The Aryanist Journal # 02

Tourism in India
Indian Culture
Indus Valley Civilization
Aryan Invasion
Sacred Cow
Kumbh Mela
Indias Self Denial
Khandit Dharm ka Vilaap
Meera Bai Tribute
Copyright, All rights reserved (Respective authors and Freelance Talents)
December 2014

1. Tourism in India
(Manish Rajkumar)

Tourism plays a vital role in the economic development of a country. Tourism is the second
largest foreign exchange earner in India. The tourism industry employs a large number of
people, both skilled and unskilled. It promotes national integration and international
brotherhood.
India has fascinated people from all over the world with her secularism and her culture. There
are historical monuments, beaches, places of religious interests, hill resorts, etc. that attract
tourists. Every region is identified with its handicraft, fairs, folk dances, music and its people.
The Departments of Tourism promotes international and domestic tourism in the country. The
Tourism Advisory Board recommends measures for promotion of tourist traffic in India. Indian
tourism is adversely affected by terrorism, tours and pollution. Sincere efforts could help to
further develop the Indian tourism industry.
Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries of the world. It plays vital role in the economic
development of a country. India is one of the popular tourist destination in Asia. Bounded by
the Himalayan ranges in the north and surrounded, on three sides by water (Arabian sea, Bay of
Bengal and Indian Ocean), India offers a wide array of places to see and things to do. The
enchanting backwaters, hill stations and landscapes make India a beautiful country. Historical
monuments, forts etc. add to the grandeur of the country. They attract tourists from all over
the world.
Tourism is the second largest foreign exchange earner in India. The tourism industry employs a
large number of people, both skilled and unskilled. Hostels, travel agencies, transport including
airlines benefit a lot from this industry. Tourism promotes national integration and
international understanding. It generates foreign exchange. it promotes cultural activities.
Tourism also promotes the traditional handicrafts sector. The tourist gets an insight into the
rich and diverse cultural heritage of India.

India has a composite culture. There is a harmonious blend of art, religion and philosophy.
Thought India has been subjected to a serious of invasions, she has retained her originality even
after absorbing the best of external influences. Religions like Christianity, Buddhism, Islam,
Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Zoroastrianism etc. has co-existed in India. India has fascinated
people from all over the world with her secularism and her culture.
The diverse geographical locales of India delight the tourists. The monuments, museums, forts,
sanctuaries, places of religious interest, palaces, etc. offer a treat to the eyes. Every region is
identified with its handicrafts, fairs, folk dances, music and its people. Some of the places that
attract a huge number of tourists are Agr, Jaipur, Jhansi, Hyderabad, Nalanda, Mysore, Delhi,
Mahabaleshwar, Aurangabad etc. Hardwar, Ujjain, Shirdi, Varanasi, Allahabad, Puri, Ajmer,
Amritsar, Vaishno Devi, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Rameshwaram etc. are places of religious
importance. Srinagar, Kullu, Manali, Dehradun, Nainital, Darjeeling, Ooty etc. are famous hill
resorts.
The Department of Tourism was formed to promote international and domestic tourism in the
country. It provides infrastructure and carries out publicity campaigns. It provides information
aimed at promotion of tourist sites in the world market. IOt formulates policies and
programmes for the promotion of tourism in India. It has officers in India and abroad. The
Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, The National Council for Hotel
management and Catering technology etc. provide professionally trained personnel to the
industry.
The Tourism Advisory Board recommends measures for promotion of tourist traffic in India. It
reviews the tourist trends and suggests appropriate measures. Some of the places, havelis and
castles have been converted into heritage hotels. In these hotels, the tourists get the
experience the exotic lifestyle of the bygone era. The exotic train 'palace on wheel's which
travels through Rajasthan attracts a lot of foreign tourists. The Indian Tourism Development
Corporation (ITDC) organizes entertainment programmes like folk dances and songs and
provides shopping facilities. today many private companies like Sita Travels, Club Mahindra etc.
arrange domestic as well as foreign tours.
With the growth of urban professional middle class, the tourism in India is flourishing, Many
states have taken necessary steps to promote tourism. Goa promotes water sports like sailing,
scuba diving and rafting. Kashmir offers the pleasure of winter sports like skiing and
mountaineering. Kerala has introduced the concept of houseboats in its lagoons. Himachal
Pradesh has developed winter sports in the state.
In 2005 The Indian Tourism Development Corporation (ITDC) stared a campaign called
'Incredible India' to encourage tourism in India. For a better growth, the department divided
different places in different section like 'spiritual tourism,' 'spa tourism', 'ecotourism' and
'adventure tourism'. Things have now started looking bright for the Indian tourism industry.

However the Indian tourism industry has been hit by pollution. The effluents emitted by the
Mathura Refinery has led to the decolonization of the Taj Mahal in Agra. The condition of many
or our monuments is deteriorating due to the negligence of the concerned authorities. On the
other hand, beaches have become the dumping grounds of garbage and waste left by tourists.
This nuisance should be properly monitored.
Terrorism nowadays has become a global problem. Our country is also not an exception. The
terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir, Maoists attacks in West Bengal and Bihar, Bodo agitations in
north0eastern hill areas greatly affect the tourism in our country. Kashmir is the paradise for
domestic and international tourists. The terrorism in this valley not only affects the life of the
common people but also the tourism, which is very important for the economy of the sate.
Necessary steps should be taken by the state government as well as central government to
prevent this menace.
The tourist infrastructure in India should be strengthened. Airports and railway stations should
provide information to the tourists about the tourist destination. Government owned hotels
should be properly managed. The Government should also take steps for the maintenance for
the tourist destination. Steps should be taken to restore the ancient splendor of the
monuments. Sincere efforts could help to further develop the Indian tourism industry.
Medical Tourism
Today India is emerging as a favored place of medal treatment. Our country has witnessed a
remarkable growth in the service of hospital and well-qualified doctors, which has not only
attracted the patient population from neighbouring counties but also from the Middle East and
the West.
As the concept of medical tourism continues to gain momentum in India, the Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare, with the help of the Ministry of Tourism, is taking numerous initiatives in
order to maintain international standards in medical facilities. With some of the best hospitals
in the world, Delhi is competing with foreign countries. Even there are countries where critical
patients may have to wait for months. But in Delhi, any kind of treatment is available in the
shortest possible time.
The cost of treatment is substantially less than those in developed countries. Besides
personalized nursing care, Delhi is superb place to rejuvenate. Our country also integrate
traditional medical concepts Ayurveda, Unani and Homeopathy with complimentary therapies
like Yoga, Acupuncture and Aroma therapies progress the process of healing.
Tour operators are now offering attractive packages in collaboration with city hospitals for a
perfect health vacation. Thus the land of nirvana becomes the favored place for medical
treatment.

2. Akhila Mol on Indian Tourism

There are some parts of the world that once visited get into your heart and wont let go. For me
India is such a place when I first visited, I was stunned by the richness of the land by its lush
beauty and exotic architecture by its ability to overload its senses with the pure, concentrated
intensity of its colors, smells, tastes and souls. It was as if all my life I was seeing the world in
black and white and when brought face-to-face with India, experienced every thing rendered in
brilliant Technicolor. - Keitlt Bellows
"It we were to look over the whole world to find out the country most richly endowed with all
the wealth, power and beauty that nature can bestow in some parts a very paradise on earth. I
should point to India. -Max Mueller
The most valuable assets of India as a desirable tourist destination lies in thousands years old
historical and cultural heritage. Every region, every part of lndia encompasses culture of its
own, entirely distinct in traditions, language, festil'll4 beliefs and rituals with different and
unique style of living and dresses.
No country in the world comprises such distinction such diversity with a unity and integration.
This diversity may be attributed to the historical roots of developments of each region, due to

different dynasties ruled the differed regions. The develop of different life-style, celebrations
of different festivals, adopting different Ian different dressing sense, all exit as per the norms
fixed by the then ruling dynasty. region has unique physical features, soil types and climatic
conditions, so has distinct vegetation and wild life. When all the natural beauty is mingled with
culture the resultant harmony present a unique land sparkled picture, reflecting destination in
its unique and colorful way.
One finds everything in India: exotic as well as native, the snow clad Himalayas crowned the
head in the north, enveloped all the beauty within itself, releases the mighty rivers, Indus,
Gangas, and Yamuna and their tributaries. These rivers roll over the whole country like arteries,
supplying life blood to the body of the country and its inhabitants through out the year. The
complex beauty of the desert state of Rajasthan is found rarely in any part of the world. With
Thar at its background and vivacious sand dunes, mirages and camels, the huge and glorified
palaces, forts and Havelies, present a complex and unique beauty. The culture of Rajputs with
bright Badhani colors intricate designs and the Royal background give their sharp look different
from others. In their unique architectural style in the series of palaces are lake palace of
Udaipur, sand colored forts' in Jaisalmer, city palace of Jaipur, the pink city of India coupled
with the vibrant folk dances and folk songs make India an" Cultural ".
The Taj Mahal at Agra, symbol of Mughal romance and faith, in its architectural perfection and
splendor attracts tourists from all over the world. Taj Mahal reflects the Persian cultural and
their architectural eminence, today counted among the seven wonders of the world.
The caves of Ajanta-Ellora. the Sun Temple of Konark. the Temple of Khajurao and Dravidian
style stone carved temples of Hoysalewara and Ranganathswamy, the medieval glory of Qutab
Minar, Red fort, Fathepur Sikri and other forts and mausoleums with Persian architectural
influence, the Victoria place at Kolkata, beautiful and elegant churches at Goa. each and every
symbolizes the clarity of Indian culture with tremendous diversification and each has its own
attraction for the tourist.
India has witnessed many eras blooming on her soil. Each era and dynasty has left incredible
mark, on her different regions with uniqueness and distinction. From Harappas to Mauryas,
Guptas to Sultans and Mughals to Portuguese and English, witnessed a met morph sis in each
era. Different cultures with different life styles and beliefs, intermingled. Each century brought
a new culture, made its impact, kept intact ~original identity and beliefs also, and thus a unique
diversity with integration is the present India.
The Bhool Bholaiyan at Lucknow. the mystery of shaking Minarets in the mosque and tomb of
Rajbibi in Ahmedabad, the acoustic wonders of Gol Gumbaj, the famous GoldenTemple at
Amritsar, the oldest church at Palayurin Goa,the oldest synagogue at Mattancherry in Kochi and
the oldest mosque in Eheraman Malik Manzil in Kodungallor, also the modern Lotus Temple,
the Bahami temple of worship. the Stupa of Sanchi, Tower of Silence at Mumbai, and tallest

statue of Bahubali at Kamataka, all speakofthe glorious heritage of our country and so are the
of attraction for tourists throughout the world.
Nowhere in the world, can be found such multifaceted, most diversified culture with rich
heritage reflecting many dynasties and regimes. India is known for its unparallel religious beliefs
as well as for its vast variety of people, the animal kingdom and the rich flora. India is a
miniature world, where the tourists find the best of the west and east coexisting in perfect
harmony for centuries.
Another aspect of Indian culture can well be seen in its vibrant and colorful festivals. India has
been the birth place of many religion. The Hinduism, The Buddhism, The Jainism, The Sikhism,
The Islam and The Christianity also nourished and flourished here well. The Desert festival, the
Kite festival, Boat race festival in south India, the Durga Pooja festival of Kolkata, Dussehera of
My sore, Puri festival of Orissa, Ganesh Chaturthi festival of Maharashtra, all are celebrated so
colorful and in such a grand manner, that reflect the wonderful observance of religious and
cultural heritage of our country.
Not only the above historical festivals, the modem festivals, like the Taj Mahotsava, Khajurao
Dance festival, Konark Dance festival, also give an opportunity of seeing all internationally
acclaimed faces of Indian classical dance and music on one stage.
Over the years we have developed the concept of eco- friendly tourism, means that while
promoting tourism in very possible manner we should not forget importance of ecological
balance. Many of the places at the foothills of the Himalayas , have become the dumping
ground of tourists. While promoting the tourism in wild life , it must be ensured that the
tourists should not become a threat to the tranquility and ecological balance of the forests.
No doubt, India's diversified culture presents a 'paradise for tourists' but to keep it intact, a
number, of judicious and prudent policies to facilitates the tourists and attract more and more
tourists are to be framed and require to be implemented at a fast pace. The tourists visiting
India, should be enchanted not only with the rich heritage, but they should also feel here safe,
sound and welcomed.

