Course Outlines

1. Measurements and Testing

2. D.C Motors
3. Transformers

4. Transmission lines
5. Synchronous Alternators
6. Induction Motors

Measurements
and Testing

 Why measuring and testing

Standards for testing
Types of testing
Testing procedures
Some measuring instruments

 The deterioration of electrical equipment

is normal and begins as soon as the
equipment is installed.

If

deterioration is not checked, it can

cause electrical failures and malfunctions.

The purpose of an electrical testing and

measurements is to provide means for

such failures and malfunctions and
discovering hazards that can cause
failure of equipment or interruption of
electrical service.

 Testing

of electrical equipment should

consist of conducting routine tests
inspections, repairs of electrical power
system apparatus such as generators,
transformers, circuit breakers, cables,
load motors, switchgear assemblies
along
with
associated
equipment
comprised of control wiring, protective
devices
and
relays,
supervisory
equipment and indicating and metering
instruments.

Why measuring and testing?

Measuring

and

monitoring

electrical

quantities enable the following :

Optimizing the fault prevention.

Scheduling the maintenance.
owing

to

problems

early
that

identification

results

in

of

greater

protection.

This is done not only of the plants but

also of the objects connected to them.

An

efficient

system

of

measuring

and

monitoring electrical quantities is important

for ensuring the success of all initiatives
that require :

Energy costs to be contained.

Quality energy supplies.
Continuity of service of the plants.
Achieving the above objectives requires the
activities to be implemented that are set out
in the following flow chart.

Functions / Objectives of Electrical Measurements

Energy
Quality

Reducing
Energy Costs
Functions :

Sub-metering

consumptions
and dividing
costs.

Monitoring load
patterns.
Managing
peaks.
Improving
power factor
corrections

Functions :
Analyzing
harmonics.
Detecting over
voltages,
voltage
variations and
voltage gaps.
Detecting
discharges from
steep transients.
Conformity of
supply.

Continuity of
Services
Functions :

Control of plant
in real time.
Remote control.
Managing
alarms and
dividing costs.

Preventive

maintenance and
maintenance in
the event of a
fault.

Standards for testing :

Legal standards are all those governing the

behavior of parties subject to the authority
of the state, including the

directives that

are normally enacted in national legislation

through legislative decrees.

Technical standards are all the prescriptions

on the basis of which the machines, devices,
materials and plants have to be designed,
built and tested to ensure their operating
efficiency and safety.

 The

technical

standards

can

be

subdivided into :

1. the International Electro Technical

Commission (IEC)

2. the American National Standards

Institute (ANSI)

3. the

Institute

of

Electrical

and

Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

4. Occupational

Safety

Administration (OSHA)

and

Health

IEC standards
Three

committees

are

specifically

responsible for measuring instrumentation.

TC85

Measuring

equipment

for

electrical and electromagnetic quantities.

TC66 - Safety of measuring, control and

laboratory instruments.

TC13

- Electrical energy measurement,

tariff and load control.

Reference Standards for Measuring

Instruments

TC 13
Electrical
energy
measurement
, tariff and
load control.

TC 66
Safety of
measuring,
control and
laboratory
instruments.

TC 85
Measuring
equipment
for electrical
and electromagnetic
quantities.

Types of testing :
Types of testing methods include the four
categories of tests as well as the tests
themselves.

Categories of tests :
There are four categories of tests for
electrical equipment namely :

1.
2.
3.
4.

Factory tests.
Acceptance tests.

Routine maintenance tests.

Special maintenance tests.

 Factory

tests

such

tests

are

performed at the factory to prove that the

equipment was manufactured properly

and meets specific design parameters.

The acceptance tests : such tests

are usually run at 80% of the factory test
voltage values to help indicating the
equipment deterioration without being
destructive.

Commissioning tests are also proof tests

usually performed on new equipment and
systems after installation and before
energization, they are run to determine :

Whether the equipment is in compliance

with

specifications

to

establish

benchmarks for future tests.

To determine the equipment was installed

correctly and without damage.

To verify whether the equipment meets

its intended design operation and limits.

