9.4.

3 Limitations of past technologies and increased research into the structure

of the atom resulted in the invention of transistors
Previous knowledge: discuss how the length, cross-sectional area, temperature and type of material affect the
movement of electricity through a conductor, describe the relationship between potential difference, current and
power dissipated, recall the arguments relating to the wave-particle debate of matter and energy
Identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and move freely
Pauli Exclusion Principle
-

Proposed by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925

Stated that no two electrons can occupy the same energy level
o This meant that electrons could not all collapse into the lowest energy shell
In a gas, two electrons that were well separated could exist in the same energy state, but
when the atoms came closer as a solid, the electrons could not stay in that energy level and
spread into an energy band (levels that have slight differencesforms a band)

Metals
-

In conducting solids, there is a sea of delocalised electrons (free to move around)

o These electrons are the valence electrons which are loosely bound to the atoms and so its shared
around the lattice of positive ions
o Under an electric field (when there is a potential difference), the random motion of the electrons
decreases and begins to have a net motion against the electric field direction

Insulators
-

Electrons are bonded with covalent or ionic bonds and have a stable configuration
Completely fills the outer shell so there arent free electrons
Electrostatic attraction stops movement of electrons and so there are no charge carriers to conduct current

Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of band
structures and relative electrical resistance
Material

Energy Gap

Valence Band

Conductors

Very
small/nonexistence

Semiconductors

Small

Insulators

Large

Partly Filled- gives electrons

space to move around. Easily
move through the overlap to
the conduction band
Completely filled under normal
conditions but the bonds can be
broken with added energy.
When bonds are broken, the
electrons can migrate to the
conduction band and conduct
electricity.
Completely Filled- very difficult
to migrate to the conduction
band. Therefore requires lots of
energy to allow conduction

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Conduction
Band

Relative
Electrical
Resistance
Overlapping Low

Just
separated

Medium

Well
separated

High

Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognise that both electrons and
holes help to carry current

Electron Flow Vs. Positive Holes

Current
Direction (when
potential difference is
applied)
Relative speed
How it occurs

Electron Flow
Negative Positive terminal

Positive Hole Flow

Positive negative terminal

Faster
- When electrons jump to
conduction band
- It is a conductor
- N-type semiconductor
which doesnt need
much energy to jump
into conduction level

Slower
- When electrons jump to conduction band
therefore leaving holes in the valence band
which will allow neighbouring electrons to
jump into these holes and disrupt the
covalent bonds
- P-type semiconductor which has an acceptor
impurity level for electrons in valence to jump
to, leaving positive holes

Resistance
-

In conductors, as temperature increases, the resistance increases

o The lattice vibrates more as more energy is provided increased amplitude of the positive ions
vibrating greater chance of colliding with electrons
In semi-conductors, as temperature rises, the resistance decreases as electrons become more mobile

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Compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can drift from atom to atom in
conductors, semiconductors and insulators
Material
Conductors
Semi-conductors
Insulator

Number of free electrons

Lots
There are a few once the semi-conductor receives enough energy
None

Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is relat ed to lack of ability to produce other
materials of suitable purity
-

Semiconductor materials are usually made from group 4 lattices which form
covalent bonds with each other
Silicon and germanium were predicted to be ideal from the group 4
elements due to their semiconducting properties
William Shockley is considered the father of the transistor but Walter
Brattain and John Bardeen at Bell Laboratories first applied electrical
contacts to a crystal of germanium
In silicon
o Crystals form 3D tetrahedrons (4 neighbouring silicon atoms form a triangular prism)
Semiconductors are useful because:
o They dont let too much current through
But the resistance that allows this to happen causes heat makes it better conductor

Element
Order
Scarcity
Natural state
Conduction level

Purification techniques

Formed an insulating
oxide layer when heated
to high temps in oxygen.
Used in integrated
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Germanium
1st to be sufficiently purified
1.5 parts per million of Earths
crust (0.0000015%)
Found as a compound must
be purified
Higher- allows too much
current when germanium gets
too hot damage to
electronics
Suitable industrial techniques
were developed during WW2
No

No

Silicon
Later used due to abundance
27.7% of Earths crust
Found as a compound must be purified
Lower- less affected by heat maintains a more
constant performance level doesnt overheat as
easily
More difficult to purify. First silicon transistors were
made by Gordon Teale in 1957 working with Texas
Instruments
Yes. This layer was critical to the manufacture of
integrated circuits
Preferred due to oxide layer

circuits (solid state

drives)
Molecular structure
Energy (forward bias)
required for conduction
-

0.3V

The molecular structure of the material is uniform and

so its properties are more uniform
0.6V

Silicon is material of choice for solid state drives however germanium can still be used for specialised
applications

Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical properties

-

Intrinsic semiconductors: pure semiconductors that conduct electricity by electron-hole pair conduction
Extrinsic semiconductor: semiconductors with impurities known as dopants alloyed in the semiconductor
lattice to enhance conductivity
Conduction only occurs for both semiconductors when an electric field is applied.

