Empowerment

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THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER EMPOWERMENT AND

JOB SATISFACTION AMONG JACKSON COUNTY
HIGH SCHOOLTEACHERS
A Dissertation
presented to
the Faculty of the Graduate School
University of Missouri-Columbia
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
by
NAOMI E. LANNEY
Dr. Roger Harting, Dissertation Supervisor
DECEMBER 1998
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
UMI Number: 9924897
Copyright 1998 by
Lanney, Naomi Eva
All rights reserved.
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c Copyright by Naomi E. Lanney 1998

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The undersigned, appointed by the Dean of the Graduate Faculty, have

examined a dissertation entitled:
THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER EMPOWERMENT AND JOB
SATISFACTION AMONG JACKSON COUNTY HIGH
SCHOOL TEACHERS
presented by NAOMI E. LANNEY
a candidate for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION and hereby certify that
in their opinion it is worthy of acceptance.
Dr. RogeyHarting, Major Advii

Educatidnal Leadership & Policy Analysis
Dr. Robert Shaw

Educational Leadership & Policy Analysis
_________
Dr. Rutoard Hatley

\
"Hf O '
Dryd6rry yalentine
Eewcational Leadership & Policy Analysis
Dr. K^ren Cockrell

DEDICATED TO
This dissertation is dedicated in loving memory to my late father, Nathaniel

Johnson, my mother Naomi Johnson, who instilled the belief that I can do all
things through Christ who strengthens me, and my late brother Nathaniel
Johnson, Jr.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer sincerely expressed appreciation to her advisor, Dr. Roger
Harting, for his guidance, motivation, and positive attitude throughout the
doctoral program. This appreciation is also extended to Dr. Richard Hatley who
has assisted me from year one, Dr. Joe Donaldson, Dr. Jerry Valentine, Dr.
Shaw, Dr. K. Cockrell, and other professors at the University of Missouri,
Columbia, who have further empowered me.
A special thanks to Dr. Paula Short and Dr. Rinehart who allowed me to
use the School Participant Empowerment Scale (SPES) in the study. Also the
writer expresses gratitude to the high school teachers in Jackson County,
Missouri, who completed the questionnaires.
The writer is deeply indebted to her spouse, Jesse, for his thoughtfulness
and understanding, her devoted daughter and son-in law, Anika and Richard,
her mother, Naomi, her sisters, brothers, and a host of friends who have
supported her and have been there for her.
Finally the writer expresses thanks to the one who has given her strength,
wisdom, and life. To God be the glory!
ii
THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER EMPOWERMENT AND

JOB SATISFACTION AMONG JACKSON COUNTY
HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS
Naomi E. Lanney
Dr. Roger D. Harting
Dissertation Supervisor
ABSTRACT
Purpose. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship

between the perceptions of empowerment and job satisfaction among high
school teachers for the intent of recruiting and retaining qualified teachers.
The predictive variables of empowerment, status, impact, professional
growth, autonomy, efficacy, and decision making were correlated with the
criterion variables of extrinsic job satisfaction and intrinsic job satisfaction.
Procedure. Superintendents from the nine school districts provided the list
of high school teachers. A total of 311 teachers were randomly selected from
the list, and 247 teachers responded. Both teachers and principals were sent
letters regarding the study. Principals were asked to encourage teachers to
participate, and teachers were informed of the importance of the study and the
need for teacher input.
Data for the study included participant responses from the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), the School Participant Empowerment Scale
(SPES), and a questionnaire on demographic information. Data were analyzed
iii
statistically using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient,

Canonical Correlation Analysis, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
Results. There are statistically significant relationships between the
variables of empowerment, impact, autonomy, status, efficacy, decision making,
professional growth, and intrinsic job satisfaction and extrinsic job satisfaction.
Also verified, the composite sets of the variables of teacher empowerment
account for 48.31% of the variance in intrinsic job satisfaction, and the
composite sets of the variables of teacher empowerment account for 46.24% of
the variance in extrinsic job satisfaction. Finally, teachers were statistically
tested on the dependent variable, empowerment. Results show that there are
no significant differences among the various schools in teachers sense of
empowerment.
The significant relationship between empowerment and teachers sense
of extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction should encourage school districts to
further examine and analyze empowerment at a construct for reforming schools.
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1.
Simple Statistics on Intrinsic Satisfaction and Extrinsic

Satisfaction Correlation Analysis Within
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire .......................................... 71
2.
Correlation Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire...................................... 73
3.
Correlation Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Correlation
Among the Original Y V a ria b le s .....................................................75
4.
Canonical Correlation Analysis Between School Participant

Empowerment Scale and Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire ............................................................. 77
5.
Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Raw Canonical
Coefficients for the Y Variables.......................................................79
6.

and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and
Their Canonical Structure ............................................................. 81
7.

and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and
Redundancy A nalysis......................................................................83
8.
Canonical Redundancy Analysis between School Participant

Empowerment Scale and Minnesota
9.
Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment

Scale and Extrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota
10.

Scale and Extrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire and the Canonical Structure ..................................88
11.
Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale and

Intrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Canonical Redundancy Analysis..................................................... 89
12.
Canonical Correlation Analysis between School Participant

Empowerment Scale and Intrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota
13.

Scale and Extrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire and the Canonical Redundancy A n alysis
93
14.
General Linear Models Procedure on

Dependent Variable: Decision M ak in g .......................................... 95
15.

Dependent Variable: Growth........................................................... 96
16.

Dependent Variable: Status ........................................................... 97
17.

Dependent Variable: Efficacy......................................................... 98
18.

Dependent Variable: Autonomy ..................................................... 99
19.

Dependent Variable: Im pact......................................................... 100
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................i
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................v
CHAPTER
I
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY..................................................................1

Problems With the Teaching Profession........................................... 7
Isolation from Other Professions............................................. 7
Contribution to the Knowledge B ase......................................8
Lack of School-Based Management....................................... 10
Conceptual Underpinnings.............................................................. 11
Statement of the Problem...................................................................14
Purpose of the Study...................................................................... 15
Research Questions................................................................15
Hypotheses..............................................................................16
Population and Sample........................................................... 17
Assumptions............................................................................ 17
Definition of Term s..................................................................19
Summary.............................................................................................21
II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.......................................................23

Background........................................................................................ 23
vii
School O rganization.........................................................................23
Summary of School Organization............................................32
Empowerment..................................................................................... 33
Shared Governance.................................................................34
Decision Making...................................................................... 37
Professional Growth................................................................ 43
Self-Efficacy.............................................................................47
Impact...................................................................................... 49
Status...................................................................................... 50
Summary of Empowerment............................................................... 51
Job Satisfaction..................................................................................51
Job Satisfaction and Empowerment...................................... 53
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Job Satisfaction....................................55
Summary of Job Satisfaction.................................................58
Demographic Factors..........................................................................59
Chapter Summary.............................................................................. 60
III
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY............................................ 62

Introduction to the Problem................................................................62
Purpose of the Study.......................................................................... 62
Research Questions................................................................63
Hypotheses............................................................................. 63
Population and Sam ple.......................................................... 64
viii
Data Collection and Instrumentation.............................................. 64

The School Participant Empowerment S c a le .....................65
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire ....................... 65
Data Analysis .................................................................................. 67
Summary...........................................................................................68
IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DA TA.......................................... 69

Introduction...................................................................................... 69
Design of the Study..........................................................................69
Sample .............................................................................................70
Descriptive Statistics........................................................................70
Correlation Analysis ....................................................................
71
Canonical Correlational Analysis ...................................................74

ANOVA Statistical M ethods.......................................................
94
Summary.........................................................................................100
V
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
............................................................... 102
Summary.........................................................................................103
Findings and Discussions
........................................................... 105
Conclusions .................................................................................. 108

Recommendation for School Practice
........................................ 110
Introduction..........................................................................110
Recommendations for Further Research ....................................110
APPENDICES........................................................................................................ 113
A.
Letters to Superintendents...................................................... 113
B.
Letters to Principals.................................................................114
C. Letters to T each ers.................................................................115

C. Demographic Information .......................................................117
D. School Participant Empowerment S c a le ............................... 118
E.
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire................................... 119
REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 121
V IT A ....................................................................................................................... 133
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Teaching is supposed to be a satisfying job, providing fulfillment every

time children show signs that they have learned something new from their
teachers. To many teachers, however, teaching is anything but satisfying. One
source of dissatisfaction with the teaching profession can be traced to the public
education bureaucracies which often impede professional growth and deny
teachers access to decisions regarding their students and themselves. Overall
dissatisfaction of the profession has created problems which often result in
teacher bum-out, early retirement, and an exodus from teaching. Teaching
should be one of the most satisfying professions on our planet, right next to
saving lives (Geiger, 1995).
America faces a serious educational crisis. Concomitant with poor
attendance, high drop-out rates, and low test scores, are the problems of
recruitment and the retention of well-qualified teachers. Until America
addresses the teacher shortage, the plight of Americas schools will remain
dismal.
In the next few years America will face a tremendous teacher shortage.
Forty percent of the public school teachers will retire or leave the profession by
the 2003-2004 school year, according to U.S. Department of Education figures
(News, 1996, On-Line). Older teachers are retiring in large numbers and many
1
others are taking buy-outs. Unfortunately, the retirements come at a time when
school enrollments are rising dramatically. Enrollments are expected to climb to
55.9 million by 2005 (Kronholz, 1997). The large number of teachers retiring
and the increased student enrollment both spell shortage. Statistics on teacher
retirement and early resignations reveal the following:
As of the 1993-1994 school year, one fourth of all public school teachers
were 50 or older.
Almost one-third of all U.S. teachers have been in the profession for over
20 years and more than six out of 100 teachers are leaving the profession
each year.
Most are retiring, but one in every five is simply deciding to quit.
The teacher corps is expected to total 2.7 million in September, 1997 and
three million by 2006 (Kronholz, 1997, p.1).
The teacher shortage has manifested itself in specific areas as well as
certain populations. Math, science, special education and foreign language

teachers seem to head the list. Even now, about 15% of those teaching high
school math not only do not have a major or minor in mathematics, but are not
even certified to teach it.
Among 25 rural school district administrators in Nevada and North
Dakota, 21 and 10, respectively, reported difficulty hiring special education
teachers (Luft, 1993). Of the 31 superintendents from rural New York who were
interviewed in September, 1987, 55% reported rising elementary enrollment,
61% had difficulty filling positions, 84% had too few applicants, and 68%
reported a scarcity of appropriately certificated applicants. Almost half reported
particular difficulties in the areas of special education and foreign languages
(Educational Issues, 1988, [On-line]).
John Beall, professor at Columbia University, New York, (1995)
conducted a study investigating issues of teacher recruitment and retention in
private schools. Data were obtained through a questionnaire of 652 teachers at
21 different independent schools in the United States and abroad. The study
concluded (along with other pertinent information) that the demand for teachers,
particularly mathematics and science teachers, will intensify during the next
decade.
From the east to west coast and from Hawaii to Alaska, the search has
begun for the recruitment of competent teachers. The Alaska Comprehensive
System of Personnel Development (CSPD) Committee sought to develop a
coordinated plan of action to deal with the recruitment and retention of qualified
teachers. Studies and surveys were reviewed to develop a comprehensive data
bank related to the problem. A survey of Alaskas special education teachers
and regular education teachers was then designed to determine incentives for
teaching special education and future teaching plans (Schnorr, 1992). The
survey prompted CSPD to focus on recruiting experienced teachers who already
have an endorsement or master's degree in special education, and it
encouraged CSPD to continue working with Alaska Teacher Placement (ATP)

which serves as a clearing house and referral center for all Alaskan districts.
The state of Idaho conducted a study of elementary and secondary
education employment with a focus on current supply and demand and teacher
preparation and certification. Data were gathered from a survey of all Idaho
districts through and from 1993-1994 Idaho Basic Education Data System
(IBEDS) reports. A section on teacher supply and demand covers vacancy
trends, applicants, ethnicity of teachers and students, shortage patterns, teacher
recruitment and retention, and teacher characteristics. Among the findings,
special education and pupil personnel services are types of vacancies that prove
persistently difficult to fill (Evans & Smith, 1994).
The teacher shortage extends beyond specific subject areas. One of the
most challenging tasks for the American education system is the recruitment and
retention of minority teachers, especially African-American teachers. According
to the Department of Educations Office of Equal Rights, the percentage of
minority group undergraduates seeking bachelor's degrees in education has
decreased by 50% since 1983. Further evidence from the data issued by the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the National Center for
Educational Statistics indicates that in 1983 data for all minorities had decreased
to 11% of the total teaching staff, a drop from 1974 when 12.5% of full-time
teachers were black (Tewell & Trubowitz, 1987).
The possibility is growing that a child might be able to complete twelve

years of public schooling without coming into contact with a single minority
teacher. There is a need to examine the factors contributing to the shortage and
the growing lack of enthusiasm in the teaching profession. The decline in the
number of prospective minority teachers is a part of the overall decline in
interest in teaching. In the next six years 1.1 million out of 2.2 million of the
nations teachers are expected to leave teaching. The expanding elementary
school enrollment indicates an increased demand for kindergarten and
elementary school teachers. After 1990, if the present trend continues, there will
be a shortage of high school teachers in all areas. In fact, the crisis in teacher
supply is here with school districts around the country coping by assigning
teachers to classes they are not certified to teach (Tewell & Trubowitz, 1987).
In New York City, about one teacher in six lacks a regular teaching
license and has been hired with minimal preparation. Thousands of teachers are
teaching subjects they are not licensed to teach. More than one special
education teacher in four is serving on temporary credentials (Tewell &
Trubowitz, 1987).
Data collected by the National Education Association in 1986 showed that
32,000 teaching vacancies exist in 100 of the largest school districts with 70
facing real shortage the following year. Based on the NEA data (1987),
minorities comprise 10.3% of the teaching force. In 1977 minorities comprised
12.2% and 1985,10.5% , a decrease. African-American children represent
5
16.2% of the population, but African-American teachers comprise only 6.9% of

the population. Hispanic children represent 9.1 % of the school population, but
Hispanic teachers only make up 1.9% of the teaching force. Asian and Pacific
Islanders children comprise 2.5% of the school population, but only represent
.9% of the teachers, and American Indians and Alaskan natives represent .9% of
the school population, but teachers comprise only .6% of the population (Otuya,
1988).
In spite of collaborative efforts and nationwide initiatives and programs to
recruit and retain teachers in general, there still remains an overall shortage and
studies indicate that this shortage will continue unless drastic actions are taken
regarding the teaching profession itself. The 22nd Annual Gallup Poll of the
Publics Attitudes Toward the Public Schools revealed the following information
about the biggest problems facing local public schools in 1990:
Of the 33 problems, difficulty getting good teachers was listed number 6.
Low teacher pay was listed number 8.
Lack of respect for teachers/other students was number 15.
Lack of needed teachers was listed number 16 (Elam, 1990, p.53).