3. Indias Self Denial

Introduction

Why is it that Indians, particularly its elite - the intelligentsia, the journalists, the writers, the
top bureaucrats, the diplomats - hold an image of themselves which is often negative, and have
a tendency to run down their own country? The self-perception that Indians have of
themselves, is frequently detrimental to their self-confidence. This is particularly striking
amongst Indian journalists, who always seem to look at India through a western prism and
constantly appear to worry how the foreign press views India, how the foreign countries -

particularly the United States of America - perceive India, what the Human Right agencies say
about India... Thus, when one reads certain Indian magazines, one has the impression that they
could be written by foreign journalists, because not only do they tend to look at India in a very
critical manner, but often, there is nothing genuinely Indian in their contents, no references to
India's past greatness, no attempts to put things in perspective through the prism of India's
ancient wisdom. Therefore, most of the time, their editorial contents endeavour to explain the
present events affecting India, such as Ayodhya, or the problem of Kashmir, or the Christian
missionaries' attempts at conversion of tribal Hindus, by taking a very small portion of the
subcontinent's history - usually the most recent one - without trying to put these events in a
broader focus, or attempting to revert back to India's long and ancient history. In a gist, one
could say - although things have been changing in the late nineties - that there is hardly any
self-pride amongst India's intellectual elite, because they are usually too busy running down
their own country. It is done in a very brilliantly manner, it is true - because Indian journalists,
writers, artists, high bureaucrats, are often intelligent, witty and talented people - but always
with that western slant, as if India was afflicted by a permanent inferiority complex. One then
has to try to analyse the underlying reasons of this negative self-perception that India has of
herself, probe the unconscious impulses which give many Indians - Hindus, we should say, as
the majority of India's intelligentsia are born Hindus - the habit of always depreciating their
own culture and traditions.
a. The Theory of the Aryan Invasion
The first and foremost explanation for this inferiority complex could be the theorem of the
Aryan invasion, which is still taken as the foundation stone of the History of India. According to
this theory, which was actually devised in the 18th and 19th century by British linguists and
archaeologists, who had a vested interest to prove the supremacy of their culture over the one
of the subcontinent, the first inhabitants of India were good-natured, peaceful, dark-skinned
shepherds, called the Dravidians. They were supposedly remarkable builders, witness the city of
Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistani Sind, but had no culture to speak-off, no written texts, no proper
script even. Then, around 1500 B.C., India is said to have been invaded by tribes called the
Aryans : white-skinned, nomadic people, who originated somewhere in Ural, or the Caucasus.
To the Aryans, are attributed Sanskrit, the Vedic - or Hindu religion, India's greatest spiritual
texts, the Vedas, as well as a host of subsequent writings, the Upanishads, the Mahabharata,
the Ramanaya, etc...
This was indeed a masterly stroke on the part of the British : thanks to the Aryan theory, they
showed on the one hand that Indian civilisation was not that ancient and that it was posterior
to the cultures which influenced the western world - Mesopotamia, Sumeria, or Babylon - and
on the other hand, that whatever good things India had developed - Sanskrit, literature, or even
its architecture, had been influenced by the West. Thus, Sanskrit, instead of being the mother
of all Indo-European languages, became just a branch of their huge family; thus, the religion of
Zarathustra is said to have influenced Hinduism - as these Aryan tribes were believed to have

transited through numerous countries, Persia being one, before reaching India - and not vice
versa. In the same manner, many achievements were later attributed to the Greek invasion of
Alexander the Great : scientific discoveries, mathematics, architecture etc. So ultimately, it was
cleverly proved that nothing is Indian, nothing really great was created in India, it was always
born out of different influences on the subcontinent.
To make this theory even more complicated, the British, who like other invaders before them
had a tough time with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas, implied that the Aryans drove the
Dravidians southwards, where they are still today; and that to mark forever their social
boundaries, these Aryans had devised the despicable caste system, whereby, they the priests
and princes, ruled over the merchants and labourers... And thus English missionaries and later,
American preachers, were able to convert tribes and low caste Hindus by telling them : " you,
the aborigines, the tribals, the Harijans, were there in India before the Aryans; you are the
original inhabitants of India, and you should discard Hinduism, the religion of these arrogant
Aryans and embrace, Christianity, the true religion".
Thus was born the great Aryan invasion theory, of two civilisations, that of the low caste
Dravidians and the high caste Aryans, always pitted against each other - which has endured, as
it is still today being used by some Indian politicians - and has been enshrined in all history
books - Western, and unfortunately also Indian. Thus were born wrong "nationalistic"
movements, such as the Dravidian movement against Hindi and the much-maligned Brahmins,
who actually represent today a minority, which is often underprivileged.... This Aryan invasion
theory has also made India look westwards, instead of taking pride in its past and present
achievements. It may also unconsciously be one of the reasons why there was at one time such
great fascination for Sonia Gandhi, a White-Skinned-Westerner, who may have been
unconsciously perceived as a true Aryan by the downtrodden Dravidians and a certain fringe of
that Indian intelligentsia which is permanently affected by an inferiority complex towards the
West. It may even have given a colour fixation to this country, where women will go to
extremes to look "fair".
But today, this theory is being challenged more and more by new discoveries, both
archaeological and linguistic. There are many such proofs, but two stand out : the discovery of
the Saraswati river and the deciphering of the Indus seals. In the Rig Veda, the Ganges, India's
sacred river, is only mentioned once, but the mythic Saraswati is praised on more than fifty
occasions. Yet for a long time, the Saraswati river was considered a myth, until the American
satellite Landstat was able to photograph and map the bed of this magnificent river, which was
nearly fourteen kilometres wide, took its source in the Himalayas, flowed through the states of
Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan, before throwing itself in the sea near Bhrigukuccha, today
called Broach. American archaeologist Mark Kenoyer was able to prove in 1991 that the
majority of archaeological sites of the so-called Harappan (or Dravidian) civilisation were not
situated on the ancient bed of the Indus river, as first thought, but on the Saraswati. Another
archaeologist , Paul-Henri Francfort, Chief of a franco-american mission (Weiss, Courty,

Weterstromm, Guichard, Senior, Meadow, Curnow), which studied the Saraswati region at the
beginning of the nineties, found out why the Saraswati had 'disappeared' : " around 2200 B.C.,
he writes, an immense drought reduced the whole region to aridity and famine " (Evidence for
Harappan irrigation system in Haryana and Rajasthan -Eastern Anthropologist 1992). Thus
around this date, most inhabitants moved away from the Saraswati to settle on the banks of
the Indus and Sutlej rivers.
According to official history, the Vedas were composed around 1500 BC, some even say 1200
BC. Yet, as we have seen, the Rig Veda, describes India as it was before the great drought which
dried-up the Saraswati; which means in effect that the so-called Indus, or Harappan civilisation
was a continuation of the Vedic epoch, which ended approximately when the Saraswati driedup. Recently, the famous Indus seals, discovered on the site of Mohenja Daro and Harappa, may
have been deciphered by Dr Rajaram, a mathematician who worked at one time for the NASA
and Dr Jha, a distinguished linguist. In the biased light of the Aryan invasion theory, these seals
were presumed to be written in a Harappan (read Dravidian) script, although they had never
been convincingly decoded. But Rajaram and Jha, using an ancient Vedic glossary, the Nighantu,
found out that the script is of Sanskrit lineage, is read from left to right and does not use vowels
(which like in Arabic, are 'guessed' according to the meaning of the whole sentence). In this
way, they have been able to decipher so far 1500 and 2000 seals, or about half the known
corpus. As the discovery of the Saraswati river, the decipherment of the Indus scripts also goes
to prove that that the Harappan Civilization, of which the seals are a product, belonged to the
latter part of the Vedic Age and had close connections with Vedantic works like the Sutras and
the Upanishads. In this light, it becomes evident that not only there never was an Aryan
invasion of India, but, as historian Konraad Elst writes, it could very well be that it was an Indian
race which went westwards : " rather than Indo-Iranians on their way from South Russia to Iran
and partly to India, these may as well be the Hitites, Kassites or Mitanni, on their way from
India, via the Aral Lake area, to Anatolia, or Mesopotamia, where they show up in subsequent
centuries" (Indigenous Indians).
b. An Image of Poverty
Another reason why Indians often exhibit a negative idea of themselves, may be because India
is always associated in the world with poverty : Mother Teresa, Unicef, or Calcutta. This image
has been reinforced by books such as the City of Joy, an international best-seller, which takes a
little part of India - the Calcutta slums - and gives the impression to the naive and ignorant
western readers, that it constitutes the whole of India. Another factor which reinforces the
image of poverty is the tremendous fame which Mother Theresa enjoyed in her lifetime - and
even after her death, as she is in the process of being made a saint. While it is true that Mother
Theresa did a tremendous job in Calcutta, she never tried to counterbalance the very negative
image of India that her name was carrying, with some praise for the country which had adopted
her for fifty years. She could have spoken for instance about the great hospitality of Indians, or

