Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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completed
and India
He
at
his
E. Fisher
art
of China
taught Asian
art
history for
twenty-one years
at
the
WORLD OF ART
This famous
series
would
art in all
like to receive a
its
aspects.
complete
list
to:
3oBloomsbury
In the
United
New
York,
INC.
New
Printed in Slovenia
York
10
10
ROBERT
E.
FISHER
ART OF TIBET
180
illustrations,
93
in color
To Jan
'
FRONTISPIEC1
I
cm
86
historical
Buddha. 14th
century-, Tibet.
(34 in)
KNOWLEDGMENTS
\<
life
h.
made photographs of
as
Bill
Anna Maria and Fabio Rossi and Alfred Speelman, and in New York
Michael McCormick, Robert Ellsworth, Ramesh Kapoor, Krishna Nathan and Namka
Bueler, [ohn Eskenazi,
Museum
Dorjee.
Italian
specialists
editing. R,
\n\
i>\
1/
imposed on
199
nst
hit
500
ifth
in(
paperback
is
sold
or otherwise be
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way of trade
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in
which
it
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ul.
\venue,
pan
ondon
,,t
New
lard
Ameri<
York,
Numbei
a in
[997 In
New York
Thames and
101 to
6025
ol this publication
may be reproduced
me< hanical,
01
not In
ondition
fnited states
No
Ml Rights Reserved
retrie\
similai
atalog
in
Hudson
in the
ibrai
" insmitted
Gary Warner,
hui.es and
published
ludson
shall
il
form of binding
to Jisho
Among
California
Ruddei in
hook
of gratitude
special note
<
lent, resold,
is
art.
hrmel,
ol this
<p\
1
at short notice.
the contemporary
in
ribetan
>>t
iubje<
Till,
scholars,
Stud)
scholars, such as
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ording
ot
am
Printed and
bound
in
Slovenia
Contents
Preface
Map
Introduction
CHAPTER ONE
The Tibetan Pantheon
28
CHAPTER TWO
Structures, Objects and Images
CHAPTER THREE
The Development
of
75
125
CHAPTER FOUR
The Refinement
of
66
Glossary
216
Bibliography
21S
22
Index
221
Virw
ol the Potala,
hasa,
ibel
Preface
has
rIB ]
AND
Nil
Kashgar
Yarkand
Khotan
XINIIANC
mm
Portrait
>t
fnyanatapa,
|t!i
entury, eastern
fibet.
h.
68.5
cm
taM
(27
tCL
111)
Introduction
plateau
is
is
Route, the international link between East and West that connected the
A combination of commercial
establishment.
Central
Tibet's dynastic
among
through coalitions
from what would ultimately be the capital, Lhasa. These first kings began
embrace and support Buddhism shortly after, in the mid-seventh cen-
to
tury.
first
known
in
Buddhist rulers
continuation of
befall the
regime, which
its
One
rivals
or
Buddhisl
region
th.it
the
initial
join die
cially
\nothei distinction
legendary
home
that
ot the pic-
Beyond being
Buddhist
situated in
tin-
in literary
Tibet
sources
Bon
Mt
is
the
as
the
religion.
Kailash,
Zhangzhung
and
Bon
religion has
its
it
own
exists as
literary
much
and
in
myth
ritual tradi-
By
Bon
images.
tionship with
its
The Muslim
inva-
Samye,
known
Among
temples in Lhasa
itself,
the
Jokhang and
sites in
known
as
Tsang.
The
is
histori-
Tashilumpo. Both
to northeastern India.
Some
Guge
kingdom,
at
inspiration less
artistic
regions of Kashmir and via the trade routes into Central Asia.
third
major area completes the Tibetan cultural sphere, namely the northeastern regions of Amdo and Kham, which border upon and often are
included within the Chinese cultural zones. Artistic styles at monastic
centres such as Derge, Labrang and Kumbum reveal the influence ot
their proximity to China, although these sites' early development is not
yet well
known.
AR1Y KINGS
Early Tibetan
religious
Buddhist adepts,
The
history.
ing
class,
pattern that
secular rulers
and
country's
took place
Gampo
in
Tibet
at
first
(reigned
c.
in Lhasa, the
least
Ramoche
the
and
ultimately Indian
taste
ritual objects in
gold and silver butter lamps, and the array of gold, silver and precious
preserved
Styles as
whu
was one
ments.
Ilns
hollowing
ol
.it
Asia's most important and influential monuof Tibetan patronage of Indian Buddhism and
Indian styles was continued by
succession of kings, who
of
Buddhist
tradition
.1
young
come
its
who
contributed to the
si>
il
beliefs,
orders,
'
among
development of the
on Tibetan
which probably incorporated native, shamanistic
were the foundation for the earliest of the major Tibetan religious
the- Nyingma.
lis
teachings,
initial
religion
3 Jowo Shakyamuni Buddha, in the main hall of the Jokhang in Lhasa. Note the
photograph of the Dalai Lama beside the Buddha, in this 1995 photograph. The
near-total covering of a revered icon is a pan- Asian Buddhist practice traced back
to Indian customs, c. 641, brought to Tibet by the Chinese princess Wencheng
By
Padma Sambhava's
teach-
earliest at
styles
of Tibetan
art
would
evolve.
Normal
to eradicate practically
all
Padma Sambhava,
104
cm
(41 in)
sites,
viewed
the early Tibetan style. Aurel Stem, the English explorer and
as
cartographer, visited
sites early in
whu
Dunhuang,
the British
stand
i
entui
and
Museum.
Several ninth-century
noticeably apart
v
ibetan
appeand
ins<
iptions
may
which
also
at
AMBULATORY
ITY
CHAPEL
STATUES &
PAINTINGS
IS
LINE THE
INSIDEWALLS
SUPPORTED
BY
ROWS OF
PILLARS
MAIN HALL
(DUKHANG)
6 Detail of capitals in
Cave
19,
Stone
created problems for the Chinese until their defeat and destruction by
Genghis Khan before 1227. But prior to that Mongol conquest, a cache
of Buddhist objects, mostly paintings, had been buried within a stupa.
This cache was not discovered until the early twentieth century, by
Russian archaeologists exploring the
site.
is
in
Tibetan
art
1-
Buddhism was
By
in decline.
come
known
to be
as
Buddhism. This
.1
monastic behaviour and for the fresh styles that began to appear
lit
I
ribet,
<>l
and he
is
included
in
nearly
all
in
on
the
1.
By the mid-eleventh century, most of the major relifollowing the Nyingma came the Sakya,
and .dug orders (the latter supplanting the Kadam Order in the
fifteenth
entuiA and numerous suborders - each with features so
religious setting.
earl)
distinctive
th.it
many have
VAJRAYANA BUDDHISM
Although the historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, lived in the fifth century
BC, most of our knowledge of the history of the faith and nearly all the
art created in its service are of the last two thousand years. The development of Buddhist art is complicated not only by the huge si/e and the
cultural and artistic variety of the Asian continent, but also by the doctrinal differences that developed in each area. In Sri Lanka, for example, a
more conservative form remained dominant, that of the Theravada (the
path of the elders, also known by the pejorative term Hinayana, the 'lesser
path').The Mahayana (the 'great path'), the path of commitment to the
goal of salvation from suffering for all beings, developed later and was
widely accepted throughout northern and eastern Asia.
The Tibetan monks sent to India to study brought back enormous
numbers of Sanskrit texts. These were mainly from the Mahayana forms
of Buddhism, with their emphasis on an ordered monastic life and practices, but the wholesale gathering of Buddhist materials also included
texts with a variety of liturgical methods, many radically different from
mainstream practices, and it was this later, esoteric phase of Buddhism
that found a receptive environment in Tibet, in part because of similarities to the existing native religious practices of Bon. The esoteric texts
and rituals were gathered into what came to be known asVajrayana (the
'diamond path' or 'thunderbolt path') or apocalyptic Buddhism. Vajrayana
Buddhism is a ritually and visually complex form that builds on Mahayana
philosophies and their accompanying belief that ultimate Buddhanature, or truth-nature, resides awaiting discovery within
Buddhism sought
all
beings.
as
The
texts the
who
and
vested authority
this
aura of individually
is
and guides
traditional
Buddhist clergy
as
world and
this
complex
(left)
its
visual system
discovered
ot
brought
this lifetime
at
little
of Pala and
contemporary wall
paintings in central Tibet; the mix of styles
accords well with records of Tibetan artists
working in Central Asia. Late ithearly
1 2th century. Tangka, gouache on cotton,
retains decorative details
Nepalese
art,
similar to
h. 75
8
1
cm
(right)
(29.5 in)
h. 30.5
cm
(12 in)
instruments
and images that have given the Vajrayana its distinctive flavour, as well as
to the huge array of deities representing the tremendous range of powers
and practices.
The historical person of Shakyamuni Buddha was deified and multiplied as the
Mahayana developed,
in
as
all
deities
was defined and passed from guru to devocomplex, esoteric practices could be illustrated by this schema of
providing an essential support for the faith and aid in the process
deities,
of liberation.
giving
a distinct
its
is
the belief in
many other cloctrin.il matters that came from India, this concept,
known
tulku, achieved greater prominence in Tibet. A tulku is an
with
.is
his
competed
only
.is
ill
for
became
.1
divinities
belie!
.is
ontinue
well.
until
It
.ill
is
understood that
hero of
.it
is
the heart of
living,
dramatic
Buddhism. The
enormous
somew hat ^vm
the
a
favourite topic in
Buddhist
the-
process of reincarnation
this
at
Sin< e
in relation to the
in the
the order.
The complex
embodying
all
aspects
of Tibetan
culture, ulti-
which
Nyingma
traces
its
(the
monks of
The
oldest of the
major
Kadam
The Kadampa
upon
their
members, including
formula des-
By
end of the eleventh century the other two major orders, the
By the end of the fourteenth century,
with the Gelugpa absorption of the Kadampa, the four major orders that
have survived into the present were in place: the Nyingma, Sakya. Kagyu
and Gelug. The Sakyapa were dominant during the Mongol Yuan
dynasty in China (1 260-1324) and their political agreements with the
Mongols were to play a significant role in Chinese-Tibetan relations.
Ultimately, the Gelugpa became the most powerful, and through their
leader, the Dalai Lama, also the best-known order outside Tibet. The
the
and
now
a careful
in the foothills
modern
in exile,
spread
of the Himalayas,
Some
details
as
many of the
ofTibetan
well as
shared reliance
spiritual masters,
art
upon
back and placed within their proper historical context; however, using
sectarian distinctions to outline the history of Tibetan art is especially
Many
difficult.
Atisha, as well as
legitimacy Thus, in
ical
some
who
properly belong to another lineage, but are borrowed for their importance, to lend greater authority to that particular order.
In addition to a shared subject matter, the styles
little
between the
work
artistic
style
In-
;tli
is
ilnt. in
i<<]l<>\\c
iiro<
01
I).
Vajradhara.
In the five
in
1.
among
is
in tins
At the top
athagatas:
mudras found
Hbei
24
Kagyu Order.
tin-
in
the
List
ol
figures. Central
differences
among
and
deities
prominent
in
list
Tibetan
emphasizes
art.
The Nyingmapa
Late 8th century
Founded:
Important Monastic Centres:
in recent
Kham
region
Leading Figures
&
Spiritual Lineage:
Primary Deities:
Hayagriva, Vajrakila-Vajrakumara,
Vajrapani, Mahakala, images of
the Bardo region
[0
Padma Sambhava,
century,
late 15th
cm
(24 in)
II
the
Founded:
Karmapa)
ith
his
disciple Milarepa
Karma
suborder, founded
Taglung (formed by
Gampopa
Rumtek
Leading Figures
Spiritual Lineage:
189),
disciples o[
in
Sikkim,
in 1730)
and
(dedicated in 1740)
Gampopa
(the principal
organizer),
Karma
141
5,
Pakshi
(d.
[283,
Karmapa
Karmapa
1
1
mgp
monaster)
thought to
bt
ol
henpo, foundei
<
goua< he on
)th
entury
otton, h
$0
aglung
oi
ibet
black hat,
aglung
l
emblem
the Karmapa).
angka,
Kagyu order
to in)
is
thereafter of
lenerally, the
the most
Deiti
Mahakala.
(
I\u
Ihakrasamv
amasukha-
ara,
[evajra,
Vajravarahi, Vajradhara
Ill
The Sakyapa
Founded:
1073 by Gyalpo
(whence the
order's
Leading Figures
&
Spiritual Lineage:
Wit
J***<M
Sonam
Primary Deities:
^^^^^^^S^feggfe
Chakrasamvara
12
Sonam Tsemo,
cm
(7.25 in)
IV The Gelugpa
(the 'yellow hats',
Founded:
Tsong
Khapa (1357-1419)
Important Monastic Centres: Reting (founded
originator of the
by Dromton,
Kadam
Order,
Ganden (founded by
Tsong Khapa), Drepung,
Tashilumpo (founded by
Dalai
Lama
Panchen Lamas),
Leading Figures
&
Spiritual Lineage:
the
first
in
Sera,
Labrang
Tsong Khapa
(also the
primary
Lamas
and
fifth)
Primary Deities:
Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri,
Yamantaka,
Vaishravana, Palden
Begtse, Sertrap
Lhamo,
early
gouache on cotton,
(13-9 in)
h. 35.3
cm
Silk
mystii
tangka
tea< hei
above, and
Mid
ifth
ima's
>alai
golden
thre<
own,
ama, w
ith
he and gold
on
silk, h.
59.7
cm
(23.5 in)
(.iiai'ii:r oni;
Compared
late in time.
29
14
73
161
nature and in our own individual natures. In Tibetan art the figure is
paramount, and contrast and volume are achieved through the juxtaposition of contrasting colours and pure, defining lines, seldom with an
eye towards the suggestion of illusionistic depth. This idealized vision was
applied to portraiture and landscape as well, and although details suggest
inspiration from immediate observation and serve to enliven the subject,
the art tends to be stylized, remaining within the boundaries of the
broader aesthetic.
SIIAKYAMUNI BUDDHA
The image of
portray
the
a figure at
synonymous with
upon the
path predicated
Buddha's message
consists ot
compassion
limitless
is
neither creator
believer's capacity' to
Buddha
is
move
towards the ultimate goal of freedom from suffering, craving and delusion.