N-Type semiconductors
-

Extrinsic
Uses a group V dopant (phosphorous or arsenic)
o This means there is an extra electron.
o 4/5 electrons will form covalent bonds like the silicon atom would do
o The extra electron is promoted to the donor impurity energy level
(donor atoms) which requires a smaller amount of energy to make a
smaller jump
o

Since there are more electrons, the semiconductor

carries excess negative-charge carriers. Therefore, its an
n-type semiconductor

P-Type semiconductor
-

Extrinsic
No free electrons in conduction band
P-type semiconductors allows positive charge conduction without
having electrons move from the valence band to the conduction band
Uses a group III dopant (boron or gallium)
o This means an electron is missing and so there is a relatively
positive hole
o This is represented by the acceptor impurity energy level
where electrons can easily jump into from the valence band to
leave holes in the valence band
o Since electrons move from the negative to the positive terminal
under an electric field, deficient group III atoms will have their hole filled up by neighbouring
electrons trying to move towards the positive terminal and disrupt covalent bonds. This creates a
hole where the electron originally came from and the
process repeats
o This causes the holes to gradually move towards the
negative terminal (opposite to the electrons)
IMPORTANT: Overall, the semi-conductors are still neutrally
charged because the protons are equal to the number of
electrons

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Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative number of negative
charge carriers and positive holes
Conductor
Number of negative charge
carriers
Positive holes

P-Type
None

N-type
More

More

None

Describe differences between solid state and thermionic devices and discuss why solid state devices
replaced thermionic devices

Thermionic Devices
-

Used to:
o control the direction of current flow
o convert AC to DC (rectification)
o Switch current flow on or off
o Amplify a current
Prior to the invention solid state diodes or the transistor, we used thermionic/valve devices
Uses thermionic emission
o When the filament is heated with an electric current, electrons are liberated and the filament acts as
a cathode

Diode
-

Has a cathode and a plate (anode)

When the cathode is heated (with a current or indirectly through another filament), it liberates electrons
and accelerates to the anode
Since it has unidirectional conduction (will only flow from the cathode to the anode), the diode can be used
as a switch (by flipping the battery) or to rectify AC current

Triode
-

Lee de Forest (1873-1961) added a third electrode to the vacuum diode and created a triode
This third electrode (known as the grid) acted as a current amplifier
o The grid can be adjusted separately I.e. changing potential/voltage to the grid will have a large effect
on the electric field inside
o Since the electron current is a replica of the signal current (12.13 b ii 12.13b iii), a small variation

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in the grid current will amplify signals in the anode

Solid State Devices

-

Uses transistors and integrated circuits to act as a diode

P-N Junction
-

When a P-type and N-type semiconductor are placed adjacently, the electrons flow from the N-type to Ptype
o This means electrical current only flows in 1 direction
o Therefore, it rectifies current in positive half-cycles
However, as electrons move across to the p-type, we are left with anions at the p-type and cations at the ntype which creates an electric field

This depletion zone exerts a force that resists further migration of electrons

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Forward Bias (and reverse bias)

-

By providing a voltage through the P-N Junction with the positive terminal at N and the negative at P, the
depletion zone will narrow as the holes will drift towards the zone and the electrons also drift towards the
zone so that electrons can again, cross the depletion zone
o 0.6V is required for silicon to conduct
o 0.3V is required for germanium to conduct
BUT, with a reverse bias, there is very little leakage current or no current flow and so the diode acts as a
large resistor
o This causes the holes and electrons to flow to their respective terminals and thus, widens the
depletion zone

Device
Examples
Size
Energy
Efficiency- heat
Energy
efficiencyvoltage
Durability

Lifetime

Dangers
Mounting

Time
Cost for
consumer
Cost to make

Thermionic Devices
Radio valves/amplifiers
Large and bulky due to large power requirements
and so batteries were large
Lots of heat generated by valves sometimes heat
would damage surrounding electronics
High voltages required to correctly bias triodes for
amplification

Solid State Devices

Microprocessors
Smaller led to miniaturisation of
electronic devices
Less. More efficient

Fragile
- Made of glass
- Filament can burn out
Shorter
- Valves used in 1950 telephones became
intolerable
Metal on the cathode slowly boiled off and reacted
with traces of gas in the tube
Sockets and valves were mounted into a metal
chassis movement caused broken solder joints
and seals may also break
Slow. Requires heat-up time
Higher due to low lifespans

More durable, flexible, shock and

vibration-resistant

Higher

Lower

Silicon transistor required 0.6V to do

the same job

Longer

Instantaneous
Usually lower due to longer lifespan

Students gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how shortcomings in
available communication technology lead to an increased knowledge of the properties of materials
with particular reference to the invention of the transistor
-

During the 1940s, the main communication technology available included radios, telephones and TVs. These
technologies used vacuum tubes which had many shortcomings. Due to these limitations, scientists began
researching for a device that could replace thermionic devices.
Semiconductors were inspected and recognised as possible alternatives to thermionic devices. As a result of
their research, the knowledge of the properties of semiconductors such as Ge and Si was increased.
In particular, it was discovered that:
When electrical contacts were applied to a semiconductor, the power output was larger than the
input, allowing semiconductors to be used in transistors for amplifying.
Doping a semiconductor with a group III or V element
increases the electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor.