the open-mindedness of Hindu religion, which had allowed her to practise Christianity near one
of the most sacred temples of the country, or even about the near worship which most Hindus
showed for her.
It is true that there is a tremendous amount of poverty in India, and that many people can only
afford one meal a day. But four things should be known. Firstly, that until the 18th century, in
spite of the repeated Muslim invasions, India was known as one of the richest countries of the
world, the land "of milk and honey". You only have to read the numerous accounts of travellers
from different countries, who all marvelled at India's prosperity. The second thing, is that all the
great famines of India happened during the British time. Many historians, such as Frenchman
Guy Deleury, have documented the economic rape of India by the British : "Industrially the
British suffocated India , gradually strangling Indian industries whose finished products, textiles
in particular, were of a quality unique in the world which has made them famous over the
centuries. Instead they oriented Indian industries towards jute, cotton, tea, oil seeds, which
they needed as raw materials for their home industries. They employed cheap labour for the
enterprises while traditional artisans were perishing. India, which used to be a land of plenty,
where milk and honey flowed started drying" (Modele Indou)... According to British records,
one million Indians died of famine between 1800 and 1825, 4 million between 1825-1850, 5
million between 1850-1875 and 15 million between 1875-1900. Thus 25 million Indians died in
100 years ! The British must be proud of their bloody record. It is probably more honourable
and straightforward to kill in the name of Allah, than in the guise of petty commercial interests
and total disregard for the ways of a 5000 year civilisation. Thus, by the beginning of the 20th
century, India was bled dry and there were no resources left.
The third fact, is that after Independence, whatever poverty there still was in this country,
there were no more famines, as India managed to become self-sufficient in food through the
Green Revolution (whatever negative side effects it had on India's ecology - but that is another
story). This is a great achievement, a tremendous task of which India can be proud off. For if
you look at China, India's largest neighbour, which always invites natural comparison with India
as they share many of the same problems and characteristics, it went through tremendous
traumas after independence. Millions died of hunger, for instance, when Mao diverted
peasants from cultivating the land, in his misguided and megalomaniac effort to increase steel
production. It should also be said that later it did look as if China fared better than India in its
effort to feed adequately its people. But that is because they employed coercion to control
their own population, whereas India, a democracy, never tried to force its citizens to have less
children - except for a short while under Indira Gandhi (who lost the elections shortly after).
The fourth thing is that there is a tremendous amount of black money in India - as much as 40
to 50% of the total economy. If that money could be tapped and channelled to the White
economy, it would give a tremendous boost to the nation. But you need a government wise
enough to enact laws which make people cheat less. People have been cheating since 1947,
because Nehru had decided that Socialism, partly modelled after the Soviet Union, was the best

tool to bridge the yawning gap between the very rich and the very poor of India. At that time, it
seemed a good idea, but as years passed, it proved a disaster, spawning a huge bureaucratic
system, breeding corruption, stifling free enterprise and overall making people cheat, because
it had introduced one of the heaviest taxing system in the world. And the sad thing is that
Indians - from the middle class to even the poorer people - are some of the greatest savers in
the world. Not for them the credit card system, which is ruining the West, by artificially
enhancing the economy - no, they save in land, gold, jewellery, or in cash, often stashed at
home. And that is a tremendous asset for India, if it could be brought in the open. There is
nowadays an economic crisis in the so-called Tiger countries of Asia - even Hong-Kong is
affected by it. But so far, India's economy has remained sound. Of course there are drawbacks:
the Rupee is not yet fully convertible, subsidies drain the Exchequer, import duties are still
levied on many goods... However this partially insulated economy has helped India to protect
her own industries, while switching gradually to a fully liberalised financial system. Thus, if that
tremendous amount of black money could be tapped, it would also contribute towards
changing this "poor" image sticking to India, which is harming her in her quest for foreign
investments and international recognition.
China too had a very negative image until the late sixties : the Red menace, the communist
Dragon, the great Backward leap... But after Nixon's visit in 1971, everything changed - that is
the Western Press, which was responsible in the first place for China's negative image, started
projecting a more positive picture of China. It also helped, that contrary to Indians, the Chinese
are proud of themselves and possess a strong nationalistic bend - maybe because they have
never been colonised, except for short periods. And today, there is not only a fascination for
China in the West, but the Industrialised World has also placed many of its economic chips
there. France, for instance, invests 10 times more in China than in India. Yet, India is a much
more interesting country from the investment point of view : it is democratic, which China is
not; people there speak more English than in China; it has laws to protect contracts, which is
not the case in China; it is a stable country, in spite of the political problems and all kinds of
separatist movements... But still, the world hardly takes notice of India - although things are
beginning to change. And that is because of India's negative image, of course ! And nobody is
more responsible about this negative image than Indians themselves. India has to stop going
around with a begging bowl in her hands. For India does not have to beg : it has the material
and intellectual wealth - it has even the monetary resources.
c. The Caste System
The caste system has been the most misunderstood, the most vilified aspect of Hindu society at
the hands of Western scholars - and even today by "secular" Indians. And this has greatly
contributed to India's self-depreciation, as you hardly find any Indian who is not ashamed of
caste, especially if he talks to a Westerner. But ultimately, one must understand the original
purpose behind the caste system, as spelt out by India's Great Sage and Avatar of the Modern

Age, Sri Aurobindo : "Caste was originally an arrangement for the distribution of functions in
society, just as much as class in Europe, but the principle on which this distribution was based
was peculiar to India. A brahmin was a brahmin not by mere birth, but because he discharged
the duty of preserving the spiritual and intellectual elevation of the race, and he had to
cultivate the spiritual temperament and acquire the spiritual training which alone would qualify
him for the task. The kshatriya was kshatriya not merely because he was the son of warriors
and princes, but because he discharged the duty of protecting the country and preserving the
high courage and manhood of action, and he had to cultivate the princely temperament and
acquire the strong and lofty Samurai training which alone fitted him for his duties. So it was for
the vaishya whose function was to amass wealth for the race and the shudra who discharged
the humbler duties of service without which the other castes could not perform their share of
labour for the common, good". (India's Rebirth, p 26).
It is true that in time the caste system has become perverted, as Sri Aurobindo also noted : "it is
the nature of human institutions to degenerate; there is no doubt that the institution of caste
degenerated. It ceased to be determined by spiritual qualifications which, once essential, have
now come to be subordinate and even immaterial and is determined by the purely material
tests of occupation and birth... By this change it has set itself against the fundamental tendency
of Hinduism which is to insist on the spiritual and subordinate the material and thus lost most
of its meaning. the spirit of caste arrogance, exclusiveness and superiority came to dominate it
instead of the spirit of duty, and the change weakened the nation and helped to reduce us to
our present condition...(India's Rebirth, p 27) Today, the abuses being done in the name of
caste are often horrifying, specially to a Westerner brought up on more egalitarian values.
Some of the backward villages of Tamil Nadu, or Bihar for instance, still segregate Harijans and
the lower castes, who do not have the same access to educational facilities than the upper
castes, in spite of Nehru's heavy-handed quota system, which has been badly taken advantage
off.
Modern-day Indian politicians have exploited like nobody else the caste divide for their own
selfish purposes. The politicians of ancient India were princes and kings belonging to the
kshatriya caste; their duty was to serve the nation and high ideals were held in front of them by
the brahmins and rishis who advised them. The Buddha's father for instance, was a king elected
by its own people. But today we see corrupt, inefficient men, who have forgotten that they are
supposed to serve the nation first, who are only interested in minting the maximum money in
the minimum time. Indian politicians have often become a caricature, which is made fun of by
the whole country, adding to India's self-negating image. They are frequently uneducated, gross
people, elected on the strength of demagogic pledges, such as promising rice for 2 Rs a kilo, a
folly which at one time was draining many state's coffers, or by playing Muslims against Hindus,
Harijans against Brahmins, as in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Ministers in India are
most of the time ignorant, unqualified, often having no idea about the department they are
overseeing - it is the civil servants who control matters, who know their subject thoroughly. You

have to work hard to become a civil servant, study, pass exams, then slowly climb up the
hierarchy, hereby gaining experience. The politician just jumps from being a lowly clerk, or
some uneducated zamindar to become a powerful Minister, lording over much more educated
men. There should be also exams to become a minister, a minimum of knowledge and skills
should be required of the man who says he wants to serve the nation. It matters not if he
comes from a low caste, but he should have in his heart a little bit of the selflessness of the
kshatriya and a few drops of the wisdom of the brahmin.
Nobody is saying that the caste system should be praised, for it has indeed degenerated; but it
would also help in enhancing India's self-pride if Indians realised that once it constituted a
unique and harmonious system. And finally, have the people who dismiss caste as an Aryan
imposition on the Dravidians, or as an inhuman and nazi system, pondered the fact that it is no
worse than the huge class differences you can see nowadays in South America, or even in the
United States, where many Negroes live below the poverty level ? And can you really exclude it
off-hand, when it still survives so much in the villages - and even in more educated circles,
where one still marries in matching castes, with the help of an astrologer? Does the caste
system need to be transformed, to recapture its old meaning and once more incarnate a
spiritual hierarchy of beings? Or has it to be recast in a different mould, taking into account the
parameters of modern Indian society? Or else, will it finally disappear altogether from India,
because it has become totally irrelevant today ? At any rate, Hindus should not allow this factor
to be exploited shamelessly against them, as it has been in the last two centuries, by
missionaries, "secular" historians, Muslims, and by pre and post-independence Indian
politicians - each for their own purpose.
d. Muslim Invasion
Another very important reason for the negative self-image that Indians have got of themselves,
are the Muslim invasions. This is still today a very controversial subject, since Indian history
books have chosen to keep quiet about this huge chunk of Indian history - nearly 10 centuries
of horrors. At Independence, Nehru too, put it aside, perhaps because he thought that this was
a topic which could divide India, as there was a strong Muslim minority which chose to stay and
not emigrate to Pakistan. Yet, nothing has marked India's psyche - or the Hindu silent majority,
if you wish - as the Muslim invasions. And whatever happens in contemporary India, is a
consequence of these invasions, whether it is the creation of Pakistan, whether it is Kashmir,
whether it is Ayodhya, or Kargil. There is no point in passing a moral judgment on these
invasions, as they are a thing of the past. Islam is one of the world's youngest religions, whose
dynamism is not in question; unfortunately it is a militant religion, as it believes that there is
only one God and all the other Gods are false. And so as long as this concept is ingrained in the
minds of Muslims, there will be a problem of tolerance, of tolerating other creeds. And this is
what happened in India from the 7th century onwards : invaders, who believed in one God,
came upon this country which had a million gods... And for them it was the symbol of all what

they thought was wrong. So the genocide - and the word genocide has to be used - which was
perpetrated was tremendous, because of the staunch resistance of the 4000 year old Hindu
faith. Indeed, the Muslim policy vis a vis India seems to have been a conscious and systematic
destruction of everything that was beautiful, holy, refined. Entire cities were burnt down and
their populations massacred. Each successive campaign brought hundreds of thousands of
victims and similar numbers were deported as slaves. Every new invader often made literally his
hill of Hindu skulls. Thus the conquest of Afghanistan in the year 1000, was followed by the
annihilation of the entire Hindu population there; indeed, the region is still called Hindu Kush,
'Hindu slaughter'. The Bahmani sultans in central India, made it a rule to kill 100.000 Hindus a
year. In 1399, Teimur killed 100.000 Hindus in a single day, and many more on other occasions.
Historian Konraad Elst, in his book "Negationism in India", quotes Professor K.S. Lal, who
calculated that the Hindu population decreased by eighty million between the year 1000 and
1525, indeed, probably the biggest holocaust in the world's history, far greater than the
genocide of the Incas in South America by the Spanish and the Portuguese.
Regrettably, there was a conspiracy by the British, and later by India's Marxist intelligentsia to
negate this holocaust. Thus, Indian students since the early twenties, were taught that that
there never was a Muslim genocide on the person of Hindus, but rather that the Moghols
brought great refinement to Indian culture. In "Communalism and the writing of Indian
history", for instance, Romila Thapar, Harbans Mukhia and Bipan Chandra, professors at the
JNU in New Delhi, the Mecca of secularism and negationism in India, denied the Muslim
genocide by replacing it instead with a conflict of classes : "Muslims brought the notion of
egalitarianism in India", they argue. The redoubtable Romila Thapar in her "Penguin History of
India", co-authored with Percival Spear, writes again : "Aurangzeb's supposed intolerance, is
little more than a hostile legend based on isolated acts such as the erection of a mosque on a
temple site in Benares".
What are the facts, according to Muslim records ? Aurangzeb (1658-1707) did not just build an
isolated mosque on a destroyed temple, he ordered all temples destroyed an mosques to be
built on their site. Among them the Kashi Vishvanath, one of the most sacred places Hindu
worship, Krishna's birth temple in Mathura, the rebuilt Somnath temple on the coast of
Gujurat, the Vishnu temple replaced with the Alamgir mosque now overlooking Benares and
the Treta-ka-Thakur temple in Ayodhya. The number of temples destroyed by Aurangzeb is
counted in 5, if not 6 figures, according to his own official court chronicles: "Aurangzeb ordered
all provincial governors to destroy all schools and temples of the Pagans and to make a
complete end to all pagan teachings and practices"... "Hasan Ali Khan came and said that 172
temples in the area had been destroyed"... "His majesty went to Chittor and 63 temples were
destroyed"... "Abu Tarab, appointed to destroy the idol-temples of Amber, reported that 66
temples had been razed to the ground". Aurangzeb did not stop at destroying temples, their
users were also wiped-out; even his own brother, Dara Shikoh, was executed for taking an