Buddha taught
he-
that
everyone has the same potential for tranot' Buddha-ness, and a great deal ot
ibetan
Buddha
art
consists
of images of individuals
Images
ot the
stories ot Ins
the histori<
al
former
known
)alai
who
fully
express this
Lamas.
lives,
as fataka
or cosmic BllddhaS,
realms,
30
beyond
the
at
Alchi, Ladakh.
Vairochana,
at
the centre of a
by
form
well
known
in the early
of Shakyamum
at
the
moment
by the
down
right
to
hand reaching
13th century.
on cotton,
Tangka, gouache
h. 53.3
cm
(21 in)
17
is
with
golden
delicate,
and
lotus
holding
trio
set
To
devout
either
disciples
surrounded by a typical
of mythical beasts.
Gouache on
h.
52
cm
(20.
cotton,
s
in)
on a throne and wearing His dismonk's robes, flanked either by paired bodhisattvas
and surrounded by mythical creatures and elaborately
or by disciples,
The Buddha
is
further identified by
the inclusion oi several of the thirty-two marks (lakshanas) that are con-
sidered characteristic
ofBuddhas
alone.
Buddha displays a number of gestures (mudras), most representing enlightenment (the right hand reaching down to touch the earth: bhumisparsha),
tea< hing (both hands at the chest, the fingers and thumbs forming two
interloc king ircles: dharmachakra), and contemplation (both hands flat in
the lap, the thumbs torn lung: (///)-<////). lie is enclosed by a variety of
devices to indicate transcendent stature, such as haloes and mandorlas
(pictorial devices suggesting radiance) and he is usually seated upon a
double lotus throne. The lotus is an emblem ofpurity,a symbol shared by
1
'
a typical
15th-century Tibetan
is
14th- and
style,
while
enclosed in
and
of gnarled
trees
from Chinese
Along the bottom
14.3
cm
on
(45 in)
other Indian religions, but especially auspicious for the Buddha, who, like
the flower, rises above this world to
The
lar
paintings
two
on
fabric)
33
17,1:
[9
I
ibet. Brass, h.
40.6
cm
20 Shakyamuni Buddha,
India. Sandstone, h. 160
6 in)
475, Sarnath
c.
cm
(63 in)
(/'//.
iN).
S<
images included
Indian soun
earliei
es,
fifth
Buddha were
created
more than
five
centuries apart, the later Tibetan image retains the refined abstraction
and
spiritual
hum. in dimension,
especially in
its
gentle smile. At
time
when man)
oi
the older, long established Buddhist traditions had slipped into formalist^
repetitive
image making,
mortal
level,
this
175
CELESTIAL BUDDHAS
The
has
celestial
gone
Buddhas,
literally
- occupy an
auspicious,
They
are typically
shown
seated
on
lion
adorned with crowns and jewels, and most often displaying gesof enlightenment or teaching.
thrones,
tures
35
15,
16,24
THE
FIVE
(Also
known
as
the
VAIROCHANA
mttdra
colour
element
meaning of name
teaching
white
ether
Shining
One
location
symbol
vehicle
aspect
centre
wheel
lion
consciousness
(dharmachakra)
(chakra)
reality
RATNASAMBHAVA
mudta
colour
element
meaning of name
location
symbol
vehicle
aspect
charity
yellow
earth
Precious Birth
south
jewel
horse
sensation
(uarada)
role
associated deit)
A\K
)(,i
[ash
udrti
reassurance
Ifibhaya)
>i
wisdom of equality
Ratnapani Bodhisattva
)i
ii
coloiu
element
meaning of name
green
Infailingly
\(
omplished
location
symbol
vehicle
aspect
north
double/
garuda
volition
crossed vain
wisdom of accomplishment
Each Tathagata
is
typically
portrayed seated, in
making
this case
gesture (mudra) of
with
Each
a particular
associated
is
distinguishing
Most of the
deities in
21
wood,
Tibet. Painted
(c.
AMITABHA
1.
c.
4o
cm
6 in)
(Amitayus)
colour element
mudra
contemplation red
fire
meaning of name
location
symbol
vehicle
aspect
Infinite Light
west
begging
peacock
perception
bowl
(dhyana)
role: transforms passions
of Eternal
Life,
shares the
heaven
is
he holds
(as
Padmapani, he holds
a lotus).
often interchangeable with Amitabha, especially in East Asia but also in Tibet, and
called Sukhavati, the
identity in Tibetan
life
worship
as
the
Buddha
of long
life,
signified
by the
a separate
elixir
of eternal
in his hands.
AKSHOBHYA
mudra
colour
element
meaning of name
location
symbol
vehicle
earth
blue
water
Unshakeable
east
diamond
elephant body
witness
sceptre/ffl/ra
(bhumisparsha)
role: transforms anger
Mahasthamaprapta)
who may
be blue
(also
found
in another form,
aspect
beings. Bhaishajyaguru
all
on
a lotus
is
portrayed
ability to
much
like
embody
healing for
bowl held
Buddha
in his left
his tran-
Buddha
are
three buds, a medicinal herb, held in his right hand. The Buddhist belief
in the
long
life,
of
many of
the
emblems
Bhaishajyaguru;
There
portrayed
fairly frequently.
be included
Most
in a single painting.
of the celestial
known
as
reside in
is
one or another
the one most
Of these,
Amitabha
Buddha. The various descriptions of this paradise, like those in the Lotus
Sutra, evoke an abundance of jewels, Mowers and heavenly beings. It is a
limitless
who
follow the
means
Avalokitcshv.u.i,
nate
the-
path lor
believed to have
a
.1
11 .1
all
( )f
th.it
as
particular
such
and Manjushn, came from these realms to illumisentient beings. The Pure Land of Manjushn was
lands
38
Padma Sambhava
importance to Tibetans
is
the Pure
It
was
in
such
ultimately settled.
Land of Shambhala,
22
Among
the
Buddha Shakyamuni's
The
typical attributes
Gouache on
by
cotton, h. 80
cm
(31.5 in)
39
i73
In tins
|ili
|th
century
enti
tangka
i
oi the
...
ked by two
Gouache on
11.
cotton, h. too
cm
(39.4 in)
The celestial Ratnasambhava Buddha. This exceptional tangka is also important for the
method of manufacture, likely a regional characteristic, revealed in the checkered pattern
visible in the damaged outer areas. 13th century, Tibet. Gouache on cotton, h. 49 cm (19.3
24
in)
BODHISATTVAS
dominant
feature of Mahayana
carried
from India across northern Asia in the early centuries of the first millennium. A bodhisattva is any being who has achieved a level of purity and
enlightenment that will result in an end to being caught in the cycle of
liberation which is the universal Buddhist goal known as
However, so great is the compassion of bodhisattvas that they
vow to save all sentient beings from ignorance and suffering, intentionally postponing their personal salvation and devoting as many lifetimes as
rebirth, a
nirvana.
needed, sacrificing
as
much
as
Tibetan Buddhism
this
more worldly
I
he
.iih.it
.is
eccentricities,
liberated saint
is
in
many
figures.
By
tin-
established: that
ot saK.it ion tor
able to
all,
all
retain concentration
4^
more
on the
goal.
in
25
attended by bodhisattvas.
to
Central Asia
(see
7),
cm
gouache on cotton,
(27 in)
37
hand
is
extended
in the universal
cm
silver inlays,
(22 in)
ivalokiteshuara
lint's
ame
to be
were believed to be emanations of specific bodand none was more important than Avalokiteshvara. In various
forms throughout northern Asia, this bodhisattva remained the most
venerated emblem of the ultimate Buddhist goal of selfless dedication
towards the salvation of all living beings, which led to his being seen as
the remover ot obstacles for the worshipper. Buddhist literature lists at
I
hisattvas,
least
though in practice a select few are actually wordoubt due to the widespread popularity of
deities and shared symbols provide a close family
No
by symbols
also associated
benevolent behaviour),
(symbolizing meditation and wisdom), and the vase of elixir of immortality (enlightenment will
result in
boundless
life),
c.
gouache on cotton, 82
cm
(32.3 in)
(Tara)
and
all
26
crown
a lotus
held in his
The
a
small, seated
is
left
also
hand.
known
The
as
latter
in his
Avalokiteshvara
is
is
linked so closely
Padmapani,'lotus-m-hand\
crown
is
considered
common emblem
left
shoulder, a
of
com-
mon symbol
's
Tara
Several
known
The
best
who
is
Tara,
i.s
28
\nothei bodhisattva
who assumed
wisdom, as Avalokiteshvara does compassion Sin< e wisdom is a gready honoured quality in Buddhism, Manjushri s
position in the pantheon is among the highest. His heavenly Pure Land is
46
v/> -s-v^i
^ife
Ji
rkw*
^8
cm
(8.75 in)
lit
his earthly
Maitrcya
Essential to the faith
who
is
the
Buddha of the
came to be identified as the deity linked to the future lives of the believer.
From early times he was portrayed both at the side of Shakyamuni
Buddha and as an individual image of worship. He is generally shown in
29
(left)
Maitreya, Sino-
30
1
{fight)
cm
(1
.25 in)
Manjushn,
Tibet.
tf
S5-9
cm
(22 in)
..
along the path to salvation, arhats are perhaps more readily identified
This bodhisattva,
35, 89
[21, 141
special
who
prominence
thunderbolt
in
portrayed in
is
variety of forms,
the vajra
- and
is
thus an
is
accorded
is
emblem of
the concentrated
PROTECTOR DEITIES
one
In
sense,
all
Tibetan
deputed
are
in
many
great
many
some with
the dharma, and are often warriors and kings both mythical and
such
of
whom
the
)i
as
our Kings.
deity,
If
known
as
among
who
also
human.
figures
the fiercest
came
to be
is Vaishravana,
worshipped
king
as a separate
actual
dous
so
faithful, as
compassionate
it
fero<
as
other
effort
denies
demonic nature
Some
north,
is
c.
background, riding
1400.
Gouache on
Tibetan snow
cotton, h. 98.4
cm
(38.7 in)
Vajrabhairava.
hisattva
bod-
Mahakala
The yidam
is
as
The
in
deity,
worshipped
as
known
no
in various forms,
surprise to find
him
especially revered
as
adornments and
all
imped-
He
is
ilar
other orders
is
known, although he
as well.
is
well represented
among
the
is
shown bent-legged,
as if
place in the pantheon was established by the time of the second diffu-
sion,
.1
ajrabhairava
powerful
his
ot the
image
Buddhist
is
also
rituals
is
entui
ies
before
.1
is
enhanced
in this brilliant
He
is
as
well
as
the female
as
protector
to the right,
(c.
33
17.7 in)
Mahakala
is
found
Tibetan monastery. In
in every
this wall
is
placed
1200,
monastery
36
Palden Lhamo
Along with the female bodhisattva Tara, Palden or Penden Lhamo is the
most revered of all Tibetan goddesses. She is the protector of the capital,
Lhasa, and is especially significant to the Gelugpa order, for she is also the
protector of the Dalai Lama. As with Vajrabhairava, she is widely wor-
in the
Lhamo
Mahakala,
pictorial representations:
is of a black colour and her body is lean as a skeleton. The goddess
one face, four hands and two feet... .A human corpse lies in her
mouth and she bares her teeth
and she laughs thunderously. She has
three eyes, and her hair is yellow-red. She rides a mule
with a pair of
dice hanging from straps ... in the middle of a vast wild sea of blood
and fat
with a belt of severed heads and a flayed skin as cover.
She
has
An
elephant-hide
covers the upper portion of her body, and the skin of an ox serves
loin-cloth.
She dwells
in the centre
as a
can be heard.
Lhamo
In addition,
has resulted in
nival
some of
whole ofTibetan
paintings in the
is
whose por-
the
art.
Her
origin
lies
partly in the
Hindu
of her Tibetan attributes from native deities of the Bon tradition which
were absorbed into Buddhism. Even these grotesque depictions of
hamo
.ire
visions of
clear.
She
who
refused
is
said to
wanton
.ill
as
killing.
Vajrabhairava
She
finally
would personally
then child so the king would experience for himself the pain that his
Manjushri's
.11
in
tin-
exposition while
Ins partnei
yab-yum or
top.
tin-
le
scxu.il
)ne of the
other holds
representing wisdom,
.1
union.
All the
human
who
skull cup.
joins
him
in
the gesture of
Ins prajnya,
lis
hands hold many of the ritual instruments found on Hbetan altars. This
remarkable figure's complexity bridges the differences between two- and threedimensional an
th century, central Tibet. Polychromed bronze, h. 24 cm (9.5
I
in)
t;>^?
miL^S/ftu
M
><&
If
,.
>
y^
i
fc*i
SSi?:
m
m
l^i<
.*?
*"^>^"
':*>i
.**
'
34, 35
Yab-yum
Although not
yab-yum
literally
'father-mother'
least
deities, the
are pairs
one of the
pair, usually
may be
deities
the male,
is
angry form as
well. These paired figures express a fundamental concept of Buddhism,
the essential process of joining insight with compassion, also referred to
as the union of wisdom and skilful means of action. The male figure, who
embodies compassion, embraces the female, who represents transcendent
wisdom. The development and marriage of wisdom and compassion
are necessary for transcending the self-concerns that hinder progress
towards understanding the ultimate nature of reality. The yab-yum image
is linked to fundamental aspects of the unconscious, serving to identify
and sublimate conscious and unconscious instincts into a potent visual
metaphor. Similarly powerful and overtly sexual images do occasionally
appear in the artistic traditions of other religions, but it has remained for
often in a ferocious form, although the female
35
in
Vajrapani portrayed in
(left)
union with
Ins consort.
Vajrapani
is
fierce form, as
protector, and is
one of the Tibetan demos known
in both benign and ferocious
.1
tonus,
36
I
bronze,
( lilt
(right)
h. 38.
cm
Tibet.
in)
(1 s
and the
)alai
.1111.1.
of
Early
Tibet.
56
72.4
cm
(28.5 in)
two bodhisattvas. On
by the small stupa in his
crown) while the other lacks an attribute such as the small Buddha that is typically
pla< ed in the crown of Avalokiteshvara or the vajra in the hand ofVajrapani.