If public schools are to survive in the twenty-first century, teachers must
begin to reexamine the way they view themselves, and make certain that the
profession is a self-satisfying one. The teaching profession is unlike any other
one and understanding the differences between teaching and other professions
will help explain the problems in recruiting competent teachers.
6
Problems with the Teaching Profession

Isolation from Other Professionals
Three key factors distinguish teaching from other service professions. A
doctor, lawyer, engineer, scientist, or an architect expends as much time with
their colleagues as they do with their clients. A doctor discusses the reading of
an X-ray with other physicians and health care workers, a lawyer consults with
associates on trial strategy, a scientist shares his/her experiments with other
scientists, and engineers and architects work in teams to develop new
prototypes and designs. Interactions with other professionals stimulate and
push these people to new levels of performance in both the art and craft of their
profession (Sagor, 1992). Social interaction is one way children learn. Is that
not applicable for adult learners?
The world of a teacher is different from any other profession. Roland
Barth (1988) compared American teachers to a group of preschoolers engaged
in parallel play. Although teachers may work in the same building with other
teachers, share the same materials, and have similar schedules, educators
seldom confer with each other except during the lunch period. Since the
teaching profession does not have a finite knowledge base, and the problems of
teaching are ever changing, it would behoove teachers to share their knowledge
and experiences. A lack of meaningful, intellectual discourse can result in a
demise of a profession (Barth, 1988).
In surveys of promising young teachers who decided to abandon

education after only a few years in the classroom, professional isolation has
been one of the most frequently cited dissatisfiers. If society continues to expect
teachers to solve increasingly complex educational problems by themselves, the
public can forget about widespread excellence in the classroom (Sagor, 1992).
People who work in an environment where risk-taking is forbidden, collaboration
is the exception, and limited autonomy is the rule, capable individuals will
continue to stay away from teaching or will not remain in the profession very
long.
Contributions to the Knowledge Base
All professions have a knowledge base with which they are expected to
be familiar, expected to use, and asked to respect in their practice.
Nevertheless in all professions, except teaching, practitioners are also expected
to interact with and contribute to the development of their profession's
knowledge base. The teaching profession has a body of accepted research
literature on effective teaching practices and successful schooling techniques
(Barth, 1988).
A case in point is the medical journals; the articles are written by
physicians affiliated with the university medical schools/centers. The formats
are almost the same. The doctor first explains the patient's symptoms and then
details the treatment. The purpose of the medical literature is to alert other
physicians to what colleagues are learning. Engineers work from a knowledge
8
base created by years of experiences of other engineers; their work informs the
next generation of the latest innovation. Architects' plans are based on the work
of other architects, and lawyers prepare their cases based on the constructs and
legal arguments of other lawyers.
There are some substantive differences among the professions. Teachers
are somewhat different; with the exception of The Educational Journal, many
educational publications do not feature the work of public school teachers
extensively. Instead, publications are vehicles for the dissemination of ideas,
commentaries, and studies from professors, consultants, administrators, and the
like, who work outside the world of the classroom. The topics, problems, or
issues pursued are important, but not necessarily helpful to teachers on the front
line (Sagor, 1992). The context or content of the interventions may or may not
conform to the realities in the classroom. Unfortunately, in education, the worlds
of research and practice are separate and unequal. Teachers who deny research
are considered unprofessional, but researchers who ignore what actually occurs
in the classrooms are not even labeled. Actually, policy makers and supervisors
compel teachers to implement the external educational research. The paradigm
in education is one of supervisors telling teachers how to do their work because
they are the teachers' superiors. Until teachers become involved in generating
and creating their own knowledge base, and given autonomy in their own
profession, teachers will continue to be unempowered and relegated to second
class educators.
9
Lack of School-Based Management

When individuals work in an environment where others control the data
and set the standards, those people tend to resist passively or negatively to
sanction their peers. In many school settings, the one who controls the data,
sets the agenda. The analyzation of test scores, curricular matters, teacher
performance evaluations, and instructional practices are often determined at the
district level. Other professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and engineers
determine, diagnose, prescribe, and design solutions, remedies, and plans
without the recommendations and mandates from others.
Whether under the heading of community participation, decentralization
or teacher empowerment, school-based management has been on the
educational agenda for years. When decentralized management was thought of
solely as a way to help employees feel better about their jobs, it gained little
support from workers and managers; but, when employees and managers were
asked to rethink their role and involvement to achieve goals and increase
productivity, organizational change was more likely. Although, school-based
management is not an end in itself, it is a valuable tool for engaging the talents
and experiences of far more of a schools stakeholders than the traditional, topdown governance system (Wohlstetter & Mohrman, 1994).
One reason for shared decision-making is the erosion of authority (Heller,
1985). Authority is vested in an individual or organization by the members who
share beliefs (Blumer, 1969). The increased demands from educational groups,
10
politicians, teacher unions, and teachers themselves, to be included more in

shared governance indicate that the erosion of the bureaucratic structure in the
public school is escalating.
Administrators in today's schools must have a multiplicity of skills to
execute the difficult task of managing a school and being the primary
instructional leader. In the past there has been a significant gap in expertise
between teachers and administrators, but that gap has narrowed. Principals
maintain position power, but the personal expertise of those they manage is
needed to assure maximum productivity of their students (Schechty & Joslin,
1986).
Conceptual Underpinnings for the Study

Statement of the Problem
Recent literature attributes teachers' relative sense of powerlessness in
terms of conditions where they work (Sprague, 1992). Further studies cite
teacher apathy, burnout, a lack of enthusiasm for the profession, increased
teacher stress, absenteeism, career changes, and early retirement as symptoms
of teacher dissatisfaction (Canter, 1994). While data from various teacher
surveys reveal mixed findings about job satisfaction, there is underlying
evidence that teachers who work in environments where shared governance is
the norm tend to be happier on the job (Canter, 1994).
11
A study based on notions of Hersey, Blanchard, Natemeyer (1979) about

situational leadership investigated the relationship between job satisfaction and
leadership behaviors of telling, selling, participating, and delegating. About 42%
of the 339 teachers surveyed were dissatisfied. Teachers were least satisfied
with the professions financial aspect and were most satisfied with co-workers.
A teacher job satisfaction measure was developed from a brainstorming
session in Pennsylvania with 81 teachers representing five school districts from
urban, suburban, and rural schools. The resultant 10-item job satisfaction
instrument was incorporated into a longer questionnaire that included schoolrelated issues. It was completed by 114 teachers and results were converted
into a numerical score for each respondent based on personal and employment
characteristics. Findings revealed that lack of administrative support was
chosen as the most dissatisfying factor (23%) and teachers were not happy with
the state-mandated innovations of Outcome-based Education and inclusion
(Clarke & Keating, 1995).
Another study (Teague, 1991) was conducted to determine if differences
exist between teacher levels of involvement in decision-making and their job
satisfaction in nine exemplary and nine average performance high schools. In
Ohio, the Decision Involvement Analysis instrument was sent to 270 randomly
selected teachers from 18 schools. A total of 161 teachers completed the survey
for a return of 60%. Results indicated the following: (1) teacher level of decision
involvement had a significant effect on their levels of job satisfaction; (2) positive
12
correlation on teacher levels of involvement between education and managerial

decision issues was significant; (3) teachers in exemplary schools had a
significantly higher level of decision involvement than their matched counterparts
in other schools; and (4) teachers' influence within their department and schoolwide was significantly related to their levels of decision involvement The study
showed that teachers perceived themselves to be "decisionally deprived,"
defined by Alutto and Belasco (1972, p. 119) as involved in fewer decisions than
desired. Teachers with high decision involvement experienced higher levels of
job satisfaction; those with medium or lower levels of decision involvement had
matching levels of satisfaction.
A special project, designed by Short, Greer, and Michael (1991),
educated teachers to competently analyze a problem and reach reasonable
conclusions, because effective decision-making is an important attribute in
today's schools. Although making judgements is a necessary part of
empowerment, there are other factors that researchers may identify as they
study restructured organizations. While surveys have repeatedly revealed a
lack of teacher participation in the decision-making process as a leading cause
of teacher dissatisfaction, one must examine the role of extrinsic and intrinsic
rewards as they impact on job satisfaction. The Hersey, Blanchard, and
Natemeyer study (1979) revealed teachers were least satisfied with teachers'
salary and financial resources, an extrinsic satisfier. On the other hand, a
survey conducted by Clarke and Keating (1995) revealed that pay did not
13
appear to be a satisfier or dissatisfier. Still not enough is known about the role
pay has in determining teacher job satisfaction, but there appears to be
overwhelming evidence that empowerment to or disempowerment of teachers
impacts job satisfaction.
In 1985, the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company surveyed former
teachers throughout America. Their findings were in congruence with those of
Bloland and Shelby (1980) who had also identified factors associated with
career changes among educators. Over the past several years, researchers
have continued to examine the phenomenon of teacher attrition and have
attempted to address what can be done to retard its continuance (Marlow, In-an,
& Becancour-Smith, 1995). Research suggests that the exit of good teachers
has a negative effect on those who choose to stay and, according to Frame &
Sorenson (1992), evidence suggests that teacher dissatisfaction continues to
increase. Natale (1993) reported that although teachers have various reasons
for leaving, they most often leave the classroom because of the lack of
professionalism, lack of recognition, or the lack of control afforded them (Marlow,
In-an, & Becancour-Smith, 1995, p. 435).
Statement of the Problem

The opportunity and confidence to act upon ones ideas and to influence
the way one performs in ones profession are a part of empowerment. True
empowerment leads to increased professionalism as teachers assume
14
responsibility for and involvement in the decision-making process (Melenyzer,

1990, p. 16). A lack of involvement in decision-making, along with a lack of
autonomy, status and professional growth has driven many teachers from the
profession and has made it difficult to recruit and retain competent teachers.
Teachers who are satisfied on the job do not leave the profession. This study of
secondary teachers in Jackson County, Missouri should clarify and add to the
body of knowledge of the relationship between empowerment and job
satisfaction.
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the
perceptions of empowerment and job satisfaction among secondary school
teachers for the intent of recruiting and retaining qualified teachers. Research
on job satisfaction was first initiated when Hoppock (1935) coined a definition as
any combination of psychological and environmental circumstances that cause a
person to say, I am satisfied with my job. Since that time, implications of job
satisfaction for organizations and individuals in organizations have been
extensively investigated.
Research Questions
1.
What is the relationship between teachers sense of empowerment and

job satisfaction?
15
2.
Can the variance in teacher satisfaction as measured by the Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire be explained by the variables of teacher
empowerment?
3.
Are teachers in certain schools more empowered than those in other

schools?
Hypotheses
1.
H 01: There are no statistically significant relationships as measured by

School Participant Empowerment Scale between the variables of teacher
empowerment (impact, autonomy, decision-making, efficacy, status, and
professional growth) and teachers sense of:
1.1 Extrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire
1.2 Intrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire
2.
H02: There is no composite set of empowerment variables which in

combination, explain a significant portion of the variance in teacher
satisfaction as measured by School Participant Empowerment Scale and
teachers sense of:
2.1 Intrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire
16
2.2 Extrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire
3.
H03: There are no significant differences among the different schools in

teachers sense of empowerment
Population and Sample

The population of this study includes high school teachers whose central
offices reside in Jackson County, Missouri. The study then entails eleven school
districts. Of the 1,156 teachers in Jackson County, 33% were systematically
randomly selected. The sample size included 247 high school teachers.
Assumptions
One of the reasons often cited by teachers for leaving the profession is a
lack of autonomy, professional growth and shared decision-making. Scattered
evidence suggests that shared decision-making does have advantages. It
appears to engage the teacher in school issues where they feel that they are the
experts. It reduces their sense of frustration that they are being treated as
adolescents who do not have adult status on the job. It leads to higher morale at least at the beginning - and a greater sense of professionalism (David, 1989;
Sickler, 1988).
On the other hand, shared decision-making presents new demands. It
calls on teachers to undertake a variety of tasks that they have not previously
been responsible for. It makes heavy demands on their time; it compels them to
17
become familiar with issues, like safety codes and district regulations, that they
used to giadly leave to administration. It asks them to overcome a long history
of cynicism about fads that periodically sweep through education, chum up a
lot of excitement and effort, and are soon abandoned with very little to show for
the energy expended. It asks them to renew their sense of excitement and hope
(Weiss, 1992).
A third demand of shared decision-making is the need for teachers to
participate face-to-face with their colleagues and confront them on issues
concerning the school. In a shared decision-making environment, teachers have
to engage other adults, negotiate, resolve differences, and come to decisions.
Furthermore they have to do this on unfamiliar territory, that is, in relation to
tasks that are not teachers usual business, tasks that they have to team, tasks
that ask them to extend themselves into new areas of expertise (Weiss, 1992).
While shared decision-making is an attribute of empowerment, one must
fully understand a series of unheralded issues which they will probably have to
address. Everyone talks about time demands and the fact that shared decision
making requires teachers to spend more time at school, but a more serious issue
may be the confrontation with each other. Sometimes those dealings are
contentious and feelings are ruffled; they may alter the climate of the school.
In spite of possible problems or issues with shared decision-making,
when properly structured, this reform movement can improve decisions about
teaching and learning. It may also encourage others to stay in the profession.
18
Advocates of shared decision-making claim that participation advances

professionalism. When teachers have the opportunity to participate, they are not
passive recipients of orders from central office, but they are full-fledged
professionals with latitude to shape the conditions under which they work and
the kind of work they do. Advocates also argue that teachers who have input in
decisions become more committed in the implementation of those decisions.
In short, teachers need better workplaces. Only as teachers lives in
schools are rewarding will good teachers stay in the classroom. Teacher
retention will enable young people to be recruited to teaching, and will free
teachers from the restraints and annoyances that divert them from the best
teaching of which they are capable (Johnson, 1990).
Definition of Kev Terms
Autonomy. Refers to teachers' beliefs that they can control certain
aspects of their work life.
Decentralization. The degree to which power to make decisions is
transferred to lower level managers (Szilagyi & Wallace, 1983).
Decision-Making. A multi-staged information processing function in which
cognitive and social processes are used to generate a set of outcomes
(MacPhail-Wilcox & Bryant, 1988).
Empowered Schools. Organizations that create opportunities for
competence to be developed and displayed (Short & Johnson, 1994).
19
Empowerment A process whereby school participants develop the

competence to take charge of their own growth and resolve their own problems
(Short & Johnson, 1994). Empowerment is a construct that ties personal
competencies and abilities to environments that provide opportunities for choice
and autonomy in demonstrating those competencies (Zimmerman & Rappaport,
1988).
Extrinsic Rewards. Tangible benefits surrounding a job, such as salary
and job security (Latham, 1998).
Impact. Teachers' perceptions that they have an effect and influence on
school life.
Intrinsic Rewards. Emotional and personal benefits of the job itself, such
as personal growth and a sense of achievement (Latham, 1998).
Job Satisfaction. The degree of gratification and fulfillment one receives
from one's work, profession, or career. Hoppock (1935) coined a definition of
job satisfaction as any combination of psychological and environmental
circumstances that cause a person to say, "I am satisfied with my job."
Minority. Refers to African-Americans, Hispanic-Americans, Asian,
Pacific Islanders, American Indians and Alaskan Natives.
Profession. An earned degree of respect associated with training,
education, and eventually experience (Marlow, et. Al., 1995).
Professional Growth. Teachers' perceptions that the school in which they
work provides them with opportunities to grow and develop professionally, to
20
leam continuously, and to expand one's own skills through the work life of the
school (Short, 1994).
Status. Teachers' perceptions that they have professional respect and
admiration from colleagues.
Self-Efficacy. Teachers' perceptions that they have the skills and ability to
help students leam, are competent in building effective programs for students,
and can affect changes in student learning (Short & Rinehart, 1992).
Summary
Many Americans perceive that their education system is failing the nation
and failing many of their children. Demands are increasing that schools be more
effective and that they be accountable for their performance (Murphy & Schiller,
1992). If children and schools are to be successful, there is a need to
reexamine the role, nature and disposition of teacners. It is obvious that
teachers who are unhappy will seek early retirement, disengage on the job,
remain apathetic, and experience bum-out. The empowerment of teachers,
while not a panacea, can change the course of schools when principals
understand true empowerment and recognize its constraints. The assumption is
that empowered teachers will remain in the profession.
The public schools will survive and excel correspondingly with the extent
to which school leaders empower their teachers and change the culture of
schools. Empowering schools must be educational communities coalesced
21
around a core of values guided by a sense of hope and possibility, grounded in

a belief in justice and democracy. These communities must nourish the voices
of all their members they must provide contexts in which people can speak and
listen, leam and grow, and let go of ideas in order to move on to better ideas.
Such learning communities must create climates in which all members are
respected and heard. There must be places in which teachers (but not only
teachers) have a voice in decision-making and the ongoing impetus to look at
themselves, their schools, and their world critically. In order to do this, the
nature of power in schools must be transformed, the hierarchy of decision
making must be transformed, the structure of the school day must be
transformed, and the way we interact with colleagues and students must be
radically reexamined (Blase & Blase, 1994). This study investigates the
relationship of teachers perceptions of empowerment to job satisfaction among
Jackson County high school teachers.
22
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Background
Since the purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between
teachers' perceptions of empowerment and job satisfaction within the context of
secondary school organizations, a review of the literature was conducted in
three areas: school organizations, empowerment, and job satisfaction. Also
studies that addressed demographic factors such as age, gender, marital status,
ethnicity, teaching experiences, and highest degree attained, were included as
possible correlates with teacher job satisfaction. Numerous studies have been
conducted to examine the notion that satisfied teachers will increase their
productivity, will have an improved quality of work life, or will improve
organizational effectiveness (Hoy & Miskel, 1991).
School Organization
It was only recently that people have questioned the effectiveness of the
organization of schools. Different groups such as the National Educational
Association (1984), the National Governors Association (1986), and the Holmes
Group (1987), have agreed that the current organizational structure of schools
does not promote excellence in teaching or learning. Most schools operate
under a professional bureaucracy. The autonomy and adaptability of the
23
profession make it very difficult for the organization to make systematic changes
(Bolman & Deal, 1991). Schools organized within the bureaucratic model
emphasize specialization of tasks, routine operating rules, and formal
procedures based on Taylors (1911) principles of scientific management. They
are characterized by a proliferation of regulations, centralized decision-making,
and hierarchical differences between principals and teachers, teachers and
students (Sergiovanni, 1984). Unfortunately, the bureaucratic model tends to
produce principals who believe in bureaucratic values and procedures, many of
which actually obstruct teaching (Seeley, 1985).
The term loose coupling appears throughout the literature on
organizations (Glassman, 1973; March and Olsen, 1975) and it is of utmost
importance to define this phrase. It might seem that the word coupling is
synonymous with words like connection, link, or interdependence, yet each of
these terms misses a crucial nuance. By loose coupling, the author intends to
convey the image that coupled events are responsive, but that each event also
preserves its own identity and some evidence of its physical or logical
separateness. Thus, for an educational organization, it may be the case that the
counselor's office is loosely coupled to the principal's office. The image is that
the principal and the counselor are somewhat attached, but retain some identity
and separateness and that their attachment may be circumscribed, infrequent,
weak in its mutual affects, unimportant, and/or slow to respond (Weick, 1976).
24
Glassman (1973) categorizes the degree of coupling between two