interest in Hindu religion and the Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded because he objected
to Aurangzeb's forced conversions.
This genocide is still a reality which should not be wished away. Because what the Muslims
invasions have done to India is to instil terror in the Hindu collective psyche, which still lingers
many centuries later and triggers unconscious reactions. The paranoia displayed today by
Indians, their indiscipline, their lack of charity for their own brethrens, the abject disregard of
their environment, are a direct consequence of these invasions. What India has to do today, is
to look squarely at the facts pertaining to these invasions and come to term with them, without
any spirit of vengeance, so as to regain a little bit of self-pride. It would also help the Muslim
community of India to acknowledge these horrors, which paradoxically, were committed
against them, as they are the Hindus who were then converted by force, their women raped,
their children taken into slavery - even though today they have made theirs the religion which
their ancestors once hated.
e. European Colonialism
Obviously, one of the major causes for India's self-depreciating image are the European
invasions. The paradox is that no country in the world as India has shown as much tolerance
towards accepting in its fold persecuted religious minorities from all over the planet. Take the
Jews, for instance, who have been persecuted and treated as second-class citizens everywhere
after fleeing the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem. In India, not only were they welcomed,
but also they were allowed to live and practise their religion peacefully, till most of them went
back to Israel after Independence... But it is not only the Jews, but also the Parsis, who fled
persecution by the Muslims in Iran, or the Christian Syrians, who landed in India in the 3rd
century, or the Arab merchants who from time immemorial were allowed to establish trading
posts in Kerala... Or even the Jesuits, who were welcomed when they landed with Vasco de
Gama in Calicut in 1495. But, as the Syrian Christians, as the Arab merchants, they quickly
turned against their benefactors and set not only to exploit India commercially, but also
attempted to impose their own religions on the "Heathens", the Pagans, the Infidels.
It is thus a bit of a paradox when one hears today Indian intellectuals claim that Hindus are
intolerant, fanatic, or "fundamentalists". Because in the whole history of India, Hindus have not
only shown that they are extremely tolerant, but Hinduism is probably the only religion in the
world who never tried to convert others - forget about conquering other countries to propagate
their own religion. This is not true with Christianity, it is not true with Islam - it is not even true
with Buddhism, as Buddhists had missionaries who went all over Asia and converted people.
This historical tolerance of Hinduism is never taken into account by foreign correspondents
covering India and even by Indian journalists. If it was, Indians might at least take some pride in
their country's boundless generosity towards others... Indians have a very short memory of
themselves, maybe because they never cared to write down their own history.

Thus, this beautiful tolerance was taken advantage off by numerous invaders - particularly
Europeans colonisers. The Portuguese for instance, were allowed to establish trading posts in
the 15th century by the Zamorin of Cochin. And what did they do? Alfonso de Albuquerque
started a reign of terror in Goa, razing temples to erect churches in their stead, burning
"heretics", crucifying Brahmins, using false theories to forcibly convert the lower castes and
encouraging his soldiers to take Indian mistresses. Later, the British missionaries in India were
always supporters of colonialism; they encouraged it and their whole structure was based on
"the good Western civilised world being brought to the Pagans". In the words of Claudius
Buccchanan, a chaplain attached to the East India Company : "...Neither truth, nor honesty,
honour, gratitude, nor charity, is to be found in the breast of a Hindoo"... What a comment
about a nation that gave the world the Vedas and the Upanishads ! After the failed mutiny of
1857, the missionaries became even more militant, using the secular arm of the British Raj, who
felt that the use of the sword at the service of the Gospel, was now entirely justified, so that at
Independence, entire regions of the north-east were converted to Christianity. Remember how
Swami Vivekananda cried in anguish at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago: "if we Hindus dig
out all the dirt from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean and throw it in you faces, it will be but a
speck compared to what the missionaries have done to our religion and culture "".
In the late nineties, Indian Christians complained about persecutions by Hindus "zealots". It is
true that there happened two or three crimes, particularly a ghastly murder against an
Australian missionary and his two young sons. But the massive outcry it evoked in the Indian
Press showed clearly how Indians are constantly denying themselves and consider the life of a
White Man infinitely more important and dear than the lives of a hundred Indians. Or to put it
differently : the life of a Christian seems to them more sacred than the lives of many Hindus,
which shows how the White Man's presence in India still has such an impact. Because when
Hindus were slaughtered, whether in Pendjab in the eighties, or in Kashmir in the nineties,
when militants would stop buses and kill all the Hindus - men, women and children, when the
few last courageous Hindus to dare remain in Kashmir, were savagely slaughtered in a village,
very few voices were raised in the Indian Press - at least there never was such an outrage as
provoked by the murder of the Australian missionary.
At long last, Hindus are beginning to realize the harm done by missionaries to their social and
cultural fabric. Yet even today, one still hears of covert attempts at conversion by Christian
missionaries. In the poor districts of Kerala for example, missionaries still use the " miracle "
ploy to convert people : the naive drops a " wish " in a box placed at the entrance of church.
And lo, this wish - a loan, some cloths, a boat - is miraculously granted a few days later.
Needless to say that the happy innocent converts quickly, bringing along his whole family. It is
also this meekness of the Hindus towards the Christians, as if the British missionaries had
permanently left an imprint of inferiority in the collective psyche of Indians, which contributes
towards India's self-denial. And let us not forget that Pope John Paul II proclaimed that Asia will
be the target of Evangelisation in the Third Millennium.

f. Macaulay's Children
When they took over India, the British set upon establishing an intermediary race of Indians,
whom they could entrust with their work at the middle level echelons and who could one day
be convenient instruments to rule by proxy, or semi-proxy. The tool to shape these " British
clones " was education. In the words of Macaulay, the " pope " of British schooling in India: "
We must at present do our best to form a class, who may be interpreters between us and the
millions we govern; a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, in
opinions, in morals and in intellects ". Macaulay had very little regard for Hindu culture and
education : " all the historical information which can be collected from all the books which have
been written in the Sanskrit language, is less valuable than what may be found in the most
paltry abridgement used at preparatory schools in England ". Or : " Hindus have a literature of
small intrinsic value, hardly reconcilable with morality, full of monstrous superstitions "...
It seems today that India's Marxist and Muslim intelligentsia could not agree more with
Macaulay, for his dream has come true: nowadays, the greatest adversaries of an " indianised
and spiritualised education " are the descendants of these " Brown Shahibs " : the " secular "
politicians, the journalists, the top bureaucrats, in fact the whole westernised cream of India.
And what is even more paradoxical, is that most of them are Hindus ! It is they, who upon
getting independence, have denied India its true identity and borrowed blindly from the British
education system, without trying to adapt it to the unique Indian mentality and psychology; and
it is they who are refusing to accept a change of India's education system, which is totally
western-oriented and is churning out machines learning by heart boring statistics which are of
little usefulness in life. And what India is getting from this education is a youth which apes the
West : they go to Mac Donald's, thrive on MTV culture, wear the latest Klein jeans and Lacoste
T Shirts, and in general are useless, rich parasites, in a country which has so many talented
youngsters who live in poverty. They will grow-up like millions of other western clones in the
developing world, who wear a tie, read the New York Times and swear by liberalism and
secularism to save their countries from doom. In time, they will reach elevated positions and
write books and articles which make fun of India, they will preside human-right committees, be
"secular" high bureaucrats who take the wrong decisions and generally do tremendous harm to
India, because it has been programmed in their genes to always run down their own country. In
a gist, they will be the ones who are always looking at the West for approval and forever
perceive India through the western prism. It is said that a nation has to be proud of itself to
move forward - and unless there is a big change in this intellectual elite, unless it is more
conscious of its heritage and of India's greatness, which has begun to happen in a small way, it
is going to be very difficult for India to enter the 21st century as a real super power.
Thus the education curriculum has to be totally revised. For instance, Indian history is still
taught as it was devised by western scholars and it promotes blindly theories such as the Aryan
Invasion, which probably never happened. On the other hand, students learn practically

nothing about the extraordinary genius of their culture. Studies of the Vedas, for example,
should be made compulsory from the seventh grade upwards, because, as Sri Aurobindo
remarked : "the Veda was the beginning of our spiritual knowledge, the Veda will remain its
end. The recovery of the perfect truth of the Veda is therefore not merely a desideratum for
our modern intellectual curiosity, but a practical necessity for the future of the human race. For
I firmly believe that the secret concealed in the Veda, when entirely discovered, will be found to
formulate perfectly that knowledge and practice of divine life to which the march of humanity,
after long wanderings in the satisfaction of the intellect and senses, must inevitably return."
(India's Rebirth, p.94). Indian children should be told about the immense human and spiritual
values of their own literature, like we in Europe are brought up on the values of the Iliad and
the Odyssey, or the great Greek tragedies. Therefore, education in India has to be more
indianised - it is not a question of being "nationalistic", or "saffron-oriented", as Indian Marxists
are fond of saying, but of knowing one's own culture : the Vedas, the Bhagavad Gita, the
Ramayana, which according to many western scholars stand among the greatest literary works
ever written.
Of course, Indian students have to be geared-up for the competitive world, because unless you
can deal on par with the West, unless you can speak fluently English, in order to do business
and interact, you cannot compete, you cannot become a great nation. Therefore, the best of
western education has to be imparted, as Sri Aurobindo had clearly indicated : "National
education...may be described as the education which starting with the past and making full use
of the present, builds up a great nation. Whoever wishes to cut of the nation from its past, is no
friend of our national growth. Whoever fails to take advantage of the present, is losing us the
battle of life. We must therefore save for India all that she has stored up of knowledge,
character and noble thoughts in her immemorial past. We must acquire for her the best
knowledge that Europe can give her and assimilate it to her own peculiar type of national
temperament. We must introduce the best methods of teaching humanity has developed,
whether modern or ancient. And all these we must harmonise into a system which will be
impregnated with the spirit of self-reliance, so as to build up men and not machines". (India's
Reb 36). Then India will produce generation after generation of children who are proud of their
own countries and do not go about negating themselves.
g. The Partition of the Subcontinent
The first leaders of pre-independent India took some disastrous decisions, and the worst of
them was to allow the division of their own country on religious lines. And today, the
consequences of this partition are still felt : Kashmir is the most visible of them; but you also
have Ayodhya, Kargil, the nuclear bomb, the Bombay or Coimbatore blasts - and above all, the
self-negation of a nation which is not whole, which has lost some of its most precious limbs in
1947. Yes, it is true, the British used to the hilt the existing divide between Hindus and Muslims;
yes, the Congress was weak : it accepted what was forced down its throat by Jinnah and