 Routine and special maintenance

tests :

such tests are run after the

equipment has been in service for a
certain amount of time to determine the
degree of deterioration of
physical
parameters as operating time increases
and usually being run at 60% of the factory
tests.
Routine tests are performed on a periodic
basis and special tests are performed on
defective equipment to help determine the
cause of a failure and/or the extent of the
damage.

Types of testing methods :

The testing of electrical power system
equipment involves :

Checking the insulation adequacy.

Electrical properties.
Protection and control.
Equipment operation.
Other items as they relate to
overall system.

the

Some of these checks are accomplished

using :

De-energized component tests.

Instrumentation and relay operation.
Calibration tests.
Energized functional testing of control
circuits.

Megger testing of power circuits.

Phase out testing of power circuits.
Service testing.

Testing procedures :
The

testing

procedure

for

electrical

equipment includes the following steps as

a flow chart :

1. Identify the equipment or appliances

requiring testing and record them in
the Electrical Testing Register.

2. Ensure that a qualified technician has

calibrated the test equipment within
the last 12 months.

3. Undertake
identify

the

risk

assessments

required

frequency

to

of

testing according to standards and

record

in

the

Electrical

Testing

Register.

4. Set the testing timeframes.

5. A competent personas a contractor or
trained staff member is engaged to

conduct testing of the equipment and

appliances.

6. Perform the desired testing for the

identified equipment or appliances.

7. Record testing information and results

in the Electrical Testing Register.

Safety
Some of the experiments involve voltages
that could conceivably lead to serious
injury or death.
Therefore strict adherence to the following
rules will greatly decrease the probability

that accidents will occur.

However, no set of rules can replace basic
common sense, and all persons using the
laboratory are encouraged to constantly
THINK SAFETY !

1. Always assume all circuits are

energized unless you know with
certainty that they are not.

2. Use one hand to make connections.

3. Never work on electrical circuits
with wet or moist hands.

4. Do not play with equipment not

directly
experiment.

involved

in

your

5. When in the lab do not wear clothing

or jewelry which could constitute a
health hazard, Shoes are preferably
to be rubber soled ones and must be
worn in the lab, also, long hair
presents a hazard near moving parts
of machinery.

6. It is important for safety reasons for

anyone to easily trace out your test
circuit and, therefore do not work on
a cluttered bench.

7. Never

touch
machinery.

moving

parts

of

8. Think

out ahead of time the

consequences of closing or opening
a switch.

9. Never alter an energized circuit

unless you
outcome.

are

certain

of

the

10. If you know or suspect that an

accident is about to occur, take
immediate steps to prevent it.

Inspections and component testing

of main power system
The following components are part of a

typical main power system. These should

be inspected and tested in accordance
with information specified below.
The inspection can be considered as a
part of pre-checks and/or the functional
performance tests.

Some measuring instruments

1.Voltmeter

Voltmeter
to be used

on panels
for voltage
measure

2. Ammeter

Direct insertion for Ammeters & Voltmeters

Indirect insertion for Ammeters & Voltmeters

3. Watt meter

4.P.F meter

Portable P.F meter

P.F Correction Unit

5. Synchroscope

Synchronizing Unit

6.Revolution Counter

7. Electrical Torque Meter Set

Load Resistor :

Load

resistor contains three

resistors
with
continuous
regulation.

ganged
spindle

The resistors are connected to terminals

for 3-ph, single phase or DC voltage.

The

current in the resistor is limited by

tubular wire fuses in each phase.

The unit has handles and wheels for simple

and quick movement and is enclosed in a
perforated metal cabinet with cooling fan.

Load Reactor

Enclosed in a strong
metal cabinet.

The front panel has

mimic diagram,
terminals, fuses and
electrical data.

The unit can be used on

1- and 3-phase systems.

It has 12 step regulation.

Load Capacitor

Housed in a metal
cabinet.

Electrical data and

symbols on the front

panel with terminals
and fuses.

This unit can be used

on 1- and 3-phase
systems.

It has 6 step regulation.