systems on the basis of the activity of the variables that the two systems share.
To the extent that two systems either have few variables in common or share
weak variables, they are independent of each other. Applied to the educational
situation, if the principal-vice principal-superintendent is regarded as one system
and the teacher-classroom-pupil-parent-curriculum as another system, then by
Glassmans argument there are not many variables in the teacher's world to be
shared in the world of a principal. If the variables held in common are
unimportant relative to the other variables, then the principal can be regarded as
being loosely coupled with the teacher.
Purkey and Smith (1982) recommended that a school culture model
begins to resolve the loose coupling problem because it assumes that changing
schools requires changing people's attitudes and behaviors based on new
organizational norms. Purkey and Smith were so convinced of the influence of
school culture, which they mostly equated with climate, that they proposed a
theory of school improvement based primarily on changing the culture of the
school. The process of changing the school culture should lead to collaborative
planning, collegial work, and a school atmosphere conductive to experimentation
and evaluation.
A necessary process in changing the culture of the school is to examine
the roles of people in the organization/school and ascertain what their needs are
and how the needs of individuals can fit the needs of the organization. Abraham
25
Maslow (1954) started from the notion that human beings have a variety of
needs, some more fundamental than others. Maslow grouped human needs into
five basic categories arranged in a hierarchy from lower to higher. Lower
needs dominate behavior when they are not satisfied. Higher needs become
salient only after the lower needs have been satisfied. Maslow's categories are:
1.
Physiological needs (needs for oxygen, water, food, physical health, and
comfort)
2.
Safety needs (to be safe from danger, attack, and threat)
3.
Belongingness and love needs (needs for positive and loving

relationships with other people)
4.
Needs for esteem (needs to feel valued and to value oneself)
5.
Needs for self-actualization (needs to develop to ones fullest, to actualize

ones potential)
Several attempts to assess the validity of Maslows theory have failed to show
conclusively that Maslow was right or wrong (Aldefer, 1972: Schneider and
Aldefer, 1973). Still, his is one of the most influential views of motivation in
organizations (Bolman & Deal, 1991).
A second theory on motivation was held by Douglas McGregor (1960)
who contends that the perspective from which a manager views other people
determines how they respond. McGregor suggested that most managers
subscribed to Theory X. The main proposition of this theory is that managers
need to direct and control the world of subordinates. According to Theory X,
26
subordinates are passive and lazy, have little ambition, prefer to be led, and
resist change. Theory Y managers believe that subordinates are motivated and
capable of assuming responsibility for the needs of the organization that
enhances their satisfaction. McGregor's research concluded that Theory Y
managers will generally be more successful in helping the organization fulfill its
goals (Mattaliano, 1982)
On the other hand, according to Argyris & Schon (1978), most schools are
not operating with Y managers and high levels of maturity are not found
throughout the staff. They further asserts that if humanistic values are adhered
to in an organization, authentic relationships will develop among people and will
result in interpersonal competence, intergroup cooperation, and flexibility. If the
manager creates a situation where all members of the organization are highly
involved in the process of decision-making, effectiveness is increased. Argyris'
and Schons theory of double-loop learning emphasized that this involvement
reflects the innate needs of the organizations members for self-expression,
based on their growth and maturity.
In spite of the numerous theories, plans, and programs put forth to
change the way schools are organized, two outstanding philosophies have
emerged which can truly make a difference in school structure if the public and
educators are willing to subscribe to them. The first is the Deming Corporate
Philosophy. W. Edwards Demings philosophy helped Japanese industry
achieve world-class standards of quality. Although schools are not businesses,
27
they are modeled after the age-old business paradigm of Taylorism (basis for the
assembly line method that permitted mass production of automobiles - system
no longer functional). Demings philosophy provides a framework that can
integrate positive developments in education. Without such a framework,
teacher participation, team-teaching, site-based management, and cooperative
learning, for example, remain individual elements lacking the cohesiveness
necessary to transform our schools (Blankstein, 1993).
Demings 14 principles are powerful axioms based on the assumption that
people want to do their best and that it is managements job to enable them to do
so by constantly improving the system in which they work. They are:
1.
Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.
2.
Adopt the new Deming philosophy
3.
Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Build in quality in

the first place.
4.
End the practice of awarding business based on price alone.
5.
Improve constantly and forever every process.
6.
Institute training on the job.
7.
Adopt and institute leadership.
8.
Drive out fear.
9.
Break down barriers between staff areas.
10.
Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the staff.
11.
Eliminate numerical quotas for the staff and goals for management.
28
12.
Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship.
13.
Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement for

everyone.
14.
Put everybody in the organization to work to accomplish the

transformation (Blankstein, 1993, p.24).
Applying Demings principles to school means translating a few terms.

Principals and superintendents can be considered "management or
leadership." Teachers are employees," leaders," and managers of students.
Students are employees and the knowledge they gain and later contribute to
society is the product. Parents and society are the customers. Legislators
are the board of directors (Blankstein, 1993, p.29).
It took U.S. auto and electronics industries decades to realize how
performance appraisals, fear-driven incentives, short-term measures, and
externally imposed quotas destroy people and organizations they serve. The
leaders of these industries had time to spend learning the value of Deming's
principles. America's youth, the schools, and societal structures that determine
their future, do not have that luxury (Blankstein, 1993).
Another philosophy on school restructuring is based on Superintendent
Peter Negron's system and is used as a model for school reform. Among its
special features are a high level of community involvement, the early
introduction of site-based management, a massive information program involving
all of the media, and long-term relationships with outside institutions with special
29
resources. When the Springfield School System, Springfield, Massachusetts

began reform efforts, the district included four transformations that had to take
place: organizational transformation, pedagogical transformation, social and
attitudinal transformation, and political transformation. The reform effort
addressed organizational transformation, only.
In reforming public schools, educators must challenge what they believe
about teaching and learning and what they have been doing for more than 200
years. The questions educators must ask, "Is the present organizational model
used in public schooling an effective one?" The following are a few elements in
the current school organization that require reconsideration:
the 180-day calendar
the six-hour school day
age-grade grouping
subject concentration in secondary schools
restrictive scheduling practices that facilitate tracing
45-minute periods
no built in time for staff interaction, staff development, or school

improvement
discussions
no built in time for working with parents and/or other agencies
Carnegie unit completion rather than performances as the basis for

measuring success
30
lecture as the main delivery system
teachers working independently of each other
one teacher for 20 to 30 students in an individual classroom
instruction organized around the principle of remediation
top-to-down governance structure, that is, command and control as an

organizational strategy
acceleration as the exception
schools organized around covering the content rather than having

children leam the content (Negron, 1993, p. 147-148).
These organizational structures can no longer be supported. Each one of
the structures was justified when initially established, but none are effective to
meet the needs of the 21st century. Negron (1993) contends that schools must
become places where the organizational structure and pedagogical models
stress the importance of producing students who have a repertoire of skills for
the next century.
A few of the skills are: higher order thinking skills, ability to frame new
ideas and solve problems, creative thinking, ability to access information, human
relations skills, ability to work in a team atmosphere, ability to re-leam, oral
communication skills, negotiation skills, that is, the ability to reach consensus
and resolve conflicts, self-assurance and task commitment, leadership, that is,
the ability to assume responsibility and motivate co-workers.
31
To achieve these skills, we must transform the organizational norm to one

that recognizes and supports people who are able to work together and
collaborate on problem identification, analysis and inquiry, and solution.
Focusing on the needs of the students, three organizational structures must be
examined and adjusted: present use of time in the structure, present practices of
grade levels, time devoted to specific subject areas, relationship between
subject areas, content coverage, length of school day and school year, and
available course offerings.
Summary of School Organization
Most schools operate under a loosely-coupled bureaucratic structure and
managing these schools requires a different set of perceptions and behaviors.
Various theories on the human resource frame were presented. The Deming
philosophy was discussed and has positive implications for restructuring the
school organization. Negron's system model for organizational transformation
was provided as a possible solution for reforming schools. Whatever philosophy
or model school systems ascribe to, one thing is for certain, the changes
necessary to transform our schools are massive, but attainable. Deming and
Negron provide a road map for success.
32
Empowerment
Current literature confirms that true empowerment extends beyond
participation in decision-making; it also involves the elevation of teachers as
knowledge professionals. Research indicates that empowerment requires the
principal's trust and respect for teachers, support for staff development, support
of teachers' decisions, and the adequate allocation of time for the development
of collaborative relationships among teachers (Clift, Johnson, Holland, & Veal,
1992; Kasten, Short, & Jarmin, 1989). Empowerment further requires
involvement by teachers outside their own classrooms. In effect, "true"
empowerment includes decision participation, authority over issues concerning
professional life both at the classroom level and at the school level, and
opportunities to acquire knowledge necessary to warrant such authority.
The main force driving empowerment in education is teacher
effectiveness. The assumption is that teachers who design and control their
educational services are free from a subordinating school administration and are
more effective than teachers who feel alienated and powerless (Kanungo, 1992).
When teachers are more effective, student achievement, responsiveness to
student conflicts, teacher satisfaction, and the school environment improves.
Productivity increases as schools are expected to do more with less (Short &
Johnson, 1994).
33
Shared Governance
If schools are to be held accountable for the performance of their students,
then administration must bestow upon the schools the authority to make those
decisions that impact the key areas of learning, personnel, programming, and
budget Society must demand a more intelligent system of school governance.
It is probably true that the current educational system worked well at one time,
as did the same kind of hierarchical system of management in American
industry. Both followed the military model, in which decisions are made at
headquarters and are referred down the chain of command to subordinates who
carry out orders.
The public is finding that this system can be destructive in many settings.
It is often demeaning, wastes human talent, stifles creativity, and results in poor
decisions based on incomplete or inaccurate information. Changing from such a
top-down system to one in which the people close to the action for example,
classroom teachers and building principals - make most of the decisions is
difficult but necessary (Forgione, 1993).
No longer can the public govern a system with uniform plans that are
forced on every classroom in the district. This "lock-step" approach has
contributed to many of the shortcomings that exist in our systems today.
Individual schools need to be encouraged to experiment and to take risks
(Murphy & Schiller, 1992).
34
Shared governance includes site-based or school-based management It

is an attempt to transform schools into communities where the appropriate
people participate constructively in major decisions that affect them. Site-based
management may be the most significant reform of the decade. . . a potential
force for empowering educators and communities (David, 1996, p.4). This view
is held by Midgley and Wood (1993) who assert that site-based or school-based
management can be used to restructure schools and bring about pervasive
changes in the cultures of schools.
In the current round of school reforms, the idea of school-site
management has caught the attention of researchers, policy makers, and
practitioners. On all accounts reports strongly emphasize the value of allowing
teachers to participate in expanded decision-making at the school site. For
school site management to succeed, it must be developed with the specific goal
of creating a professional work environment for teachers. Without this goal,
school-site management may become just another bureaucratic mode of control
masquerading as a real reform. Of course, school-site management does not
guarantee administrative decentralization. Thus the issue is not simply how to
achieve school-site management but how to achieve collegial and collective
management at the school level (Conley & Bacharach, 1990).
Management experts, Tom Peters and Robert H. Waterman (1983),
contend that schools must demonstrate a personalized attention to decision
making in the same way that large businesses are broken into smaller units to
35
improve productivity. To decentralize school districts into school sites with

greater authority delegated to the staff and a school advisory council is a
significant change in the way schools serve their clients. Guthrie & Reed (1986)
presented four components that are necessary for the school to become the
primary decisions-making unit These components are principals who function
as chief executive officers, school advisory councils, school-site budgeting and
accounting, and annual planning performance reports.
David (1989) found very little solid, empirical research about site-based
management but she did find numerous success stories by practitioners as well
as "how to" guides. According to David, research on site-based management
leads to the following conclusions:
1.
School faculties make different decisions about elements of staffing,

schedules, and curriculum when they are given control over their budgets
and relief from restrictions.
2.
Teachers report increased job satisfaction and feelings of professionalism

when the extra time and energy demanded by planning and decision
making are balanced by real authority.
3.
School-based management affects the roles of district as well as school

staff members.
4.
The leadership, culture, and support for the district have a far greater
impact on the success of school-based management than its operational
details.
36
5.
Implemented school-based management involves a lot of pieces and

takes a long time, from 5 to 10 years; it is premature to pass final
judgment on a district in the early stages (David, 1989, pp. 47-48).
Reasons for initiating site-based management run the gamut, yet virtually
all are cloaked in the language of increasing student achievement To some,

site-based management is a governance reform designed to shift the balance of
authority among schools, districts, and the state. To others, site-based
management is a political reform initiated to broaden the decision-making base,
either within the school, the larger community, or both. Site-based management
may also be an administrative reform to make management more efficient by
decentralizing and deregulating it. Regardless of the reasons for initiating sitebased/school-based or shared governance, now is the time to restructure
schools. If Americans are to be competitive in a global society, educators must
send forth graduates prepared to succeed in this demanding world, and people
must recognize that leadership and wisdom exist beyond the walls of central
office and the board room (Murphy & Schiller, 1992).
Decision-makina
While the successful transformation of American education presents a
comprehensive agenda, effective school research and the current educational
reform movement have strongly advocated increased teacher involvement in
school decision-making. A basic assumption for this focus has been that lasting
school improvement will occur when teachers become more involved in
37
professional decision-making at the school site. Effective involvement of

teachers in school decision-making poses many questions, such as when, to
what extent, and in what issues should teachers be involved; and these
questions have guided the research regarding teacher involvement in decision
making. The decision-making process is a complex phenomenon and, due to its
reliance on human involvement, is subject to factors that are not under control of
the organization. Individuals involved in the process possess different
preferences, interests, expertise, experiences, and need-dispositions (Rice &
Schneider, 1994).
Bridges (1967, p. 51-52) developed a model for shared decision-making
based on Bernard's (1968) theory of the "zones of indifference" which stated that
subordinates have zones of indifference within which an administrator's
decisions will be accepted without questions. Bridges argued that not all
decisions are appropriate for shared decision-making, and there are issues in
which teachers do not care to be involved. He, therefore, postulated the need
for administrators to apply a "test of relevance" (interest) and a test of expertise"
(knowledge) before seeking to involve teachers in the decision-making process.
The combined levels of interest and expertise serve as a means for determining
whether or not a decision issue falls within a teacher's zones of indifference. For
example, if a principal involves teachers in making decisions located within their
zones of indifference (low interest-low expertise), involvement will be less
effective than when a principal involves teachers in making decisions located
38
outside their zone of indifference (high interest-high expertise). The challenge