Mountbatten, even though many of its leaders, and a few moderate Muslims, disagreed with
the principle of partition; it was also Gandhi's policy of non-violence and gratifying the fanatical
Muslim minority, in the hope that it would see the light, which did tremendous harm to India
and encouraged Jinnah to harden his demands. But ultimately, one has to go back to the roots,
to the beginning of it all, in order to understand Partition. One has to travel back in history to
get a clear overall picture. This is why memory is essential, this is why Holocausts should never
be forgotten.
For Jinnah was only the vehicle, the instrument, the avatar, the latest reincarnation of the
medieval Muslims coming down to rape and loot and plunder the land of Bharat. He was the
true son of Mahmud Ghaznavi, of Muhammed Ghasi, of Aurangzeb. He took up again the work
left unfinished by the last Mughal two centuries earlier: 'Dar-ul-Islam', the House of Islam. The
Hindu-Muslim question is an old one - but is it really a Muslim-Hindu question, or just plainly a
Muslim obsession, their hatred of the Hindu pagans, their contempt for this polytheist religion?
This obsession, this hate, is as old as the first invasion of India by the Arabs in 650. After
independence, nothing has changed: the sword of Allah is still as much ready to strike the
Kafirs, the idolaters of many Gods. The Muslims invaded this country, conquered it, looted it,
razed its temples, humiliated its Hindu leaders, killed its Brahmins, converted its weaker
sections. True, it was all done in the name of Allah and many of its chiefs were sincere in
thinking they were doing their duty by hunting down the Infidel. So how could they accept on
15th August 1947 to share power on an equal basis with those who were their subjects for
thirteen centuries? "Either the sole power for ourselves, and our rule over the Hindus as it is
our sovereign right, we the adorers of the one and only true God - Or we quit India and
establish our own nation, a Muslim nation, of the true faith, where we will live amongst
ourselves".
Thus there is no place for idolaters in this country, this great nation of Pakistan; they can at best
be 'tolerated' as second-class citizens. Hence the near total exodus of Hindus from Pakistan,
whereas more than half the Muslim population in India, chose to stay, knowing full well that
they would get the freedom to be and to practice their own religion. In passing, the Muslims
took their pound of flesh from the Hindus - once more - by indulging in terrible massacres,
which were followed by retaliations from Sikhs and hard core Hindus, the ultimate horror.
Partition triggered one of the most terrible exodus in the history of humanity. And this exodus
has not ended: they still come by hundreds of thousand every year from Bangladesh, fleeing
poverty, flooding India with problems, when the country has already so many of her own.
For French historian Alain Danielou, the division of India was on the human level as well as on
the political one, a great mistake : "It added to the Middle East an unstable state, Pakistan, and
burdened India which already had serious problems". And he adds: "India whose ancient
borders stretched until Afghanistan, lost with the country of seven rivers (the Indus Valley), the
historical centre of her civilisation. At a time when the Muslim invaders seemed to have lost
some of their extremism and were ready to assimilate themselves to other populations of India,

the European conquerors, before returning home, surrendered once more the cradle of Hindu
civilisation to Muslim fanaticism." (Histoire de l'Inde, p.355)
Pakistanis will argue that the valley of Kashmir, which has a Muslim majority, should have gone
to Pakistan - and in the mad logic of partition they are not totally wrong. It is because Nehru
and Gandhi accepted this logic, which was tremendously stupid, that India is suffering so much
today. Of course, we cannot go back, History has been made : Pakistan has become an
independent country and it is a "fait accompli". But if you go to Pakistan today, you will notice
that its Punjabis look exactly the same as Indian Punjabis : they have the same mannerisms, eat
the same food, dress similarly, speak the same language... Everything unites them, except
religion. And this is what Sri Aurobindo kept saying in 1947 : " India is free, but she has not
achieved unity, only a fissured and broken freedom...The whole communal division into Hindu
and Muslim seems to have hardened into the figure of a permanent political division of the
country. It is to be hoped that the Congress and the Nation will not accept the settled fact as for
ever settled, or as anything more than a temporary expedient. For if it lasts, India may be
seriously weakened, even crippled; civil strife may remain always possible, possible even a new
invasion and foreign conquest. The partition of the country must go...For without it the destiny
of India might be seriously impaired and frustrated. That must not be." (Message of Sri
Aurobindo on the 15th of August 1947). It is only when the subcontinent will be whole again
and the scars on both sides have been healed, that a Greater India will regain some of the selfpride gone with Partition.
h. The Humiliation of 1962
The so-called Kargil war of Kashmir in June 99 has triggered two very positive phenomenons for
India. For the first time in a long stretch, it gave the country a bit of nationalism, it made many
Indians proud of the heroism and selflessness of their soldiers. Whatever jingoism, or
chauvinism there also was, one could feel, from Tamil Nadu to Punjab, that for a time there
grew a feeling of togetherness in the nation, the knowledge of one's soldiers fighting it out
there, in the harshest and most dangerous conditions and defending Mother India's sacred
land. And that was very positive, for unless a nation possesses a bit of nationalism, it cannot
keep on growing. And the second very positive aspect is that it has revived in India a notion
which has been extinct for a long time : that of the kshatriya spirit. A nation needs warriors, it
needs soldiers to defend itself and protect its women, children, and its borders from hostile and
asuric elements, which throughout history have negated the Good and the Holy. It is fine to be
Gandhian and non-violent, but in the tough and rough world of today, one cannot be too naive
: you need a strong and well-equipped army to be able to defend one's dharma. But a well
equipped army is not enough - we have seen how today the United States' army, the most
modern and high-tech of the world, is only capable of fighting from a distance, either
bombarding from the sky, or shooting from boats off-shore, a coward's war, as its soldiers have
lost the sense of kshatriya, of honour, of dying for one's country. In Kargil, India saw the

selflessness of its soldiers, with all the officers in front, climbing in the cold under enemy fire
and wrestling peaks in impossible conditions, with little more than blood and tears.
But not only Indians lack self-confidence in their dealings with the West, but they seem to have
a permanent fear of the Chinese. Is it because in 1962, the Chinese took advantage of India's
naivete, and attacked treacherously in the Himalayas, humiliating the Indian army and taking
away 20.000 square kilometres of her territory, which they have not yet vacated ? India's first
Prime Minister, Jawarlahal Nehru, had decided that India and China were the natural 'socialist'
brothers of Asia. Shortly before China's attack, the Indian Army Chief of Staff had drafted a
paper on the threats to India's security by China, along with recommendations for a clear
defence policy. But whe n Nehru read the paper, he said : "Rubbish. Total Rubbish. We don't
need a defence plan. Our policy is non-violence. We foresee no military threats.. Scrap the
Army. The police are good enough to meet our security needs." We know the results of this
very foolish assessment.
But the biggest mistake that Nehru did was to betray Tibet, a peaceful spiritualised nation. For
Tibet had always been a natural buffer between the two Giants of Asia - in fact, the Dalai
Lama's repeated offer that Tibet becomes a denuclearised, demilitarised zone between India
and China, makes total sense today and Indian leaders should have immediately adopted it. But
unfortunately, if there is one thing which all political parties in India share, it is the policy of
appeasing China in exchange for a non-interference of the Chinese in Kashmir. But what noninterference ? Not only did China give Pakistan the know-how to develop nuclear weapons, but
it also provided missiles to deliver them ! On top of that, according to the CIA, China has
transferred one third of its nuclear arsenal to Nagchuka, 250 kms away from Lhassa, a region
full of huge caves, which the Chinese have linked together by an intricate underground network
and where they have installed nearly one hundred Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles, many of
them pointed at Indian cities. The reason for this is that the Chinese, who are probably among
the most intelligent people in the world, have always understood that India is their number one
potential enemy in Asia - in military, nuclear and economic terms.
It should be clear that as long as India does not stand-up up to its responsibility towards Tibet
and continues to recognise China's unjust suzerainty of it, there will be no peace in Asia. Indian
leaders are perfectly aware that the Chinese, a span of fifty years, have killed 1,2 million
Tibetans, razed to the ground 6254 monasteries, destroyed 60% of religious, historical and
cultural archives and that one Tibetan out of ten is still in jail. As we enter the Third Millennium,
a quarter million Chinese troops are occupying Tibet and there are 7.5 million Chinese settlers
for six million Tibetans - in fact, in many places such as the capital, Lhassa, Tibetans are
outnumbered two to one... India has also to wake-up to the plain fact that China needs space
and has hegemonic aspirations : it got Tibet, it got Hong Kong, it got part of Ladhak; now it
wants Taiwan, Arunachal Pradesh, the Spratly islands and what not ! Fifty years ago, during the
Korean war, Sri Aurobindo, had seen clearly in the Chinese game : "the first move in the
Chinese Communist plan of campaign is to dominate and take possession first of these northern

parts and then of South East Asia as a preliminary to their manoeuvres with regard to the rest
of the continent in passing Tibet as a gate opening to India". India should overcome its awe of
China and be ready to eventually face once more the Chinese army. The nuclear tests of India,
which have been very criticised, because ideally you have to get rid of nuclear weapons if you
want a safe world, should be seen in that light.
i. A Westernised Framework
It is not only the British education system, which was blindly adopted at Independence by
Nehru, but also the whole judicial, constitutional, and legal set-up. The Constitution, for
instance, has repeatedly shown its flaws, as the Presidents, who has no real powers, are playing
more and more games and trying to impinge upon the Prime Minister's prerogatives.
Democracy in India has also been perverted : we have seen how the Congress, who in the last
three elections of the century made disastrous showings, has used the subtleties of the system
to bring down four successive governments, thus provoking useless and expensive elections,
which in turn threw no stable governments until the National Democratic Alliance won by a
landslide in 1999. Therefore, it is the whole democratic system of India that has to be reshaped
to suit a new, truer nation, which will manifest again its ancient wisdom.
And what is true democracy for India, but the law of Dharma ? It is this law that has to be
revived, it is this law that must be the foundation of a true democratic India: "It has been said
that democracy is based on the rights of man; it has been replied that it should rather take its
stand on the duties of man; but both rights and duties are European ideas. Dharma is the Indian
conception in which rights and duties lose the artificial antagonism created by a view of the
world which makes selfishness the root of action and regain their deep and eternal unity.
Dharma is the basis of democracy which Asia must recognise, for in this lies the distinction
between the soul of Asia and the soul of Europe." (India's Reb p.37- March 16th 1908)
And the most wonderful thing is that, practically, India has at hand the model of a new form of
democracy in the old Panchayat system of Indian villages, which has to be revived and worked
up to the top. These ancient Panchayat system and their guilds were very representative and
they had a living contact with the people. On the other hand, the parliamentary system has lost
contact with the masses : the MP elected from Tamil Nadu or Andhra Pradesh, sits most of his
time in Delhi, an artificial, arrogant and faraway city. The palatial bungalow, the car, the
servants, the sycophancy, the temptation to get corrupt he encounters there, make him forget
his original aspiration to serve the people - if he ever had one...What has to be done is not only
to decentralize the Government, by giving a greater autonomy to the states - which should take
care of most separatist movements - but also to send back the elected politicians to their fields
of work, so that they have a living contact with their people, as they did two thousand years
ago : " We had a spontaneous and a free growth of communities developing on their own
lines...Each such communal form of life - the village, the town, etc. - which formed the unit of
national life, was left free in its own internal management. The central authority never

