply. A preset
potentiometer connected between the power supply lines, with its wiper
connected to the contrast pin is suitable in many cases, but be aware that some
modules may require a negative potential; as low as 7V in some cases. For
absolute simplicity, connecting this pin to 0V will often suffice. Ideally, these
pin should be connected to a variable voltage supply. A preset potentiometer
connected between the power supply lines, with its wiper connected to the
contrast pin is suitable in many cases, but be aware that some modules may
require a negative potential; as low as in some cases. For absolute simplicity,
connecting this pin to

will often suffice. Ideally, these pin should be

connected to a variable voltage supply. A preset potentiometer connected

between the power supply lines, with its wiper connected to the contrast pin is
suitable in many cases, but be aware that some modules may require a
negative potential; as low as

in some cases. For absolute simplicity,

connecting this pin to 0V will often suffice. A preset potentiometer connected

between the power supply lines, with its wiper connected to the contrast pin is
suitable in many cases, but be aware that some modules may require a
negative potential; as low as

in some cases. For absolute simplicity,

connecting this pin to 0V will often suffice

22


Pin

is NAME

FUNCTION

register select
(RS) line. Pin
no.
1

Vss

Ground

Vdd

+ve supply

Vee

contrast

RS

Register select

R/W

Read/Write

Enable

D0

Data Bit 0

D1

Data Bit 1

D2

Data Bit 2

10

D3

Data Bit 3

11

D4

Data Bit 4

12

D5

Data Bit 5

13

D6

Data Bit 6

14

D7

Data Bit 7

Three command control inputs. When this line is low, data bytes transferred to the
display are treated as commands, and data bytes read from the display indicate its
status. By setting the RS line high, character data can be transferred to and from the
module.
Pin 5 is (R/W) line. This line is pulled low in order to write commands or
character data to the module, or pulled high to read character data or status
information from its registers.
Pin 6 is Enable (E) line. This input is used to initiate the actual transfer of
commands or character data between the module and the data lines. When
writing to the display, data is transferred only on the high to low transition of
this signal. However, when reading from the display, data will become
23

available shortly after the low to high transition and remain available until the
signal falls low again.
Pins 7 to 14 are the eight data bus lines (D0 to D7). Data can be transferred to
and from the display, either as a single 8-bit byte or as two 4-bit nibbles. In
the latter case, only the upper four data lines (D4 to D7) are used. This $-bit
mode is beneficial when using a microcontroller, as fewer I/O lines are
required.

24

 C code for LCD display:

#include<reg51.h> //defining library
//------------------------------------------------------------------------voidmsdelay(unsigned int time); //defining function prototype
voidlcd_cmd(unsigned char value);
voidlcd_data(unsigned char value);
//------------------------------------------------------------------------sfr ldata = 0xA0; //defining constant for Port2
sbit rs = P3^0;
sbit rw = P3^1; //defining constant for Port3.0
sbit en = P3^2;
//--------------------------------------------------------------------------

void main()
{
lcd_cmd(0x38); //init. LCD 2 lines, 5x7 matrix
msdelay(50);
lcd_cmd(0x0E); //Display On, Cursor On
msdelay(50);
lcd_cmd(0x01); //Clear LCD
msdelay(50);
lcd_cmd(0x06); //Shift Cursor Right
msdelay(50);
lcd_cmd(0x80); //Line 1,Position 0
msdelay(50);
lcd_data('G'); //Display Letter N
msdelay(50);
lcd_data('A');
msdelay(50);
lcd_data('U');
msdelay(50);
lcd_data('R');
msdelay(50);
25

lcd_data('A');
msdelay(50);
lcd_data('V);
msdelay(50);
}
voidlcd_cmd(unsigned char value)
{
ldata = value; //Put Value on Lcd Port
rs = 0;
rw = 0;
en = 1; //strobe the enable pin
msdelay(1);
en = 0;
}
voidlcd_data(unsigned char value)
{
ldata = value; //Put Value on Lcd Port
rs = 1;
rw = 0;
en = 1; //strobe the enable pin
msdelay(1);
en = 0;}
voidmsdelay(unsigned int time)
{
inti,j;
for(i=0;i<=time;i++)
for(j=0;j<=1275;j++);
}

26

3) Serial communication between At89v51rd2 and PC:-

a) Serial Reception(From PC to microcontroller)

C- Code for serial reception:

#include<reg51.h>
sbitrs=P3^0;
sbitrw=P3^1;
sbit en=P3^2;
sfrldata=0x90;
voidlcom(unsigned char value);
voidldat(unsigned char value);

void delay(unsigned int time);

unsigned char first[]="GAURAV WADHWA";
unsignedint i;
unsigned char first1[]="IET BHADDAL";
unsigned char mybyte;
void main()
{
lcom(0x38);
lcom(0x06);
lcom(0x0e);
lcom(0x01);
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
ldat(first[i]);
}
lcom(0xc0);
for(i=0;i<=11;i++)
{
ldat(first1[i]);
}
27

delay(50);
lcom(0x01);
TMOD=0X20;
TH1=0XFD;
TCON=0X00;

