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(5.2)
This rather fundamental equation known as Lorentz force law tells us precisely how electric and
magnetic fields act on a moving charged particle.
Cyclotron motion
y
v
B Be z
x
Fig 5.1
The archetypical motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field is circular, with the magnetic
force providing the centripetal acceleration. In Fig. 5.1 a uniform magnetic field is aligned in the
z direction, and a particle of charge q and mass m is moving with a velocity
at
.
Using Eq. 5.2 we come up with the equation of motion of this particle,
(5.3)
{
Differentiating the first equation with time and then using the second equation, we get
( )
(5.4)
Here we find
(5.5)
where the cyclotron frequency is defined as
(5.6)
Similarly,
(5.7)
The general solution of Eq. 5.5 and 5.7 is
. Using the initial condition,
and
, and Eq. 5.3, we can determine the coefficients, i.e.,
(5.8)
{
Integrating Eq. 5.7 with time, we get
(5.9)
{
where the radius of the circular motion is
(5.10)
and we chose the initial position,
and
Electrical currents
The current, , is defined as the rate at which charge is transported through a given surface in a
conducting system (e.g., through a given cross section of a wire). Thus,
(5.11)
where
is the net charge transported in time . The magnetic force on a segment
current-carrying wire (line charge density ) is
(5.12)
of
(5.13)
Here the volume current density
(5.14)
Is the current per unit area perpendicular to flow.
dI J nda
vdt
da
n
n vdt
Fig 5.2
Applying the equation to an arbitrary closed surface S, we can obtain the electric current
entering V (the volume enclosed by S),
(5.16)
The first integral has a minus sign because the surface normal n is outward while the current is
inward, and the last integral is obtained through the use of the divergence theorem. Here is
equal to the rate at which charge is transported into V:
(5.17)
(5.18)
Steady current
Steady-state magnetic phenomena are characterized by no change in the net charge density in
space. Consequently in magnetostatics Eq. 5.19 reduces to
(5.20)
A steady current refers to a continuous flow that has been going on forever, without change
and without charge filing up anywhere. Steady currents produce magnetic fields that are
constant in time.
Ohms law and conductivity
It is found experimentally that in a metal at constant temperature the current density J is
linearly proportional to the electric field (Ohms law):
(5.21)
The constant of proportionality
dl
dB
Fig 5.3 Elemental magnetic induction dB
due to current element Idl
x
The magnetic induction of a steady line current is given by the Biot-Savart law:
The constant
| |
(5.22)
(5.23)
Fig 5.4
dl
We find the magnetic induction at a distance R from a long straight wire carrying a steady
current I (Fig. 5.4). In the diagram
points out of the page, and has the magnitude
|
(5.24)
(5.25)
Thus the lines of magnetic induction are concentric circles around the wire.
Forces on current-carrying conductors
The elemental force experienced by a current element
induction B (Eq. 5.12) is
If the external field B is due to a closed current loop #2 with current , then the total force
which a closed current loop #1 with current experiences is
where
to
|
(5.28)
(5.29)
The integral of the first term over the loop #1 vanishes because
(
|
(5.30)
As an application, we find the force between two long, parallel wires a distance d apart,
carrying currents and . The field at (2) due to (1) is
(5.32)
The total force is infinite, but the force per unit length is
(5.34)
The force is attractive (repulsive) if the currents flow in the same (opposite) directions.
The divergence and Curl of B
The Biot-Savart law for the general case of a volume current reads
(5.35)
This is the magnetic analog of the Coulomb electric field. With the identity,
, we manipulate the integrand,
|
[|
( )
( )
[|
( )
(5.36)
Then we find
(5.37)
(5.39)
(
|
)
(5.40)
Using
(
|
(5.41)
and
(
(5.42)
(5.43)
For magnetostatics
(5.44)
, therefore we obtain
(5.45)
Amperes law
Using Stokess theorem we can transform Eq. 5.45 into an integral form:
(5.46)
Is transforming into
which simply says that the line integral of B around a closed path is equal to
current through the closed path, i.e.,
(5.47)
times the total
(5.48)
z
B
I
C
r
Fig 5.5
Amperes law is useful for calculation of the magnetic induction in highly symmetric simulation.
For example, the magnetic field of an infinite straight wire carrying current has a nonzero curl
(Fig. 5.5). We know the direction of B is circumferential. By symmetry the magnitude of B is
constant around a circular path of radius r. Amperes law gives
Thus
(5.49)
Vector potential
Since the divergence of any curl is zero (i.e.,
for an arbitrary vector field ), it is
reasonable to assume that the magnetic induction may be written
(5.50)
The only other requirement placed on
is that
(5.51)
yields
(5.52)
Integrating each rectangular component and using the solution for Poissons equation as a
guide leads to
(5.53)
P(r , , 0)
'
Idx'
Fig 5.6
We consider the problem of a circular loop of radius a, lying in the x-y plane, centered at the
origin, and carrying a current I, as shown in Fig. 5.6. Due to the cylindrical geometry, we may
choose the observation point P in the x-z plane (
) without loss of generality. The
expression for the vector potential Eq. 5.53 may be applied to the current circuit by making the
substitution:
. Thus
where
(5.54)
component
(5.56)
For
or
,
(
Hence
(5.58)
)
)
)
(5.59)
where
is the magnetic dipole moment of the loop. Comparison with the
electrostatic dipole fields shows that the magnetic fields are dipole in character.