Transistor (SSD of triode)

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1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Can act as part of a switch or amplifier like a valve

2 main types: npn and pnp transistors
o Made up of a combination of 2 junctions (NPN or PNP)
Must be correctly biased
In a PNP:
Electrons in base (n) move towards positive terminal (Emitter). Holes move towards negative terminals
(upwards)
Emitter (forward biased) becomes slightly positive
Holes move into base due to it being relatively negative
Most holes continue into collector. Some recombine with electrons in base
Small changes in voltage of the base amplifies the current

Students identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use
available evidence to assess the impact of the invention of the transistors on s ociety with particular
reference to their use in microchips and microprocessors

Invention of Thermionic Devices

-

Allowed the rectification of current which was required in early radios and TVs
Allowed the development of the first computers which took up a whole room not only because the
thermionic devices were big, but because they created a lot of heat that required space to diffuse
Some hi-fi buffs claim that valve amplifiers produce more accurate sound than transistors do but it may be a
matter of personal taste

Integrated Circuits
-

ICs are tiny electronic circuits that perform specific functions

ICs are made when several transistors/diodes (PN-junctions) are etched into a single chip of silicon
Large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) have as many as 5 million circuit elements combined on square of silicon.
The interconnections are built in to increase reliability by eliminating wiring/soldering problems and
increases speed of transmission

Impact on society
-

There was increasing communication demands since 1950 for cheaper, more reliable and more robust
communication devices.
o The transistor made this possible whereas thermionic devices failed

Advantages- society
-

Increased number of PNP/NPN transistors that could fit on an integrated circuit

o Allowed miniaturisation of electronics
o Made them more powerful and capable
o Allowed creation of smaller transformers
Replaced rooms full of components requiring air conditioning with more reliable and
powerful hand held devices
Increased portability of devices
o Society has become more dependent on them for information and knowledge due to their
convenience
E.g. phones
Improved medical diagnosis and treatment technology such as MRI machines and CAT scanners
o Greater life expectancy
Reduced travel time due to aid from electronic devices like GPS
o Allows more convenience than a street directory

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o
o

One person can direct themselves

People who run on tight schedules (business people) will be able to take the most efficient path
without too much prior planning
Easier to communicate to other people very far away due to computers and mobile phones which require
microchips
Society can access and share knowledge easily through their mobile phones and computers which access the
internet

Advantages- environment
-

Better analytical technology for the environment- we can more accurately measure the concentration of
pollutants using more sophisticated apparatus such as AAS
More energy efficient technology SSD uses less energy than thermionic devices and therefore new
models of old technology is generally more energy efficient and environmentally friendly
Since SSDs are smaller than thermionic devices, they require less material to make

Disadvantages-society
-

Overly dependent on technology

o If technology fails, much of our society will fail too
Much of the technology is integral to our society e.g. global communications network
o Since so little of our lives are left technology-free, our technological footprint is hard to cover and
thus, there is less privacy in our lives
Increase in unemployment due to technological changes
o Industrialisation of society- introduction of machines to replace low-level labour
Leisure activities have become more complex
o Younger people generally spend more time indoors using electronic devices rather than doing
physical activities. Made life more sedentary.

Disadvantages- environmental
-

Increased amount of waste which is hard to recycle

Lots of machinery is required to make transistors. These machines require large amounts of electricity which
is mostly created by burning coal and that releases a lot of greenhouse gases and pollution.

Judgement:
-

Although there are negative aspects of the development of transistors, it has made a significant impact on
our society and was hugely important for advancement of our society in the increase of communication and
the ability to share much more knowledge
o New technology may one day fix the disadvantages of transistors
Maybe a new group 4 element or a new allotrope of an existing element which has
biodegradable properties that will enhance or maintain the performance of current
transistors will be discovered

Terms
Word
Valence Bands
Covalent bonding
Doping
Dopant
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Definition
The highest energy band occupied by electrons
at absolute zero
Strong chemical bond formed between atoms
by sharing electrons in the valence band
Enhancing conductivity in a semi-conductor
using a dopant (group 3/5 element)6
A tiny amount of an impurity that is placed in

Donor Atoms
Diode

Valve
Rectification
Transistor
Forbidden Energy Gap

an otherwise pure crystal lattice

Impurity atoms that are in excess and therefore
promoted to the conduction band
A thermionic device that contains only 2
electrodes enclosed in a glass vacuum tube.
Like a valve
Thermionic device that contains 2 or more
electrodes enclosed in a glass vacuum tube
Converting AC current into DC current
Tiny switch that changes the size/direction of
current.
Distance between the conduction and valence
energy bands

Bibliography
-

Charles Sturt University, Physics 9.4: From Ideas to Implementation: 3. Transistors

http://hsc.csu.edu.au/physics/core/implementation/9_4_3/943net.html
S. Bosi, J. OBryne, P. Fletcher, J. Khachan, J. Stanger, S. Woodward, In2Physics @ HSC
R. Abeysuriya, Students guide to HSC Physics (2009)
M. Andriessen, P. Pentland, R. Gaut, B. McKay, J. Tacon, Jacaranda Physics HSC 2 (2008)

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