interfered with it... because its function was not so much to legislate as to harmonise and see
that everything was going all right"... (India's Rebirth 172)
The Judiciary, with its millions of backlog cases, which sometimes take decades to be decided
upon, with its lawyers looking like crows in these ridiculous black dresses, would have to be
reviewed too. It would be absurd to put back the Manu law into practice; but certainly the law
of Dharma, of Truth, should be translated into a new Judicial system. Not to judge according to
Western standards, with its so-called secular values, which have no relevance to India : " The
work of the legislators attempted to take up the ordinary life of man and of the community and
the life of human desire and aim and interest and ordered rule and custom and to interpret and
formulate it in the same complete and decisive manner and at the same time to throw the
whole in to an ordered relation to the ruling ideas of the national culture and frame and
perpetuate a social system intelligently fashioned so as to provide a basis, a structure, a
gradation by which there could be a secure evolution of the life from the vital and mental, to
the spiritual motive.. " (Found of Indian Culture p. 283).
India has no national language, as Nehru thought that English could be the unifying language.
But barely 10% of India knows English fluently and Hindi is spoken only in the North. Yet, very
few seems to realise that India possesses in Sanskrit the Mother of all languages, so intricate, so
subtle, so rich, that no other speech can equal it today. It could easily become the unifying
language of India : "Sanskrit ought still to have a future as the language of the learned and it
will not be a good day for India when the ancient tongues cease entirely to be written or
spoken", admonished 50 years ago Sri Aurobindo, A dead language, you say ! Impossible to
revive? But that's what they argued about Hebrew. And did not the Jewish people, when they
got back their land in 1948, revive their 'dead' language, so that it is spoken today by all Jewish
people and has become alive again ? The same thing ought to be done with Sanskrit, but as Sri
Aurobindo points out: "it must get rid of the curse of the heavy pedantic style contracted by it
in its decline, with the lumbering impossible compounds and the overweight of hair-splitting
erudition". Let the scholars begin now to revive and modernise the Sanskrit language, it would
be a sure sign of the dawning of the Renaissance of India. In a few years it should be taught as
the second language in schools throughout the country, with the regional language as the first
and English as the third. On top of that, Sanskrit would be a gift to the world, because it will
boost the studies of the Vedas, whose great secrets will be unravelled. And again, this will go in
enhancing India's self image.
j. Arise Again O Ancient India
"Arise O India, be proud once more of Thyself", one would be tempted to say in conclusion. This
should be India's motto for the Third Millennium, after five centuries of self-denial. For, in spite
of its poverty, in spite of the false Aryan invasion, in spite of the Muslim holocaust, in spite of
European colonialism, in spite of Macaulay's children, in spite of the Partition, in spite of the

Chinese threat, in spite of the westernised framework, India still has got tremendous potential.
Everything is there, ready to be manifested again, ready to mould India in a new modern
nation, a super power of the 21st century. Of course, India has to succeed its industrialisation, it
has to liberalise, because unless you can compete economically with the West, no nation can
become a super power. India has also to solve its political problems, settle its separatist
troubles, get rid of corruption and bureaucracy. And lastly, it has to apply quickly its mind and
genius to its ecological problems, because the environment in India is in a very bad way, near
the point of no-return. Thus, if India can succeed into its industrialisation and liberalisation,
become a force to be reckoned militarily, economically and socially, then the wonder that IS
India could again manifest itself.
And what is this Wonder? Beyond the image of poverty, of backwardness, beyond even the
wonder that is Hinduism, there is a Knowledge - spiritual, occult, esoteric, medical even - still
alive today in India. This Knowledge was once roaming upon the shores of this world - in Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Greece... - but it has now vanished to be replaced by religions, with their
dogmas and rituals, do's and don't, hells and heavens. For we have lost the truth. we have lost
the Great Sense, the meaning of our evolution, the meaning of why so much suffering, why
dying, why getting born, why this earth, who are we, what is the soul, what is reincarnation,
where is the ultimate truth about the world, the universe... But India has kept this truth, India
has managed to preserve it through seven millenniums of pitfalls, of genocides and attempts at
killing her santanam dharma. And this will be India's gift to this planet during the next century:
to restore to the world its true sense. to recharge humanity with the real meaning and spirit of
life, to gift to this dolorous Planet That which is beyond mind : the Supra-Mental. India will
become the spiritual leader of the world : "It is this religion that I am raising-up before the
world, it is this that I have perfected and developed through the Rishis, Saints, and Avatars, and
now it is going forth to do my work among the nations. I am raising forth this nation to send
forth my word...When therefore it is said that India shall rise, it is the Santana Dharma that shall
rise, it is the Santana Dharma that shall be great. When it is said that India shall expand and
extend herself, it is the Santana Dharma that shall expand and extend itself over the world. It is
for the Dharma and by the Dharma that India exists". (India's Reb. p. 46 -Uttara speech)
This knowledge does not necessarily reside in mystical realms, as it can be very practical.
Ayurveda for instance, the oldest medical science still in practise, but which is unfortunately
now being neglected. As a result, American companies are patenting medicines using the
properties of neem or haldi, which were known 4000 years ago by India's forefathers. As in the
case of Sanskrit, the Indian Government should put its energies and resources towards the
reviving of Ayurveda, so that India is not totally swamped by allopathic medicine, which is
controlled by multinationals. Or pranayama, the science of breathing. It is a very practical,
down to earth knowledge and its effects have been studied for thousands of years. Indian
teachers know exactly what results will this type - or that type - of exercise have on you and
what kind of routine you should do to improve that particular problem, or develop this certain

faculty in you. Pranayama is probably the best suited Indian yogic discipline for the West,
because it is so down to earth, so scientific - there are no miracles, no levitation, no smoky
mysticism and everything can be explained in a rational way. And again, the U.S.A., always
prompt to experience new techniques, is using this knowledge : quite a few American
companies have included exercises of pranayama in the peps sessions of their executives;
sportsmen too are experimenting with it to improve their performances, as the film " the Great
Blue ", has shown when the hero does a series of breathing exercises known in India as " Viloma
", to store as much air as possible in his lungs, before breaking a world record in underwater
diving without oxygen. Then you have meditation, the queen all of yogic disciplines, which is
being practised more and more in the West, as there have been numerous scientific studies,
which have shown the positive effect of meditation on heart problems, psychological stress or
blood circulation.
The irony of it all is that not only most of the Indian upper class and intellectual elite does not
practise meditation and pranayama, or gets treated for its problems with Ayurveda, but that
none of these things are included in the schools and universities curriculum. So you have this
wonderful knowledge, which has disappeared from the rest of the world, but if you go to cities
like Delhi, or Bombay, you realise that most of the youth there have no idea about meditation,
or have never heard of pranayama. They are totally cut off from their ancient culture, from the
greatness of their tradition, and even look down on it. So unless Indians start taking pride in
their own culture, India will never be able to gift it to the world.
Famous French writer Andre Malraux had said that unless the 21 century is spiritual, then it will
not be. What he meant was that the world has now come to such a stage of unhappiness, of
material dryness, of conflicts within itself, that it seems doomed and there appears no way that
it can redeem Itself : it is just going towards self-destruction, - ecologically, socially, spiritually.
So unless the 21st century allows a new spiritual order to take over - not a religious order,
because religion has been a failure, all over the world - then the world is going towards pralaya.
And India holds the key to the world's future, for India is the only nation which still preserves in
the darkness of Her Himalayan caves, on the luminous ghats of Benares, in the hearts of her
countless yogis, or even in the minds of her ordinary folk, the key to the planetary evolution, its
future and its hope.
The 21st century then, will be the era of the East; this is where the sun is going to rise again,
after centuries of decadence and submission to Western colonialism; this is where the focus of
the world is going to shift. And as when India used to shine and send forth Her Dharma all over
the Orient: to Japan, Thailand, China, Burma, or Cambodia and influence their civilisations and
religions for centuries to come, once more She will emit Her light and radiate, Queen among
nations: "India of the ages is not dead nor has She spoken Her last creative word; She lives and
has still something to do for Herself and the human peoples. And that which She must seek now
to awake, is not an anglicised oriental people, docile pupil of the West and doomed to repeat
the cycle of the Occident's success and failure, but still the ancient immemorial Shakti

recovering Her deepest self, lifting Her head higher towards the supreme source of light and
strength and turning to discover the complete meaning and vaster form of Her Dharma".
Then, India's Self-Denial will be done with forever...
About the Author
Francois Gautier, born in Paris in 1950, is a French journalist and writer, who is the political
correspondent in India and South Asia for "Le Figaro", France's largest circulation newspaper.
He is married to an Indian and has lived in India for the past 29 years, which has helped him to
see through the usual cliches and prejudices on India, (to which he subscribed for a long time),
as most foreign (and sometimes, unfortunately, Indian) journalists, writers and historians do.
He shuttles between Delhi and the international city of Auroville near Pondichery.
Bibliography
* Negationism in India, by Konrad Elst. Voice of India, New Delhi.
* Histoire de l'Inde, by Jean Danielou. Editions Fayard, Paris.
* India's Rebirth, Institut de Recherches Evolutives, Paris.
Distributed in India by Mira Aditi Center, 62 Sriranga 1st Cross, 4th Stage Kuvempunagar,
Mysore 570023
* Le Modele Indou, by Guy Deleury. Hachette, le Temps & les hommes. 1978
* Indigenous Indians, by Konrad Elst, Voice of India, New Delhi.*
* The Foundations of Indian Culture, by Sri Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo Ashram Press, Pondichery.
1988
* Growth of Muslim population in India, by K.S. Lal. Voice of India, New Delhi.