for the principal becomes one of deciding which decision issues clearly fall
within a teacher's zones of indifference and which issues do not.
Bridges' shared decision-making model conceptualized how a principal
determines a framework for decision-making utilizing the theory of "zones of
acceptance." The three major types of constitutional arrangements for shared
decision-making are the participant-determining, where consensus is required;
the parliamentarian, where a majority of vote is needed; and the democraticcentralist, where members are bound by the final decision made by the principal.
The principal might use the consensus approach when teachers have a high
personal stake and the expertise to resolve; when complete agreement is
imperative, he or she may elect to use the parliamentarian style when decisions
affect teachers differently, or the democratic-centralist mode, where the principal
gains teachers' ideas and lowers staff resistance before making the final
decision (Bridges, 1967)
The inclusion of participation as an element of restructuring has
precedents in both organizational theory (Coch & French, 1948; Lawler &
Hackman, 1969; Lewin, 1947: Locke & Schweiger, 1979; Lowin, 1968) and
school effectiveness research (McCormack-Larkin, 1985; Rosenholtz, 1985;
Rutter, Maugham, Mortimore, & Ouston, 1979). Since participation is
multifaceted and difficult to define, the result, as Greenberg (1975, p. 149)
argues, is that we know little about participation . . . its meaning for participant
39
individuals; or its impact on affected institutions. Numerous studies have been

conducted to determine the effectiveness of teacher participation in shared
decision-making. One such study was conducted by Taylor and Bogotch (1994)
who examined the effects of shared decision-making in a restructuring district of
national prominence. A premise underlying the study is that after several years
of district restructuring, evidence of participation effects, if they exist, should be
measurable. In their study four questions were addressed:
1.
What dimensions of participation in decision-making emerged from data

collected in restructuring district?
2.
What correlations can be found between these dimensions and (a) facets
of teacher job satisfaction and (b) school-level outcomes, including
teacher and student attendance and student achievement and behavior?
3.
Does teachers' participation in decision-making result in significantly

different outcomes for teachers and students?
4.
Do teachers in a restructuring district perceive saturation, equilibrium, or

deprivation with regard to their participation in decision-making (Taylor &
Bogotch, 1994, p. 302).
The main findings that emerged from the study are that (1) several
dimensions of decision participation exist; (2) these dimensions correlate

differentially with the criterion variables; (3) teachers' participation does not
produce a statistically significant effect on outcomes for teachers or students in
this district; and (4) teachers in both participation groups (pilot and non-pilot)
40
report feelings of being decisionaily deprived on all 19 decision items. Although

teachers report decision deprivation, they indicated feeling most involved
concerning standardized testing policy, staff hiring, and budget development In
earlier studies, feelings of decision deprivation were reported by Bacharach,
et.al. (1990), Mohrman, etal. (1978), and Alutto and Belasco (1972). Because
the current study was conducted in a district with an assertive program to
increase teachers' participation, it is particularly problematic for these data to
indicate that teachers feel deprived of opportunities to participate in decision
making.
In spite of controversy regarding the effectiveness of shared decision
making, school reform movements have placed decision-making as one of the
strongest components of empowerment. Smylie (1992) believes that the more
teachers perceive that they are responsible for student learning, the more
strongly they perceive that they should be held accountable for their work. In
addition, this perception leads to a greater interest and willingness to participate
in decision-making.
Perhaps one of the greatest strengths of shared decision-making in
schools is the improved quality of the problem-solving capacity of teachers.
Decisions become conscious, well-reasoned choices (Rosenholtz, 1985). The
dialogue that ensues in shared decision-making focused on evaluative insights
about the overall quality of the school instructional program creates a
41
tremendous opportunity for a school to become more effective. Teachers feel

ownership and commitment to the process (Rosenholtz, 1985).
The kind of school climate that encourages involvement in
decision-making is characterized by openness and risk-taking.
This environment encourages teachers to try new ideas and
approaches. However, it should be noted that teachers were less
willing to participate in decision-making if they perceived that their
principals sought their opinions but went on to make the final
decision rather than allowing teachers that opportunity (Short,
Miller-Wood, & Johnson, 1991). Ashton and Webb (1986) found
that teachers expressed dismay and frustration over their ability to
influence the process of decision-making. They felt that they were
not consulted and were made to feel that they could not make good
decisions. In contrast, being given the final responsibility to make
decisions confirms to teachers that they have good ideas and are
trusted to make good decisions (Short, et. al., 1991, p. 85).
While local school boards, central office administration, and principals are
encouraging teachers to become involved in important decisions, the move
raises policy issues involving lines of authority for making decisions and
responsibility and accountability for the consequences of such decisions. The
central dilemma of shared decision-making is delegating significant decisions to
others while remaining accountable to the public for those decisions. Unless a
legislature provides otherwise, the school board remains legally responsible for
the school district. All parties must recognize that shared decision-making
arrangements, even when created by board policy, are not like school boards.
Groups to which decision-making has been delegated do not have independent
authority created by statute. They are accountable to the general public through
the school board (Boehlje, 1995).
42
Professional Growth
As a dimension of empowerment, professional growth refers to teachers'
perceptions that the school in which they work provides them with opportunities
to grow and develop professionally, to leam continuously, and to expand one's
own skills through the work life of the school. In shared governance schools, a
strong commitment to invest in various forms of teacher development must exist.
Little (1993), when she noted the "uneven fit" between current models of
professional development and reform efforts (e.g., the dominance of a training
approach as opposed to an inquiry, problem-solving, and knowledge production
approach), concluded the following:
Much staff development or inservice communicates a relatively
impoverished view of teachers, teaching and teacher development.
Compared with the complexity, subtlety, and uncertainties of the
classroom, professional development is often a remarkably low
intensity enterprise. It requires little in the way of intellectual
struggle or emotional engagement and takes only superficial
account of teachers' histories or circumstances . . . Professional
development must be constructed in ways that deepen the
discussion, open up the debates, and enrich the array of
possibilities for action (Little, 1993, p. 131).
One of the best forums for instructional improvement is in collaboration or
cooperative learning among groups of teachers. Cooperative approaches have
an excellent chance of yielding high achievement, positive relationships, and
psychologically healthy people (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). In contrast to
individual approaches to learning, collaborative approaches provide access to
more relevant information and alternative perspectives, promote reflective
43
practice, help develop a culture that supports learning and growth, and facilitate
change by virtue of the encouragement and validation of changes that occur
(Osterman & Kottkamp, 1993). The principal's role is that of a facilitator who
enables others to enter a reflective conversation about teaching and learning
(Schon, 1983) rather than that of an educator who starts with knowledge already
organized and proceeds to give it out in doses (Dewey, 1938).
Teachers reach critical points in their careers when they know that
change is paramount. Their involvement in professional development then plays
a crucial role in fostering empowerment (Barksdale-Ladd, 1994). School
restructuring may lead to the creation of environments in which teacher
empowerment is more likely to develop than in traditional schools. Teachers
working in settings where change is accepted and expected more likely reach
points in their careers at which they feel personal needs for change. Teacher
empowerment may develop as a result of participation in opportunities regularly
part of school restructuring processes such as professional development, shared
decision-making, and a sense of ownership.
The Holmes Group (1986) and others have recommended the
establishment of school/university partnerships such as Professional
Development Schools as vehicles for professional development, shared decision
making and the development of teacher empowerment. At these sites, university
and public school personnel collaborate to restructure and improve instructional
practice.
44
According to Duffy (1994), in the eagerness to establish professional

development schools, educators may be inadvertently creating a caste system,
in which professors are gurus and teachers are followers. In doing so, teachers
come to feel disempowered, professors are anything but egalitarian, and reforms
are doomed to fail. Duffy proposes alternatives that put development of an
underlying spirit of collaborative egalitarianism ahead of identifying schools as
professional development schools. He contends that such alternatives hold
more promise for empowering both teachers and professors to carry out the
vision of professional development schools and, thereby more promise of
achieving the reform agenda.
Schools that create environments that support risk-taking and
experimentation also build teachers' sense of autonomy. Autonomy is a
necessary prerequisite for a sense of accomplishment (Firestone, 1991). In this
environment, teachers shape the educational environment of the school
(Lightfoot, 1986).
Blase & Blase (1994) found that shared governance principals
demonstrated great interest in promoting individual teacher decisional authority
or autonomy, primarily in classroom instructional and student control matters.
Levels of autonomy varied among the schools studied by Blase, but in many of
the schools teachers exercised what they called full autonomy in the classroom.
Such autonomy has three primary characteristics:
45
1.
Teachers are largely in control of instructional areas of classroom life

(e.g., teachers determined the risks they were willing to assume in
curriculum and instructional innovations).
2.
Teachers generally control noninstructional areas of classroom life (such

as disciplinary matters).
3.
Teachers determine needs for access to additional but necessary

supplies and materials (Blase & Blase, 1994, p. 73).
Principals should actively encourage teacher autonomy, even when they
directly solicit teachers' advice about decisions they made unilaterally because
of legal/policy considerations. Some teachers who said they had experienced
autonomy may have made comments similar to those below:
The principal guides rather than dictates. She/he allows teachers to

realize their choices. She/he may explain her/his reason(s) for preferring
one choice over another, but the choice is usually ultimately left to the
teacher.
He/she trusts me to make the right teaching decisions for my class. I am

in control of the order, rate, and amount of time spent on each subject. I
don't feel ashamed if I don't follow my lesson plans to the letter. He/she
trusts me to make adjustments as needed.
46
My principal listens and encourages me to go with an idea that I bring to

her. Recently, I suggested an alternative assessment project. Not only
did she encourage me, but she provided additional materials for me
(Blase & Blase, 1994 p.73).
Self-Efficacv
The past 15 years have bome witness to a flurry of research activities
devoted to the study of teacher efficacy, or as, as Dembo and Gibson (1985)
have defined the construct, the extent to which teachers believe they can affect
student learning (p. 173). Researchers generally credit Bandura (1977) for
providing the theoretical framework for studying this construct. In his theory of
self-efficacy, Bandura argued that human behavior is influenced by the
individuals beliefs regarding two classes of expectations: an outcome
expectation, a persons estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain
outcomes, and an efficacy expectation, the conviction that one can successfully
execute the behavior required to produce, the outcome (Bandura, 1977, p. 193).
Self-efficacy refers to teachers perceptions that they have the skills and
ability to help students leam, are competent in building effective programs for
students, and can affect changes in student learning. Blase (1982) states that
the primary rewards in teaching result from the teacher's positive selfevaluations of performance with students in proving moral and counseling terms.
Self-efficacy develops as individuals acquire self-knowledge and the belief that
they are personally competent and have mastered skills necessary to affect
47
desired outcomes. Rosenholtz (1985) states that teachers' sense of self-efficacy

and professional certainty relates to teachers' subsequent decisions to remain in
teaching. Teacher certainty about professional abilities and skills is highly
correlated to student achievement (Rosenholtz, 1985). Because teaching enjoys
no professionally sanctioned goals and agreed-upon teaching techniques,
teachers are left vulnerable to self-doubt and arbitrary criticism (Ashton & Webb,
1986).
Little assurance that teachers' decisions about instruction are effective
or that their actions relate directly to student success feeds this sense of
teachers' uncertainty about their competence (Short & Johnson, 1994).
Although the crisis in teacher motivation has been identified as the "single
greatest impediment to school improvement" (Ashton & Webb, 1986), school
social workers have just begun to consider what they can do to empower
teachers and improve their motivation and self-efficacy, defined as a teacher's
perception of his or her ability to handle classroom problems. Promoting
collegiality and combating feelings of helplessness and powerlessness can
reduce demoralization and improve motivation and self-efficacy (O'Connor,
1996).
Self-efficacy relates to an individual's ability to examine alternatives and
implement a course of action (for example, a teacher's consideration of and
response to classroom problems). Empowerment with efficacy is unlikely. "Selfefficacy involves a generative capability in which social, cognitive, and
behavioral skills are organized into integrated courses of action to serve
48
numerous purposes. Success is often attained only after generating and testing
alternative forms of behavior and strategies. Self-doubters are likely to abort
this process if their initial efforts prove deficient (Bandura, 1986).
Research has shown a positive relationship between teacher self-efficacy
and student outcomes. Ashton and Webb (1986) observed that higher selfefficacy resulted in higher student achievement. McLaughlin and Berman (1977)
found that teacher self-efficacy was significantly related to student achievement
in reading.
Impact
Impact refers to teachers' perceptions that they have an effect and
influence on school life. Ashton and Webb (1986) posit that teachers' self
esteem grows when they feel that they are doing something worthwhile, that they
are doing in a competent manner, and that they are recognized for their
accomplishments. Lightfoot (1986) adds that teachers in her study of "good
schools" grew from the respect they received from parents and community as
well as the support they felt for their ideas (Short & Johnson, 1994).
Feedback from colleagues is important to teachers' sense that they are
having an impact. Blase (1982) states that low levels of work motivation are the
result of achieving outcomes with little or no rewards for individual effort. One
result for teachers is that they may become less involved with students.
Teachers believe that they do not receive the recognition that they deserve.
49
Complaints are many; compliments are few. Teachers desire success in the
classroom but find few tangible signs of accomplishments. Thus, they feel
unsupported by administrators, colleagues, and community (Ashton & Webb,
1986).
Status
Status refers to the teachers' sense of esteem ascribed by students,
parents, community members, peers, and superiors to the position of teacher.
Recognition of this esteem can be found in comments and attitudes from various
constituents of the school environment, responses to teachers' instructions and
the respect afforded the teaching profession. Status as a dimension of
empowerment refers to teachers' perceptions that they have professional
respect and admiration from colleagues. In addition, teachers believe that they
have colleague support. Teachers also feel that others respect their knowledge
and expertise.
Lortie (1975) states that "the economic realities of teaching play an
important role in its nature; they undergird its social position and the shape of
careers within the occupation." Maeroff (1988) claims that the meager salaries
and other disenfranchising circumstances of teaching causes teachers not to
respect themselves. The combination of high public expectations and poor
working conditions, as perceived by teachers, creates the tension that erodes
what little status teachers now enjoy. Poor facilities, heavy paperwork unrelated
to instruction, interference with teacher time, low opinions and conflict with the
50
community and boards of education, inadequate parental support, and being

involved in daily activities unrelated to teaching (bus and cafeteria duty, etc.)
enhance teachers feelings of low status. Ashton and Webb (1986) also found
that status is affected by the powerlessness that is characteristic of bureaucratic
organizations. Teachers feel left out and unimportant in critical decisions
affecting their work life in schools.
Summary of Empowerment
Empowerment is defined as enabling teachers who have been silenced to
speak; as helping them to develop a sense of agency, become challengers, and
take initiatives, and as investing them with the right to participate in the
determination of school goals and policies and to exercise professional judgment
about what and how to teach. Critical educational scholars elaborate upon
those general themes by envisioning even more powerful alternatives for
teachers (Sprague, 1991, p. 199).
Job Satisfaction
Interest in job satisfaction has been influenced by the belief that satisfied
employees perform at higher level; however, there is considerable debate over
whether job satisfaction causes productivity or productivity causes job
satisfaction (Petty, McGee, & Cavender, 1984; laffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985).
Since 1935, implications of job satisfaction for organizations and for individuals
51
in organizations have been extensively investigated. In educational settings, for

example, Lester (1988) reviewed the literature for the years 1975 through 1986
and found 1063 articles concerning job satisfaction and teaching (Short &
Rinehart, 1992).
Job satisfaction is an attitude that may vary in intensity, stability, and
consistency based on the level in the organization and the age of the individual
employees. When workers are satisfied, they generally do not leave the
organization, despite inducements to do so (Szilagyi & Wallace, 1983).
Maslow's theory (1962) states that people are motivated to satisfy certain needs,
ranging from physical to self-actualization. Sergiovanni (1967) found, in testing
the theory, that esteem accounted for the largest need deficiency among
educators, with autonomy and self-actualization coming in second.
Peters and Waterman (1983) endeavored to identify conditions that
contributed to successful American companies with excellent reputations,
outstanding financial performance, and a proven record of innovation. They
found that these "best-run companies" were able to motivate average employees
to extraordinary dedication and performance. The companies appealed to their
workers' desire to belong and be part of an important common cause; second,
they designed reward systems so that employees could "stick out" and feel like a
"winner." Peters and Waterman's study emphasized a sense of the significance
of the work, and that employees efforts and abilities were recognized and
appreciated.
52
Vroom (1976, p. 18) postulated an expectancy theory which is based on

two major tenets, or assumptions:
1.
Individuals make decisions about their behavior in organizations using

their abilities to think, reason, and anticipate future events, and
2.
Individual values and attitudes interact with forces in the environment to

influence behavior.
In addition to these assumptions, expectancy theory builds upon the concepts of