The fields on the z axis (for
For
, hence
(5.60)
For
the z axis.
d 3 x'
x'
Ax
x x'
J (x' )
Fig 5.7
We consider the vector potential in the far-field region (see Fig. 5.7 where | |
) due to
a localized current distribution
for | | | |. Then a multiple expansion is in order. We
can expand Eq. 5.53 as
[
| |
| |
(5.61)
Since is localized,
(e.g., for a line current
).
Therefore, the first term in Eq. 5.61, corresponding to the monopole term, vanishes. The
integral in the second term can be transformed as (see textbook p. 185)
(5.62)
| |
where the magnetic moment m is defined as
(5.64)
which is the integral of the magnetization (magnetic moment per unit volume)
[
10
(5.65)
]
, then
(5.66)
triangle defined by the two ends of and the origin, the loop integral gives the total area of
the loop. Hence the magnetic moment has magnitude,
(5.67)
regardless of the shape of the circuit.
Dipole magnetic induction
The magnetic induction can be determined by taking the curl of Eq. 5.63.
(
[
Since
| |
for | |
| |
| |
)
(|
| |
| |
(5.68)
| |
| |
| |
(5.69)
hence
| |
| |
| |
(5.70)
Finally,
[
Here
| |
(5.71)
(5.72)
(5.73)
If the current distribution is localized and the magnetic induction varies slowly over the region
of current, we can expand B in a Taylor series. A component of B takes the form,
(5.74)
11
Magnetic force
The -th component of the force Eq. 5.72 becomes
(5.75)
We already know
for a localized current, so the first term vanishes. Now the
second term is dominant and becomes
[ (
(5.76)
(5.79)
The first integral has the same form of the second term of Eq. 5.75. The second integral
vanishes because
if
. Therefore, the leading term in the torque is
(5.80)
5.2 Magnetic Fields in Matter
Three mechanisms of macroscopic magnetic-moment distribution
Matter on the atomic level is made up of relatively stationary nuclei surrounded by electrons in
various orbits. There are three mechanisms whereby matter may acquire a macroscopic
magnetic-moment distribution. By macroscopic we mean averaged over a large number of
atoms. This distribution is characterized by the magnetic moment per unit volume , called the
magnetization (see Eq. 5.65):
where is the average number per unit volume of atoms or molecules of type and
the average atomic or molecular moment in a small volume at the point x. The three
mechanisms are as follows:
12
(5.81)
is
(Eq. 5.63) is
(5.82)
Hence we write
[|
( )
( )
|
(5.83)
Observing that
(5.84)
(5.85)
Macroscopic equations
Comparing Eq. 5.85 with our usual equation for A (Eq. 5.53) in terms of current density, J can be
replaced entirely by an effective current density
(5.86)
In general, all current distributions can be considered as consisting of two parts:
(magnetization current) and (free current). Hence we write our basic equation for B as follows:
(5.87)
13
(5.88)
14
The curve of Fig. 5.8 is called the hysteresis loop of the material. is known as the retentivity
or remnance; the magnitude
is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material. Once
is sufficient to produce saturation, the hysteresis loop does not change shape with
increasing
.
Boundary conditions on B and H
n21 B
2
H2
2
1
B1
L
H1
Consider two media, 1 and 2, in contact as shown in Fig. 5.9. Applying the Gausss law to the
small pill box S, we obtain
(5.94)
This leads to
(5.95)
i.e.,
The line integral of
current:
(5.96)
around the path L does not vanish only if there is a true surface
(5.97)
or
(5.98)
where K is the surface current density (transport current per unit length in the surface layer).
Thus the tangential component of the magnetic field is continuous across an interface unless
there is a true surface current. Finally, by taking the cross product of Eq. 5.98 with
, the
equation may be written as
(5.99)
This form is convenient for determining K if
and
are known.
are just
(5.100)
15
such that
(5.101)
Just as
is
(5.105)
In the event that we have a surface of discontinuity, we need to calculate an effective magnetic
surface-charge density . Making use of Gausss theorem to a small pill box at the interface,
we find
(5.106)
where is a unit vector pointing from region 1 to region 2. If
reduces to
and
, Eq. 5.106
(5.107)
M M 0e z
r
z
Fig 5.10
16
(5.110)
equal to zero.
(5.112)
Since
is finite at
Boundary conditions at
(i) Tangential H:
(5.113)
(5.114)
or
|
(ii) Normal B:
(5.115)
(5.116)
(5.118)
17
(5.122)
From Eqs. 5.117 and 5.120, we can deduce that
therefore
for all
. The potential is
(5.123)
{
is
(5.124)
Using the addition theorem (Eq. 3.68) and the azimuthal symmetry
|
(3.68)
we obtain
where
(5.125)
. Letting
, we find
(5.126)
18
, is
[
| |
| |
(5.129)
This, of course, is the magnetic induction of a magnetic dipole m. Not surprisingly, the net
dipole moment of the sphere is equal to the integral of the magnetization M (which is the dipole
moment per unit volume) over the volume of the sphere.