D.C Motor

Slip Ring Induction Motor

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Synchronous Machine

Three phase Transformer

Load Switches with Selectors

Laboratory Flexes with Safety Plugs

Lab System

D.C.
Motors

Overview

Introduction
D.C motor theory

D.C motor construction

D.C motor types and classification

D.C motor operation and control

D.C motor testing

Introduction

The

DC motor is a machine that can be

used in many different ways.

Many large pieces of equipment depend on

a DC motor for their power to move where

the speed and direction of rotation of a dc
motor are easily controlled.

This

makes it useful for operating

equipment such as winches, cranes and
missile launchers which must move in
different directions and at varying speeds.

D.C Motor Theory

The operation of a dc motor is based on the
following principle :

A current carrying conductor placed in a

magnetic field, perpendicular to the lines

of flux, tends to move in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux.

There

is a definite relationship between

the direction of the magnetic field, the
direction of current in the conductor, and
the direction in which the conductor tends
to move.

 This relationship is best explained by using

the left hand rule for motors.

Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux

density B, when the two ends of the coil
are

connected

across

D.C

voltage

source, current I flows through it.

A force is exerted on the coil as a result of

the

interaction

of

magnetic

field

and

electric current, this force on the two

sides of the coil is makes the coil starts to

move in the direction of force.

Fixed Magnets

Fleming's Left Hand (Motor) Rule

Direction of Rotation
Fixed Magnetic Field Direction

Conventional
Current Direction

Use the Left Hand Rule to Determine

the Rotation Direction of the
Armatures in A and B

Hint: You will have to turn your left

hand upside down for example A

B
Notice that when the
current through the
armature is reversed,
it moves (Rotates) in
the opposite direction

S
N

D.C motor rotates as a result of two

magnetic fields interacting with each

other.

The armature of a D.C motor acts like an

electromagnet

when

current

flows

through its coils.

Since the armature is located within the

magnetic field of the field poles, these
two magnetic fields interact.

 The

D.C motor has field poles that are

stationary and an armature that turns on

bearings in the space between the field

poles.

The armature of a D.C motor has windings

on it connected to commutator segments.

The armature rotation can be illustrated as

follows :

Counter E.M.F

While

a D.C motor is running, it acts

somewhat like a D.C generator where
there is a magnetic field from the field
poles, and a loop of wire is turning and
cutting this magnetic field.

As the loop sides cut the magnetic field, a

voltage is induced in them, the same as it

was in the loop sides of the dc generator.

This

induced voltage causes current to

flow in the loop and called back E.M.F (Eb).

 This counter E.M.F cannot be equal to or

greater than the applied battery voltage;
if it were, the motor would not run.

The counter E.M.F is always a little less,

however, it opposes the applied voltage
enough to keep the armature current
from the battery to a fairly low value.

If

there were no such counter E.M.F,

much more current would flow through
the armature and the motor would run
much faster, however, there is no way to
avoid that counter E.M.F.

The equations of the back e.m.f are :

.Z.N P
Eb =
.
60
A

Eb . N
Eb = V - I a . R a

Motor Loads

Motors

are

used

to

turn

mechanical

devices, such as water pumps, grinding

wheels, fan blades, and circular saws.

For example, when a motor is turning a

water pump, the water pump is the load.

So, the definition of a motor load is the

mechanical device that the motor must
move.

 The

mechanical load connected to a D.C

motor affects many electrical quantities

such as the power drawn from the line, the
amount of current, the speed, the motor
efficiency, etc, which are all partially
controlled by the size of the load.

The physical and electrical characteristics

of the motor must be matched to the
requirements of the load if the work is to

be done without the possibility of damage

to either the load or the motor.

D.C Motor Construction

Bearing
Pulley

Brush

Body / Yoke
End Housing

Shaft

Commutator
Brush
holder

Armature
Field Core

Field Winding

1. Yoke

which is a steel frame providing

mechanical rigidity and also providing a path of
low magnetic reluctance between poles.

2. Pole Cores

which are steel cores around

which field coils are wound with adjacent poles
alternate in polarity like N S N S etc.

3. Pole Shoe

which is a part of the pole steel

structure and conforms to the curvature of the
armature core in order to provide a uniform air
gap length.