37
The Buddha,
the
left
3rd
is
4-th
Maitreya, the
Buddha of the
h.
future (identified
59
cm
(23.25 in)
visual
metaphors
/w/Y</s
and
used to express
this
same
message
111
die
a<
ol sexual
universal level ot
images and
originated
ate
I
known
union
wisdom, the power and significance olat the most basic and
human experience
rituals.
symbolism
in
ARHATS, MYSTICS
AND KINGS
Arhats
The name
Buddhism
arhat literally
it
is
The concept
widely applied
in
originated in India,
art,
of the major cultures under Indian influence, Sri Lanka and Southeast
Asia, where the name was used for the most advanced disciples of
of
They
are
East Asia,
where the
and
finally
own
grew
evolved into
found
in
to sixteen or eighteen
as
many
as five
hundred
viduals,
59
38
39, 40, 42
134
38
(left)
manner of Tang
painting.
h.
39
1
75
cm
in the
lohau
[anging
scroll.
(29.5 in)
(right) Arh.it
Rahula, early
67.9
cm
(26.7 in)
style, in
an interesting
impact of Indo-Nepalese
that tradition
in style.
The
it
and a
which
art,
at
6]
[0
\rhat,
1400,
fibet.
fangka, gouache
on
'
cotton, h. 64.8
cm
(25.5 in)
.is
early
Ihinese and
brought to
.is
ibet in the
first
Nepalese
62
<
by
the
at
to Indian,
Chinese
tradition,
styles.
later,
although
and
are strongly
enriched
by
[ndo-
Mahasiddhas
Unlike the arhat, images of the mahasiddha being who has attained Ins goal were largely
unknown
great
outside ofTibet.
of
them
who
practise absorption in
could perforin
shown
tric individuals,
in various kinds
who
to the Sakyapa,
regarded him
as their first
41
He
was
also
holds
He
also
crown which
and
skull
45
is
renowned
of liquor.
43- 44
136
42 (left) Chudapanthaka. This arhat is in harmony with the serenity of his very
Chinese-style landscape, but he still remains apart from it, as if floating beyond
the
cotton, h. 147.3
43
(below)
cm
(58 in)
Mahasiddha
watercolour on cloth,
(detail),
h.
63.7
cm
(25 in)
opaque
\\
not onl)
thru
foi
irmenl
ation
lo<
bodhisattva's dhoti
bul
(.1
on
.1
traditional Indiari
foi
thru varied
st.it
mosl
i
ii
all)
in<
ompanions on
some
theii laps,
minus
it)
ing,
kerboard
he<
w,
(detail),
nude.
pattei n
he
ma) be
1
aves
Statue oi Manjushri
[200,
monaster)
ith
\\
the) frequent
female
ith
and
Sumtsek temple, \K
.nl.ikh
Painted
stu<
hi
38
cm
(is in)
identified, each
Buddhism contributed
to their popularity.
At the foundation of Tibetan religious culture is its great corpus of literature, first as preserved from Indian texts and finally as developed by
Tibetan scholars. This enormous body of instruction began to appear
with the introduction of the Indian script, at the same time that the first
religious kings of the Yarlung dynasty began the propagation of the
Buddhist faith. By the end of the era of persecutions, certainly by the late
tenth century, much of this literature had already been assimilated into
the various orders. Tibetan teachers, philosophers and kings continued to
interpret its meaning and, in the case of the kings, to protect its position.
Across the spectrum of Tibetan culture many of these individuals joined
the pantheon of deities and adepts, and their numbers increased over the
centuries as their achievements continued to enrich the Buddhism they
practised. The biographies of these venerated figures have been a subject
for Tibetan artists from the beginning.
Philosophers and historical kings also constitute a second category
of protectors of the dharma, such as the first religious king, Songtsen
Gampo, and the great eleventh-century adept Atisha.
THE MANDALA
mandala became a means in Tibetan Buddhism
of representing the entire sacred universe. Elaborately detailed twodimensional mandalas in paint or sand and three-dimensional mandalas
Literally a circle or arc, the
in the
are
entire
monastery complexes -
as
all
teaching
The mandala
is
more
human
is
known
archetype. In India
in
many
it is
rep-
major
body
religions,
is
also a
mandala,
67
46
i''
his
asymmetry,
in<
foi
luding the
fibet
.is
It
follow
fangka, gouache
on
cotton, h. [01.6
cm
its
(40 in)
illusti
the osmi< scheme ofMt Meru can only approximate its complexities. In
example in
ibetan lamasery in Beijing,
( )hinese palace is enclosed in
circular wall, and the
mountain ranges and 'o
in
form column, symbol ofMt Mem. Bronze, h. c. 2 so cm (98 in)
this
Attempts to
feel of
portraits
.it.
.1
.1
.1
.1
fit
^n
)*-
Mm
^
to
si^s
'&m^
vertical
Meru, the
axis
mundi of
49
symbol of
Mt
is
47
spatial
and opened
to hide
and
reveal
many
levels of
mandala concept
is
ot
deities
in
sexual
in
devii
e,
to he
it
.1
48
is
leaves,
deities, to
dala, in
as
its
is
painted directly
upon
man-
creativity
of the
artist
is
71
c.
on cotton,
h.
73.6
cm
gouache
(29 in)
considerable
mandala
amount
like,
remaining
seem
I
details,
such
ill.
in
56
.is
to be less restricted.
he centra] deity
is
typically enclosed by
.1
series
of concentric envies.
.is
eight guardians or
.it
the
adorned with hells, garlands and other decorative elements. This central group (especially in mandalas of ferocious
deities^ is surrounded by
circle of cremation grounds, representing the
phenomena] world which one leaves upon entering the central palace,
rhesi cremation grounds are presided over by ciireetion.il deities, or
1
.1
72
dikpalas,
and
The
initiate
is
as steps in initiation
mandala by
ceremonies.
a teacher,
beginning
with the entrances and on through the various levels, with ignorance and
delusion gradually removed by the combination of visualization and
explanation, under the guidance of the master.
of the
mandala,
as a
Much
of the effectiveness
of existence,
is
73
and
between comChanges
placement in the man-
fine distinctions
some
the
as in
surrounding
a central altar
platform with
mirrors the circles about the square centre of painted mandalas; and ver-
by arranging deities, painted and sculpted, about the walls, beginthe lower levels with imagery associated with salvation and
rebirth in paradise and gradually ascending in the cosmic order as one's
gaze moves upwards. The second level could be reserved for esoteric initiation and the highest devoted to transcendental images. In buildings
with more than one storey, elaborate hierarchies of the pantheon could
be displayed. The Sumtsek, for example, a three-storey hall, may well have
been intended to embody such a mandala design.
The concept of the mandala was also carried out in grand architectural
schemes in Tibet. One of the earliest monasteries, the eighth-century
complex at Samye in central Tibet, still resembles a mandala even in its
ruined state. In a striking aerial photograph of present-day Samye, which
tically,
ning
so
now
at
Michael Henss has revealed the basic mandala arrangement of the walled
complex, with many of the same major components which are visible
s^>
in
the
highly
stylized,
by
graphical views.
photograph
eighteenth-century
latter,
the entire
tangka
compound
that
is
depicts
the
encircled by
double zigzag, a formula often followed in such topoNearly revealed in both the tangka and the modern-day
a
with
symmetrical layout
logical vision,
and
tin-
and
o<
74
with
is
Mt
man-made
Mem
at
cosmo-
cms
oi
cosmic grandeur.
CHAPTER TWO
Images
ARCHITECTURE
The most
basic, singular
wood
still
over
is
Made of
first
defensive strongholds.
still
The
castle at
manner of Chinese
in the
seem
kings
is
it
would
customs as well.
The structural architecture of Tibet is remarkably consistent in its
appearance, methods of construction and choice of components, whether
the building be a farmhouse, a palace, or a temple. The Tibetan farmhouse may provide the model. It is typically multi-storeyed, with the
ground floor used for animals, the second for storing food and animal
feed, and the upper floors for people. The balconies and verandas of the
upper levels are in striking contrast to the massive load-bearing walls of
stone,
mud
brick or
rammed
is
75
si
Si
(left
52
(left
below) Shalu
53
{right)
Ladakh
Monastery, Tibet
Yambnlakhar
royal palace,
Much
damaged
courtyard, sometimes enlarged to surround the entire structure. Windows
and roofs are flat, for wind and storms are a greater
of snow, and the roofs can be used for living
space and storage during milder times of year. The sheer weight of these
roofs necessitates the use of wooden columns as additional support, a
system also found in temples. Instead of having a constructed chimney,
cooking smoke is released through a hole cut through the centre of the
flat roof. In their use of load-bearing outer walls and their lack of arches
and domes, these buildings are similar to the architecture found across
most of western Asia.
The transitions between different floors are clearly evident in fortress
architecture too, where several storeys emerge from rocky peaks high
above the surrounding land, yet in their development from bottom
to top repeat the basic formula of other Tibetan buildings. The early
are
few and
small,
Lhasa.
As
seventeenth-century Potala
53
at
among buildings of widely differing purposes. This coherent system of architecture remained essentially unchanged in Tibet over many
of style
centuries.
solid, cubical
77
i.
163
58
or stone, tall, narrow windows and enclosed courtyards. This basic farmhouse model was favoured over the cut-stone masonry used in Indian
temples, or the elaborate wooden structural and bracketing systems of
Chinese architecture, which were followed only for embellishments such
as finials and tiles, mostly on the uppermost floor. The early Tibetan use
of bracketing, revealed by what remains from the period of the second
diffusion, has more in common with earlier Chinese styles of the Tang
dynasty (618-907) than with the contemporary and more elaborate systems of China's Song and Yuan dynasties of the eleventh to thirteenth
centuries. The wooden and carved pillars inside temples, although showing their derivation from Indian models in their materials and basic
shape, were richly painted and carved into forms that could be described
as a distinct Tibetan style.
At the core of Buddhist architecture are three main types of structures
originating in India, two of them functional and one primarily symbolic.
Of the two
dome-shaped
mounds.
When
adopted by
veneration, such
Buddha
number
to an
01
wood
their function
roval patrons or
who commission
modest donors of
54 Tibetan monks
a butter
making
sculpture,
Ta Er
Si,
Xining, China
The monastery
The
role
To
of the monastery
in
The
traditional
earlier periods,
topography and the addition of buildings over time may have altered this
arrangement. By the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the mandala
plan had
79
56, 57
55
illustrates
at
way
Samye
to ever
more elaborate floors, just as the traditional farmhouse reserved most decoration
and windows for the upper levels
The
architectural
style
interior consisting of
.in
.is
room
entered from the wall opposite the entrance. Tibet's most sacred sanctuary,
the Jokhang, follows the latter plan, based upon the Indian vihara. The
Dukhang, the
hypostyle
oldest
hall. In
temple
at
Alehi,
is
cruciform
plan, with
provided
alt ai
i
\).\A
Ongl
Bo
been
iient
pl.u
nil
ed
monks
at
to confront the
room,
as
images than
room
it
the
The
storeys,
decorative
scheme could
also
chapel devoted
lamas. Variations in
high-ranking
room whether
made
The
earliest
it
no longer
exist, at least
not
in their original
form. Important
latter
this
important building
at
the centre
eastern Tibet.
cotton, h. 53.3
Gouache on
cm
(21 in)
Tholing,
'
Finialatthcjokhanj
ibetan decorative
hinese and Indian motife remain a part of the
deriving from India
crocodilian
trunked
elephant
mythical
nakara, a
fibet
Lhasa,
f paintings as well. [8th [9th century,
1
59 'Lion beam'
finials,
c.
temple.
as
Wood
of paint.
eighth-century
details,
such
under layers
Frequent rebuilding and the wholesale destruction of the mid-
individual
are preserved
now
The
in a
The chorten
The
addition
vertical
83
60-64
60
(above) Chortens,
Lamayuru,
Ladakh
6
Shwedigon
Burma
(right)
Pagan,
forms,
ture,
as in
one
Stupa, 1044-77,
particular style
came
to
be favoured, and
it
changes did
stylistic
was established.
some Tibetan
chortens,
Due
to
such
as
jo
.it
at
A|anta.
62 (above
left)
63
(above right)
China
Horyuji Pagoda.
h.
50
cm
65, 66
The goddess
worshipped
for long
Ushnishavijaya,
life, is
She
is
believed to
portrayed inside
(left),
and on
this tangka,
thousand
chortens,
merit. Left
h. 21
cm
Dated 1488,
cm
(29.5 in)
commissioned and acquired as acts of merit. The best-known such donation was a group of 84,000 votive stupas offered by India's first great
Buddhist king, Ashoka, in the third century BC.The practice of dedicating auspicious numbers of stupas continued, as in the placing of iOcS separate chortens, in even rows, in western
number
and
84,000 the number of deities, the latter really standing for an infinitude.
In northern Asia the popularity of certain materials helped determine
the distinctive forms for the stupa. In China, with
its long ceramic tradiwas brick. Korean stupas are often made of
granite, and Nepalese and Japanese stupas, 111 the pagoda form, were most
often constructed of wood. The choice of material invites changes and
be relative scarcity of
absence ol
ribetan chorten
the
for
fauns and temples: sun-dried bricks or squared stones, with plaster facing,
the surface often
renewed
as
hortem of various
(
of
86
Shortens
range
sizes,
in style
compound.
Pala
kingdom,
aaBi
@s
a . (a
1
I.,;
*1
li
17
:
'
mm
?ft
v|I
I
v
v
'T
THry
'V
#**
*
sr
A m ma
.W
i:
fc
Ell
AAAMk.
; ..
,._-*
MAA
doorways and interior spaces for worexample being the famous chorten at Gyantse, the largest in
Tibet. Numerous wall paintings and tangkas repeat the basic design, as do
66
many
the
century,
a style
that
greater elaboration.
as
one
life
all
type,
and
consists
68
form
that rises
from
wide base
Known
<>*)
The
repetitive
reaching
its
lias
central
marked by
which supports
encircling bands) and into the small area for the harmika
as
is
the
Kadampa
joined by
<///</</,
a style
order
later
examples with
pro-
in
the multi-storeyed
Kumbum
at
ryantse.
embodied
of
sanctity
a
the chorten
wide range
ot
stylistic
in
Tibetan
Buddhism meant
that
it
reli-
gion. The great Tibetologist Giuseppe Tucci defined the complexity and
levels of significance that
I
this (.ritual
element
of
Buddha
himself.