valence, instrumentality, and expectancy. Valence refers to the strength of a
person's desire for a particular reward; instrumentality means the probability that
a personal outcome will come from a given level of achievement, and
expectancy refers to the subjective probability that a given effort will yield a
certain performance level.
Job Satisfaction and Empowerment
Lawler and Porter (1967) contend that much of the early literature on job
satisfaction argues in favor of a positive relationship with participation, but fails
to produce empirical evidence to substantiate the claim. Locke and Schweiger
(1979), however, dispute this assertion. After an extensive review of the
literature, Locke and Schweiger found that laboratory studies confirm the
superiority of participation in producing job satisfaction by a margin of two to
one. Of 14 field studies reviewed, 14 indicate that participation enhances in job
satisfaction.
53
Two reasons are cited for the uneven results in the organizational
research literature. Lowin (1968) suggests that the uneven results may be due
to study design. He noted that experimental studies occurred in circumstances
altered to suit the study. A second possible cause for mixed results concerning
the link between participation and job satisfaction is the extent to which
employees are involved in decision-making. Several researchers (Dachler &
Wilpert, 1978; Locke & Schweiger, 1979; Vroom & Yetton, 1973) proposed that
participation forms a continuum, ranging from exclusion to full participation by
managers and other employees. In the educational arena, Alutto and Belasco
(1972) reported that for teachers, as participation increased so did satisfaction.
These findings are corroborated by several studies (David, 1989; Mohrman, et.
al., 1978; Rosenholtz, 1985; Sickler, 1988; and Miskel, Fevurly, & Stewart,
1979).
Other studies have indicated that other constructs of empowerment have
also contributed to teachers sense of job satisfaction. In a study of shared
governance principles (Blase & Blase, 1994), teachers reported feeling that their
principals trusted their professional abilities in many of the same ways described
by Blase and Kirby (1992) in an earlier study. Principals granted professional
autonomy, particularly in instructional matters, and they used more proactive
strategies such as conveying expectations, involving groups in school wide
decisions, and providing opportunities for professional development. All of these
approaches have the effect of making teachers feel "satisfied," "motivated" and
54
"confident" Because of the atmosphere of trust teachers are more likely to

work harder, be optimistic, and feel a sense of professionalism.
Teachers also indicated that greater overall participation and teacher
collaboration led to job satisfaction (Bird & Little, 1986), and realized they are
capable of making important decisions in complicated situations for the interests
of students (Schon, 1987). Granting professional autonomy and supporting
teacher innovation are decidedly beneficial to teachers. They indicated that the
autonomy and freedom to be innovative significantly enhanced their self-esteem,
confidence, professional confidence, creativity, sense of classroom efficacy, and
the ability to reflect on instructional issues (Blase & Blase, 1994). Finally in the
study of shared governance, teachers reported that principals who were caring,
optimistic, and friendly brought feelings of satisfaction to them. Terms such as
"satisfied," "happy," "good," "thankful," "positive," "enjoyable," and "pleased"
were used to denote feelings of satisfaction. Typically, satisfaction was
discussed in terms of successes in the classroom (Blase & Blase, 1994).
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Job Satisfaction
Empowerment, as a construct, has been viewed from both extrinsic and
intrinsic power perspectives. From an extrinsic power perspective,
empowerment is defined according to power or control individuals have over
others, creating a dependence or interdependence of actors (e.g., Bacharach &
Lawler, 1980; Pfeffer, 1981). Although individuals may have greater
55
opportunities for involvement in organizational decision-making, the extrinsic

power awarded them is relative to power held by leaders within the organization.
From an extrinsic power perspective, teacher empowerment has been
viewed as way of improving the professional status of teachers, whereby the
teacher has recognized status, is able to obtain needed knowledge, and is
actively involved in collegial decision-making (Maeroff, 1988). From an intrinsic
power perspective, Maeroff (1988, p.473) explained that teacher empowerment
"has to do with teachers' individual deportment not their ability to boss others . . .
It is the power to exercise one's craft with confidence and to help shape the way
the job is done. In this sense, power stems from teachers' self-determination or
in the choice they feel they can make about teacher-related tasks, as well as
their sense of self-efficacy (Wilson & Coolican, 1996). lacqua, Schumacher, and
Li (1995) analyzed factors which affect the job satisfaction and the job
dissatisfaction for faculty members of a higher educational institution. Their
findings support Hertzberg's two-factor hypothesis; that is, job satisfaction is
related to intrinsic factors, while job dissatisfaction is related to extrinsic factors.
The researchers differ from Hertzberg in that some factors can be both extrinsic
and intrinsic satisfiers. Hertzberg (1987) contends that the extrinsic factor to
earn a good salary is built upon the basic needs of hunger. However, intrinsic
factors such as responsibility and the satisfaction with work itself arise from the
human ability to personally advance and grow.
56
In the educational setting, intrinsic facts involve a direct link between the
faculty and their daily routine, the actual performance of the job itself. "Intrinsic
to the job are, the work itself, responsibility, and growth or achievement"
(Hertzberg, 1987, p. 110). Hertzbergs extrinsic or dissatisfaction-avoidance
factors include organizational policy, status, pay, benefits, and overall work
conditions. These factors comprise the background of one's work, the
environment setting. Extrinsic factors immediately affect the day-to-day job but
are always in the background.
As discovered by Roserrfeld and Zdep (1971), not all aspects of a job
environment can be classified exclusively as intrinsic or extrinsic. They asked
six industrial psychology professors to classify criterion items as being clearly
intrinsic or extrinsic. Several items were classified as "neutral." Examining this
finding, a new category of variables called neutral variable may be defined which
reflect both content and context of the job. In the setting of higher education, an
example of a neutral variable would be the ability to influence institutional policy.
Some suggest that intrinsic rewards such as professional interest, job
responsibility, psychological recognition, career advancement, skill utilization
and development, enjoyment of work and autonomy in decision-making are
important determinants of both job satisfaction and dissatisfaction (Hanson,
Martin, & Tuch, 1987). Other researchers suggest that extrinsic rewards and
factors such as monetary income, fringe benefits, job security, administrative
57
policy, company reputation, working conditions, and relationships with peers and
management play a critical role in determining job satisfaction (Seybolt, 1976).
The prevailing view has been challenged by Hertzberg, Mausner and
Snyderman (1959, p. 78) Hertzberg (1964,1987). They propose that job
satisfaction is determined by intrinsic factors which are known as motivators
because they are essential for improving the performance or workers. On the
other hand, extrinsic factors which are associated with the context of a job are
the culprits which lead to job dissatisfaction. Hertzberg labeled extrinsic factors
as hygiene factors because they are used for preventing job dissatisfaction, an
analogy to the concept of preventive medicine. Thus, the motivation-hygiene
theory of job attitudes suggests that the opposite of "job satisfaction" is not "job
dissatisfaction." By the same token, the opposite of "job dissatisfaction" is "not
job dissatisfaction," not "job satisfaction."
Summary of Job Satisfaction
Satisfaction, Maeroff (1988) argued, goes hand in hand with breaking
down the isolation that keeps teachers separate and prevents the networks from
developing that might move teachers closer to professionalism. To complete the
decision-making loop and incorporate teachers into it, means building better
bonds to connect teachers with each other and with the principals. It means
fostering the sort of collegiality that has been all too unusual in elementary and
secondary schools. Teachers and principals need to see each other as
collaborators in making schools work effectively for students Principals must
58
reexamine the school structure and make certain that teachers are involved in
matters that are of importance to them. Finally, they must recognize and
understand factors which result in intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction for teachers.
Demographic Factors
Demographic factors were considered in this investigation of the
relationship between teacher perceptions of empowerment and job satisfaction
within the context of high school organization. Demographic factors are included
as possible correlates with job satisfaction. The measured impact of
demographic factors has varied from study to study. One study that addressed
job satisfaction in higher education (lacqua & Others, 1995) revealed that age,
gender, and degrees have little or no significant impact on job satisfaction;
however, there is relationship between some of the demographic variables and
job dissatisfaction. A study conducted by Short and Rinehart (1992), which
included demographic factors such as age, experience, and gender revealed that
age and experience were found to be significant predictors of one's sense of
empowerment. A study conducted by Klecker (1996) in Ohio's Venture Capital
Schools revealed that demographic differences were found across subscales
measures. Elementary teachers had a greater sense of empowerment than did
high school teachers. There was an unexpectedly high proportion of female
principals in the Venture Capital School sample. Female principals recognized
59
the benefits of school changes and reported taking measures to facilitate change
to a greater extent than male principals.
Yet another study conducted by Nnadozie (1993) addressed the
relationship participation in decision-making and school culture and perception of
job satisfaction among teachers. Cross tabulation analysis indicated that the
teacher demographic facts such as race, sex, teaching experience, and level of
education, and the organizational context factors such as school size and Title II
Chapter I participation are important in explaining within-variable variance, but
are unimportant in predicting job satisfaction. Data on the role of demographics
in the relationship of empowerment and job satisfaction are still sparse. Further
research must occur in this area before any conclusive evidence can be
tabulated.
Chapter Summary
Obviously, one of the best ways to strengthen the teaching profession and
to recruit and maintain competent teachers is to make teaching a more satisfying
career. Not only would this encourage bright young prospects to become
teachers, it would also encourage experienced teachers to remain in the
profession. (Latham, 1998, p. 82).
Much research has revealed that teachers want more "power," or freedom
to use professional discretion as they work with their colleagues. That is,
teachers want the authority to make final decisions in the classroom and in the
school, individually and collectively. Teachers also want autonomy and the
60
opportunity to grow professionally and know that they have an impact on the
lives of students. Teachers who are empowered through shared governance,
autonomy, professional growth, impact, and other attributes tend to be satisfied
in their work role (Blase & Blase, 1994).
61
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Based on the literature review, America faces a serious educational crisis.
In the next few years America will experience a tremendous teacher shortage.
By the years 2000-2004, forty percent of the public school teachers will retire or
leave the teaching profession according to the U.S. Department of Education
figures. Older teachers are retiring earlier in large numbers and many others
are resigning and accepting other jobs. While the reasons for this exodus are
many, research indicates that dissatisfaction with the profession can be traced to
public education bureaucracies which often impede professional growth and
sometimes deny teachers access to decisions regarding their students and
themselves. Overall dissatisfaction has created problems which often result in
teacher burn-out, early retirement, and career changes.
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the
perception of empowerment and job satisfaction among high school teachers.
Such a study is invaluable to school districts which are concerned about the
recruitment and retention of competent teachers.
62
Research Questions
1.
Are teachers sense of empowerment related to their job satisfaction?
2.
Can the variance in teacher satisfaction as measured by the Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire be explained by the variables of teacher
empowerment?
3.
Are teachers in certain schools more empowered than those in other

schools?
Hypotheses
1.
H O I: There are no statistically significant relationships as measured by

professional growth) and teachers sense of:
1.1 Extrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire
1.2 Intrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota
2.
H02: There is no composite set of empowerment variables which in

combination explain a significant portion of the variance in teacher
satisfaction as measured by School Participant Empowerment Scale and
teachers sense of:
2.1
Intrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota

63

3.
H03: There are no statistically significant differences among the different

schools in teachers sense of empowerment
Population and Sample

The population of this study included high school teachers whose central
offices reside in Jackson County, Missouri. The study then entailed ten school
districts. From the 1,290 high school teachers in Jackson County, 33% were
randomly selected. The sample size initially included 426 teachers, but one
school district declined. Thus, 311 teachers from nine school districts were
selected to participate in the study. A total of 247 teachers responded to the
questionnaires. A list of school districts was obtained from the Missouri School
Directory, 1997-98, Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary
Education.
Data Collection and Instrumentation

Data were gathered via mail surveys using School Participant
Empowerment Scale and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire instruments
which measure empowerment variables and overall job satisfaction, respectively.
A demographic survey was also included. Follow-up letters were sent to
increase the return rate. Initially a cover letter was sent assuring the participants
64
of the confidentiality of their responses and the opportunity to review the results
of the responses. Letters were sent to the superintendents of each district, the
principals of the individual schools, and randomly selected teachers.
The School Participant Empowerment Scale
One of the instruments, The School Participant Empowerment Scale
developed by Paula M. Short and James S. Rinehart (1992), measures six
variables of empowerment. There are 38 items on the questionnaire loaded on
six subscales. These factors and their internal consistency coefficients are:
decision-making (.89), professional growth (.83), status (.86), self-efficacy (.84),
autonomy (.81), and impact (.82), and an overall coefficient alpha of .94.
Content validity was established by rating variables on how well they
represented empowerment in schools. Only items that loaded .60 or greater
were used to describe the six variables of empowerment.
The School Participant Empowerment Scale is rated on a 5 point Likert
scale; 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neutral), 4 (agree), and 5 (strongly
agree). Participants were to rate the 38 statements in terms of how well the
statements describe their feelings. An example is ... I am given the responsibility
to monitor programs... Participant shaded in one of the 5 which was most
appropriate to him/her.
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
The second instrument, The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, was
developed by the Vocational Psychology Research department at the University
65
of Minnesota in 1967. The questionnaire was revised in 1977 by the University

and a shortened version was developed that measures satisfaction with specific
aspects of work and work environments. The Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire makes it feasible to obtain a more individualized picture of work
satisfaction with the job as a whole. Research has shown that there are
individual differences in the vocational needs of people. This short form meets
the acceptable standard for reliability and shows evidence of validity. It takes
only five minutes to complete the short form.
There are three scales on the short form. The Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire consists of 20 items from the long form that best represent each
of the 20 scales. Factor analysis of the 20 items resulted in two factors plus a
general satisfaction score. Item analysis are: Intrinsic (1,2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
15, 16, and 20), extrinsic (5, 6,12, 13, 14, and 19), and general satisfaction (120). The purpose of Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire is to give the
participant a chance to express how she/he feels about the present job, what
things he/she is satisfied with and what things he/she is not satisfied with.
In general, the reliability coefficients obtained were high; for the Intrinsic
Satisfaction scale, the coefficients ranged from .84 (for the two assembly
groups) to .91 for engineers. For the Extrinsic Satisfaction scale, the coefficients
varied from .77 (for electronics assemblers) to .82 (for engineers and
machinists). On the General Satisfaction scale, the coefficients varied from .87
(for assemblers) to .92 (for engineers). Median reliability coefficients were .86
66
for Intrinsic Satisfaction, .80 for Extrinsic Satisfaction and .90 for General
Satisfaction.
Validity for the long form and short form is based on the same concepts of
intrinsic, extrinsic and general satisfaction. Evidence for the validity of
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire is derived indirectly from construct
validation studies of Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ), based on the
Theory of Work Adjustment. In one set of studies, the separate scales of the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire were dependent variables to be predicted
from the relationship between vocational needs (measured by the MIQ) and
(estimated) levels of occupational reinforcement (Weiss, 1964).
Data Analysis
The statistical analysis used to test the hypothesis concerning the
relationship between teachers' sense of empowerment and job satisfaction was
the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. Pearson Product Moment
was used because of its linear relationship and the use of continuous scores.
Canonical Correlation Analysis was used to test the hypothesis regarding
composite sets of selected empowerment variables and the variance in teacher
satisfaction. Canonical analysis was applied because of its exploratory nature.
This statistical analysis undertakes a large number of variables measured at the
same or different points in time related to one another. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was applied to determine if teachers in one school were more
67
empowered than teachers in other schools. This statistical analysis, ANOVA,

was used to compare the amount of between-group variances in individuals
scores with the amount of within-group variances.
Summary
One problem plaguing American education is the impending teacher
shortage. According to the U.S. Department of Education figures, 40% of the
public school teachers will retire between the years 2000-2004. The purpose of
this study was to examine the relationship between the perceptions of
empowerment and job satisfaction among high school teachers. The sample
included 247 teachers from 9 school districts whose central office is located in
Jackson County, Missouri. Participants responded to the School Participant
Empowerment Scales and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, in addition
to questions on demography. Data were analyzed by descriptive statistics,
Pearson Product Moment Correlations and Canonical Analysis, and Analysis of
Variance. Data are presented in the following chapters.
68
Chapter IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to determine if significant relationships
exist between high school teachers perception of empowerment based on the
School Participant Empowerment Scale (School Participant Empowerment
Scale) and their job satisfaction as determined by the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire). Such study is invaluable
to school districts concerned with the recruitment and retention of competent
teachers.
Design of the Study