4. Field Coils

which are coils of insulated

copper wire to provide the m.m.f for the
magnetic field.

5. Armature core which is a stack of steel

laminations mounted on the shaft of the
machine and representing a major part of
the magnetic circuit.

6. Armature coils which is a collection of

copper wires in which voltages are induced
and on which forces are produced by
current, such copper
conductors are
placed in the slots.

7. Slots

which are rectangular openings

around the periphery of the armature core
into which armature conductors are placed.

8. Commutator which is a ring of copper

segments

surrounding

the

shaft

and

insulated from each other by strips of mica

where the ends of armature conductors are

connected to commutator segments.

9. Brushes which are stationary rectangular

carbon

and

electrical

graphite

contact

blocks
with

that make

the

rotating

commutator for the purpose of completing

the

current

path

from

the

external

terminals through the armature conductors

and return.

10. Brush-rig

which

is

mechanical

assembly which holds the brushes in

place and provides the adjusting tension
of the springs which push the brushes
against the commutator.

11. End bells which are steel structures on

both ends of the machine to provide
support
rigging.

for

the

bearings

and

brush

Mica
insulation
between
segments
Copper segments
Mica insulation

Copper conductors

D.C Motor Types &

Classification

DC Machines can be classified according

to

the

electrical

connections

of

the

armature winding and the field windings.

The

different

ways

in

which

these

windings are connected lead to machines

operating with different characteristics.

The

field winding can be either self

excited or separately excited.

 Further, in self excited motors, the field

winding can be connected either in series
or in parallel with the armature winding.

These different types of connections give

rise to very different types of machines

as displayed in the following diagram.

DC Motors

Separately
Excited

Self
Excited

Permanent
Magnet

Series DC
Motors

Shunt DC
Motors

Compound
DC Motors

Cumulative
compound

Differential
compound

Long shunt

Short shunt

DC motors
1. Permanent Magnet DC Motor
2. Separately Excited DC Motor
3. Self Excited DC Motor
a) Shunt Wound DC Motor
b) Series Wound DC Motor

c) Compound Wound DC Motor

i. Cumulative compound DC motor
Long shunt cumulative DC motor

Short shunt cumulative DC motor

ii. Differential compound DC motor
Long shunt differential DC motor
Short shunt differential DC motor

Permanent Magnet DC Motor

The

permanent

magnet

D.C

motor

consists of an armature winding as in

case of an usual motor, but does not
necessarily contain the field windings.

The

construction of such a type of D.C

motors contains a radially magnetized

permanent

magnets

mounted

on

the

inner periphery of the stator core to

produce the field flux.

 The

rotor on the other hand has a

conventional
D.C
armature
with
commutator segments and brushes.

The

diagrammatic representation of a
permanent magnet D.C motor is :

 Since the flux density are chosen at the

time of construction and cant be

changed there after which means that :

= constant
Accordingly :

E b = K . . N = K . N
i.e : V Ia . Ra = K . N

V - Ia Ra
N=
K

 Moreover,

the

torque

equation

of

dc

motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . .

Ia = KT . Ia

In this case the torque of D.C motor can

only

be

changed

by

controlling

the

armature supply.
As a result, torque-speed characteristic
can be drawn as :

 or N
4

V4

V3

V2

V1

Ts1

Ts2

Ts3

Ts4

Separately excited machines

In case of a separately excited DC motor

the supply is given separately to the field
and armature windings.

The

armature and field winding are

electrically separate from each other.

The field winding is excited by a separate

DC source.

So the torque and speed can be varied by

varying field flux , independent of the

armature electric current Ia

 Since

the flux density can be varied by

varying the field current which means
that :

If

Vf

Accordingly :

Eb = K . . N . N
i.e : V Ia . Ra . N

V - Ia Ra
N

 Moreover,

the

torque

equation

of

dc

motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . . Ia . Ia
In this case the torque and speed of D.C
motor can be changed by controlling
either the field or the armature supply.
As a result, torque-speed characteristic
can be drawn as :

 or N
o

Va

Tst

Self Excited DC Motor

In case of self excited DC motor, the field

winding is connected either in series or

in parallel or partly in series, partly in

parallel to the armature winding and can
be classified as :

Shunt wound DC motor.