While
embodying
chorten
essential quality of
,i
88
itself
is
sacred, as
Milarepa
links
(ill
73),
While not
as
Hemis
century,
68 (above
right)
a statue
or
painting.
greater
8 th 19th
monaster}', Ladakh
Chorten,
c.
cm
(13.S in)
69
(right)
created
at
were
design has lotus petals around the base and decorative elements
on the
petals,
18th century
inlays
70 This clay
of
tablet, or
tsa-tsa,
-headed, iooo-armed
Avalokiteshvara, positioned
to suggest the four cardinal
as
of Mt Meru.
7th 18th
70
include representations of
small object
is
chorten?,.
The opportunity
universally accessible
mounds of countless
means
cm
21.6
which
m)
to donate such
to gain merit,
(8.5
are
much
found
like the
all
across
Ritual objects
I
>espite
its
of
and
most simple ot
visual richness
service of the
meditation.
Buddhism
vast
complexity, Tibetan
acts
consists primarily ot
art
number
as
ot
remains
at
the
an implement
widely
differ-
removed
from the practice of the /en monk, who seeks the ultimate meaning ot
existence unencumbered by either the accumulation of a Lifetime ot
ing systems ot meditation, and Tibetan ritual meditation
mundane experiences
particular deity
.is
ultimate understanding.
difficult
is
of the
deity.
The
one da)
.1
made ofa
variety
90
tar
is
of materials from
need tor Buddhist
ritual objects
was
also
promoted by the
ofTibetan culture.
Broadly speaking, the category of the
includes nearly
all
ritual object in
Tibetan religion
religious function.
More
specifi-
most
are small,
wide
and even
jewels,
(below
(c.
14.2 in)
72 (below
left)
Ritual axe,
right)
Phurpa or
c.
wood, sculpted
butter,
beyond
religious traditions.
from Indian
(dorje in
Tibetan and
ritual
great
among most
The
from. These
Most of the
silver,
made
h.
c.
36
vajra in
cm
cm
(9.4 in)
and the
Sanskrit)
Such objects
are frequently
displayed in deities' hands, especially the vajra and the bell, and several
only hold the emblem but have vajra included in their name,
example Vajrapam and Vajradhara. Typically a single vajra is held, as in
images of Padma Sambhava, although some deities hold several. Other
images display both vajra and bell, ranging from the highest cosmic bodhisattvas, such as Vajrasattva, to lamas and adepts, or mahasiddhas.
When the vajra and bell are displayed together, the symbolism forms
about paired opposites, such as the vajra as emblem of the male aspect of
action and the bell as the feminine expression of knowledge, together
representing the union of those two essential aspects of enlightenment.
The primary meaning of vajra as thunderbolt, the most powerful element
m nature and an unstoppable force, ensured its central place in Tibetan
religion. The symbolism can be heightened further with the addition
o\ other elements, such as faces about the handle of the vajra or the bell,
elaboration of the vajra, or the incorporation of skulls or a knife blade
and handle. The vajra may be merged into or joined with other ritual
deities not
tor
71, 72
implements, such
as
(in
Tibetan phurpa,
originated
Few
in India.it
than the
human
skull
cup (Sanskrit
in Tibetan religion.
more
difficult to
kapala), filled
understand
likel)
had an Indian source, although the Tibetan use of human bones in ceremonies was more extensive than in India. The Tibetan custom of disposing of the
(\c.\d
in
he use
plentiful,
<>t
ofhuman
in
ritual further
real
hairs
some
added
enhanced
lite.
is
known
composed
in
73
his small
ritual
image of Milarepa
base are
the ashes
years
is
saint himself.
of the deceased.
consumed
certain
tree
is
One famous
h.
To
i6.s
Chinese Daoist
believer,
cm
(6.5 in)
monk
for
enhance preservation of the body from within, and when he died his
bod) was covered in layers of lacquer and placed within a shrine so he
could be worshipped in
sculpted figures
of reality
<
as close to
beyond
that
of
an eternal form
as possible.
Tibetan
a level
as
venerated personage.
93
73
Even
74, 75
be brought into
pouch
includes in
its
brass
and
silver
with
inlays,
c.
[8
cm
(c.
7 in).
cm
(1 1.5
in)
76
(left)
Conch
shell,
S.S
111)
i8th
19th century,
and turquoise,
li
39.4
Hbet.
cm
m
s-^r^
77 Lamas
bell as
at
Drepung
they read
sit
beside
two
and
long-handled
involve music
to paintings, statues
67
74, 75
temple,
Many
such
as clay,
monks who
and carried as amulets. The tsa-tsa, the massproduced votive plaque, is one of the most interesting. Some were gilded
to
be used
as
offerings
95
76,77
and painted, their stamped images ranging from simple chortens to groups
of figures of Buddhas, bodhisattvas and various protector deities. Entire
sets of theVajrayana pantheon were produced, including inscriptions on
the reverse that identified the deity portrayed, roughly duplicating the
more expensive
sets
deities
made
for
tsa-tsas
THE IMAGE
Tibetan paintings and sculptures are considered offerings, prayers for the
well-being of
all
living things.
The
inscriptions
the
manner of a
work
benefit
all
particular deity,
sentient beings, in
all;
the inscription
of another individual
as
also
meritorious
2th century,
Tibet,
gouache on cotton,
ms
in)
rangka,
h. 4.6
cm
of Tibetan figural
art.
the
taut, abstract
80
Two
cm
portraits,
c.
monastery, Lhakang
Wall painting
(13.3 in)
1
Soma
temple, Ladakh.
artworks serve
a variety
of purposes, providing
a visual
focus for ceremonies and for meditation, both individual and group, and
Buddhist liturgy. In spite of the merit accrued, the artist's name is rarely
found on a piece, but the names of many artists are known, gathered from
lists compiled mainly over the last four hundred years. The traditional
belief that the artist was the medium through which religious expression
passed accorded with the Buddhist emphasis on the lack of a self, making
the inclusion of an artist's signature at odds with a cardinal rule of the
faith. Generally, as in most cultures during times of strong religious
belief, the personality of the artist is not considered important; that position
is
Beyond such
particular teachings.
its
roles,
all
religious
aspects of
human
ment
in private life.
Many
paintings are
commissioned when
death in
at
likely
been brought
Portraits
The
i
representation of
particular person
art.
is
produced
range of portrait
.1
styles,
Dutch
ical stature,
1I1.
in
the
respect, age
traits
whether
less
its
major
part
in
at
least
the
from the
renal class,
and count-
or emanation, inn
number of figures
figures
who
111
having compositions
Lin
eage process thai defines the various sectarian orders. The primary goal
oi
the
.Htisi
in
fibel
ot
Sketchbook with
Tibetan subjects,
1
Tibet or Nepal.
Opaque
watercolours on paper,
h. 20.3
cm
(8 in)
%'^&Sa<
79
lew images better capture the essence of Tibetan culture than the
a religious figure. These revered teachers and saints,
their history and myth formed from the legendary exploits of dedicated.
Striving individuals, are, like the bodhisattvas. lessons of Buddhist devotion. Because their role was integral to the development of Tibetan
inspired portrait of
99
83
ibetan
tangka embodies the essential qualities o
and
Buddha, displays the gesture of teaching
I
he unidentified
portraiture
is
is
and
and floral designs, but the stern hue
surrounded by an elaborate mandorla with mythical beasts
dedication and
devotion
intense
of
realm
averted gaze bring the portrait into the human
intense
individuality.
ate
sth century,
il
h.
37-6
cm
(14.8 in)
Karmapa Lama,
Tibet,
Buddhism,
first
traditional idealized
major
such
figures,
seated
and gesturing
as
human
in the
Some
portraits
went
them
manner of Buddhas.
1
82
The
religious fabric
among
84, 85
landscape setting
without the usual surrounding religious figures. Two of the most beloved
are the Indian Marpa and his disciple Milarepa. Marpa came to Tibet
from India in the eleventh century and became one of the best known of
the many religious figures influencing early Tibetan culture. Milarepa has
long been especially venerated, for he was the first ordinary Tibetan to
achieve such stature. As with most of the mystics and teachers, he is portrayed in a familiar manner, with gestures and attributes that recall popular aspects of his life. Milarepa's unique gesture, which immediately sets
him apart from other images of mystics and yogis, is his right hand raised
to his ear, likely a reference to his life amidst nature, listening to its message, as well as a reference toTantric practices, where the instructions of
the guru are transmitted orally
One of the most important categories is the image of a recently
deceased hierarch, a major religious figure whose likeness could then be
displayed in the monasteries lie had frequented. According to the Blue
Annals, an important early Tibetan text translated in the fifteenth century,
when
rainbows,
other
relics...
as
.They
102
.i
rites,
also erected
to stay
there appeared
numerous sounds,
Mind of the
where he used
teacher
his practice
hin.
well as
84 Milarepa,
Solid terracotta, h.
c.
iN
cm
(c 7 in)
such
master.
[0
were small
founders,
portraits
identities repeated
Wall paintings
The
is
made
all
Many
outside.
many Buddhist
worlds. The
more dramatic by
the
the sudden
windswept Tibetan landscape
environment.
Tibetan wall paintings are typically composed from
mixture of tem-
pera and glue, prepared from boiled animal skins and applied with
The
brush.
clay,
flat
stones.
The
a final layer
86
artists
dedi( ation
demons
gestui
and
.in-
in;.;
steadfast
portrayed
just
.is
they are
powers of meditation.
Tangka
in
new
paintings.
In
Ins
gouache on cotton,
h.
ate
[30.8
cm
sth
(51.5 in)
a.
!**:>"
Kumbum,
Xining, China
Tangkas
known
as tangkas.
known
in their portable
as
interme-
diaries
107
8<S
wall paintings
at
Akhi monastery,
adakh
87
to thousands
wooden
is
a special spiritual
presence befit-
filled in
The
24
portability
has a stylistic and technical diversity which suggests both local methods
and methods imported from Tibet, the source of the dominant style of
these paintings. Many of them were brought from Tibet across Central
Asia and into the Chinese Xixia kingdom by pilgrims and merchants, but
others undoubtedly originated there. A checked pattern in the weave of
the cotton fabric of some tangkas has not been found within Tibet but
does have an older history in Central Asian painting. It has been suggested
that this may be more than just a regional technique; it may perhaps have
been a special method reserved for important religious paintings.
Although some idea of the preliminary under-drawing can be seen in
portions of tangkas where the paint has been eroded, a complete early
drawing is rare. A masterful twelfth-century drawing of the goddess
document
of
on the emerging Tibetan painting tradition, does display a skilful drawing technique. The two standing attendants in it are similar to the
few remaining tangkas and wall paintings from the eleventh century, such
Pala style
88
as at
frontal
more Tibetan
in a
can be seen
style
thirteenth-century tangka of
are
more
precisely defined,
represented
is
haw
been
dated to the second half of the seventeenth century, the time of the fifth
)alai
ss
composition, unobscured by
10S
p. nut.
The
skilled
<
in)
89 Vajrapani and
li
53-3
means
<
onsort,
(2] in)
.1
.1
.1
<
89
signifies the
.is
well
.is
truth.
The
known.
imported from India, with the same long, narrow designs which had
been required by bark or palm-leaf materials. Tibetans artists innovated
only in the size, not the proportions of this formula. Later Tibetan manuscripts are typically twice the size of Pala examples, but the arrangement
of lines of text divided by individual illustrations closely mirrors the
Indian models, as do the richly saturated colours, decorative motifs,
throne and style of the figures. The manuscripts were used in various
monastic ceremonies, with each page read, or chanted, in succession. In
addition, the books themselves were sacred, much like a consecrated
image, in line with the great importance vested in the written word in
90 Ratnasambhava,
gold on paper,
h. 9.2
cm
(3.6 in)
90
91
<;i
cm
(10.5 in)
92,93
Buddhism. Many arc treated like ritual objects and kept in bookcases that
form part of the main altar, adjacent to the most revered images.
Silk, invented by the Chinese, was used in Tibet to create embroidered
images of such fine detail that many seem at first glance to be paintings.
The subject matter is usually Tibetan, and the technique and manufacture Chinese, although Tibetan manufacture of liturgical silks can be
documented from
.it
least
known
from
China and from Central Asia and, later, from Japan. Persia and Europe.
Silk was used for secular purposes as well as liturgical and was greatly
prized by aristocracy and clergy alike. Fine silks were also among the
as early as the-
silks
objects sent to Tibet, along with the distinctive gilded bronzes, as gifts to
esteemed lamas, especially during the early Ming (1368 1644) and Qing
t9I2) periods, and .ire included in the body of works known
(I'M
toda) as Sino Tibetan art (see pages [83 88). The uses found for silk
I
92 Maitreya
(detail).
This enormous
of the
Buddha,
clearly identified by
the golden stupa on
tapestry
silk
future
his
head, includes a
portrait
of the
seventh Dalai
the upper
Lama
nght
it
during
1
was made
his lifetime.
Silk
h.
embroidery,
343
cm
(135 in)
method of manufacture,
other decorations which were created for special events and then packed
away.
their
way
old,
addition to
silk
was applique,
ground
in
to create an
history in Tibet as
image similar
to
.1
method of decorating
articles
14
relief effect
.1
long
portions
inventions, as were
many of the
many
a
like
mono-
centuries.
range of
wooden
pieces, often
Sculpture
Examples of sculpture dating from the period of the early dharma kings
(mid-seventh to mid-eighth century) are limited. They include some
wooden reliefs, clay figures and stone lions. But with the exception of a
few repainted clay images that remain at Kachu and in the Potala, they
are highly derivative, with strong Nepalese and some Central Asian and
Chinese influence, and provide little help in the study of later Tibetan
95 Altar table,
probably 1 8th
century, Tibet.
Wood,
h.
(25.6 in)
c.
65
cm
95, ioi
sculpture.