The study was designed to examine relationships between the predictive
variables of selected factors of empowerment and the criteria variables of
intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction. The study was limited to school
districts whose district offices are located in Jackson County, Missouri.
Data were collected from two questionnaires, School Participant
Empowerment Scale and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire which were
given to randomly selected Jackson County High School Teachers. Data also
included information gathered from teachers.
69
Sample
The population for this study consisted of school districts whose central
office resides in Jackson County, Missouri. As this study was designed to
examine teachers perception of empowerment and their job satisfaction, the
study was restricted to high school teachers.
Teachers chosen for this study were randomly selected from information
gathered from the 1997-98 Missouri School Directory published by the
Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. This study originally
entailed ten school districts. Of the 1290 high school teachers in Jackson
County, thirty-three percent were randomly selected. Eventually one school
district was unable to participate in the study, consequently the study consisted
of nine school districts and 311 teachers were selected to participate in the
study.
Descriptive Statistics
The sample consisted of 132 female teachers, 114 male teachers, and one did
not respond. Thirty-two teachers are single; 178 teachers are married; 34
teachers were divorced or legally separated, one was widowed and two did not
respond to marital status. The average age for teachers was 43. The youngest
was 24, and 68 was the oldest age for teachers in this study. Ethnicity of the
sample included one American Indian, one Asian, nine Blacks, six Hispanics,
224 Whites, 3 represented other ethnicities, and 3 teachers did not respond.
70
The years of teacher experience ranged from 1 0 - 3 0 plus years; 73

teachers had less than 10 years teaching experience; there were 84 teachers
who had more than 10 years, but less than 20 years teaching experience; 71
teachers had more than 20 years teaching experience, but less than 30 years
and the final group of 19 represented those who had been teaching 30 years or
more. The average years of teaching experience was 16. The range of degrees
included Bachelor's to Doctorate; the sample included one teacher with a
Bachelors, 21 with a Bachelor's Degree plus additional hours, and 41 have a
Masters degree. There were 49 teachers with a Masters Degree plus additional
work, 114 have an Education Specialist (46.2% of the sample), 9 have
Education Specialist plus additional work, 7 teachers have a Doctor of
Education, 1 has a Doctor of Philosophy, and 4 teachers have other types or
combinations of degrees. On the question of tenure, 174 teachers have tenure;
72 do not have tenure, and one did not respond.
Table 1
Simple Statistics on Intrinsic Satisfaction and Extrinsic Satisfaction . . . .
Correlation
Analysis Within Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

2
VAR Variables:
Variable
Extrinsic Satisfaction
Intrinsic Satisfaction
Mean
Std Dev
Sum
Minimum
Maximum
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
240
50.10833
5.15337
12026
33.00000
60.00000
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
246
20.23171
4.63253
4977
6.00000
30.00000
71
Table 1 is simple statistics of intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic

satisfaction with the respondents being 240 and 246 respectively. The obvious
difference in the sum, intrinsic being 12026 and extrinsic being 4977, as well as
the minimums 33 and six, and the maximums being 60 and 30 respectively is
attributed to more questions regarding intrinsic satisfaction than extrinsic
satisfaction.
The predictive variables of empowerment (decision-making, professional
growth, status, efficacy, autonomy, and impact) were correlated with the criterion
variables of intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction to test the hypothesis
which stated:
HO 1: There are no statistically significant relationships as measured by School
Participant Empowerment Scale between the variable of teacher empowerment
and teachers sense of:
1.1
Extrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire
1.2
Intrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire
Pearson Product Moment Coefficients of Correlation were completed to examine

the relationships and the significance level of those relationships.
Correlation between empowerment variables and intrinsic satisfaction
were moderate, with autonomy and intrinsic satisfaction being the lowest with
0.46853. Correlations between extrinsic satisfaction and empowerment
72
variables were somewhat lower, i.e., status was 0.36769, autonomy was
0.34745, and impact was 0.37874. On the other hand, the highest correlation
was between professional growth and extrinsic satisfaction with a coefficient of
0.61927. Correlations were moderate to low positive. The p-value between all
six empowerment variables and intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction
were 0.0001.
Table 2
Correlation Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale and
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Pearson Correlation Coeffidents/Prob>|R| under Ho: Rho=0/Number of Observations
School Participant Empowerment Scale and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire by Intrinsic
Satisfaction and Extrinsic Satisfaction
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
DECISION
0.56497
0.000
229
0.53076
0.0001
234
GROWTH
0.54031
0.0001
241
0.61927
0.0001
241
STATUS
0.53330
0.0001
238
0.36769
0.0001
243
EFFICACY
0.59407
0.0001
237
0.47536
0.0001
242
AUTONOMY
0.46853
0.0001
236
0.34745
0.0001
242
IMPACT
0.57888
0.0001
233
0.37874
0.0001
231
73
Canonical Correlation Analysis

Statistics associated with the canonical correlation method of regression
analysis were used to test Hypothesis 2 which stated:
HO 2: There is no composite set of empowerment variables which in
combination, explain a significant portion of the variance in teacher
satisfaction as measured by School Participant Empowerment
Scale and teachers' sense of:
2.1 Intrinsic job satisfaction as measured by Minnesota
In Table 3, correlation between intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction is
positive moderate at 0.6032. Correlation among the X variables show the
highest coefficients between impact and efficacy at 0.8531, the second highest
is between impact and status at 0.7352, and the third is between efficacy and
status at 0.7178. The three lowest are: status and autonomy at 0.3177,
autonomy and growth at 0.4221, and decision-making and status at 0.4262.
74
Table 3
Canonical Analysis between School Participant Empowerment Scale and
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire . . . . . Correlations Amono the Original Y
Variables__________________________________________________________
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
Satisfaction
Intrinsic Satisfaction
Extrinsic Satisfaction
1.0000
0.6032
0.6032
1.0000
Correlations Among the X variables

DECISION
GROWTH
STATUS
DECISION
1.0000
0.5643
0.4262
GROWTH
0.5643
1.0000
0.5465
STATUS
0.4262
0.5465
1.0000
EFFICACY
0.5465
0.5629
0.7178
AUTONOMY
0.6396
0.4221
0.3177
IMPACT
0.5468
0.5503
0.7352
EFFICACY
AUTONOMY
IMPACT
DECISION
0.5465
0.6396
0.5468
GROWTH
0.5629
0.4221
0.5503
STATUS
0.7178
0.3177
0.7352
EFFICACY
1.0000
0.4482
0.8531
AUTONOMY
0.4482
1.0000
0.4695
IMPACT
0.8531
0.4695
1.0000
75
Correlations Between the Y variables and the X variables

DECISION
GROWTH
STATUS
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.5525
0.5477
0.5580
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.5268
0.6376
0.3758
EFFICACY
AUTONOMY
IMPACT
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.5843
0.4733
0.5835
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.4516
0.3274
0.3801
76
Table 4
Scale and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Canonical
Correlation
Adjusted
Canonical
Correlation
Approx
Standard
Error
Squared
Canonical
Correlation
0.740622
0.732307
0.030791
0.548521
0.415169
0.399343
0.056444
0.172366
Eigenvalues of INV(E)*H
- CanRsq/(1 -CanRsq)
Eigenvalue
Difference
Proportion
Cumulative
1.2149
1.0067
0.8537
0.8537
0.2083
0.1463
1.0000
Test of HO: The canonical correlations in the current row and all that follow are zero
LikelihoodI
Ratio
Approx F
Num DF
Den DF
PR>F
0.37365923
22.0452
12
416
0.0001
0.82763430
8.7054
209
0.0001
Maximum Variables Statistics and F Approximations

S-2
M-1.5
Value
N=103
F
Num DF
Den DF
PR>P
Wilks Lambda
0.37365923
22.0452
12
416
0.0001
Pillais Trace
0.72088703
19.6315
12
418
0.0001
Hotelling Lawley Trace
1.42320719
24.5503
12
414
0.0001
Roys Greatest Root
1.21494407
42.3206
209
0.0001
Note:
F Statistic for Roy's Greatest Root is an upper bound.

Note F Statistic for Wilks Lambda is exact
77
Canonical correlation is the correlation between two transformed

(derived) variables. The first canonical correlation is 0.74 and the second
canonical correlation is 0.415. The adjusted canonical correlation is 0.73 and
the second one is 0.399. Adjusted correlation is the unbiased estimation of the
canonical correlation. The squared canonical correlation represents the
proportion of variance of one of the transformed (derived) variables that is
associated with the variance of the other transformed (derived) variable.
The likelihood ratio test indicates that two canonical correlations are
statistically significant at the significant level of 0.05 (their p-values are 0.0001).
Hence, the correlations between two sets of variables can be accounted for by
two canonical variates.
The standardized coefficients for the Y and X variables are represented
by the Z scores. In Table 5 there are 4 sets of variables, V1 with intrinsic
satisfaction at 0.115 and extrinsic satisfaction at 0.113. A second set, W1
shows coefficients for decision-making at 0.05 and impact at -0.029. The two
sets V1 and W 1 are the first canonical correlation at 0.74. Intrinsic satisfaction
for V2 is 0.214 and extrinsic satisfaction is -0.248. Decision-making is -0.0439
and impact is 0.285. The second canonical correlation is correlated between V2
and W2 and the coefficient is 0.415 as in Table 4.
78
Table 5
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Raw Canonical Coefficients for
the Y Variables
Raw Canonical Coefficients for the Y variables

V1
V2
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.1152568924
0.2144891596
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.1138272043
-0.248067557
Raw Canonical Coefficients for the X variables

W1
W2
DECISION
0.0502077446
-0.043931101
GROWTH
0.139468903
-0.260137759
STATUS
0.0592412134
0.2098860431
EFFICACY
0.0877573055
-0.110101342
0.022592068
0.1922062872
-0.029071276
0.285786786
AUTONOMY
IMPACT
I Canonical Coefficients for the Y variables

V1
V2
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.5935
1.1044
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.5229
-1.1395
79
Standardized Canonical Coefficients for the X variables

W1
W2
DECISION
0.3367
-0.2946
GROWTH
0.4859
-0.9063
STATUS
0.1585
0.5616
EFFICACY
0.2556
-0.3207
AUTONOMY
0.0623
0.5302
-0.0794
0.7805
IMPACT
80
Table 6
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and their Canonical Structure
Correlations Between the Y variables and Their Canonical Variables

V1
V2
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.9089
0.4170
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.8809
-0.4733
Correlations Between the X variables and Their Canonical Variables

W1
W2
DECISION
0.1846
0.0239
GROWTH
0.8890
-02929
STATUS
0.7125
0.4528
EFFICACY
0.7871
0.3148
AUTONOMY
0.6104
0.3604
IMPACT
0.7359
0.5089
Correlations between the Y variables and the Canonical Variables of the X variables
V1
V2
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.6731
0.1731
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.6524
-0.1965
81
Correlations Between the X variables and the Canonical Variables of the Y variables
W1
W2
DECISION
0.6033
0.0099
GROWTH
0.6584
-01.1216
STATUS
0.5277
0.1880
EFFICACY
0.5829
0.1307
AUTONOMY
0.4521
0.1496
IMPACT
0.5451
0.2113
The structure consists of two sets of variables on the X and Y planes and
their dimensions. Set one contains the maximum correlation between linear
functions for Y and X Set two represents the residual variances and are not as
highly correlated as their counterparts. Each correlation shows that set one has
a moderate to high p-valued, i.e., correlations between Y variables and their
canonical variables show Intrinsic Satisfaction with a p-value of .90 for V1 and
.41 for V2. Correlation between the Y variables and the canonical variables of
the X variables shows Extrinsic Satisfaction with a p-value of .65 for W1 and .17
for W1. The highest correlation is .9089 from Intrinsic Satisfaction (V1), and the
lowest p-value in set one is .4521 from V1, correlation between the X variables
and the canonical variables of the Y variables. The highest p-value from set 2 is
.5089 from W2, correlations between the X variables and their canonical
variables. The lowest p-valued from set 2 is -0.4733 V2 from Extrinsic
Satisfaction, correlations between the Y variables and their canonical variables.
82
Table 7
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Redundancy Analysis
Raw Variance of the Y variables Explained by

The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Their Own
Canonical Variables
Proportion
0.8039
0.1961
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.8039
0.5485
0.1724
0.4409
0.0338
0.4409
0.4747
1.0000
Raw Variance of the X variables

The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Their Own
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.6286
0.0717
0.6286
0.7003
0.5485
0.1724
0.3448
0.0124
0.3448
0.3571
Standardized Variance of the X variables Explained by

Their Own
Canonical Variables
Proportion
1
2
0.8010
0.1990
The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.8010
0.5485
0.1724
0.4394
0.0343
0.4394
0.4737
1.0000
Standardized Variance of the X variables Explained by

Their Own
Canonical Variables
The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.5826
0.1299
0.5826
0.7124
0.5485
0.1724
0.3195
0.0224
0.3195
0.3419
83
The redundancy is a measure of association between the y"s and the xs based
on the correlation between the variables and canonical variates (Rencher,
1995). The opposite canonical variables have a cumulative proportion of
0.4737. This redundancy measure suggests that about 47.37% of the variance
in the Y variables (Intrinsic Satisfaction and Extrinsic Satisfaction) is accounted
for by the X variables. Table 8 further explains the redundancy measure.
Table 8
Canonical Redundancy Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment
Scale and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Squared Multiple Correlations Between the Y variables and the First M Canonical Variables of the
X variables
M
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.4531
0.4831
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.4256
0.4642
Squared Multiple Correlations Between the X variables and the First M* Canonical Variables of the
Y variables
M
DECISION
0.3640
0.3641
GROWTH
0.4335
0.4483
STATUS
0.2784
0.3138
EFFICACY
0.3398
0.3569
AUTONOMY
02044
02268
IMPACT
02971
0.3417
84
The last column (0.4831 and 0.4642) of the first matrix gives the R2 that
would result from regressing each of the Y variables on the x variables and the
last column (0.36,0.44, . . . 0.34) of the second matrix gives the R2 that would
result from regressing each of the X variables on the Y variables. It can be seen
that the total redundancy for the X variables is equal to the average of the Rs.
That is . . . 0.4831 + 0.4642/2+ 0.47.37.
85
Table 9
Extrinsic Satisfaction Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Canonical
Correlation
Adjusted
Canonical
Correlation
Approx
Standard
Error
Squared
Canonical
Correlation
0.679979
0.671788
0.036330
0.462372
Eigenvalues oflNV(E)*H
= CanRsq/(1 -CanRsq)
Eigenvalue
Difference
0.8600
Proportion
Cumulative
1.0000
1.0000
Note:
Likelihood
Ratio
Approx F
Num dF
Den dF
PR>F
0.5376282
30.5308
213
0.0001
The F statistic is exact
Multivariate Statistics and Exact F Statistics

S= 1
M =2
N =105.5
F
Value
Num dF
Den dF
PR>P
Wilks Lambda
0.53762812
30.5308
213
0.0001
Pillai's Trace
0.46237188
30.5308
213
0.0001
0.86002177
30.5308
213
0.0001
Roys Greatest Root
0.86002177
30.5308
213
0.0001
86
The likelihood ration test indicates that the canonical correlation

coefficient is statistically significant at the significant level of 0.5 (p-value is
0.0001). Table 9 shows four test statistics Wilks' Lambda, Pillais Trace,
Hotelling Lawley Trace, and Roy's Greatest Root and associated approximate
Fs which were calculated to test the significance of the correlation of set I. The
p-value of 0.0001 indicates significant correlation.
87
Table 10
Extrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Canonical
Structure
Correlations Between the Y variables and their Canonical Variables
V1
Extrinsic
1.0000
Satisfaction
Correlations Between the X variables and Their Canonical Variables
W1
DECISION
0.7718
GROWTH
0.9353
STATUS
0.5533
EFFICACY
0.6627
AUTONOMY
0.4866
IMPACT
0.5475
Correlations Between the Y variables and the Canonical Variables of the X variables
W1
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.6800
Correlations Between the X variables and the Canonical Variables of the Y variables
V1
DECISION
0.5248
GROWTH
0.6360
STATUS
0.3762
EFFICACY
0.4506
AUTONOMY
0.3309
IMPACT
0.3723
88
The structure consists of one set of variables on the Y plane (Extrinsic

Satisfaction) and a set of variables on the X plane. Set 1 represents the
maximum contributions to the correlation.
Table 11
Extrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Canonical
Redundancy Anafvsis

Their Own
Canonical Variables
The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
1.0000
1.0000
0.4624
0.4624
0.4624
Raw Variance of the X variables explained by

Their Own
Canonical Variables
The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.5390
0.5390
0.4624
0.2492
0.2492
Standardized Variance of tire Y variables explained by

Their Own
Canonical Variables
The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
1.0000
1.0000
0.4624
0.4624
0.4624
89
Standardized Variance of the X variables explained by

