Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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se podia utilizar \a enzima polimerasa de ADN en una variante del metodo de secuenciacion con didesoxidos.
y disefie un candido experimento para
someter esa idea a comprobacion.
Para entender que me rondaba por
la mente, conviene recordar ciertos
aspectos del ADN. Los extremos de
una cadena de ADN se denominan.
por convencion quimica. 3' y 5'. En
una doble helice de ADN.las cadenas
complementarias se dice que son antiparalelas, ya que el extremo 3' de
una de las cadenas se empareja con el
5' de la otra, y viceversa.
En 1955, Arthur Kornberg y sli
grupo, de la Universidad de Stanford ..
descubrieron la polimerasa de ADN.
Estas enzimas celulares desempefian
varias funciones, entre elias, la repa-,
racion y replicacion del ADN. Pue
den elongar un breve oligonucleotido
"cebador",
afiadiendo a su extrema
3' mas nucleotidos, pero solo si el cebador se hibrida. 0 une. a una cadena
complementaria.
que recibe entonces
el nombre de molde. La solucion donde se lleva a cabo la reaccion de be
contener tambien nucleotidos trifosfatados, que son los ladrillos de esta
construccion.
esto es. las A emparejan con las T, y las G con las C; esta complementariedad mantiene unidas ~.las dos cadenas. Cada cadena posee un extremQ
3' ,r otro 5'. Por esa orientacion opuesta se dice que son antiparalelas.
00
64 CaPIAS
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Irrrenr\TclC~:>lIlleSIS
llWlIU<.l101: ulIgu-
llU\U
Ul~pUIll1Jle.:
['1U \":ld
'jJUl
que
nu
se podia utilizar \a enzima pOlimeraS3 de ADN en UIla variante del metodo de sccuenciacion con didesoxidos.
y disefie un candido experimento para
someter esa idea a comprobacion.
Para entender que me rondaba par
la mente, conviene recordar ciertos
aspectos del ADN. Los extremos de
una cadena de ADN se denominan.
por convencion quimica. 3' y 5'. En
una doble helice de ADN.las cadenas
complementarias se dice que son antiparalelas, ya que el extrema 3' de
una de las cadenas se empareja can el
5' de la otra, y viceversa.
En 1955, Arthur Kornberg y su
grupo, de la Universidad de StanJord ..
descubrieron la polimerasa de ADN.
Estas enzimas celulares desempefian
varias funciones, entre ellas, la repa-,
racion y replicacion del ADN. Pue
den elongar un breve oligonucleotido
"cebador",
afiadiendo a su extrema
3' mas nucle6tidos, pero solo si el cebador se hibrida. a une. a una cadena
complementaria.
que recibe entonces
elnombre de molde. La soluci6n donde se \leva a cabo la reacci6n debe
contener tambien nucle6tidos trifosfatados, que son los ladrillos de esta
construcci6n.
C! liucreulluu
que
(;UIUCil
I" pI.;
esto es. las A emparejan con las T, y las G con la5 C; esta complementariedad mantiene unidas ~,las dos cactenas. Cada cadena posee un extremo
3' y otro 5'. Por esa orientaci6n opuesta se dice que son antiparalelas.
OJ
64 CaPIAS --7
16 CaPIAS
-------
4caPIAS
====
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--====
===
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Endeesequemomenta
habia
no cai en la cuenta
poderosas razones
para que mi idea fracasase. EI problema era que los oligonucleotidos, a
veces, hibridan can otras secuencias
de ADN, que no son las que nos interesan. Estos inevitables emparejamientos habrian introducido bastante
ambigiiedad en mis resultados. Incluso con las manos mas diestras en el
arte de la hibridacion, es imposible
conseguir quese unan oligonucleotidos al ADN humano con suficiente
especificidad como para obtener un
resultado al men os minimamente significativo.
Por culpa de ese inconveniente, los
investigadores
han recurrido a procedimientos tortuosos para escrutar el
ADN humano. Par ejemplo, se emplean restrictasas para cortar la muestra de ADN en varios fragmentos,
que se separan par electrofaresis. Se
consigue con ello "purificar" en cierta
forma los fragmentos diana del resto
del ADN, antes de proceder a la hibridacion con la sonda de oligonucleotidos. Este procedimiento reduce
10 suficiente las hibridaciones erro~
neas como para obtener resultados
significativos,
aunque minimos. Se
trata, ademas, de un proceso bast ante
largo y no sirve para trabajar con
muestras de ADN degradado 0 desnaturalizado.