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*) - Mirabai was a great saint and devotee of Sri Krishna. Despite facing criticism and
hostility from her own family, she lived an exemplary saintly life and composed many
devotional bhajans. Historical information about the life of Mirabai is a matter of some
scholarly debate. The oldest biographical account was Priyadass commentary in
Nabhadas Sri Bhaktammal in 1712. Nevertheless there are many aural histories, which
give an insight into this unique poet and Saint of India.
More: http://www.poetseers.org/the-poetseers/mirabai/index.html

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6. Vastu Shastra
(Muktirajsinhji Chauhan)

Adherence to Vastu Shastra, the ancient and medieval canons on city planning and
architecture, has suddenly assumed tremendous significance, particularly among the welleducated and affluent in urban India. It may be difficult to predict if this is just a fad or if it will
be a way of building dwellings, offices, and factories etc. for many years to come.
Interestingly, practically none of the practitioners of Vastu Shastra has an academic
background. So there is a lot of genuine practice as well as hearsay going around. In this brief
introduction, the intention is to give a broad overall picture of the Vastu Shastra with some
examples.
Vastu Shastras are canons dealing with the subject of vastu which means the environment. Put
differently, one may regard them as codification of good practices of design of buildings and
cities, which will provide settings for the conduct of human life in harmony with physical as well
as metaphysical forces. These Vastu Shastra canons provide guidelines for design of buildings
and planning of cities such that they will bring health, wealth and peace to the inhabitants.
Mythological beliefs are certainty at the root of the origins of these canonical texts and their
discourse. The first of these relates to Vastupurusha, which appears to be the first step in

ordering a part of the vast cosmic space, the brahmanda, for human habitation. According to
myth, long ago there existed an unnamed, unknown and formless being which blocked the sky
and the earth. The Gods forced it down on earth and pressed it face down. To ensure that it did
not escape again, Lord Brahma, the supreme creator, along with other gods weighted it down
and called it vastupurusha.
Lord Brahma, of course, occupied the central portion and in a hierarchic distribution along
concentric rings assigned different quarters to different major and minor gods. Thus emerged a
geometric configuration, which is called mandala. From one basic square, the canons have
listed up to 1024 divisions of a square and given each one a name. The most popular among
those have 64 and 81 divisions known as Manduka Mandala and Param Sayika Mandala,
respectively, which are widely used for temple and dwelling plans.
The mandala is also given an orientation with Surya, the sun-god, occupying the central point of
periphery to east; Varuna, the Lord of winds, to the west; Kubera, the Lord of Wealth, to the
north; and Yama, the Lord of Death, to the south. The rest of the squares are occupied by the
other minor gods. With the positions thus assigned and the beneficial or otherwise attributes of
gods established through other myths, it is possible to assign the activities of living, working
and support facilities over the mandala and therefore the layout of a city or a building.
The mandala is, of course, the most popular aspect of the vastushastras as it is constantly
referred to for the location of the various activities in a building. The proper texts themselves,
however, deal with a wide range of topics relating to built-environment. These include site
selection, soil testing, building materials and techniques, design of temples separately by
number of floors, palaces, dwellings, gates, image of the deity, their vehicles and seats even
including the making of image of a linga for Shiva temples. All these are treated in different
chapters of the canonical texts.
As an example, one may mention the matter of site selection, which is dealt with in both
scientific and religious terms. The method of digging a pit and refilling it with excavated earth is
given scientific treatment. If a lot of earth is left out, then the soil is compact with good loadbearing capacity.
A similar test checks the seepage of water in the soil. It if is quick, the soil is obviously not good.
The religious prescription suggest that if the soil is white with ghee-like smell, it is good for
Brahmins, if red with blood-like smell it is good for Kashtriyas, yellow with smell like sesamum
oil, it is good for Vaishyas and black with the smell of rotten fish, it is good for Shudras. While
the first two suggestions would still find the approval of a modern engineer, the third more
likely betrays the caste-ridden nature of some of the Shastra's recommendations.
The Shastras also deal at length with town planning and form of towns suitable for different
purposes such as administrative towns, hill towns, coastal towns or religious towns built at a
sacred place. Among the most famous examples of a town planned according to these

standards is the example of Old Jaipur which is based on a Prastar type town described in
several texts. Built in 1727 AD, the final form and structure of the town shows a skillful
manipulation, according to the Shastra's prescriptions, of the square mandala right from the
whole to the smallest of the plots, the location of activities, and distribution of the caste
groups.
Based on the studies carried out by scholars it is suggested that these texts were written down
largely between the 7th century AD to 13th century AD following the Gupta period. They are
found in all the major languages of medieval India. Of course, the earliest references are also
found in the Vedas, which deal with carpentry among other subjects.
Vastusastras can be said to be companion texts to Shilpasastras and Chitrasastras dealing with
sculpture, icons and painting respectively. Strangely, among all these texts, those devoted
exclusively to one of the areas. i.e. vastu, chitra or shilpa are rare. This is because in the Indian
artistic traditions, each was an important and integral part of the creative endeavor largely
because all of these, including performing arts such as the dance and music, were based at the
temple.
Among the vasthusastra texts are Mansar, Maymata, Vishwakarma and Samrangana Sutradhara
which is credited to Raja Bhoja. The others are believed to have been authored by ancient
saints and sages. These include Lord Vishwakarma who is architect to the gods in the Nagara or
northern traditions, and Maya who is architect to the gods in the Dravida or Southern tradition.
In the northern tradition Maya is regarded as architect to the danavas or demons. To give some
idea about the size of the text, Masar comprises 5400 verses organized in a total of 70 chapters.
However, the nature, content and format of the texts as discussed above is in total contrast to
the books that have recently been published and gone through, in some cases, half a dozen
reprints in a span of one year. They share very little in common. As to what are the origins of
the practitioners' texts recently published, I can only suggest that these would he more
ritualistic practices broadly interpreted by the various puranic texts such as Agni Purana,
Matsya Purana and their Agmic versions in the Dravidian traditions. The parallel I can draw
upon is of Brigusamhita used by the palmists, which by itself has no serious pretensions to
astronomy. The practitioners themselves are silent and unresponsive when questioned about
these aspects.
One of the more recent texts goes so far as to suggest the location of two weighing scales in
different parts of the plot in a factory. One was for weighing raw materials which would in that
location weigh less than actual, and the other one of weighing finished goods which would
register more weight than actual. Very neat, one may say, and very tempting for the factory
owner.
As to the beneficial aspects of following these suggestions, the available experience is equally
divided. There seems to be an equal number of success stories as well as failures. Here, I

believe, the analogy of the typical palmist is best. Perhaps there are genuine jyotish shastris as
well as frauds. Is it that human beings want to be able to put blame on some unknown forces
for failures? Or that they would want to appease the unknown to ensure a success? These are
more a matter of faith rather than belief.
Fortunately, Indians are not alone in this in recent times. Across Asia there is a resurgence of
these beliefs and practices. Feng-shui, the Chinese version of Vastusastras, is practiced all over
the Far East and South-east Asia. There, too, the situation is one of either you believe and
practice or you don't believe and don't practice. Does this mean that one cannot explain this on
a rational basis?
These texts (i.e. the genuine ancient and medieval canons) dealt with the classical manner of
arts and architecture. This meant that irrespective of who was doing what and where, a certain
quality, content and perfection would always be achieved just by following the texts. To
paraphrase Einstein's observation for a similar work, "it makes good easy and bad difficult".
This means that a temple made on the banks of Ganga would be as perfect as one made on
shipra though patronised and designed by different persons.
Even those uninitiated can learn and practice the entire range of connected activities right from
the selection of a site to the execution of all the elemental details. Then there is some reason to
believe that some of the suggestions may indeed reflect more real concerns such as climatic
suitability of locating the human activities in a building. An entrance front north ensures that it
will always be in cool shade in India, besides allowing the wealth to flow in as it is the direction
of Lord Kubera. The next alternative of entrance from east certainly brightens up the morning
environment with the first rays of sun to start a great new day on a cheerful note.
Then there is a metaphysical aspect to it all. This one concerns the fears of the unknown on one
hand, and attempts to intellectually grasp the nature of the world on the other hand. And
between these two is the human desire to do things right, in conformity and in harmony with
the unknown world and its forces. This is where particularly the mandala diagrams become very
useful. These, in abstract terms, manifest or represent the cosmological conception of the
world, albeit the world as conceived or interpreted by the ancient and the medieval scholars.
It is therefore natural that buildings and cities which represent a significant alteration of the
terrestrial world be based on the mandala to make them harmonize with the unknown world.
In other words, it, is undertaking a human act in tune with the nature as well as the unknown in
the belief that these will not clash but work harmoniously to bring peace and prosperity to the
builder and the inhabitants.
Architecture is a human act. It requires carving out a segment of that omnipotent, universal
space of the brahmanda, the cosmic space, for the use of the human beings. It is not often that
architecture truly rises to the challenges of capturing the divine character of the brahmanda in
its folds. When it does happen the architectural experience exalts generations of people to

come. Is this not true of Mahabalipuram, Khajuraho, Kailashnath? Or the city of Jaipur, its
havelis as well those of Samod and Shekhavati region? Let us remember that these are all based
on the Vasthusastras.
-----------------

7. Sacren Cow
(Robin Winter)

The world over, the term "sacred cow" has come to mean any stubborn loyalty to a longstanding institution which impedes natural progress. The term originates in India, where the
cow is said to be literally worshiped, while thousands of humans suffer from
undernourishment. The common, popular view of India in the West is that of an

underdeveloped nation steeped in superstition. Overpopulated, overcrowded, undereducated,

and bereft of most modern amenities, India is seen to be a backward nation in many respects
by "progressive" Western civilization. "If only India would abandon her religious superstitions
and kill and eat the cow!" Over several decades many attempts have been made by the
"compassionate" West to alleviate unfortunate India's burden of poor logic, and to replace her
superstitions with rational thinking.
Much of the religious West finds common ground with the rationalists, with whom they
otherwise are usually at odds, on the issue of India's "sacred cow." Indeed, worshiping God is
one thing, but to worship the cow while at the same time dying of starvation is a theological
outlook much in need of reevaluation. Man is said to have dominion over the animals, but it
would appear that the Indians have it backwards.
Popular opinion is not always the most informed opinion; in fact, this is usually the case. The
many attempts to wean India from the nipple of her outdated pastoral culture have all failed.
After 200 years of foreign occupation by the British, and after many subsequent but less overt
imperialistic attempts, we find that although India has changed, the sacred cow remains as
sacred as ever. In all but two Indian states, cow slaughter is strictly prohibited. If legislation
were passed today to change that ruling, there would be rioting all over India. In spite of
considerable exposure to Western ideas, one late Indian statesman said, when asked what he
thought of Western civilization, "I think it is a good idea. When will they begin?"
An unbiased look at perhaps the longest-standing culture of the world, its roots and philosophy,
may help us to see things a little more as they are even about our own way of life.
Sometimes we have to stand back to get the full picture. It is a natural tendency to consider
one's own way the best, but such bull-headedness may cause us to miss seeing our own
shortcomings. An honest look at the headlines of our home town newspaper may inspire us to
question exactly what it is we are so eager to propound.
Perhaps the most appalling aspect of the Western technological influence on India is found in
the country's few "modern" cities. Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, and other cities can be most
frustrating to the average Westerner. Crude attempts at modernization can be worse than
none at all. Although India's technology lacks the polish and sophistication of the West, its
employment in crude fashion nonetheless brings all of the adverse effects of a sophisticated
form of the same amenities.
Real India is rural India. Village life accounts for the bulk of India's population of 700 million,
and best illustrates the nation's ancient culture. The simplicity of India is often mistaken for
ignorance, and her peacefulness mistaken for complacency. The serenity of Indian village life is
overlooked or mislabeled by those who in the name of progress may really only be operating
under the axiom of "misery loves company." Perhaps the people of India live as they do for a
good reason: much of what goes along with Western "progress"the mental anguish which