The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Their Own
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.4587
0.4587
0.4624
02121
02121
Squared Multiple Correlations Between the Y variables and the First *M Canonical Variables of the
X variables
M
Extrinsic
Satisfaction
0.4624
The opposite canonical variable from the standardized variance of the Y

variables show the cumulative proportion of 0.4624. This redundancy measure
suggests that about 46.24% of the variance in the Y variables (Extrinsic
Satisfaction) is accounted for by the X variables. The cumulative proportion from
the standardized variance of the X variables show a coefficient of 0.2121. This
means the redundancy measure suggests that about 21.21 % of the variance in
the X variables (6 empowerment variables) is accounted for by the Y variables.
90
Table 12
Intrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Canonical
Correlation
Adjusted
Canonical
Correlation
Approx
Standard
Error
Squared
Canonical
Correlation
0.695052
0.687240
0.035252
0.483097
Eigenvalues of INV(E)*H
= CanRsq/(1 -CanRsq)
Eigenvalue
1
Difference
0.9346
Proportion
Cumulative
1.0000
1.0000
Note:
Likelihood
Ratio
Approx F
Num DF
Den DF
PR>F
0.51690274
32.5552
209
0.0001
The F statistic is exact
Multivariate Statistics and Exact F Statistics

S=1
M=2
N = 103.5
Value
Num DF
Den DF
PR>P
Wilks' Lambda
0.51690274
32.5552
209
0.0001
Pillais Trace
0.48309726
32.5552
209
0.0001
0.93459992
32.5552
209
0.0001
Roys Greatest Root
0.93459992
32.5552
209
0.0001
91
The first canonical set which contains the maximum variables. The
correlation coefficient if 0.70 which is 0.20 greater than Extrinsic Satisfaction.
The likelihood ratio test indicates that the canonical correlation coefficient is
statistically significant at the significant level of 0.5 (p-value is 0.0001). Also,
like Table 9, four test statistics.. Wilks Lambda, Pillais Trace, Hotelling Lawley
Trace, and Roy's Greatest Root and associated approximate Fs were calculated
to test the significance of set 1 correlation. The p-value of 0.0001 indicates
significant correlation.
92
Table 13
Intrinsic Satisfaction in Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Canonical
Redundancy Analvsi
Their Own
Canonical Variables
The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
1.0000
1.0000
0.4831
0.4831
0.4831
Raw Variance of the X variables explained by

The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Their Own
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.6302
0.6302
0.4831
0.3045
0.3045
Standardized Variance of the Y variables explained by

The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Their Own
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
1.0000
1.0000
0.4831
0.4831
0.4831
Standardized Variance of the X variables explained by

The Opposite
Canonical Variables
Their Own
Canonical Variables
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
Canonical
R-Squared
Proportion
Cumulative
Proportion
0.6288
0.6288
0.4831
0.3038
0.3038
Squared Multiple Correlations Between the Y variables and the First M Canonical Variables of the
X variables
1
M
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
0.4831
93
The opposite canonical variable from the standardized variance of the Y

variable show the cumulative proportion of 0.4831. This redundancy measure
suggests that about 46.24% of the variance in the X variables (Intrinsic
Satisfaction) is accounted for by the X variables. The cumulative proportion from
the standardized variance of the X variables show a coefficient of 0.3045. This
means the redundancy measure suggests that about 30.45 % of the variance in
the X variables (empowerment) is accounted for by the Y variables.
ANOVA Statistical Methods

ANOVA (analysis of variance) is a statistical procedure that compares the
amount of between-groups variance in individuals scores with the amount of
within-groups variance. ANOVA was used to compare variances within-groups
and between-groups. The dependent variable, Decision-Making, with a p-value
of 0.5810. Since the significant level is .05, then there is no significance
between and among Decision-Making and the independent variables (schools).
94
Table 14
General Linear Models Procedure on Dependent Variable: Decision-making
Mean
Square
F Value
Pr>F
523.95806538
40.30446657
0.87
0.5810
46.09599028
Source
DF
Sum of
Squares
Model
13
Error
207
9541.86998892
Corrected Total
220
10065.82805430
R-Square
C.V.
Root MSE
DECISION
Mean
0.052053
21.42899
6.7894028
31.683258
Source
DF
Type IS S
Mean Square
F Value
PR>V
SCHOOL
13
523-95806538
40.30446657
0.87
0.581
Source
DF
Type III SS
Mean Square
F Value
Pr>V
SCHOOL
13
523-95806538
40.30446657
0.87
0.581C
Growth is a second dependent variable and the p-value is 0.7818. Since

the value is beyond the significant level, there are no differences between and
within groups.
95
Table 15
General Linear Models Procedure on Dependent Variable: Growth
Source
DF
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Square
F Value
Pr>F
Model
13
108.06610636
8.31277741
0.68
0.7818
Error
207
2531.28230993
12.22841696
Corrected Total
220
2639.34841629
R-Square
C.V.
Root MSE
GROW TH Mean
0.040944
14.21929
3.4969153
24.592760
Source
DF
Type I SS
Mean Square
F Value
PR>V
SCHOOL
13
108.06610636
8.31277741
0.68
0.7818
Source
DF
Type III SS
Mean Square
F Value
Pr>V
SCHOOL
13
108.06610636
8.31277741
0.68
0.7818
Status, a third dependent variable, showed a p-value of 0.3758. Again

there is no significance within and between independent variables (schools).
96
Table 16
General Linear Models Procedure on Dependent Variable: Status
Source
DF
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Square
F Value
Pr>F
Model
13
100.43359897
7.72566146
1.08
0.3758
Error
207
1477.37635578
7.13708384
Corrected Total
220
1577.80995475
R-Square
C.V.
Root MSE
STATUS Mean
0.063654
10.23593
2.6715321
26.099548
Source
DF
Type I SS
Mean Square
F Value
PR>V
SCHOOL
13
100.43359897
7.72566146
1.08
0.3758
Source
DF
Type III SS
Mean Square
F Value
Pr>V
SCHOOL
13
100.43359897
7.72566146
1.08
0.3758
Efficacy, another dependent variable, showed a p-value of 0.6182. This

level is not significant to determine variances within or between the groups.
97
Table 17
General Linear Models Procedure on Dependent Variable: Efficacy
Source
DF
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Square
F Value
Pr>F
Model
13
93.79142959
7.21472535
0.84
0.6182
Error
207
1779.5207861
8.59671878
Corrected Total
220
1873.31221719
R-Square
C.V.
Root MSE
EFFICACY
Mean
0.050067
11.43823
2.9320162
25.633484
Source
DF
Type I SS
Mean Square
F Value
PR>V
SCHOOL
13
93.79142959
7.21472535
0.84
0.6182
Source
DF
Type III SS
Mean Square
F Value
Pr>V
SCHOOL
13
93.798142959
7.21472535
0.84
0.6182
A fifth dependent variable, Autonomy, showed a p-value of 0.2818. Since

this level is not significant, there are no differences within and between the
groups (schools).
98
Table 18
General Linear Models Procedure on Dependent Variable: Autonomy
Source
DF
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Square
F Value
Pr>F
Model
13
117.87887885
9.06760607
1.20
0.2818
Error
207
1565.58718450
7.56322311
Corrected Total
220
1683.46606335
R-Square
C.V.
Root MSE
AUTONOMY
Mean
0.070022
18.54681
2.7501315
14.828054
Source
DF
Type I SS
Mean Square
F Value
PR>V
SCHOOL
13
117.87887885
9.06760607
1.20
0.2818
Source
DF
Type III SS
Mean Square
F Value
Pr>V
SCHOOL
13
117.87887885
9.06760607
1.20
0.2818
The final dependent variable is Impact. Like the other five dependent
variables, Impact has an insignificant p-value of 0.5009. Since the analysis of
variance yielded a non-significant ratio between group variance and within group
variance, there are no differences between and among the dependent variables
of empowerment and the independent groups (schools).
99
Table 19
General Linear Models Procedure on Dependent Variable: Impact
Source
DF
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Square
F Value
Pr>F
Model
13
92.14247290
7.08788253
0.95
0.5009
Error
207
1542.16521941
7.45007352
Corrected Total
220
1634.30769231
R-Square
C.V.
Root MSE
IMPACT Mean
0.056380
10.75251
2.7294823
25.384615
Source
DF
Type I SS
Mean Square
F Value
PR>V
SCHOOL
13
92.14247290
7.08788253
0.95
0.5009
Source
DF
Type III SS
Mean Square
F Value
Pr>V
SCHOOL
13
92.14247290
7.08788253
0.95
0.5009
Summary
An examination of the data gathered showed a strong positive
relationship or correlation between teachers' sense of empowerment and job
satisfaction. The six predictive variables and the two criterion variables are
shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Canonical correlation identifying relationships between two sets of
variables are demonstrated in Tables 3-13. The selected variables of
empowerment, decision-making, impact, status, professional growth, autonomy,
100
and efficacy were the predictive variables. Intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic
satisfaction were the criterion variables. The results showed that two sets were
significantly related. Wilks Lambda also showed that the composite sets of the
variables of teacher empowerment account for a significant portion of the
variance in extrinsic job satisfaction.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare teachers within the
individual schools and teachers between the 14 schools. Findings show that
there were no significant differences in teachers sense of empowerment.
101
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, FINDINGS,
CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section is a summary
and focuses on the design of the study. The second part reports the findings of
the study. The third part focuses on conclusions drawn from the findings, and
the final part presents recommendations for further study.
America faces a serious education crisis. In the next few years there will
be a tremendous teacher shortage. By the 2003-2004 school year, 40% of the
public school teachers will retire or leave the teaching profession. This shortage
has manifested itself in the lack of math, science, special education, and
minority teachers.
The message is clear; if schools are to survive in the twenty-first century,
teachers must begin to re-examine the way they view themselves and make
certain the profession is satisfying. School districts also must reconsider the
role, nature, and disposition of teachers. Such consideration requires a
transformation in the present educational system. One such reform is the
empowerment movement, while teacher empowerment is not the only answer,
this movement can change the course of schools when principals understand
true empowerment and recognize its constraints.
102
Summary of Study Design

The study was designed to examine the relationship between the
perception of empowerment and job satisfaction among high school teachers for
the purpose of recruiting and retaining qualified teachers. The study also
identified independent variables which independently or in combination
contribute to a significant portion of the variance in teacher satisfaction, as well
as determine if any one school was more empowered than the others.
Letters were sent to the superintendents of each school district whose
central office resides in Jackson County, Missouri requesting permission to
distribute questionnaires to randomly selected teachers. Also the letters to the
superintendents asked for a listing of teachers in their high schools. Then a
letter was also sent to the principals of each high school sharing with them the
purpose of the study and the necessity of participation from their teachers. Ten
school districts with 14 high schools were asked to participate. The sample size
originally was 426 teachers, but one school district declined, consequently the
total number of teachers surveyed were 311. The 247 teachers who responded
to the surveys comprised the sample.
The Kansas City Missouri School District whose central office resides in
Jackson County, Missouri was excluded from the study. Several reasons
included the Districts massive desegregation program with its magnet schools
presented different types of problems and issues from the other Jackson County
103
High Schools. Secondly, the Kansas City School District alone had ten high
schools and the number of teachers included would have dominated the type of
responses.
The six selected variables of empowerment (status, impact, autonomy,
professional growth, decision-making and efficacy) were the predictive variables
in Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2. Intrinsic job satisfaction and extrinsic job
satisfaction were the two criterion variables. In Hypothesis 3 the six selected
variables of empowerment were the dependent variables and the fourteen
schools were the independent variables.
Data were collected between April and June, 1998. Additional surveys
were sent out in May 1998 to produce a greater response rate. Data included
responses from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, the School Participant
Empowerment Scale, and survey on demographic information.
Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients were used to examine
relationships between empowerment variables and intrinsic job satisfaction and
extrinsic job satisfaction. Canonical correlation analysis was used to examine if
composite sets of variables in combination explain a significant portion of the
variance in teacher satisfaction. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to
determine if any one school district was more empowered than the others.
Descriptive statistics were used to provide background information of the
sample.
104
Findings and Discussions

To achieve the purpose of this study, the following null hypotheses were
tested:
HO 1: There are no statistically significant relationships as measured bv
professional growthI and teachers* sense of:
1.1

Questionnaire
1.2

Questionnaire
Pearson Coefficients of Correlation were used to test for significant

relationships. Correlation analysis between the variables of teacher
empowerment and teachers sense of extrinsic job satisfaction and intrinsic job
satisfaction by Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire resulted in all six variables
being significantly related with teachers sense of extrinsic satisfaction and
intrinsic satisfaction. All p-values were under 0.05.
The null hypothesis was rejected. Research conducted regarding
empowerment and job satisfaction has repeatedly shown a strong correlation
between the two. This study validates previous research on empowerment and
job satisfaction. Interesting enough and appropriately, this study examined
intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction separately. Teachers from the 14
105
schools believe that impact, efficacy, professional growth, autonomy, decision

making, and status are important factors in empowerment and that those factors
help determine the level of intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic satisfaction.
The relationship between empowerment and job satisfaction was
investigated in a study by James S. Rinehart and Paul M. Short on job
satisfaction and empowerment among teacher leaders, reading recovery
teachers and regular classroom teachers. The instruments for the study were
the School Participant Empowerment Scale, the same one used this study, and
the Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire. The results indicated a strong and
positive relationship between empowerment and job satisfaction (r=73, p=.000).
Follow-up ANOVA tests on empowerment (F=12.12, p=.000) and job satisfaction
(F=3.39, p=.038) indicated significant differences between Reading Recovery
Teacher Leaders, Reading Recovery Teachers, and classroom teachers.
Dunnetts Post Hoc Test revealed that the Reading Recovery Teacher Leaders
perceived more job satisfaction and empowerment than the other two groups of
teachers. These findings suggest that to increase job satisfaction among
teachers school administrators and policy makers should develop management
structures that enhance teacher empowerment (Rinehart & Short, 1994).
The Rinehart and Short study not only substantiated the positive
relationship between empowerment and job satisfaction, but also makes a case
for structuring reforms based on the empowerment of teachers.
106
HO 2: There is no composite set of empowerment variables which in

combination, explain a significant portion of the variance in teacher satisfaction
as measured bv School Participant Empowerment Scale and teachers' sense of
2.1

Questionnaire
2.2

Questionnaire
Canonical correlation analysis between the sets of teacher empowerment

and intrinsic job satisfaction showed:
1. Wilks Lambda (p-value = 0.0001) shows they are significantly related.
2. The composite sets of the empowerment variables of teacher
empowerment accounts for 48.31% of the variance in intrinsic job satisfaction.
Canonical correlation analysis between the sets of teacher empowerment
and extrinsic job satisfaction showed:
1. Wilks Lambda (p-value = 0.0001) shows that the variables of
empowerment and extrinsic job satisfaction are significantly related.
2. The composite sets of the variables of teacher empowerment accounts
for 46.24% of the variance in extrinsic job satisfaction. In both cases the null
hypothesis was rejected.
Based on data analysis, teachers varied on empowerment variables
which led to their sense of extrinsic job satisfaction and intrinsic job satisfaction.
Some teachers believed that autonomy and professional growth were important
107
factors in intrinsic job satisfaction, but other teachers may have felt that status
and impact were important to intrinsic job satisfaction. One fact for certain, the
variances in job satisfaction were the result of the 247 teachers different sense
of empowerment
HO 3: There are no significant differences among the various schools in
teachers' sense of empowerment.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare variances withingroups and between-groups. Each dependent variable was correlated with the
schools. The purpose then was to determine where the schools were different in
terms of the dependent variables.
Wilks Lambda (p-value is 0.1987) shows that the null hypothesis cannot
be rejected. There are no statistically significant differences among teachers'
sense of empowerment in the various schools.
Conclusions
Extrinsic job satisfaction and intrinsic job satisfaction showed significant
relationship between selected variables of empowerment (status, impact,
professional growth, autonomy, decision-making, and efficacy), in all instances
except professional growth, the correlation between intrinsic satisfaction and
variables of empowerment were slightly higher than the correlation between
extrinsic satisfaction and variables of empowerment. Data from the Metiife
survey supported the view that extrinsic satisfaction was fairly evenly spread
108
across school levels and school locations. Results from a study by Lee, Dedrick
and Smith (1991) further substantiate the conclusion, yet clarify the role that
extrinsic factors" do play (Latham, 1998).
Researchers expanded the boundaries of extrinsic factors to include
sociologically extrinsic factors, and compared the job efficacy and satisfaction
of public school teachers with that of Catholic school teachers. Although the
public school teacher had a slightly smaller average class size and a much
higher average salary, the Catholic school teachers were significantly more
likely to report feeling efficacious and satisfied. Further analysis of
sociologically extrinsic factors does help to explain the disparity in job
satisfaction. Teachers in the Catholic schools were more likely than their public
school counterparts to be granted a degree of autonomy in their classroom
activities, and were also more likely to communicate and collaborate with the
other teachers in their school (Latham, 1998).
The Lee, Dedrick and Smith study (1991) is relevant because it shows
that teacher satisfaction can be influenced to some extent through school policy.
The author, Latham, suggests that schools can focus on goals such as creating
a collaborative environment for teachers as part of a strategy for promoting their
job satisfaction. However, as Latham acknowledges...intrinsic rewards still play
the pivotal role; a teacher who loves seeing students grow and develop will likely
be more satisfied than a teacher who does not feel that kind of love, regardless
of extrinsic factors.
109
Recommendation for School Practice