The period of
tenth century and inspired by royal leadership and the arrival of Indian
Buddhists, can be seen as the real beginning of what
is
known
as
Tibetan
sculpture.
name
generic
as a
primary materials of
- copper
tested,
availability
tin
than wood,
made
it
dimensional images.
At Bamiyan,
colossal fifth-century
Buddha images,
tall, is
held
111
in
the largest
reduce the weight and increase ease of working, tor the material can
Ik-
formed and
96,97
as jewellery,
which
I
16
and gilded
bly dating
Many
temples include
rows of clay images of bodhisattvas mounted along the middle of the side
walls of a shrine, positioned below paintings of deities of the highest
celestial
The
brightly painted
separate
and
slightly
images
differ little in
Once
96, 97 Large, unfired clay images are rare; this well-preserved 15th-century
Vajravarahi
the
two
presence
metal
(left)
may have
originated from a
(right). Left
more numerous
in details,
h.
102
cm
cm
(40
111).
(1 1.3 in)
bronze
statues, in
curve,
figures,
The
forms.
is
among
are often
grouped on
which the
altar plat-
among Nepalese
pronounced S-
typical
those
clay
although large metal statues are mentioned in the literature and clay
ures of colossal size
seen
fig-
98
99
100
portrayed
.is
holds
in Ins right
Very
little
hand give
98
tS
Manjushri,
example
th.it
exists.
Sumtsek temple,
AMI
'TIS***!
99 Mahakala
I
ba<
rendered w
to school
kground
ith gi
<
overed
u pre< ision,
of Anige,
ibet.
in inl.
conveyed,
Stone,
h.
48
cm
(18.9 in)
was gilded,
2^2. attributed
ioo Jambhala.
The
The
stone
itself likely
is
of the wearing
cm
(8.3 in)
(/'//.
that
may be
required and,
finally, gilding.
Solid cast images were also made, although they too presented
culties, first,
requiring
a far
greater
diffi-
a hole, as
.1
made of individual
once joined and gilded, appeared the vimc
.is cast sculptures. The elaborate mandorla behind the clcvcnth-ccnttirv.
liK- sized figure of Amoghasiddhi at Kvangphn, now destroyed, was likely
made by this method.
hen- ue two main techniques of gilding in traditional Tibetan craft.
In
delicate process known as tire gilding, involving gold and mercury,
constructed
in this
.1
io i
monastery, Ladakh
the metal to
be gilded
is first
is
often applied
as a paste.
The whole
is
bond
then care-
heated again and the gold adheres to the metal as the remaining
mercury evaporates. If only limited areas are to be gilded, such as the face,
fully
gold paint
is
may
known
as
be painted in this fishion. Most of these techniques were learned from and perpetuated by Newari artists, for the
entire figures
also
tradition
Nepal, where
fire
Many of
8
wood, such
The
set
bronze,
h.
iS
cm
(7.1
known
of inlays.
he
sth century or
in)
bronze were
in
also carved
in
substitution
of
is
gilded, also
a
.1
.1
as
more
01
124
costly, version,
medium was
and the
respondingly superior.
CHAPTER
The Development
The
of
II
REE
which
art,
was not until near the end of the tenth century that a clear direction
Tibetan history began to develop. The earlier formation of a ruling
It
for
monarchy and the introduction of Buddhism into the area had generated
a backlash, a persecution that delayed the development of monasteries
and orders until near the end of the millennium. The goals and achievements of Tibet's
as
first
Gampo, in
to the
period of theTibetan renaissance that followed, from the end of the tenth
and into the fourteenth century the second diffusion defines both
the end of an era of religious disorder and the establishment of Buddhism
as theTibetan faith, although competition among the orders themselves
125
[03
Buddha,
irh century,
Yemar
(Iwang) monastery,
and southern regions oftj andTsang;and western Tibet, under the rule
of the
I
riige kin^s.
)uring the early eleventh century, two masters were especially influ-
ential in
culture.
it in Tibetan
was Atisha, the most mriuenti.il of the gurus invited from
One
Od
to Kashmir and
least one to northeastern India, filled seventeen years
and resulted in the founding of numbers of temples in western Tibet.
he continuing motivation to seek inspiration from the homeland of
Buddhism was in part prompted by the preceding era of persecutions,
.it
[26
century to build
inspiration
kingdom around
Gampo
back
in the seventh
India. Along
artistic styles,
ment ot early Tibetan art evolved primarily from two sources, the Pala
kingdom of eastern India, which included the art ot neighbouring
Nepal, and the Kashmiri region to the west. The impact of the Chinese
was to become more evident during the latter half of the
second diffusion, beginning with the rise ot Mongol influence during
artistic tradition
Many of the decorative patterns are similar to Central Asian motifs, seen
from Kyangphu of about the same date (///. iS). The mythical animals, thrones,
floral medallions and various patterned backgrounds are also well documented among the less
perishable metal sculptures from the same period. 12th century, Drathang, Tibet. Wall painting
i
os
Manjushri
(detail).
100
This portrait of
motifs
as
subject himself
may
Is
well be
cm
Tibetan.
(1 s
in)
Asia,
The
rangka,
Very
remains of the
little
monuments of
this
still
eleventh-century sculptures
at
Yemar
(also
known
as
Iwang),
little
more
of Tibet's richest displays of early art. Even the early western Guge sites,
such as Tholing and Tabo, were not spared, and despite the Chinese
rebuilding programmes, nothing can replace what has been destroyed.
Ironically, portable bronze sculptures have been coming out of Tibet in
great numbers during the past forty years, most finding their way into
collections in the West. Among them are many originally produced in
eastern and northwestern India, areas which once suffered their own
periods of artistic destruction; preserved for centuries in Tibet, those
images have been carried back once again, by fleeing Tibetan refugees.
There is a basic formula to the buildings of early Tibetan monastic
establishments, whatever the specific regional style, such as the mandalalike plan followed at Samye and at Tholing. This reliance upon symmetry,
which is repeated in portrayals, of the Buddhist cosmological vision of
the universe, is carried out from the largest scale, the monastery itself, to
individual buildings and paintings, to visions of the mythical paradise of
Shambhala.This Buddhist view of the cosmos is repeated within individual structures, such as the Sumtsek temple at Alchi, whose three Moors
appear to carry the formula of the worlds vertically, the lower levels portraying aspects of the mundane world and the upper Moors illustrating
celestial realms.
Although the
its
[05
best preserved
share
stylistic
the caves
I-.;,
art
is
mm
now
ICX5
.it
.it
formed by
as well.
The
Dunhuang. Many of
murals
at
dom which was composed of the Tangut and a variety of other peoples
hm culturally highly influenced by Tibetans. It was destroyed by the
Mongols
in
t227, hut
explorers early
in
I)\ the caul o\ the eleventh century a relatively small area of central
and southern Tibet, while absorbing influences from older traditions, also
130
[07
Mmoi
deities,
th century,
Kyangphu monastery,
,-M*k
iK
':
108
(left)
This powerful,
12th-
late
very
much
one
in
Tibetan
in the central
Tibetan
Gouache on
ioy
(right)
cm
cotton, h. 38
Tara.
The
Asia.
(15 in)
similarities are
image and
of a century or two later.
10th century, India, Pala kingdom.
Bronze, h. 33 cm (13 in)
remarkable between
Tibetan
this Pala
art
is
-just
on cotton,
exported
own
its
h.
such
22
as
cm
(4S.2 in)
in their
I
in the
INIll'lNCl Ol
CENTRA]
1'
III
PALA
document
to
augment
itself.
Atisha's homeland, the Pala kingdom, was the dominant early influence
on tin developing art of central Tibet, although the trading activity in
and through tins region ensured Nepalese, Chinese and Central Asian
132
had been
returning from their pilgrimages to the Pala region with votive objects
that
inspired
Buddhism
local
artisans,
133
109,
10
Nepal
(right),
similarities
art
style that
been attributed
demonstrate the
between the
early
The
it
to
areas.
paintings' meticulous
work,
lively
warm
colours are
finest in the
among
the
Indo-Nepalese and
Ratnasambhava and
Gouache on
cotton, h. 41
cm
Green Tara,
Gouache on
cotton, h.
si
cm
(20 in)
art and objects from adjacent areas. There are Tibetan inscripon some ninth-century paintings found at Dunhuang, and in
style these paintings are more similar to those from other Central Asian
sites, such as Khotan, and to fragmentary remains from Tibet, than to
the majority of Chinese-derived works from Dunhuang. The active
commercial trade and sporadic military activity in these areas during the
ninth century ensured that artistic exchanges would continue.
Nepalese art served as both a conduit and a direct influence on the
Pala-derived art which appeared in Tibet, and along with Pala art,
Nepalese works can be readily cited as the model for many Tibetan
Tibetan
tions
111,
paintings and sculptures from the early period. The close similarities
between the
wall
paintings from
the
paintings at
Pala
.ire
Pala sources
ing,
although
details
especially Nepal.
One
unchanged
iiidkam, the
of Tibet.
Among
is
the
symbol ofauspi-
from its use as a purely decorative element to its function as the vehicle
of the major river goddess Ganga. Typical examples can be found in both
of the tangkas illustrated above - one Nepalese, one Tibetan - and often
bronze makara of exquisite refinement which
once part of an elaborate throne setting for a major deity.
Examples of such widely used Indo-Nepalese decorative motifs continue
to appear, little changed, after the establishment of the fully developed
in
sculptures, such as a
was
likely
135
113
ii3,
The
makara,
body and
from Indo-Nepalese
sources.
The
was
also
foliate tail
geese
at either
end of this
manuscript cover
Left
(below).
38.6
cm
(15.2 m).
Below Bookcover,
1
1.
gilded.
37.6
cm
gouache on cotton,
(14.8 in)
Tibetan
some
relief carvings
some
capitals
clay statues at
137
115
Minor
deities,
th century,
Kyangphu
17
Yen)
I
Buddha,
ibet. Stui
tth
centur)
monastery,
co
\* ith
gold
**
**M
8 Amoghasiddhi. The Indo-Nepalese and Central Asian decorative motifs of the carved
mandorla and the roundels on the garments are testimony to the varied stylistic influences on the
i
of central Tibet. The delicate right hand of Amoghasiddhi forms one of the most exquisite
examples of a nmdra in all of Tibetan art. The entire stucco figure, including the richly carved
mandorla behind it, was originally covered with gold, ith century, Kyangphu, Tibet (desl
early art
it is
possible to
17
now
badly damaged,
107,
16
11S
coherent Tibetan
style.
The Pala and Nepalese styles were not quickly, or universally, replaced.
The decorative motifs, stylized Barnes and vibrant colours, even the
selection of particular deities, continued to be significant in Tibetan
[19
is
subject
art.
the
.it
least
.is
Such images of paired figures in ecstatic union represent the highest goal,
the- joining of compassion (male) and wisdom (female). This subject
poses
major challenge for the artist: the expression of the highest of
ideals through the vehicle of the most fundamental action of human
.1
(.0
19 Chakrasamvara and consort. Were it not for the identities of the surrounding Tibetan monks
and the lineage figures, the completely Nepalese style evident in the angular, primary pair and the
1
h.
40.6
cm
that this
(16 in)
is
passion.
armed
The
central pair
often in
AND LADAKH
At the same time that Tibet's renaissance was occurring in the central
areas, a slightly earlier, parallel development took place in the western
region, an area crossed by the trade routes connecting the KashmirLadakh region with the cities of the Silk Road, especially Khotan and
Kashgar.The dominant kingdom in this area was Guge, whose late tenthcentury kingYeshe Od was one of Tibet's great patrons of Buddhism; it
was one of the two major centres of early monastic activity, along with
central Tibet. As with the early material from central Tibet, most of the
art created in the western region during this period has confounded
attempts at a consistent arrangement by schools or by monastic orders,
but stylistic comparisons show Indian models from the Kashmiri area
clearly to be the primary source both for the earliest work and for the
Guge style.
The Kashmir region and
evolving
Gilgit
Buddhist
activity,
including
in
also
some of the
earliest
long history of
The
area
120
121
[42
Od
figures
Jr
t:l
v.
'^'tSx^^
"
MH^^
/
"';._
^^T ':/*
^ imBflEar
jfl^ i
"^"^y
5BMPB^?< "*y?v
^^i
^B
'^1
JL>
'
"*-:
wI
K
lIz**
wii4
By
B1
<$
^$B^
fl
:v
W9F*
B^Bk
S
^^|
Ah
it
iNsB 1
BF P
Ah
^fH
K
B"
B
-A
hI
^H
"
Mfc-'
Ifc^^
--=*
120, 121
The many
similarities
H^- *
.
be seen
the elaborate crowns, facial treatment, decorative garments and looping garlands of these
two
bodhisattvas.
stylization
which
is
closer to the
Rinchen Sangpo and Atisha. Atisha stayed in Guge for just three years
and then travelled to central Tibet, having an enormous impact in both
regions. He was likely the most celebrated religious figure in India at the
time, and he came to be revered as Tibet's greatest early spiritual leader. It
may have been his prestigious example that shaped subsequent practices,
rather than close adherence to his teachings, which were rather conservative and traditional.
Rinchen Sangpo not only made monumental translations and commentaries, he also brought back to Tibet more than twenty-five artists
and artisans from his travels in northeastern India and Kashmir, thus
ensuring the importance of the Kashmiri tradition in Tibet, and coincidentally perpetuating a style of art being destroyed within Kashmir due
in western Tibet
122 Vairochana,
on paper,
h. o.N
is
likely a
cm
(3.9 in)
144
123
sermon
absence of details in
this
necessarily include
deities
work
as
Buddhas would
more
found among
ith-century
Luk monastery,
by Tucci
at
Gnge
tradition
still
Guge monasteries of
centuries before,
as
yet
incomplete because of the sensitive geopolitical situation in this IndoChinese region, indicate that the early developments in western Tibet
were separate from the sequence of stylistic development in central Tibet
122, 12}
six-armed
124 Eleven-headed,
western
c. 1000,
Avalokiteshvara,
1
ibet or
of
Kashmir. Brass with inlays
copper and
silver, h.