Series wound DC motor.

Compound wound DC motor.

Shunt wound DC motor

In

case of a shunt wound DC motor or

more specifically shunt wound self
excited DC motor, the field windings are
exposed to the entire terminal voltage as
they are connected in parallel to the
armature winding.

To understand the characteristic of

such
a type of DC motors, consider the basic
voltage equation given by :

V = Eb +

Ia . Ra

where V , Eb , Ia , Ra are the supply

voltage, back e.m.f, armature current and
armature resistance respectively.

Since

back e.m.f increases with flux

and angular speed :

If

Accordingly :

Eb = K . . N . N

i.e : V

I a . Ra . N

V - Ia Ra
N

 Moreover,

the

torque

equation

of

dc

motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . . Ia . Ia
In this case the torque and speed of D.C
motor can be changed by controlling
either the field or the armature supply.

The DC shunt motor is a constant speed

motor, as the speed does not vary with
the variation of mechanical output load.

 or N
V/ Ka.

Slope = Ra/(Ka.)2

T
Shunt motor Torque Speed characteristics

FULL LOAD

Ia

( Amps)

Speed - armature current characteristics

Ia ( Amps)

Torque - armature current characteristics

Series wound DC motor

In

case of a series wound DC motor or

more specifically series wound self
excited DC motor, the field windings are
connected in series to the armature
winding.

To understand the characteristic of

such
a type of DC motors, consider the basic
voltage equation given by :

V = Eb +

Ia ( Ra + Rs )

where V , Eb , Ia , Ra , Rs are the supply

voltage, back e.m.f, armature current,

armature resistance and field resistance
respectively.

Since back e.m.f

increases with flux and

angular speed :

If

Accordingly :

Ia

Eb = K . . N I a . N
i.e : V Ia (Ra +Rs) Ia . N

V - I a (R a + R s )
N
Ia

 Moreover,

the

torque

equation

of

dc

motor suggests :

Ta = Ka . .

Ia (Ia)2

In this case the torque and speed of D.C

motor can be changed by controlling the
armature supply.

The DC series motor has a variable speed

and a high starting torque, therefore it is
suitable in the field of electric traction.

 or N

T
Series motor Torque Speed characteristics

Ia

( Amps)

Speed - armature current characteristics

T
Saturation of
series field core

Ia ( Amps)

Torque - armature current characteristics

Compound Wound DC Motor

The
in

compound excitation characteristic

DC

motor

can

be

obtained

by

combining the operational characteristic

of both the shunt and series excited DC
motors.

The

compound

contains

the

DC

field

motor

essentially

winding

connected

both in series and in parallel to the

armature winding.

 The excitation of compound DC motor can

be of two types depending on the nature of
compounding :

Cumulative Compound DC Motor

When

the shunt field flux assists the

main field flux, produced by the main

field

connected

armature

winding

in

series
then

its

cumulative compound DC motor.

to

the

called

Differential Compound DC Motor

In

case of a differentially compounded

self excited DC motor, the arrangement

of shunt and series winding is such that
the field flux produced by the shunt
field winding diminishes the effect of

flux by the main series field winding.

The

net flux produced in this case is

less than the original flux and hence

does not

find

application.

much

of

practical

Ia

IL

ISE
E

Rsh
ISh

SUPPLY

Ra
_

 or N
Differential
Compound

Cumulative
Compound

T
Compound motor Torque Speed characteristics

N
Differential
Compound
Shunt
Cumulative
Compound

Ia

( Amps)

Speed - armature current characteristics

T
Cumulative
Compound

Shunt
Differential
Compound

Ia

( Amps)

Torque - armature current characteristics

 Both

the

cumulative

differential

compound

compound

DC

motors

and

can

either be of short shunt or long shunt type

depending on the nature of arrangement.
Short Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is only parallel

to the armature winding and not the
series field winding then its known as
short

shunt

DC

motor

or

more

specifically short shunt type compound

DC motor.

Long Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is parallel to

both the armature winding and the

series field winding then its known as

long
motor.

shunt

type

compounded

DC