Inside B and H
Inside the sphere we have
and
, giving
(5.130)
Thus, both the and fields are uniform inside the sphere. Note that the magnetic intensity is
oppositely directed to the magnetization. In other words, the field acts to demagnetize the
sphere.
(5.133)
(5.134)
This is completely analogous to the polarization P of a dielectric sphere in a uniform field (Eq.
4.68).
19
H0
Fig 5.12
{
From 3.97
Only
as
(5.136)
| |
survives because the hole is cylindrically symmetric and the asymptotic field varies
. The boundary conditions are
|
{
(5.137)
|
|
The boundary conditions (Eq. 5.137) for the general solution (Eq. 3.98) give rise to the integral
equatoins of the coeeficient
:
(5.138)
20
(5.139)
. The expansion of
(5.140)
where for
and
the magnetic fieds are
for
(a)
I
B
(c)
I
B
I
B
changing
magnetic field
Fig 5.13
Figure 5.13 illustrates the observation made by Faraday. He showed that changing the magnetic
flux through a circuit induce a current in it. This could be accomplished by (a) moving the circuit
in and out of the magnet, (b) moving the magnet toward or away from the circuit, or (c)
changing the strength of the magnetic field. These observations can be expressed by the flux
rule:
(5.143)
21
( is the electric field in the stationary frame of the circuit) and the magnetic flux
by
is defined
(5.145)
The circuit C is bounded an open surface S with unit normal n as shown in Fig. 5.14. The induced
emf around the circuit is proportional to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the
circuit. The negative sign in Eq. 5.143 is specified by Lenzs law, which states that the induced
current (and accompanying magnetic flux) is in such as direction as to oppose the change of flux
through the circuit.
da
Fig 5.14
dl
(5.146)
Stationary circuit
If the circuit is rigid and stationary (see Fig. 5.13(c)), the time derivative can be taken inside the
integral, where it becomes a partial time derivative. Furthermore, using the Stokess theorem
we can transform the line integral of
(electric field in the laboratory frame) into the
surface integral of
.
(5.147)
22
Moving circuit
We consider a circuit moving with a constant velocity v. The force per unit charge on a charge
which is fixed with respect to a given point on the circuit is
(5.149)
assuming Galilean transformation (
,
), then the electric field
coordinate frame moving with a velocity v relative to the laboratory frame is
in a
(5.150)
(5.151)
(5.152)
Self-inductance
For a rigid stationary circuit the only changes in flux result from changes in the current:
(5.153)
If
23
(5.156)
(5.158)
where we define the mutual inductance
(5.159)
The Neumann formula
The flux
(5.160)
Since
(5.161)
|
we can write
(5.162)
|
(5.163)
|
which is known as Neumanns formula for the mutual inductance. It is apparent that
Neumanns formula is equally applicable to self-inductance:
.
(5.164)
24
Summing over all the electrons in circuit, we find that the power to maintain the current is
(5.166)
The negative sign follows from the Lenzs law. Assuming that the electrons form a continuous
charge distribution, the summation can be transformed into a volume integral
(5.167)
(5.168)
,
(5.169)
(5.171)
(5.172)
(5.173)
with a constant ,
(5.174)
25
By reasoning similar to that of the electrostatic energy density, we are led to the concept of
energy density in a magnetic field:
(5.176)
Assuming a linear relation between J and A, Eq. 5.170 leads to the magnetic energy
(5.178)
(5.179)
Assuming that all currents (and all fluxes) are brought to their final values in concert, i.e., at any
instant of time all currents and all fluxes will be at the same fraction of their final values,
and
. Integration of Eq. 5.169 is
(5.180)
Then, the magnetic energy for rigid circuits and linear media is
(5.181)
From Eqs. 5.156 and 5.159, the magnetic energy can be expressed as
26
(5.182)
and
(5.185)
Thus,
(5.186)
Then,
(5.187)
or
(5.188)
(
The force on the circuit is the gradient of the magnetic energy when is maintained constant.
Force between two rigid circuits carrying constant currents
The magnetic energy is given by
(5.189)
and the force on circuit 2 is
(5.190)
Where the mutual inductance must be written so that it display its dependence on
Neumanns formula shows this dependence explicitly, so we may write
27
(5.191)
. It is equivalent to
]
(5.192)
iron rod
We do not have to calculate the entire magnetic energy of the system but merely the
difference in energy between the two configurations shown in Fig. 5.15. The field structure is
relatively uniform far from the ends of the rod and the solenoid. The essential difference
between the two configurations is that a length
from the extreme right-hand end of the rod
(outside the field region) is effectively transferred to the uniform field region inside the
solenoid, at a place beyond the demagnetizing influence of the magnet pole. Thus since H is
nearly longitudinal in the region , and since the tangential component of H is continuous at
the cylindrical boundary of the rod, let us use
(5.193)
where H is constant inside and outside the rod because I is constant. Consequently,
28