39-4
cm
(i5-5
m)
Dungkar
caves.
art has
been discovered
One painting is
nearly perfect
now
in the
Cleveland
Museum. The
early twelfth-century
Guge
The most
extensive,
is
Kashmiri
this
124
wall
now
artist.
period of
western Tibetan art are the remarkable wall paintings in the Sumtsek
temple in the Alchi monastery complex, completed around 1200.
Although smaller than the great monastery at Tholing, Alchi is the best
sites, and it provides an opportunity not only
to study aspects of the artistic style, but to experience the milieu of an
early Tibetan monastery.
147
125
Sumtsek,
at
of a Tibetan
all wall and
ceiling surfaces are covered
with detailed line work and
rich colours, with clay images
projecting from niches on three
visual richness
temple. Nearly
upon
the ceilings
architectural details
painted
manuscripts (below
right)
and
c.
1200, Ladakh
T***^
ire
/"
fi
'r>
f ';
>
4rjuT jfa
<
if(?
IB
Alchi,
126-29
45
which
is
'three storeys',
a small cluster
Avalokiteshvara.
Numerous
which
enclose the three large figures, and the remaining walls and ceilings are
a tradition
86
its
land of origin.
fresh,
but contemporary,
replacements.
style
of the Sumtsek
itself is
anomalous, the
paintings that cover the dhoti of the figure of Avalokiteshvara are of considerable importance as
documents of early
reveals a type
jo
central
doorway,
is
The
larger
of a design which
[50
83SS*
S^T-^^jK:
creates a passage
been
who
feel
may have
Less
is
Kham
suggest
later
Evidence of Chinese influence is more significant in eastern Tibet, especially by the latter part of the period of the second diffusion, coinciding
with the Song dynasty (960 279). The Tibetan portraits of arhats are
clearly similar to Chinese loluui paintings, a genre that was well estab1
40
of landscape painting
S3
still
remain
in
thcYarlung and
has.i
Chinese
monastery of the
entury, evidence oi
$2
ower
luayan-si.
anna,
in
the
131
Portrait, possibly
ofRinchen Sangpo,
which became
increasingly influential in
Changan
in the
important
Dunhuang
oasis.
little
between
royal families
among
politically,
the monastic
as
they in turn competed for greater control. Political events of the thirteenth century, however, proved a turning point in the relationship
154
between the two countries. The Mongol ascendancy, beginning with the
rule of Genghis Khan early in the thirteenth century, had immediate
impact on China and far-reaching consequences for the future of Tibet.
When Ogadai, the successor to Genghis, became the Great Khan in
1227, the Mongols gave more attention to Tibet. Mongol raids prompted
increased diplomatic exchanges between the two kingdoms, and ultimately an offer of full submission by the grand lamas of the most powerful order, the Sakyapa. With that a new chapter in Tibet's relationship
with its northern neighbours was opened.
The head of the Sakya Order, Sakya Pandita, was summoned to the
Mongol court in China at Liangzhou, in modern Gansu province, in
1244, and he brought his brilliant nephew Phagpa (1235-80) with him.
Both were a success with the Mongol leadership. When Phagpa was
appointed Imperial Preceptor,
of Kublai Khan
itself in a
.is
the
new
(r.
1260-94),
a position
now
at
of great influence
Dadu (modern
the court
found
by then under direct Mongol rule
rulers, the
at
Beijing), Tibet
to the
Mongol
quasi-formal relationship
matters,
longer
in military conflict
with
its
much
154
worked
in Tibet, as
is
at
programme of
1306. Anige's
painting
diverse
talents
China. The
later,
north of Beijing,
style.
artistic
Anige's achievements
Tibetan
formed
surrounding group of
155
133
132
that
Vanavasin resided
in
style
from
wli.it
.1
.1
ISO
132 (above
left)
Lohans in
Handscroll, h. 30.4
133
the
cm
a typical
Chinese landscape
whisk
in his left
h. 71.1
cm
180, China.
may
reflect
on cotton,
dated
among
setting,
(12 in)
(28 in)
found
Tibet. Tangka, gouache
styles, as
in
34 Hvashang, early
sth century, central Tibet.
63.5
cm
(25 in)
34
more
Chinese formula for these figures, including the gnarled tree limbs
form
ari of
Ol
I',
in
AN
The Tibetan
and
11
SI VI
11
to the
which
figure.
centuries:
hi
cui
evation
renaissance was well under way by the year 200. after cenof productive engagement with Indian Buddhism, which was now
coming to an end .is Muslim rule and religion replaced Buddhism in its
homeland. he monastic centres of the then-major orders were well
established in central and western Tibet, where they continued the translation oi Buddhist literature and provided instruction no Longer available
turies
[58
directly
centres. In
much of
it
had been
Asia, with
few
The long
artistic
activity,
Buddhist
Buddhism was no
activity.
flat
areas
13s
all
reveal
styles.
thirteenth century.
led by the
artistic
achieve-
ments through most of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the era
of Mongol rule 111 China. Subtle but important changes appeared in
Tibetan painting during the period. Compositions lost some of their
vitality,
were
The
latter
were
when
the orders
competition both to authenticate their claims to spiritual legitimacy and also to justify their position in the eyes of the Mongols, who
were now becoming a primary source of support.
in
Many of
Mongol
though the unorthodox subject might explain this deviaand frontal presentation of the major
figure. The stylized rocks that surround the central group and the fanciful
trees above are a continuation of the Pala style.
pictorial frame,
tion
from the
typical hierarchical
159
136
135
'
agl un g
forward
te<
.1
im
devi<
and
e,
form
tin. ilk
.1
<.
->
hangpa
<
motif of the
)henpo.
hnique repeated
in
rest
of the composition.
.1
fevourite Pala
olourful backgrounds for the arched openings on three sides oi the painting,
fangka, gouai he on
ott
on.
h.
31.8
cm
(12.5 in)
Tibet.
The mahasiddha
manner, holding
frontispiece
Changes occurring by the fourteenth century can be seen in a paintBuddha with scenes from his life. The image of the
Buddha has an iconic feeling, which is repeated with the side figures in
ing of Shakyamuni
numerous figures in the narrative scenes are less refined, lacking the careful line work that marked the earlier painting, but their prominence is
indicative of a growing Chinese influence.
137
in
the copper and silver inlays, but the figure, pedestal and deco-
cushion
Kashmiri
reflect Pala
figures.
western Tibetan
art,
sources
Despite the
more
initial
differences
between
central
and
had evoked to
[38
in
the
even more
difficult.
spiritual
accomplish
saints
[62
to be portrayed
the
manner
traditionally
137
(h'ft)
of enlightenment. In
style this
138
(right)
early art
cm
Akshobhya. This
somewhat
work
signifies the
attainment
were the
century, Tibet. Copper
of central Tibet,
ith
(5.6 in)
later
image reveals
abstract style
is
typical
of the Kashmiri-influenced
western Tibet, while the modelling of the torso and proportions of the figure are
closer to the Pala school. 13th century, Tibet. Brass with inlay, h. 42
cm
(16.5 in)
reserved for images of the Buddha, with elaborate thrones and attendant
The
ing
is
recorded in
artists'
studies of indi-
sketchbooks.
even,
there dated
163
H7, 148
evidence of
who
of the great Tsong Khapa (13571419)^ remarkemerges from amidst all the
details, a programmatic sequence that can be traced back to specific texts.
The complexity of the Ngor mandalas mirrors the complexity of
Vajrayana ritual. The combination of the intricate image and the equally
involved literary texts associated with the mandala, as for all Vajrayana
ritual, means that the task facing the devotee would be overwhelming
without the direct involvement of the guru as a guide through these layers of religious worship.
In one of the Sakya multi-mandala paintings from Ngor, the mandala
in the upper left, with the twelve-armed goddess Mahapratisara in the
centre, also contains images of a set of goddesses who protect against
sickness and other calamities, the Pancharaksha goddesses. The other
three mandalas, also featuring female deities, are drawn from initiation
rites, as spelled out in texts. In the upper right, the central deity is
Vasudhara, the goddess of wealth. Ushnishavijaya is at the centre of the
lower right mandala, in her three-faced, eight-armed form. Surrounding
the two-armed Bhagavati Mahavidya in the last mandala are the nine
planetary deities, with Surya, the sun, placed atop a circle of the other
had been
a teacher
139
On
eight.
the
main
field,
outside
at
the
the
five
them. Along the top register are the fiveTathagatas,a golden Shakyamnni
and the ten directional Buddhas. The line of figures along the bottom
row
is
now encompassed by
figure
39 Four Mandalas. The impeccable drawing and brilliant colours of this tangka,
which by themselves bring vibrancy to the surface, and the clarity of the lines
1
.1
.iiul
paintings
h.
in
91.5
<
.is
well
.is
in (36 in)
Tibetan,
c.
gouache on cotton,
i'
Kumbum,
The Refinement
of
The powerful
Tibetan
art
[67
14
and
it
enjoyed various
the
levels
of patronage
at
Roman
Catholic Pope, he
is
is
religious leaders.
The
figures,
140
of the Kagyupa, the Karmapa branch, gave rise in the late sixteenth century to a distinct and influential style of painting known as the Karma
Gadri style, which developed further in the succeeding centuries. Based
on the colours and spacious settings of the Chinese landscape tradition,
tins style represents a major development in eastern Tibet.
The broad influence of Chinese art in Tibet and the demand for
Tibetan objects in China increased in the fifteenth century, under the
Ming dynasty which followed the Mongol Yuan period, encouraged by
the Yongle emperors interest in Tibetan religion. Along with other
Chinese artistic influences, particularly in landscape motifs and portraiture, as well as the growing Tibet. in interest in the technique of silk
embroidery, tins movement in art reflected an increasing Chinese
engagement with Tibetan culture.
song Khapa's immediate impact on Tibetan religion was similar to
that of Atisha in the eleventh century (sec page iS). Both were actually
traditionalists in their religious practices, adhering to Tannic rituals and
meditations, and both had tremendous, rejuvenating impact on Tibetan
I
t68
Kumbum
combining
body set against a blue
background, pulsates with energy, barely contained within the narrow flaming haK), which is scr
apart from the surrounding roundels of deities and lineage figures. The donor is seen in the lower
left corner. Late 14thearly
sth century, central Tibet. Gouache on cotton, h. 83.8 n
I4i
This
brilliant
monumental
scale
fiat
murals,
'*
Sa**^-?fc
mBaammamm
142
erialistic
Dalai
Gelugpa lamas
as
By the
of
ofKarmapa lamas
those
late
fifteenth
in
number
the-
next
century would become the headquarters of the lineage ot the Pane hen
I
'
amas.
he-
size
of some of these
large monasteries,
complex
at
ianden, founded by
Tsong Khapa
in
949 photograph
[409.
of the
Growing Chinese
influence in centralTibet
In the early fifteenth century, a multi-storey temple and chorten was con-
complex
Known
statues.
its
programme
els,
as
the
at
Gyantse and
filled
thousand images',
with paintings and clay figures indicating the ascending order of the
The stucco figures are lacquered and painted, and their broad
cosmos.
naturalism.
painting in Tibetan
now
is
early fifteenth-
as
among
the guardians of the four quarters, the lokapalas. Despite strong Chinese
stylistic
influences, he
shown
is
riding a Tibetan
snow
lion.
The
colours
Tibetan painting,
with the figures crisply drawn and arranged in the compressed, twodimensional space typical of Tibetan style. Vaishravana wears the armour
of the
143
lokapalas, likely
Sitatapatra, early
century, the
Kumbum,
central Tibet.
43
art.
sth
Gyantse,
Wall painting
U4
s/rv.
he degree to whi(
similarities to the
i
h 81
.
li
mi]
from
^mmn
that
1
lowever,
its
in
Gyantse murals, from the halo and Barnes, and not least from the Tibetan
is seated upon. Early
$th century
ibet.
angka, gouache on cotton
Vaishravana
in)
145
infused by
warm
in a
broadly painted
style,
the figure
is
naturalism, seen in the hands, the garments and especially the very
sources,
Chinese-style garments.
145
(.8
Finest
The
haloes,
in
its
floral
roundels surrounding the entire image are painted with an eye to creating contrasting forms, rather than simply enclosing the figure.
It
this
technique
in
tin-
174
w.i\
is
.is
I4<)
60
cm
(23.6 in)
middle of the three lotus stalks), water pots and the flaming mirrors (at
the top of each stalk) are integrated into the design. The two primary
subjects,
portrait
done
later,
mandalas remains.
ol gilded
175
146
gold
on
he
<
contrasting
<
olours, fine
this
<
move
otton,
.1
li
of the finest
cm
(34.5 in)
Gouache
4.8
Ngor
tradition
of the Sakya guru Pandit Gayadhara, slightly later and rendered in Hat.
rhythmical lines (especially evident in the white robes) continues
fine,
and
illustrates
cm
(31 in)
had continued since the early period of the second diffusion. The
even many of the subjects portrayed, as well as the abundant decorative details, the tendrils and the mythical creatures all point back to the
long-established Nepali schools of art. A number of these plaques consist
of long rows of beautiful celestial goddesses, captured in measured, rhythmic harmony, which seem to flow across a flat, undecorated surface. With
the exception of the skull cups, the Tibetan ceremonial staffs they hold
and their Newari dress, they could belong to the famous rows of celestial
nymphs which are carved into the stone walls at Angkor Wat, in Cambodia.
that
faces,
Continuity
in
a revival
of their
own
during
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and despite influences from central
Tibet, paintings from the area continue to be produced in a regional style
This
151
from
the paintings
a
more
that
limited,
transcendent,
subdued
palette, especially
They
compared
also
adhere to
found
[49
among Guge
the yogic master in the softness and bulk of the body, the figure of
one
more
image
invites
comparison with
fig
149
(i
even more likely to reveal the growing interactions between the three
major artistic areas. During the fifteenth century, increasing Chinese
influence can be seen in both eastern and central Tibet, and aspects of
those styles were carried into the western regions, an area no longer
receiving contemporary influence from Kashmir.
to establish regional characteristics has
been the
One
stylistic parallels
between
ISO
ralism
images in the
from Chinese
Kumbum
at
Gyantse. Deriving
much of their
to
in
natu-
facial features
distinct
from
that
.im.i
Karma
sth century
Tibet.
li.