SCON=0X50;
TR1=1;
while(1)
{
while(RI==0);
mybyte=SBUF;
ldat(mybyte);
}
RI=0;
}

voidlcom(unsigned char value)

{
ldata=value;
rs=0;
rw=0;
en=1;
delay(5);
en=0;
}
voidldat(unsigned char value)
{
ldata=value;
rs=1;
rw=0;
en=1;

delay(5);
en=0;
28

}
void delay(unsigned int time)
{
unsignedintk,j;
for(k=0;k<time;k++)
for(j=0;j<=1275;j++);
}

4) nterfacing of seven segment display:

29

 C code for seven segment display :

#include<reg51.h> //defining library

//------------------------------------------------------------------------voidmsdelay(unsigned int time); //defining function prototype
void compare();
sfrport_data = 0xA0; //defining constant for Port2
int m = 0X00;
//-------------------------------------------------------------------------void main()
{
while(1)
{
compare();
port_data = m;
msdelay(15);
m--;
}
}

void compare()
{
if(m == 0X0F)
m = 0X09;
if(m == 0X1F)
m = 0X19;
if(m == 0X2F)
m = 0X29;
if(m == 0X3F)
m = 0X39;
if(m == 0X4F)
m = 0X49;
if(m == 0X5F)
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m = 0X59;

if(m == 0X6F)
m = 0X69;
if(m == 0X7F)
m = 0X79;
if(m == 0X8F)
m = 0X89;
if(m == 0XFF)
m = 0X99;
if(m == ~0X01)
m = 0X99;
}
voidmsdelay(unsigned int time)
{
inti,j;
for(i=0;i<=time;i++)
for(j=0;j<=1275;j++);
}

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PIC MICROCONTROLLER
PIC is a family of modified Harvard architecture microcontrollers made by Microchip
Technology, derived from the PIC1650 originally developed by General Instrument's
Microelectronics Division. The name PIC initially referred to "Peripheral Interface
Controller".
PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to their low
cost, wide availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes,
availability of low cost or free development tools, and serial programming (and reprogramming with flash memory) capability. They are also commonly used in
educational programming as they often come with the easy to use 'pic logicator'
software.
History

Various older (EPROM) PIC microcontrollers

The original PIC was built to be used with General Instrument's new 16-bit CPU, the
CP1600. While generally a good CPU, the CP1600 had poor I/O performance, and the
8-bit PIC was developed in 1975 to improve performance of the overall system by
offloading I/O tasks from the CPU. The PIC used simple microcode stored in ROM to
perform its tasks, and although the term was not used at the time, it shares some
common features with RISC designs.

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In 1985, General Instrument spun off their microelectronics division and the new
ownership cancelled almost everything board peripherals (serial communication
modules, UARTs, motor control kernels, etc.) and program memory from 256 words
to 64k words and more (a "word" is one assembly language instruction, varying from
12, 14 or 16 bits depending on the specific PIC micro family).
PIC and PICmicro are registered trademarks of Microchip Technology. It is generally
thought that PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller,
and PIC1650 devices was "Programmable Interface Controller". The acronym was
quickly replaced with "Programmable Intelligent Computer".
PIN DIAGRAM(18f4520)

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FEATURES

34

NEW CORE FEATURES

All of the devices in the PIC18F2420/2520/4420/4520

family incorporate a range of features that can significantly
reduce power consumption during operation.
Key items include:
Alternate Run Modes: By clocking the controller
from the Timer1 source or the internal oscillator
block, power consumption during code execution
can be reduced by as much as 90%.
Multiple Idle Modes: The controller can also run
with its CPU core disabled but the peripherals still
active. In these states, power consumption can be
reduced even further, to as little as 4% of normal
operation requirements.
On-the-Fly Mode Switching: The powermanaged
modes are invoked by user code during
operation, allowing the user to incorporate
power-saving ideas into their applications
software design.
Low Consumption in Key Modules: The
power requirements for both Timer1 and the
Watchdog Timer are minimized.

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MULTIPLE OSCILLATOR OPTIONS

AND FEATURES

All pin of the devices in the PIC18F2420/2520/4420/4520

family offer ten different oscillator options, allowing
users a wide range of choices in developing application
hardware. These include:
Four Crystal modes, using crystals or ceramic
resonators
Two External Clock modes, offering the option of
using two pins (oscillator input and a divide-by-4
clock output) or one pin (oscillator input, with the
second pin reassigned as general I/O)
Two External RC Oscillator modes with the same
pin options as the External Clock modes
An internal oscillator block which provides an
8 MHz clock and an INTRC source
(approximately 31 kHz), as well as a range of
6 user-selectable clock frequencies, between
125 kHz to 4 MHz, for a total of 8 clock
frequencies.
A Phase Lock Loop (PLL) frequency multiplier,
available to both the High-Speed Crystal and Internal
Oscillator modes, which allows clock speeds of
up to 40 MHz. Used with the internal oscillator, the
PLL gives users a complete selection of clock
speeds, from 31 kHz to 32 MHz all without using
an external crystal or clock circuit.
Besides its availability as a clock source, the internal
oscillator block provides a stable reference source that
gives the family additional features for robust
operation:

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