Otra tecnica onerosamente
larga
para el amilisis rutin aria del ADN se
vale de la clonacion. En un plasmido.
un pequeno anillo de ADN. podemos
clonar 0 copiar la secuencia de ADN
humano que nos importe. EI recurso
alas bacterias nos ofrece copias de dicho plasmido. y de la secuencia deseada. La informacion sobre Ia secuencia se puede obtener utilizando
las tecnicas de hibridacion con oligonucleotidosy de secuenciacion con didesoxidos. A comienzos de la decada
de los ochenta. la mayor parte de la
informacion
sobre
secuencias
de
ADN humano procedia de la clonacion y secuenciacion del ADN con
esta ultima tecnica.
En el protocolo de mi candido experimento, se daba por supuesto que
la utilizacion de oligonucleotidos para
detectar
secuencias
especificas de
ADN humano can una simple hibridaciun hacia innecesario recurrir a la
clonacion a a cualquier otra tecnica.
En ddensa de mi erroneo planteamiento, debo decir que uno de los
grupos de Cetus qU,e trabajaban en el
piso de abajo. dirigido por Henry A.
Erlich. intentaba otro metodo basado
s~
3'
3'
5'
~==.~'.'
..
5'
c...'.'..
'.'~..
'.'.G.' ..;.'
T
.
AT..
G;
"C
3'
~;c....
.'
3'
5'
5'
3'
3'
5'
5'
ddA
GAT
3'
3'
C
5'
3. POLIMERASA DE ADN. enzima que elonga una cadena corta de ADN, denominada oligonuc1e6tido cebador, si esta se une a una cadena "molde" Je ADN mas larga. La polimerasa Ileva a
cabo este proeeso ailadiendo los nucle6tidos complementarios al extremo 3' del cebador unido. Si se ,
incorpora un didesoxinucle6tido trifosfatado (ddNTPl, como la desoxiadenina (ddAJ, se interrumpe
la elongacion, ya que enel extremo 3' de la ddA no se puede acoplar ninglin otro nucle6tido.
Sl. Los fragmentos sedan siempre entidades discretas de una longitud especffica.
Pare de nuevo el coche y comence
a dibujar line as de moleculas de ADN
que hibridaban y se alargaban, y que,
una vez disociadas como producto del
primer cicIo, se convertian en moldes
de Ia reaccion siguiente...
Jennifer
protesto de nuevo por interrumpirle
el sueno. "No te 10 vas a creer", excIame. "Asombroso".
o quiso .desperta.rse. Segui
. Ia cabana Sin mas paradas.
N
hasta
En Ia
hondonada
del valle comienzan Ias
secuoyas y Ia tierra por antonomasia
delos zoquetes. Mi descubrimiento
PAR DE
BASES DIANA
tI
3'
5'
ANADIR POLIMERASA
Y ddNTP MARCADOS
5'
3'
4. PARA DETER'\U:"iAR LA IDENTIDAD de un par de bases en un segmento de ADN, d autor confiaba ~n aplicar una yariante de una tecnica
de secuenciaci<in hasada en la utilizacion de didesoxinudeotidos. Se anadirian dos cebador~s alas cadenas opuestas del ADN. ~n sitios contiguos
al par de hases diana. Se agregarla luego a la mezcla polimerasa de ADN
con 10que los respectiyos cebadores se elongarian solo en una base. La identidad de la base del ddNTp
incorporado revelaria la de la diana complementaria. La tecnica funciona
con un solo cebador; con dos se puede obteneruil control interno de los
resultados. Durante la planificaci6n del ensayo. cl autor descubri<i la Rep.
'\
;;.