28.6
( rilt
cm
)ucb
eastern
bronze,
(11. 3
m)
51
This
brilliant,
Vajradharma,
celestial
Gouache on
cotton, h. 89.2
cm
and
.1
cm
(17.9 in)
[52
large
and he
is
understanding to occur.
Some of
that
head, with
iisuallv
rest oi
82
must be joined
its wide eyes and brow, and the unusual headdress have also
been included as western stvles but without as firm a basis. The
the headdress, the foliate crown, the jewellery and inset stones, and
which imparts
its
source, this
[38
that
The Sino-Tibetan
style
reign of Tibet's
the
two
cultures
is
known
way as well by the late thirteenth century, when the Nepalese artist
Anige and his assistants from Tibet went to the Chinese court, under the
auspices of the Sakya hierarch Phagpa. Their work provided the impetus
for the development of the Sino-Tibetan style.
The fully refined Sino-Tibetan style emerged during the reign of the
Yongle emperor, the third Ming emperor, in the early decades of the fifteenth century. A devout follower of Buddhism, he returned the capital
other
153
This
c.
at
little
developed
in
Tibet
[83
s s
>4
Shakyamuni
(fe/f)
is
in
enhanced by
a setting
of
Sth
cm
(28.5 in)
Phagpa. In
[55
(right)
spite
of his importance
in the history
of Tibet's
relations
with China,
portraits
of Phagpa are
rare.
This 15th-century
may be an image
of the powerful Sakya
tangka
monk, composed
traditional Asian
in the
manner,
but
more
powerful Mongol ruler
Kublai Khan portrayed
with the
politically
not religiously
devoted figure
as a small,
below and
to the left of
Phagpa.
Tibet.
h. 82.3
th century,
Gouache on
cm
cotton,
(32.4 in)
to Beijing
and launched
artists
and extend
is
their art at
to practice
of two specific
artistic traditions,
more
strictly
of the early
such
as portraiture
Ming
[85
i>4
56 Virupa, Sino-Tibetan,
period), China.
h. 43.8
style
cm
C>ilt brass,
(17.2 in)
marked Chinese style, blended with Nepalesegarments and ornaments. The work was inspired by Tibetan art and
such figures have
represents
.1
among
the
.1
bronzes, both of the mahasiddha Virupa and both dating to about the
coinciding with the Yongle period - demonstrate the difbetween the Sino-Tibetan and the central Tibetan styles.Virupa
s.une period
ferences
[86
rail
w
9^^^t|Hn^^^gdfl
AMOP^dPr
*
u
*Wfflm
iP
l,r
*$
Mr/
K
"^
'
*"V~''
<*
;%,
_^
""SiApffi
'
C^samg
-
^_
<*
j**?
...
:-<?-=-*
|5l
ifiififiitgjggl
1
57 Virupa,
c.
1400, centra
'
cm
#^.
'
(16 in)
and
human
as
qualities are
emphasized, such
as details
of hair and
facial features,
communicate a sense
evident by the end of the
art already
fourteenth century.
During the Ming dynasty, the Chinese encouraged continued interMongols and the Tibetans, hoping thereby to reduce
their own problems with both, and this served to increase the Tibetan
artistic
IS6
retains the
87
157
158 Shadakshari-
Lokeshvara, Sino-Tibetan,
[8th century (Qianlong
period), Tibet or Mongolia.
wood,
art
^s
this
Mil
art
of Mongolia,
eighteenth-century
STATE
FORM
wooden
stylistic
as well as that
statue
h. 9]
cm
(35.8 in)
influence would
of China,
as
is
evident
AND
II
in
of Shadakshari-Lokeshvara.
Tsong
ss
578. The
title
now
ended.
The
Dalai
fifth
Lama came
By
be regarded
hundred
as a series
years.
styles that
it
could
had
first
as
could
now
which retained
features
of those
of relimaturing of
earlier sources,
as distinctly
or
a transfer
at Densatil,
associated with
but which
formity
among
artistic styles.
189
Some of the works of the late sixteenth century provide both a link
with the past and indications of the maturity that was to emerge during
the following century. It has been suggested that some important new
directions for Tibetan painting can be seen in a Sakyapa
162
He
Mahakala.
protector deity of
image of
is porof which are illustrated in the corners of this tangka. Nowhere, however, is he more vividly portrayed than
in this magnificent tangka. The earlier, somewhat muted, flat colours of
the Sakyapa paintings from Ngor are replaced with a rich vibrancy of
reds, blacks and whites (especially effective against the black figure)
which serve to make Mahakala seem almost to jump off the surface. The
central figure dominates the composition, not so much by his size in
relation to the other figures as by the sheer energy of his form and
colours, which push Mahakala forward almost as a separate painting. The
formalism and orderly placement of the surrounding images has been
modified, with the monks now freed from their roundels, and entire
areas, as seen along the bottom, are enlivened by ferocious deities, lamas
and mahasiddhas dancing, free of all boundaries. The figure still remains
the primary subject, a characteristic found throughout Tibetan painting,
but with a greater degree of naturalism, more fluid brushwork and more
vibrant colours. In earlier paintings, even when the primary subject was
this large, the sense of the presence of surrounding images sharing the
space was far stronger. In this tangka, the artist has chosen to enhance the
central figure, but the surrounding images are also given greater freedom
trayed in a
is
a favourite
number of forms,
of movement, breaking
free
all
several
settings.
becoming ever
more evident in the Tibetan art of the later centuries is also visible
among some of the most complex subjects. Despite their multiple arms.
[60
and myriad
he. ids
imbued with
The
s<;
same
tin-
deity,
which
is
less
complex and
twelfth-century version of
lacks the convincing, fluid
111
images
are
movement.
bronze ofVajrakumara
in
clearly fol-
at
ease,
ures.
his
naturalism
is
which follows
the
cm
(13.2 in)
111
&*&$&&
161
Nairatmya,
late [6th
The
cm
(iilt
(9.25 in)
terrible in the
iC)i
she holds the chopper and skull bowl tilled with blood
symbols
chopping up misconceptions that block the path to understanding and she sits ,itop the deity who represents egoism. ler elegance and
beauty is also balanced by her angry expression, third eye and red hair,
skulls,
ot
details associated
[92
with fierce
deities.
62 Mahakala. Exemplifying the greater naturalism of later Tibetan painting, the vivid colour and
Gouache on cotton,
h. 16 1.6
cm
make
(63.6 in)
it
By
i,
163
Mongols, had risen to become the dominant political authority and the
most powerful religious order in Tibet. One means of measuring the
success of the Great Fifth is his grand buildings. In the east, in Kham, he
founded the great monastery of Labrang, and throughout the kingdom
his vision of grandeur resulted in ambitious buildings. His penchant for
hilltop locations, historically reserved for forts and palaces monasteries
usually being sited in more modest settings culminated with the great
Potala in Lhasa. By the middle of the century the consolidation and additional construction of the Potala was well under way, providing an appropriately regal setting for what had once been the palace of Songtsen
Tibetan architecture
staircases
It
Chapter
(see
as
some
it
well
2),
but
its
claim, a thousand
in the
country.
This remarkable
Even now
it
monument
seems to
float.
The
hung with
of whitened stone with windows, outlined in black and tapering upwards, very small on the lower expanses and larger in the upper stones.
The wide steep stone stairways enhance the effect of the sheer rock on
whuh the palace is built, and the dazzling accents of the small gold
canopies relieve the militant squareness of the Mat root-tops. If only
this survived of all Tibetan achievements, they would have staked an
incontrovertible claim to the unique genius of their own national culture. (Snellgrove and Richardson, p. 200)
lie
)alai
archit
ami
its
portions
I'M
ol the
its
size,
us siting
63
View of the
some of the
well
capitals, as
as
wooden
pillars
and
assigned to the formative periods, as early as the seventh or eighth century in a few instances.
left intact,
Most of the
existing structures
on the
site
were
manner
is
more
window
treat-
The
64
Marpo, the red palace, the location of religious services in the Potala.
is built around an atrium, as are several of the other buildings, and it
It
is
95
a large
assembly
58, [65
iuc>
fifth
hall
Dalai Lama.
One
style
as
the
a greater boldness.
New
Menri
style,
assume
many
is
The
details in
grammes, especially that of the fifth Dalai Lama, with its culmination in
the gleaming splendour of the Potala, would seem to be reflected in the
subject matter of paintings.
197
IHl:."
[66
Kunga
ashi
Ins life.
The
llimi Jism
omfortabl>
67 Grand
h.
c.
75
cm
These
setting,
Kunga
Lama
(c.
(detail),
on
cotton,
29.5 in)
can be seen in
Tashi.
The
a late
architectural details
show remarkably
Lama
close views of
found
among today's monastic centres. Beginning with the completion of the
Potala at the end of the seventeenth century, the genre of combined
narrative-architectural scenes broadens, adopting a more distant viewpoint and returning to the traditional view of a paradise scene, only this
time on earth.
This formula of an important lama situated outside his monastery and
depicted alongside narrative details of his life continued to be popular,
and is especially important now as a valuable record of early monastic
building.The paradise scenes of various deities from the same period also
include architectural settings, but, like their celestial occupants, they were
intended to illustrate a more perfect world, with details subordinated to a
grand scheme. Architectural interest had been visible in Tibetan painting
for over a thousand years. The wall paintings of Dunhuang, for example,
include narratives of the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang approaching
the gates of walled cities, as well as elaborate celestial palaces of deities,
such as the Pure Land of Amitabha. Interest in depicting buildings is also
found among earlier murals at Shalu, and the tangka of Samye (ill. 56) is
166
168-69
still
199
167
170
LmH
nn*
ffli
ifl^^Slij
,s, l69
Kunga
ashi
cm
tyth century,
his life (details), late
(37 in)
Tibet
fij
:"%*
70
(left)
Paradise of
Padmasambhava, 18th
century, Tibet. Tangka,
gouache on cotton,
h.
c.
65
cm
(c.
25.6 in)
Tibet. Tangka,
opaque
watercolour on cloth.
h. 98.5
known
cm
(38.8 in)
None-
one of the
earliest
theless, the
and
brilliance,
though
still
artists never developed a graphic appreof their physical surroundings to the degree that the Chinese did.
Many of these interesting panoramic views of the later period include
several temples, with the actual locations of the monuments compressed
ciation
within
171
single scene.
mandala, shows
.1
One
whuh
is
as a
allotted an equal
Potala
amount of
in
its
status as Tibet's
202
as
well as processional
4,
!<o|taijiff^
172
lama,
c.
1859. Drawing, h. 62
More
tefe
cm
Tibetan
(24.4 in)
when more
precise
172
204
173
its
ki
of those living
173
By
of the
Sino-Tibetan style
could be seen
others presented
as gifts to
at
court.
Crowned
to
158
its
wood. his
produced
in
.it
206
is
that time,
many of them
Mongolia,
Many
fine
including
for the
176
as part
Chinese landscape
more
between the
setting,
and
was
a similar style
artists
also
177
used
results in the
appearance of fine
lines, as if
the image
had been painted. And in the work's intense colours - including four
shades of blue, and of yellow - and dynamic lines, it rivals the achievements of Tibetan painting, as comparison with a contemporary tangka of
Mahakala, likely from Mongolia, makes clear. The dynamic subjects are
similar, both outlined by flames, and exhibit some of the technically
advanced achievements at the end of the centuries of Chinese and
Tibetan artistic interaction. Like images in metal created during this
period, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century appliqued
silks
combine
complement
The
hands to achieve
a relief
school
and Chinese
influence
most notably
Chinese art, are an essential aspect of the topographical paintings that became popular in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries, including those of the mythical
land of Shambhala. These qualities are especially prominent during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, often paralleling Chinese styles.
Known as the Karma Gadri school, this style of painting first appeared in
eastern Tibet in the sixteenth century, and now became a major school
of Tibetan art. The style was developed by the Karmapa branch of the
Kagyu Order; it was most practised in Amdo and Kham, but eventually
greater use of bright colours and landscape elements,
93
in
207
94
iAf*/z.<ooe*ar-i
174
(left)
Amitayus, god of
Although this
complex painting, with its
nch landscape and vigorous
details, derives from western
endless
Tibet,
life.
it
the
gouache on cotton,
h. 78.
175
cm
(right)
(30.75 in)
Shakyamuni
lives, late
7th-early
Karma
Gadri-style painting of
Shakyamuni Buddha with scenes of his former lives from eastern Tibet is
a particularly good example of the influences and complexities which
constitute the later Tibetan tradition. If compared with similar, but earlier,
compositions from the other two regions, the stylistic changes arc dramatically clear. Western Tibetan paintings (see
/'//.
with their muted colours, busy, decorative surfaces and fine line work
styles
(see
ill.
147) displays
more
stylized, blue
cal to
Mughal
ateliers.
The continuously
art in this later
Chinese
art,
at
its
excelled,
art
is
at least since
best
known
very
early, retaining, as
typical postures
(/'//.
177
179
210
late
14th
style
it
cm
(6.5 in)
its
is
rendered in black,
left
1-:
77
{left)
Arhat Angaja.
178
(right)
cotton, h. [43.5
cm
century images
in the
Kumbum
at
So
To
this realism
Tangka, gouache on
(56.5 in)
was added
refinement
in the sophisti-
in technical skill,
such
(/'//.
as
150).
chased
designs that enliven the surface with fine decorative touches and, along
adding
in
.1
refined beauty.
one of the
characteristics of the Sino-Tibetan bronzes of the fifteenthcentury Yongle period and were to be revived in the second wave of
Sino-Tibetan art of the eighteenth century. Some of the details, such
.is
2\ 2
mannered
h. 61
cm
(24 in)
cm
(12.2 in)
also serves to
Aspects of the synthesis of foreign styles that evolved into the mature
Tibetan
artistic tradition
diffusion.