Introduction
Based on the significant results of this study on the relationship between
teacher empowerment and job satisfaction, central office and site based
administrators should create structures and an environment where
empowerment is possible. Such a plan should include:
provide a clear, concise definition of empowerment
provide an accountability system for teachers
give teachers real influence, responsibility, and ownership
encourage more collaborative work to reduce teacher isolation
recognize teacher accomplishments
provide opportunity for teachers to visit schools which are considered

empowered.
According to Sprague, Viewed critically, teacher empowerment becomes
more than just another problem to study; it is a project that can unite
communication educators across specialities and levels . Educators must
rethink their status and understand that passive or active resistance to forces
that deprive teachers of their professional power is not the only path to
empowerment. Empowerment can be achieved through shared leadership and a
transformative vision of their daily work with students, recognizing in themselves
the higher-order, distinctive role they have in society. In short there must be a
paradigm shift in the way we view educators (Sprague, 1992).
110
Recommendations for Further Research

1. Since the study showed a moderate to high correlation between
teachers perception of empowerment and job satisfaction among rural and
suburban teachers whose central office resides in Jackson County, Missouri, a
study should be completed to determine the correlation between urban teachers
sense of empowerment and job satisfaction. Then comparisons should be made
of the different populations to determine the most significant variables of
empowerment and if the three different populations are more favorable to
extrinsic satisfaction, intrinsic satisfaction, or both are equally favorable.
2. Select several rural and several suburban schools from the previous
study, and complete a qualitative study on why teachers in those schools seem
to be empowered and satisfied. Also determine the nature and level of
empowerment.
3. Research is needed to determine whether or not empowerment as a
construct by itself can actually lead to the recruitment and retention of competent
teachers.
The strongest result of this study is the validation that there is a positive
correlation or relationship between teachers sense of empowerment and
extrinsic satisfaction and intrinsic satisfaction. It is important that school
districts, board of directors, superintendents, and principals begin to understand
the concept of empowerment and its implication for school reform. It is also
important that they include the empowerment movement as a means of recruiting
111
and retaining competent teachers. It is not enough to espouse empowerment for

teachers, but boards of directors, superintendents, and principals must structure
schools were empowerment is the nature of the institution, not the exception.
Research supports that true empowerment leads to job satisfaction, and satisfied
teachers remain on the job longer.
112
APPENDIX A
LETTER TO SUPERINTENDENT
April 14, 1998
Dear Superintendent
I am a doctoral student enrolled at the University of Missouri-Columbia working
under the supervision of Dr. Roger O. Harting. My dissertation is focused on the
relationship between teacher empowerment and perceptions of job satisfaction
with implications for teacher development and retention. The design of the study
calls for the selection of a random sample of high school teachers from among
those employed in Jackson County, Missouri, who will be asked to provide
information on demography and to complete two short questionnaires; one
relating to perceptions about empowerment and one related to perceptions
regarding job satisfaction. All data collected will be treated as confidential and
no individuals or districts will be identified by responses.
I need your help in identifying the population of high school teachers employed
in school districts in Jackson County from which a random sample might be
drawn. To help me with this, I am requesting that you send me an alphabetical
list of the high school teachers employed in your district, along with identification
of the school in which they are primarily assigned. I have enclosed a stamped,
self-addressed envelope for this purpose.
Your assistance with this matter is vital to the success of my study and is very
much appreciated. Should you have questions or concerns, please feel free to
contact either of us.
Sincerely,
Naomi Lanney
Researcher
W: (816) 418-3135
H: (826)763-0554
Roger D. Harting
Dissertation Supervisor
W: (573) 882-7831
113
APPENDIX B
LETTER TO PRINCIPALS
Dear Principal:
Your teachers have been randomly selected to participate in a research study
being conducted at the University of Missouri-Columbia. The purpose of the
study is to determine whether or not a positive relationship exists between
teachers perceptions of empowerment and job satisfaction.
The survey instruments are designed to address information vital to job

satisfaction and empowerment Demographic questions are also included. The
entire surveys should not exceed thirty minutes.
Your teachers participation is greatly needed; their experiences and feelings are
critical to this study. After teachers have completed the surveys and
demographic information, they must return their responses immediately in the
self-addressed, stamped envelope.
Should you or your teachers have any concerns or questions, please contact
either or both individuals named below.
Dr. Roger D. Harting

Dissertation Advisor
Department of Education Administration
Columbia, Missouri
573-882-7831
Naomi Lanney
Principal
East Magnet High School
Kansas City, Missouri
816-418-3135
114
Dear Teacher
You have been randomly selected to participate in a research study being
conducted at the University of Missouri-Columbia. The purpose of the study is
to determine whether or not a positive relationship exists between teachers'
perceptions of empowerment and job satisfaction.
The survey instruments, School Participant Empowerment Scales and Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire, are designed to provide information regarding your
feelings/opinions on empowerment and job satisfaction. Demographic questions
also are included. The surveys and demographic information should not take
more than 30 minutes to complete.
Your participation and prompt response are greatly needed; your experiences
and feelings are critical to this study. Please forward completed responses in
the self-addressed, stamped envelope. Should you have concerns or questions,
please contact either or both individuals named below:
Dr. Roger Harting

Dissertation Advisor
Department of Education Administration
Columbia, Missouri
573-882-7831
Naomi Lanney
Principal
East Magnet High School
Kansas City, Missouri
816-418-3135
115
APPENDIX C
LETTERS TO TEACHERS
Dear Teacher
As you recall, three weeks ago you received questionnaires regarding teacher
empowerment, job satisfaction, and demography. Enclosed is a second set of
questionnaires which need to be completed as soon as possible. Please
complete the surveys and return them immediately in the self-addressed
stamped envelope.
Again, thank you for your time and participation in this study.
Respectfully,
Naomi Lanney
816-418-3135
116
APPENDIX D
DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Check the appropriate one
1.
Gender
(A) Female
2.
(B) Male
Martial Status
(A) Single
(B) Married
3.
Age (in years)
4.
Ethnicity
(D) Widowed
________________
(A) American Indian

(D) Hispanic
5.
(C) Divorced or Legally Separated
(B) Asian
(E)White
(C) Black
(F) Other
Teaching Experience (in years)____________________
Highest degree earned

(A) Bachelors Degree
(C) Master's Degree
(E) Education Specialist
(G) Doctor of Education
( I ) Other
7.
(B) Bachelors Degree plus additional work

(D) Master's Degree plus additional work
(F) Education Specialist plus additional work
(H) Doctor of Philosophy
Do you have tenure as a teacher in the district?

(A) Yes
(B) No
117
APPENDIX E
SCHOOL PARTICIPANT EMPOWERMENT SCALE
School Participant Empowerment Scale

(Developed by Paula M . Short and James S. R inehart)
Please rate the fo llo w in g statements in term s o f how w e ll they describe how you fe e l.
R ate each statem ent on the fo llo w in g scale:
l=StrongIy Disagree
2=Disagree
3=Neutral
4=Agree
5=Strongly Agree
SC
J
Please com pletely fill in appropriate circles w ith a # 2 lead pencil O N LY.
>>
SC
w
C/5
I ..
1. I am given the responsibility to m onitor programs. _
- :
2. I function in a professional environm ent.
3. I believe that I have earned respect.
' 4. I believe that I am helping kids become independent learners.
5. I have concrol over daily schedules.
6. I believe char I have the ability to get things done.
7. I make decisions about the implementations o f new programs in the schooL
3. I am treated as a professional.
9. I believe that I am very effective.
10. I believe chat I am empowering students.

11. I am able to teach as I choose.
12. I participate in scarf development.
13. I make decisions abouc the selection o f other teachers for my school.
.. .
14. I have the opportunity for professional growth.
15. I have the respect o f my colleagues.

"
16. I fee! chat I am involved in an im portant program for children.
17. I have the freedom to make decisions on what is taught.
13. I believe chat I am having an impact.
19. I am involved in school budget decisions.

.
20. I work at a school where kids come first.
21. I have the support and respect o f my colleagues.

-
22. I see studencs leant.
'
,
......... ; :.
23. I make decisions about curriculum ..
24. I am a decision maker.

25. I am given che opportunity to teach other teachers.
_ j .
26. I am given che opportunity to continue learning.
27. I have a strong knowledge base in the areas in w hich I teach. - ^ - : jfX l.'L .
28. I believe that I have che opportunity to grow by working daily w ith studencs.
.
29. I perceive that 1 have the opportunity to influence others.
____
30. I can determine my own schedule.
31. I have the opportunity to collaborate withTother teachers in my school. _ _
.- 7
32. I perceive that I make a difference.
-?
331 Principals, other teachers, and school personnel solicit my advice.
_
34. I believe that I am good at what I do.
- - - .* 35. I can plan mv own schedule. -.
36. I perceive that I have an impact on other teachers and students.

37. M y advice is solicited by odiers.
...........
^ ...
38. I have an opportunity to teach other teachers about innovative ideas.
9
9
w
SC
2
:z
9
tm
s
e
<
9
w
SC
<
SC
C
C/5
"
@
' "
. ,
. _
7 i
_ . .- J L

'7 ~

'7
.i .@ .r: :

i.7
118
APPENDIX F
MINNESOTA SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
minnesota satisfaction questionnaire

The purpose of this questionnaire is to give you a chance to tell h o w y o u fe e l a b o u t y o u r p re s en t job,
w hat things you are satisfied with and what things you are not satisfied with.
On the basis of your answers a n d those of people like you, we hope to get a betterunderstanding of the
things people lik e and d is lik e a b o u t th e ir jobs.
O n the next page you will find statements about your present job.
Read each statement carefully.
Decide h o w satisfied yo u fe e l a b o u t th e aspect o f yo u r job described by the statement.
Keeping the statement in mind:
if you feel that your job gives you m ore th a n yo u expected, check the box under " V e r y S at."
(Very Satisfied);
if you feel that your job gives you w h a t y o u expected, check the box under " S a t." (Satisfied);
if you cannot m a k e up y o u r m ind whether or not the job gives you what you expected, check
the box under " N "
if you feel that your
(N either Satisfied nor Dissatisfied);

job gives you less th a n y o u expected, check thebox
under "D iss a t."
(Dissatisfied);
if you feel that your job gives you much less th a n you e x p e cte d , check the box under " V e r y
D issat." (Very Dissatisfied).
Remember: Keep the statement in mind when deciding h o w satisfied y o u fe e l a b o u t t h a t aspect of
y o u r jo b.
Do this for a ll statements. Please answer e v e ry item.
Be fr a n k a n d honest. Give a true picture of your feelings about your p resen t job.
119
Ask yourself: How satisfied am I with this aspect of my fob?
V e ry Sat. means I am very satisfied with this aspect o f my job.

Sat. means I am satisfied with this aspect of my fob.
N means I can't decide whether I am satisfied or not with this aspect o f my fob.
Dissert, means I am dissatisfied with this aspect of my fob.
V e ry Dissat. means I am very dissatisfied with this aspect o f my job.
Very
Dissat.
O n m y p resen t jo b, this is h o w 1 fe e l ab o u t . . .
Dissat.
Very
Sat.
Sat.
3. The chance to do different things from time to time
fj
4. The chance to be "somebody" in the community
:;
:;
: 1
r~i
r;
! 1
::
t i
1. Being able to keep busy all the time ....................................................

2. The chance to work alone on the job ...................................................
5. The w ay my boss handles his/her workers

6. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions
7. Being able to do things that don't go against my conscience
8. The way my job provides for steady employment
9. The chance to do things for other people
10. The chance to tell people w hat to do
11. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities
12. The way company policies are put into practice
13. M y pay and the amount of work 1 do
14. The chances for advancement on this job
-;
15. The freedom to use my own judgment
16. The chance to try my own methods of doing the job
17. The working conditions
18. The w ay my co-workers get along with each o th e r.......................
19. The praise 1 get for doing a good job
...............................
20. The feeling of accomplishment 1 get from the job ......................
. . . .
Very
Dissat.
Dissat.
Sat.
V ery
Sat.
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132
VITA
Naomi E. Lanney was bom in Moberly, Missouri on April 29,1948. She
lived in Centralia, Missouri her entire life until she graduated from Centralia High
School in 1966.
Naomi attended Northeast Missouri State in Kirksville, Missouri and then
transferred to Central Missouri State in Warrensburg, Missouri in 1968. She
received her B.S.E. in 1970 and her Master's in 1971. She later returned to
school and received an Education Specialist Degree from the University of
Missouri, Kansas City, Missouri in 1986. She obtained her Doctor of Education
Degree form the University of Missouri, Columbia in 1998.
Naomis teaching career began in 1972 as a junior high social studies and
language arts teacher in the Kansas City Missouri School District. She had
taught 14 years before becoming an administrator. She served as coordinator of
instruction for five years and then became an assistant principal for five years.
Currently she is the principal at Martin Luther King African-Centered Middle
School in the Kansas City Missouri School District.
Naomi is married and lives with her husband, Jesse. She has one
daughter, Anika who is an elementary teachers, a son-in-law, Richard, and a
precious grandson named John.
133
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INFORMATION TO USERS

THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER EMPOWERMENT AND

UMI Number: 9924897

UMI Microform 9924897

300 North Zeeb Road

c Copyright by Naomi E. Lanney 1998

The undersigned, appointed by the Dean of the Graduate Faculty, have

Dr. RogeyHarting, Major Advii

Dr. Robert Shaw

Dr. Rutoard Hatley

Dr. K^ren Cockrell

This dissertation is dedicated in loving memory to my late father, Nathaniel

THE PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER EMPOWERMENT AND

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship

statistically using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient,

Simple Statistics on Intrinsic Satisfaction and Extrinsic

Correlation Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

Correlation Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

Canonical Correlation Analysis Between School Participant

Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale

Canonical Redundancy Analysis between School Participant

Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment

Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment

Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment Scale and

Canonical Correlation Analysis between School Participant

Canonical Analysis Between School Participant Empowerment

General Linear Models Procedure on

General Linear Models Procedure on

General Linear Models Procedure on

General Linear Models Procedure on

General Linear Models Procedure on

General Linear Models Procedure on

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY..................................................................1

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.......................................................23

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY............................................ 62

Data Collection and Instrumentation.............................................. 64

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DA TA.......................................... 69

Canonical Correlational Analysis ...................................................74

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

Conclusions .................................................................................. 108

Letters to Superintendents...................................................... 113

C. Letters to T each ers.................................................................115

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire................................... 119

Teaching is supposed to be a satisfying job, providing fulfillment every

certain populations. Math, science, special education and foreign language

encouraged CSPD to continue working with Alaska Teacher Placement (ATP)

The possibility is growing that a child might be able to complete twelve

16.2% of the population, but African-American teachers comprise only 6.9% of

Of the 33 problems, difficulty getting good teachers was listed number 6.

Low teacher pay was listed number 8.

Lack of respect for teachers/other students was number 15.

Lack of needed teachers was listed number 16 (Elam, 1990, p.53).

Problems with the Teaching Profession

In surveys of promising young teachers who decided to abandon

Lack of School-Based Management

politicians, teacher unions, and teachers themselves, to be included more in

Conceptual Underpinnings for the Study

A study based on notions of Hersey, Blanchard, Natemeyer (1979) about

correlation on teacher levels of involvement between education and managerial

Statement of the Problem

responsibility for and involvement in the decision-making process (Melenyzer,