SEPARAR CADENAS
Y PEGAR CEBADORES
t~
CICLO
CICLO 2
f'
l
r
l
e--I-I-I 1-1-11-11-1-11-1-11-11-1
-11-1-11-11-1"'11-1-1
I-I I-I-II-Ia-9111111111
---------------------- J
~
91111111!1
c
'1ll! III I I I
~----------
_----J
~
.I-I j-I-II-I-II"'I')--
_____
AD INFINITUM
permitir que los cebadores se puedan unir a ellas. Luego, las polimerasas
de ADN elongan los cebadores, anadiendolesnucle6tidos. De esta manera,
se van produciendo duplicados de las cadenas de ADN diana originales.
he objective of PCR is to amplify a specific DNA segment without any nonspecific byproducts. In principle, each physical and chemical component of PCR can be modified to
produce a potential increase in yield, specificity, or sensitivity. Yet the most critical parameter for successful PCR is optimal primer design. A poorly designed primer can result in little or no product, due to nonspecific amplification and/or primer-dimer formation leading
to reaction failure, even when all the other parameters are properly optimized. This chapter provides general guidelines for PCR primer design, tips for development of primer pairs
for more complex applications, and advice on the development of probes for real-time PCR.
We close with a discussion of computer programs available for PCR primer design.
Several parameters must be taken into account when designing primers for PCR. Each
parameter is discussed in detail below.
Primer length critically affects PCR success by influencing specificity, melting temperature,
and time of annealing. A primer length of 18-30 bases is optimal for most PCR applications.
Shorter primers could lead to nonspecific PCR amplification. Longer primers are more specific but have a higher probability of containing secondary structures such as hairpin loops.
The speCificity of PCR strongly depends on the melting temperature (I;n) of the primers.
For most PCR applications, the optimum melting temperature of primers ranges from 55C
to 60C. In the absence of destabilizing agents, the
of a primer depends on its length,
sequence composition, and concentration. The impact of ionic strength is negligible
because the salt concentration does not vary significantly under differeru PCR conditions.
It is also important that all of the primers used in a reaction have similar melting temperatures. For most PCR applications. the primer pair Toc mismatch should not be more
than 2-3C. If the difference is greater. amplification will be less efficient or may not work.
TIll
I11
I11
The changes in enthalpy (~H) and entropy (~S) of duplex formation are calculated
from nearest-neighbor
thermodynamic
parameters, R is the molar gas constant, and C is the
molar concentration
of the oligonucleotide.
This analysis determines
the specific enthalpy
and entropy contribution
to the free energy of the duplex, made by each "nearest neighbor" in the sequence. The nearest neighbor starts at the 5' end, and the enthalpy and
entropy contributions
are additive. A second term is added to Equation 1 10 account empirically for the stabilizing effect of salt on the duplex:
pair and
as shown
Primers with long runs of a single base or nucleotide repeats should generally
The effects of different types of repeats and runs are shown in Table 1.
be avoided.
Including a Gar C residue at the 3' end of primers increases the priming efficiency. The socalled "GC clamp" helps to ensure correct binding at the 3' end of the primer due to the
stronger hydrogen bonding of GC residues, thus providing enhanced specificity. Primers
that end with a thymidine residue tend to have reduced specificity.
For amplification of GC-rich DNA, primers with a higher Tm (preferably 75-80C) are recommended.
The strand separation temperature
for GC-rich DNA is significantly higher
Descri ption
Multiplex PCR (MPCR) uses one template and several sets of primers for the simultaneous
amplification of multiple target sequences ina single PCR. It is an extremely useful technique that increases the throughput of PCR and allows more efficient use of each DNA
sample. A variant of MPCR is combinatorial PCR. Combinatorial PCR uses several templates
and several primer sets, all in the same reaction. The terms MPCR and combinatorial PCR
are often used synonymously.
MPCR requires that all the primer pairs in a reaction amplify their unique targets under a
defined set of reaction conditions. Most multiplex reactions are restricted to amplification
of five to ten targets. One reason for this is that a degree of flexibility is lost with each additional primer set included in the reaction. Increased numbers of primers also increase the
probability of primer-dimer
formation and nonspecific amplification. The development
of
an efficient MPCR requires strategic planning and often multiple attempts to optimize reaction conditions.
Ideally, all the primers in a multiplex reaction should amplify their individual target
sequences with equal efficiency. Most often it is difficult to predict the efficiency of a primer
pair, but oligonucleotides
with near-identical annealing temperatures work well under similar conditions.
When designing primers for use in MPCR, the general rules of primer design apply, but
additional considerations
must be taken into account. Generally, all the primers in a
multiplex reaction should be matched for TJ11' Care should be taken to avoid primers \\ith
complementary
3' nucleotides. Each primer pair should be tested separately to determine
optimal conditions. Once the panel of primer pairs is assembled, they need to be mixed
sequentially and optimized:
1. The length of individual
ly to result in formation
primers should be 18-24 bases. Longer primers are more Jikeof primer-dimers.