By
one
.i
214
that
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
Glossary
example
dhanna
Mongol
(i
court
artist
directed various
at Beijing;
invited to
Milarepa; his
artistic
Miaoyingsi
arhat
Buddhist
and who,
commonly
who
in life has
group of sixteen
believers; in Tibet a
saint
after death,
to eighteen
way
for
Tibet in 1042;
his
in
who came
to
Kadam Order,
Gelug Order
Avalokiteshvara
known
Tibet's
as
Lamas
are emanations of
him
on the
detail
bodhi attva
Bon
the
and the
early orders
lives
of
of individual lamas
thought to be
in
to archaic
western
in
illy
ehorten
.1
burial
main monastery
ahistorii
Shakyamuni Buddha,
al
to include
it
\6
evolved into
.1
sep.1r.1te stru<
the
ibet's greatest
example
is
.1
ture with
including as
images using
.1
usually painted
216
Jambhala
number of Indian
deities
known being
Kubera. In
is
and Naropa,
it
<>i
at
mixture
on with
oi
1
brush
Kagyu Order,
one of the
six great
Gelug
known Kumbum
Lliasa
is
honorific
name
tor
senior Tibetan
capital
of Tibet,
settled
deities in
method
Kumbum
intse
.1
who
of sixteen
the
all
17
" liquary;
cold gilding
art
or venerated
fi
lama
mound,
arhats,
Amdo, Kumbum
its
central Tibet
of
numerous
celestial
ibet;
by
kingdom of Zhang/hung,
Menn,
foundei
Dharmatala
origin
and tracing
sattua,
tr.ulition.il
Buddhism; linked
dominant
other beings
.ill
founded by
early
hats',
often
Guge
Tibetan
rebirth
in
religion
Hindu
abundance; related to
in
Newan-inspired objects
especially
art,
(literally 'all-seeing
bodhisattva, the
Blue Annals
Tibetan
human;
Begtse
Tsong Khapa;
is
portrayed
982-1054)
(c.
disciples
'worthy one')
(literally
Atisha
own
Kagyu
mahasiddha
common
(literally 'great
to
all
orders
monks,
in
art
Sambhava
to Tibet
made
and
style
monastic centres
added
monk who
his disciple
Tibet's
as
the historical
who
people
related to Tibetans
main
monastery
enlightenment
his
is
also
Samye
as
Guru Rinpoche; an
8th-
Pala powerful
of the
the
artistic styles
Lhamo
favoured by
deities
at
the
promoting an
perfection)
as
translator
Od
as
well
in
Buddhism, associated
(literally
orders; arose
'grey earth')
earliest disciples
its
critical to
the
Shantarakshita
Order
the introduction
and often
tantras,
tangka
yig,
paintings
on cotton
him
of Buddhism
Buddha
that
came
a set
patriarch of the
to refer to
all
all
of Atisha
from Bengal,
later
36-37)
considered the
first
Kagyu Order
(1
who
vehicle) the
last
all
vajra,
thunderbolt or diamond,
materials;
to develop; the
to Tibet;
(literally
union
artists
Shambhala mythical
to
deities in sexual
to
second diffusion;
common
to study in
term
especially
religious,
Prajnyaparamita
dharma, or
nephew of Sakya
art
first
Mongol
which
Tsong Khapa
Phagpa (1235-80)
there; married
Avalokiteshvara; like
known
Palden
629-c. 650)
(r. c.
the
Gampo
as
embroideries
silk
main centre
Padma Sambhava
Songtsen
and
art
founded
arhat paintings
Tantric a generic
a particular deity,
orders,
style, especially
considered Nepalese
Nyingma Order
Gampopa
Newari
Tibetan in
Some
most
spiritual aura
in
founder of
(c.
630-846)
who promoted
Yeshe
Od
late
on purifying Buddhism, he
member
Mongol
example Mahak:
ruler Kublai
Khan
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London
Numbers
C.
24;
M.D.
Museum
of Art;
Andrew
R.
Blossom, Dudley
Blossom
S.
102; Cleveland
Fund
III,
Bingham
2,
Wade
from theJ.H.
Metropolitan
Museum
1987 (1987.144)
Gifts,
Ira
London
RMN)
10,
14,
Kapoor,
Collections,
Kodaiji,
Kyoto
38;
The Kronos
London, By
Los
Collection
From
(New
4;
Zimmerman
Museum
9,
30;
leeramaneck Collection,
37; Private
(Germany)
The
Museum
8,
Peshawar
109; Peshawar,
172;
3)
Museum
Collection
Ramesh
State
Hermitage
and J. Speelman,
35, 42, 65,
Associates Purchase
Palace
London
Ltd.,
Museum
Courtesy A.
The
}2;
i.2) 76,
From
1.4)
tin-
(M.81.90. 1 8)
17C),
)art
( rift
Foundation (M.Si
of <
Christian
.90.5)
143.) 34,
M<
ol
(
<
'01
he
in
honor
)oris
inn k
(AC 1094.4.
7.
oIK-i
.ollci 11011
Pun
Institute
of:
Michael
12;
Photographs courtesy
American
8,
is. 33
85-6,90,92,98,
sS; Bill
s,
)awn Rooney
(>i
1.
3,
Robert
140;
143; 11.11
o Maraini,
Richardson 142;
ondon
9, 30,
Victoria
BC
52
5,58-9,77,87,153,163
220
Symington and
Pl.m of Yeshe
Map drawn
E.
Bueler
by Martin
ubikowski
Lu< zanits
he
Ham
Index
Figures in
italic
refer to illustration
numbers
bones
books
1-12, 114
brass 88,
Ajanta
Akshobhya Buddha
38
Khan
13, 152,
208
131),
161, 180
Museum, London
16
Dalai
Buddha
Angkor Wat
1
celestial
359, 21
29,
1,
13,
46
14, 23, 27, 38, 43,
Cambodia
Buddhas 359,
celestial
Dunhuang
21
esoteric
Chakrasamvara 1402,
107-8, 114, 9
Buddhism
Changan 154
China
Feilai
Feng
Ford collection 7
Buddhism
fortresses
on Tibetan
77
Four Kings 50
art 127,
furniture 115. 95
Ganden monastery
Bering
paper
[89
silk
Bhairava 52
Sino-Tibetan
Bhaishajyaguru 38, 23
12
art 112,
152-8, 167,
S3 S, 206-7, 212-14. 93
stupas
12
153
chortens 78,
25-30, 37
Bon
Genghis Khan
1
50-2, 60,
Chudapanthaka
96
~.
1
154
1
41
42
214
13.
geography of Tibet
Ghantapa
67-9, 130
206,
i~o
1.
Chonggye
17,
210
86
26,
portraiture 102-3
92
22
19.
55
arhat portraits 59
Gampopa
207, 92,
farmhouses 75-6
Manchus
199
48, 119
208-10, 21
Bodh Gaya
118
Begtse, 27
Bhutan
134-5
93
Bardo, 26
bells
108, 130,
embroidery
chaitya halls 78
influence
16,
)rathang monastery
Drepung, 27
Drikung, 26
Drokmi, 27
Dromton, 27
Drug Order 178
Bamiyan
13
Burma 43
butter sculpture 124,54, '<"
150, 154
Chabi, empress 155
Ashoka, king 86
banners
1S9
Avalokiteshvara
29-67
deities 22,
72
Daoism 93
Derge
178
applique
Buddhas,
8,
Shakyamuni Buddha
see also
Lamas
214..?. 14
117, 123
Amitayus 174
Amoghasiddhi Buddha
137
)adu 154
199
Anige
132, 136,
British
Amitabha Buddha
89
Amdo
it),
Bromston 23
Altan
147
18, 6
Museum
Cleveland
29, 92-3, 73
in.
'
so. 1S2.
Gilgit 142
11
Green Tara
142,
no
46, 28,
Guge kingdom
Mahapratisara 164
Kali 54
H4-7. 178
Karakoram mountains
Gyalpo 27
Gyantse 13,
17,
167.
212
178, 149
180, 212,
[68, 207-
*9- 37. 92
207
170,
Manchus 189
83
Kashgar 142
Kashmir
handscrolls tj2
hanging
27,
scrolls
38
Hayagnva 26. 46
Henss, Michael 74
Kashmiri
mandorlas 122
142-52, 162,
style 133,
Manjushn
Kham
Hinayana Buddhism 19
Hinduism 22, 67, 18, 164
208
105
140
Khotan
Marpa
Kizil 147
Medicine Buddha
Hsuan Tsang 99
Hvashang 5961,
Korea 86
Kubera 18
Mekong river
Menu, Mt 70, 74,
1-13
134
India
arhats 59
158-9
43,
art 125.
126-7
mandalas 70
1
[ndo Nepalese
is<;.
Indonesia
Ladakh
132-7, 159. 162,
art
122, 100
8,
laiulsi
[ambudvipa 70
Japan 84, 86,
Tales
13, 27,
194
jo,
i.
102-3
}-
s.
Nagaraja
Ws.
\'>
;.
tf,
s ( ;.
46
Nairatmya
(><>
27,
i<;2.
it>i
Naropa, 26
Nebesks WojkowitZ, Rene 54
Nepal 11. 12. 123. 12s. 27, 34.
eh 75
iangzhou
;.
;s.
ss. [67,
New Menn
Newari
$4
style
[78,
H,r-2o6
artists 122.
Ngor monastery
[78, 190
67
lohan painting
\t
163, IJ2
|okhang temple.
Lamas; Panchen
I.
70
|nyanatapa 2
163-5
Mughals 208-10
Muslims 3, 58
language
';-
234, "4.
.unas
Lamayuru
Jainism 67
iX.
s 4-
<
142
12,
77-8, 79-X3.
Mongolia 12
Mongols 13, 17,23,
inlays 102
Jambhala
monasteries 15-16.
135, 180
7^
208, ti8
Ming
Labrang monastery
stupas 86, 88
73, 84, 85
Mindroling, 26
91-2
ritual objects
79, 47
116, 118
inanust ripts
|ava
mahasiddhas 67
Jataka
Gyantse
38, 23
metalwork 122-4
[83,
Khan
Kumbum,
26, 102
Kublai
gi.
114. 122
142
Horyuji pagoda 63
history of Tibet
19, 22,
30, 35, 42
Nyingma Order
ss
14.
20
iS. 23,
K.u hu
ECagyu
!.
Kadam
Ms.
Is.
>rdei
)rdei
222
Ml
>
wax method
1
1
Ogadai 154
22
Lotus Sutra |8
)rders 21
4. 2(1
to-ii, g
[68,
Kailash,
'lost
(Kadampa)
Kagyupa)
Mahakala
[90, 207,
]2,
;;.
00.
('2
[8,
<;2.
24.
2f>.
38,
Padmapani 46, 7
Padmasambhava 170
pagodas 78, 84, 86,
62, 63
see also
[ndo-Nepalese
Songtsen
132-7, 159,
lampo, Ling
Buddhism
Spiti 12
Lanka
Reting, 27
Sri
Rhie, Marylin 7
Stem, Auiel [6
Rinchen Sangpo
landscapes 210
Rinpoche, Guru, 26
ritual objects
art
Surya 164
18, 23, 27,
Tabo
174-5,
Taglung, 26,
kingdom
'
Samye monastery
Tang dynasty
Lhamo
140-2
Phagpa 27,
philosophers 67, 10
phurpas
(ritual
<!?,
72
Polo,
hanging 38
Marco 75
U3-5- 177-9
Tangut peoples 16-17, 130
Tantric Buddhism 18, 21, 63,
tapestries g2
Tara
Tashilumpo
170
99- 101,
82,
Shamvara 1402
Shangnla 206
tents 75
textiles
Prajnyaparamita 182, gi
Shigatse 13
Thailand 43
Shiva 22, 52
Shwedigon Stupa
204, 206,
1,
Sikkim
Qianlong emperor
Qing dynasty
167, 186,
206
Rahula 39
Raktayamari, 27
Ralang, 26
Ramoche
Tholing
12
Sino-Tibetan
16,
202,55,57-9
art 112,
Theravada Buddhism
Thiktse monastery 31
61
95-
13,
[9,
42
18, 83,
Thurman, Robert
152-8, 167,
Tilopa, 26
tombs 75
Sitatapatra 143
Ratnasambhava Buddha
117, 171,
terracotta 84
silk
21
13
tempera 104
92,
102. 168
portraits
112,
Shakyamuni Buddha
Piyar 145
no,
Persia 174
2, 4,
scrolls,
Paramasukha-Chakrasamvara
14,
31, 32, 36. 39, 40, 42, 43, 46, 4g, 78,
Sarvavid 16
116
1,
Sarnath
paper
//
12, 21
59, 78,
145
59, 133
Palden
127
118, 130,
147-52, 126-g
Pakistan
116-18
98, 107,
Pala
59
155-8
59
stucco 171
906, 71-7
Rumtek, 26
saints
art 152,
17,
100, 133
1,
Sino-Tibetan
'J'
portraits
18,
14, 67,
207. 21
sketchbooks 99,
skull cups 92
Sonam Tsemo
Song dynasty
81
fxi-r.vjs
1
16, 70
Tsang
27, 12
1.
38
13,
Tsaparang
126. [68
13. 16-.
Tsong Khapa
Tsurpu, 26
120, 121
uajras
[88, 46
9 2
1
Tucci, Giuseppe
7, 88,
5z
Turfan 140
Vajrayana Buddhism
region 13, 126
18,
1923, 29,
Uddiyana 142
Ushimhavijaya 108, 164, 88
Ushnishavijaya stupa
65,
66
15, 16,
Yemar
80
122
Vajradharma 178,
132,
144
151
Wencheng, princess
White Tara 46
Vajrakila-Vajrakumara, 26
wood
Vajrakumara 190,
writing
159, 160
224
Wutaishan
38, 48
Yongle emperor
Yuan
14
Yambulakhar palace 53
Yarlung kingdom 12, 13,
81, 152
yab-yum 56-7, 34
207
Yamantaka, 27
Yama
Zen Buddhism 90
Zhangzhung 12-13
Zimmerman
collection 7
Robert
art in the
From
and sophisticated
that even
Buddhism
this
art,
silk
embroidery and
of portraiture and
is
art
and the
in Lhasa
manuscripts,
covers
book
spiritual
- one of the
to painting, sculpture,
unique
artistic
culture
>n
In
ISBN 0-500-20308-3
Shakyamuni Buddha,
I
ibct,
nth
ilium,
he
90000
-ili
bi HI
Zimmerman
amir)
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lolle<
don
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