2. Annealing temperature
annealing temperature
in tbe multiplex
reac-
- ~~:" =-_:::- ~e templates are si~nu1taneous~ \~ amplified, the pool of enzyme and
~~_::: ~: .::' :~:a .\lPCR can be a limiting fcctc~ aEd more time is required for complete
.
: ,~: products, It is important tc' op:imize reagent concentrations
and exten~ c'ach reaction, Longer exte:1si.!:~ times are needed than in single-target
',e':::-: ~'=::=.: ::e;:gned to increase the sensiti\ity of PCR using a second PCR to amplify the
;,:-.:.::~=-::-::-:::>::~om a primary PCR. The second reaction uses primers placed internal to
:':le =-:-:- :=-_-=-:::
::3ir. These internal primers are referred to as "inner" or "nested" primers.
""':"1::::3_'-=--~':::C=:-,::-:
product from the first round acts as a template for the second round, sig:,'''' ~-=-_:--::::J-.lng sensitivity without impailli'1g specificity (Albert and Fenyo 1990).
Be,.:,':: ::::c::-:: ?(R uses two sets of primer pairs. a higher total number of cycles are possi:~:::C"C'::: ::::: ~::::-.:"hmentof reaction componems such as Taq DNA polymerase.
If a full
:::-.c::: ::=.=::= ~5i:::-~g
n\'o internal primers) cannot be performed, sensitivity and specificity
ca:: :,0 =::::--,e: ')\ designing a hemi-nested PCR using just one inner primer in conjunc:'..::_ T-'::: :::-e '~::-;e outer primers from the first reaction.
"",:"::0 ::~~-e<::~oblem with nested PCR is that it is prone to contamination.
Tubes from
:r:e
::=
::3'e IO be opened so that the primary product can be transferred
to a new
:~::c: . :r::: ":::::.2 reaction. It also involves rhe addirional cost of two rounds of PCR and
a:::'.:.:::~~ ::::--=-_::-:
5,'mhesis.
=: =~
L~ o'--e ~-e.::.e~:::
~:..;lesof PCR primer design can be applied to the design of primers of
=-_;C<:-:-:
c: _c:
.:: e ~':Jse multiple
primer pairs are used, the increased
probability
of
::::--=-:-'-:=-.-=--:::,~"c~cction
should be carefulh' co=:.sidered. When designing primers for sin:z:e-" ,- ::':':< :<~tit is importanr that tbe n:elting temperature
of the inner (nested)
~--'.'
- c'
'L:,~:ccntly lower than that of the oueer (first-round) primer pair. The easi","
: .::,-,:~',:::-,~
chis is 10 reduce the len~:h c: the nested primers as compared to outer
. ;,.::: :Oases\S, 25-28 basesl, Tie "'_o~ the outer primer pairs should be high
_" ,_.'
"-:: -::-.',je inner primers from a:::-,ne.:jfl~. ensuring that only the longer prod': :- -' -. -, ~-:::: ,:-c first, ~()und PCR. Ime:-::al ::-~in:ers should be used in excess (typical~
:. ::lpared to the cuter pri':ler' The use of shorter annealing and exten'--:: .' --: :-::.:,d PCR fa\'ors :'le .:nneaiir~:= 01 ,he shorter primers and production of
1 Exon
---+
!
1 Exon
1 Intron
2 Exon
2 Intron
---+
FIGURE 1. cDNA/gDNA selective primer design. (A) Primer across exon-exon junction.
spanning exon-exon junction. (C) Exon -primed intron -crossing primers (EPIC primers).
(B)
Primer
ous sequences. Conserved regions are identified from the alignment as potential crossspecies primer-designing sites. Primers annealing to the conserved regions can be used to
amplify homologous loci in different species (see Fig. 2).
The following steps should be followed:
1. Align selected sequences using a multiple sequence alignment program such as Clustal
(available from: http://www.ebi.ac.uk/clustalw).
2. Evaluate conserved regions of the alignment. Derive a consensus primer sequence by
choosing the most commonly occurring nucleotide at each position of the conserwd
sequence.
3. The primer-binding site should lie entirely within the conserved region. For distantly
related species, when sequences are not completely conserved, the minority consensus
can also be used to design probes/primers. Degeneracy can be tolerated at the 5' end of
the primer, but mismatches at the 3' end reduce both annealing specificity and PCR
yield (Sommer and Tautz 1989).
4. Use general primer-design rules for PCR to avoid false priming and primer-dimer
mation in cross-species PCR.
for-
The introduction of real-time PCR has made it possible to quantif\ accurately the starting
amounts of nucleic acid during the PCR, without the need for post-PCR analvsis. In realtime PCR, a fluorescent reporter is used [0 monitor the PCR as it occurs (i.e., in reai time).
5' CTGCCATCAAGAGCC
3'
111111111111111
Minority
CYKSTTYCAGTYGGAGGAGAGACGGTAGTTCTCGGGRACGGKVKYCCTSTGGGGD
I' I I I 1 l
IIIII
I II I I I ~~~~ I ! I I I I ~~~~ I I I I I 1115~~1I ! I
11~~1
HUMTNFAA
RABTNF
RATTNF
ddo'
~k~~
5'
I I I I
GACCAAGGTCAACCTCCTCTCTGCCATCAAGAGCCCCTGCCAGAGGGAGACCCCA
GAACAAGGTC~"CCTCCTCTCTGCCATCAAGAGCCCCTGCCACCGGGAGACCCCC
GGAGAAAGTCAGCCTCCTCTCTGCCATCAAGAGCCCTTGCCCTAAGGACACCCCT
FIGURE 2. Cross-species primer design in conserved region of multiple sequence alignment I"~
human tumor necrosis factor, rabbit tumor necrosis factor, and rat tumor necrosis facTOr gen,
sequence.
The fluorescence of the reporter molecule increases as products accumulate with each sue
cessive round of amplification.
The reporter
can be a nonspecific intercalating
double
stranded DNA-binding
dye or a sequence-specific
fluorescent-labeled
oligonucleotidt
probe. The oligonucleotide
probe is labeled with both a reporter fluorescent dye and i
quencher dye. While the probe is intact, the proximity of the quencher greatly reduces tht
fluorescence
emitted by the reporter dye by Forster resonance
energy transfer (FRET
through space. Adequate quenching is observed for probes with the reporter at the 5' ene
and the quencher at the 3' end. When a probe molecule is incorporated
into an amplicoD
quenching is disrupted and the probe fluoresces.
The ability to monitor the real-time progress of the PCR has completely revolutionized
the approach to PCR-based quantification
of DNA and RNA. It is now possible to quamif\
PCR products reliably by eliminating the variability associated with conventional
quantitative techniques. Because reporter fluorescence
is monitored
externally, the reaction tubes
do not need to be opened after the PCR is complete; this prevents aerosol contaminatio:'
by PCR products and reduces the number of false-positive results.
One popular real-time PCR probe strategy is the TaqMan assay (Applied Biosystems). TI1l'
assay uses a hydrolysis probe, which exploits the 5' exonuclease activity of Ta'i polymerasl'
to cleave a labeled hybridization
probe during the extension phase of PCR (Holland et c..
1991 ).
--
1 Exon
1 Exon
--
1 Intron
2 Exon
2 Intron
1 Exon
--"
.....
FIGURE 1. cDNA/gDNA selective primer design. (A) Primer across exon-exon junction.
spanning exon-exon junction. (C) Exon-primed intron-crossing primers (EPIC primers).
(Bl
Primer
ous sequences. Conserved regions are identified from the alignment as potential crossspecies primer-designing sites. Primers annealing to the conserved regions can be used to
amplify homologous loci in different species (see Fig. 2).
The following steps should be followed:
1. Align selected sequences using a multiple sequence alignment program such as Clustal
(available from: http://www.ebi.ac.uk/clustalw).
2. Evaluate conserved regions of the alignment. Derive a consensus primer sequence by
choosing the most commonly occurring nucleotide at each position of the consen'ed
sequence.
3. The primer-binding site should lie entirely within the conserved region. For distantly
related species, when sequences are not completely conserved, the minority consensus
can also be used to design probes/primers. Degeneracy can be tolerated at the 5' end of
the primer, but mismatches at the 3' end reduce both annealing specificity and PCR
yield (Sommer and Tautz 1989).
4. Use general primer-design rules for PCR to avoid false priming and primer-dimer
mation in cross-species PCR.
for-
The introduction of real-time PCR has made it possible to quantify accurately the starting
amounts of nucleic acid. during the PCR, without the need. for post-PCR analvsis. In realtime PCR, a fluorescent reporter is used LO monitor the PCR as it occurs (i.e .. in reai time).
During the PCR aln;'~~fi..::at:'--'n,the ;'robe an:-:.e2.:5to its target on the template DNA. As
the primer is extended
c:he ne\yly s\T,:hes~zed D~,-\ strand approaches the site of robe
hybridization. On ani\'a~
cue -:0 its i=-:.triE:'~"::
=:' -:,~, 3' nuclease
activity, the pOly~rase
cleaves the prc'be, :-elea.:,~=-:.:::
tr,c re,~'onc=- flL<'r\'c:-:'':':'=~1einto the reaction buffer. When the
reporter molecule parts C:=-:,pcI~\' '.'.-ith 'he <:LeL::-:.e::-it starts to fluoresce, and synthesis of
the DNA stran.d cont:rE~e:, .In-:~, the ar1':"liL"::2:!":-:',,::.de is complete. Because the reponer
molecules are clea\'ed L::: I",-,tt.e pr-"bes G \.lr::-:.o: e'-eI'\' amplification cycle, the fluorescence
intensity of the oyera] ::"s:em ~ncrease, pre"',.'r-::c'Ec.}ly to the amount of DNA amplified,
The follm"ing issue-- sh'ul':: be considerec-: ',',he=-:.designing TaqMan probes:
1. The Y enc of the ;:: )ce ::-:'I'JStbe ;,rmec:eL-: a.:::a.~nstchain elongation during peR. To
block the 3'-end p::-:"spha-:e . ..::ord\'cepi:",- ~ _3 . Jideoxynucleosides,
inverse T, or the
quencher dye itself -ca::J.be :..:.sed.Labelin::: the 3 end with TAMRA or another quencher
can be achieyed by :":'SUl.g2. 3' amino IiEke::-, I-: is also possible to label the 3' end of
oligonucleotides
pos::::'''''Il.tJ:::.etically\ia at",-aDir.0 link. This method is available for all
dyes, except Cy3T.\':. Cy5T:\L Cy5.5T\L HE:\:. a.nd TIT.
2. The probe T::; shoLc
be IOC higher thar. tr-.e amplification
65-72C for optirna~ ~7-1 exonuclease
aeri\"it".
primer
Tm and within
3. Avoid incorporatior::. ,~f 3. G :-esidue at the 5 - enc of the probe; this will quench reporter
fluorescence e\'en 2...-'-:e:;:- cleayage.
4. Probe must not ha\'c
rrore
Gs than Cs.
G :-esidues.
6. AT-rich sequences
=-e-'.:J.L.ire
longer primer ar:.d ;,:-obe sequences to achieve the recommended T=o. ~ote t::'-_2.t,?roj,es more tha::::: -lC b;, long can exhibit inefficient quenching
and produce kw,er -:--:elJs.
7. Design the probe te ar.:.ueal as close as ;,oss'ble
least one base awa': ::.rc-m::,nn1er
3" end
.
overlapping
(at
i.
Amplicon size shouk r-=-=-gebe::ween 50 ani 15\~'Q;' and should not exceed 400 bp. Smaller
amplicons give more cC::::
..siste=-:t results because peR is more efficient and more tolerant of
reaction conditions.
TaqMan
TaqMan
I\tGB
:~ TET
, ~ TET
none
minor groove binder
----------.:::pa--
CIEf:CIA Y DESARROLLO
Reacci6nen cadena-de
polimerasa
la
ec,
'>
el que se
imples del
Je la
ADN
blanco, al
s cadenas
, reaceion.
)S mismos
Ie cadenas
n cadenas
nc,. ,~11)
'5 eiclos de
5ultado de
DN blanco
ADN
optimacion en el
laboratorio9.10
RCP: SU
n el montaje
arias compa.
:chp
'nero
jo. .!llas
un tuba qUe
;: ademas, eI
aperaturas y
rmociciJdor
iones en las
:cion, desde
as hasta eI
. Es comlin
ndarizaci6n
:ales como
e producto
ficrv) la
lU
Jos
nco en la
;tancias es
parametros
,as para la
ldarizar se
lei.
.lOS
'plificaci6n
y para su
secuencia
J ser este
as mas im
ermina la
a RCP, su
se ,.l~-r'lte
lente, en
accion, la
Jtable de
do osciia
EI uso de
mayores
acion de
.cas y la
leros de
,;3 moleeula de ADN. Genes de una sola copia en el genoma pueden ser
., <~
3000 pb.l2
La mavoria de los
protocolos reCOmiend~n el uso de
1 a 2.5 u de la enzima por cada
reacci6n de 100 ~l. Para establecer la cantidad minima de enzima
rcauenda para una amplificacion
l
:0", v generar cantidades optir:;l; del producto, deben realizar5e titulaciones en gamas que van
Je 0.5 a 5 u por reaccion. Esta
medida, ademas de ser economica, se utiliza para probar una
en:ima recien adquirida y disminure la amplificacion inespedfica
J lie evidencia
1a presencia de
',1. is al analizar el producto
,pllticado en un gel.
_________________
----11
---
CiENCIA Y DESAR2CLL:
Al igual que el
Mgcl" las concentraciones minimas ~ecesarias de chm's disminuyen el indice de incorporaciones
erroneas de nueleotidos, mientras
que concentraciones muy altas disminuyen la especificidad de la reaccion, por 10 que la concentracion de dNTP'S tambien debe
optimarse (figura 4). Concentraciones entre 20 y 200 /-lm proparcionan resultados optimos, debiendose igualar la concentracion
de cada uno de los cuatro d\11"s
~n concentraciones equimolares.
Temperatura de
alineamiento9,10,13,14
Probabl,
lfuemin:
productl
dd fragr
de: agarr
duso m
de la r
troforcsi
ctidio. p
de: la ~
Paneric
vdanaI
lIletOOo
circuns
P\lCden
de poi
con en
ruidas
,.b Cl
hdad
llltdial
du,p
tiJlca.
Tabla 3.
Determinacion de Ja
temperatura de
alineamiento
de
.lOY"
aparean a k
nnienro POr
ADN blanco.
emenrar.dad
nadas de h
ADN blanco
emperaturas
: favorece k
acci6n. No
e notar que
un lOO%de
e ec-" com.
p,
nn
:os (tamilias
ente diseiiar
ddos que se
:onservadas
mbros de k
He logra!a
i genes a !a
eriormente
CI1
case
110..
Jebe
'le6tidos con
emperaturas
lcidad en !a
r
s muy baja
apareen a
extendidos,
te"""~ratu
.s
.cen
lineamiento
ias f6rmulas
entes en el
:1 resultado,
mdo f6wu
.ciente para
,t
0 C1RCl.ES.9
----
'.
E',EROiFr:"8
amado la
,a He
esles,
] Ita
dad debi.
,eren para
xion con
rla alas
se adicio.
resrantes
rlado RCp.
ro' -I l()S
,m
caccion y,
iridos, ya
n proble.
tag~__ ,1S.
ucleotido
,to reque
; digerido
'mos. Un
, sirios de
'emos 5'.
Jencra ce
law
np,
)
aves de la
os deriva
!mente se
hibidores
is cadenas
'ario a un
~.Dado d
e verificar
ldas en la
na ampli.
; los dos
1C,
1 6)
,as
para
::~:~r
_:;.;
perspectivas
FIgura 9. Reacci6n en cadena de la ligasa. Se
tsiluematizan los pasos Que constituyen cada
delo de '1 remion. En ei caso de un ADN
normal jnG; AJ. ei alineamiento perfecto de
, /as sonaasoligonUcleotidas especificas al ADN
C14nco.permite /levar a cabo la ligacion de los
!Jtremos yuxtapuestos de las sondas , y
~,.
, pues de varios ciclos produce fragmentos
: (amaliomayor Que el de las sondas
Qinales y se produce un aumento
ir;nenCial de los fragmentos ligados. Cuando
iF. atade un ADN mutado (panel BJ, no existe
.neamlento perfecto entre las sondas
!Sewfl'" v .,
~ ',' ,). = ADN blanco en el punto de
1.:;lon or;o Que no se /leva a cabo la
''''C'Or: y las
'" "
SOndasconservan sus tamalios
~1;lnaies.
de la RCP