causes us to do the most bizarre things that make many cities living hellsis relatively absent in
India's rural lifestyle.
It is particularly difficult for Westerners to appreciate India's worship of the cow. After all, we
live in the land of the hamburger. The "American" restaurant abroad is McDonald's. "Ole
McDonald had a farm /Did it ever grow!" Western economists often contend that beef alone
can solve India's food problems and lay a foundation for a lucrative export trade. This has
caused cow worship and cow protection to come under attack for centuries. Cow protection
has been called a "lunatic obstacle" to sensible farm management.
India's cow is called the zebu, and an investigation of the controversy surrounding her brings us
to the heart of village life in India. The average landholder in India farms approximately one
acre. This is nowhere near enough land to warrant the purchase of a tractor. Even if the size of
the land plots were increased to make the purchase of machinery cost-effective, the unique
weather, a five-season year including the monsoon, would quickly render the tractor useless.
After the monsoons, the soil is too soft for planting and must be quickly and efficiently
prepared before the soon-to-follow intense heat brings an end to the very short growing
season. The loss of even one day will considerably affect the overall yield. The zebu bullocks are
ideal in this connection for they can easily plow the soft earth without overly compacting the
soil as would heavy machinery.
Farming in India is a family affair, and the labor-intensive approach to cultivation involves
everyone. This helps to sustain the family unit, which is sometimes considered to be the wealth
of a nation. The staples of the diet are grains: wheat and rice. Most of India is vegetarian. While
the bull plows the field, helping to provide the grains, the cow supplies milk from which many
dairy products are produced. Day to day, year after year, the cow and bull are the center of
rural Indian life.
According to Frances Moore Lappe in her best-seller, Diet for a Small Planet, "For every sixteen
pounds of grain and soy fed to beef cattle in the United States, we only get one pound back in
meat on our plates. The other fifteen pounds are inaccessible to us, either used by the animal
to produce energy or to make some part of its own body that we do not eat (like hair or bones),
or excreted. Milk production is more efficient, with less than one pound of grain fed for every
pint of milk produced. (This is partly because we don't have to grow a new cow every time we
milk one.)" If India, with its already strained resources, were to allocate so much more acreage
for the production of beef, it would be disastrous. Advocates of modernization maintain that
with the application of the latest farming techniques, the yield per acre would gradually
increase, thus making it possible for beef to be introduced over a period of time. Such
advocates contend that with the introduction of beef into the Indian diet, the population's
health would increase, thus furthering productivity. However, it is interesting to note that
although India is far from being free of disease, its principal health problems are a result of
urban overcrowding and inadequate sanitation and medical facilities. Whereas high blood

pressure, heart disease, arthritis, and cancer constitute the greatest health threats in the West,
the Indian people are practically free from these afflictions. So the "fact" that India's health
would increase with the introduction of beef into the diet is not likely to overcome the
"superstition" of the people's religious beliefs which prohibit them from eating meat.
The religious "superstitions" of India are based on the Vedas, which constitute the most
voluminous body of literature in the world. The Vedas and their corollaries deal elaborately
with theism, describing many gradations of the theistic idea. The idea that one should not eat
meat, although central to Hindu philosophy, is only a secondary theme. To a large extent it
amounts only to common sense and sensitivity. It is from this basis of sensitivity, an indicator of
healthy consciousness, that higher spiritual principles can be appreciated. Actually, the Vedas
agree with the West's contention that man has dominion over the animals; however, the
West's way of dealing with its dependents is revolting to Indians. After all, we have dominion
over our children and ofttimes elders as well, but would we be justified in slaughtering them for
food? We become incensed if someone even abuses our dog!
The Vedas do not teach that the cow is superior to the human form of life and therefore
worshipable. Rather, the she gives so much practical help to human society that she should be
protected. Her assistance frees mankind from much of the struggle of life, thereby providing us
with more time for spiritual pursuits. Although modern technology may be said to do the same,
the fact is that it actually complicates man's life more and more and distracts him from more
simple living and high spiritual thinking. We may become so mechanistic that we can fool
ourselves into believing that cows or pets have no feelings.
For India, the cow represents the sacred principle of motherhood. She symbolizes charity and
generosity because of the way she distributes her milk, which is essential for the nourishment
of the young.
India's critics have pointed out that although Indian village life may be simple, it is a marginal
existence; it is a life of little surplus. If a farmer's cow turns barren, he has lost his only chance
of replacing the work team. And if she goes dry, the family loses its milk and butter. However
the situation is not as bad as the technologically advanced may think. In village life, people are
more interdependent. Helping one's neighbor is also considered sacred. Sharing is
commonplace. All of the father's male friends are affectionately referred to by the sons and
daughters as "uncle", while all of the village women are seen as mother. Often the
responsibility of caring for and nursing the young is shared by several mothers.
Perhaps the heaviest criticism of the pastoral culture of India is directed at the insistence of the
farmers on protecting even sick and aged cows. Westerners find this to be the height of
absurdity. At least they could be killed and eaten or sold. But no. Animal hospitals or nursing
homes called goshallas, provided by government agencies or wealthy individuals in search of
piety, offer shelter for old and infirm cows. This is thought to be a luxury that India cannot
really afford, as these "useless" cows are seen to be but competitors for the already limited

croplands and precious foodstuffs. The fact is, however, that India actually spends a great deal
less on their aging cattle than Americans spend on their cats and dogs. And India's cattle
population is six times that of the American pet population.
The Indian farmer sees his cattle like members of the family. Since the farmers depend on the
cattle for their own livelihood, it makes perfect sense both economically and emotionally to see
to their well-being. In between harvests, the cattle are bathed and spruced up much like the
average American polishes his automobile. Twice during the year, special festivals are held in
honor of the cows. These rituals are similar to the American idea of Thanksgiving. Although in
principle the same, there is a basic difference in the details of how we treat the turkey and how
the more "primitive" Indians treat their cows.
India cares for over 200 million zebus. This accounts for one-fifth of the world's cattle
population. Critics say that if India does not eat her cows, the cows will eat India. Exasperated
critics feel that even the cow is underfed. However, in more recent years, India's critics have
come to agree that she is essential to India's economy. Cattle are India's greatest natural
resource. They eat only grass --which grows everywhere--and generates more power than all of
India's generating plants. They also produce fuel, fertilizer, and nutrition in abundance. India
runs on bullock power. Some 15 million bullock carts move approximately 15 billion tons of
goods across the nation. Newer studies in energetics have shown that bullocks do two-thirds of
the work on the average farm. Electricity and fossil fuels account for only 10%. Bullocks not only
pull heavy loads, but also grind the sugarcane and turn the linseed oil presses. Converting from
bullocks to machinery would cost an estimated $30 billion plus maintenance and replacement
costs.
The biggest energy contribution from cows and bulls is their dung. India's cattle produce 800
million tons of manure every year. The Vedas explain that dung from cows is different from all
other forms of excrement. Indian culture insists that if one comes in contact with the stool of
any other animal, they must immediately take a bath. Even after passing stool oneself, bathing
is necessary. But the cow's dung, far from being contaminating, instead possesses antiseptic
qualities. This has been verified by modern science. Not only is it free from bacteria, but it also
does a good job of killing them. Believe it or not, it is every bit as good an antiseptic as Lysol or
Mr. Clean.
Most of the dung is used for fertilizer at no cost to the farmer or to the world's fossil fuel
reserves. The remainder is used for fuel. It is odorless and burns without scorching, giving a
slow, even heat. A housewife can count on leaving her pots unattended all day or return any
time to a preheated griddle for short-order cooking. To replace dung with coal would cost India
$1.5 billion per year.
Dung is also used for both heating and cooling. Packed on the outside walls of a house, in
winter it keeps in the heat, and in summer produces a cooling effect. Also, unlike the stool of
humans, it keeps flies away , and when burned, its smoke acts as a repellent for mosquitoes.

When technocrats were unable to come up with a workable alternative, they came up with a
new argument for modernization. They suggested that the cattle culture be maintained, but
that it should be done in a more efficient manner. Several ambitious programs were initiated
using pedigree bulls and artificial insemination. But the new hybrids were not cheap nor were
they able to keep up the pace with the zebus. The intense heat of India retired many of them
well before old age. Although they produced more milk, this also created more problems,
because there was no efficient system for distributing the surplus of milk throughout India's
widespread population.
India's system of distribution is highly decentralized. Although the solution seemed simple,
modernization again met its shortcomings. With bottling plants, pasteurization, and other
sophisticated Western methods of distribution, it was thought that all of India could have fresh,
pure milk. Behind the automats set up for the distribution of powdered milk, milk, and cream
was the expectation that in time, people would begin to appreciate the abundant rewards
bestowed by these new modern deities of technology, and worship of cows would gradually
disappear. But in the end it was modernization that failed to prove its value.
Pasteurization proved to be a waste of time and money for Indians, who generally drink their
milk hot, and thus boil it before drinking. With the absence of modern highways and the cost of
milking machines and other necessities of factory dairy farming, it was seen to be impractical to
impose the Western dairy system on India; the cost of refrigeration alone would make the price
of milk too expensive for 95% of India's population.
Eventually, after repeated attempts to modernize India's approach to farmingand in
particular its attitude toward its beloved zebusit became clear that these technological
upgrades were not very well thought out. They were not to replace a system that had endured
for thousands of years; a system not only economically wise, but one that was part of a
spiritually rich heritage. On the contrary, it may well be time to export the spiritual heritage of
India to the West, where technology continues to threaten the tangible progress of humanity in
its search for the deeper meaning of life.

8. Kumbh Mela
(Jack Hebner and David Osborn)

They came by the millions! Some arrived on overcrowded trains carrying five times their normal
capacity. Some came by bus, by car, some by ox drawn carts, and others rode on horses,
camels, and even elephants. The rich and famous chartered private planes and helicopters,
while the less affluent came on foot carrying their bed rolls and camping equipment in heavy
bundles on their heads. Wave after wave, they formed a veritable river of humanity that flowed
onto the banks of the Ganges at Allahabad to celebrate the greatest spiritual festival ever held
in the history of the world, the Kumbha Mela.
Kumbha Mela has gained international fame as "the world's most massive act of faith." Pilgrims
come to this holy event with such tremendous faith and in such overwhelming numbers that it
boggles the mind. Faith is the most important thing for the pilgrims at Kumbha Mela, they have
an "unflinching trust in something sublime".
To understand the significance of the Kumbha Mela and the important role that it plays in the
spirituality of India, it is helpful to know something about the background of the sacred Ganges
River. The devout believe that simply by bathing in the Ganges one is freed from their past sins
(karma), and thus one becomes eligible for liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Of

course it is said that a pure lifestyle is also required after taking bath, otherwise one will again
be burdened by karmic reactions .The pilgrims come from all walks of life, traveling long
distances and tolerating many physical discomforts, such as sleeping in the open air in near
freezing weather. They undergo these difficulties just to receive the benefit of taking a bath in
the sacred river at Kumbha Mela.
This spectacle of faith has for many centuries attracted the curiosity of foreign travelers. Hiuen
Tsiang of China, who lived during the seventh century, was the first to mention Kumbha Mela in
his diary. He gave an eyewitness report that during the Hindu month of Magha (JanuaryFebruary) half a million people had gathered on the banks of the Ganges at Allahabad to
observe a celebration for 75 days. The pilgrims, writes Hiuen Tsiang, assembled along with their
king, his ministers, scholars, philosophers, and sages. He also reports that the king had
distributed enormous quantities of gold, silver, and jewels in charity for the purpose of
acquiring good merit and thus assuring his place in heaven.
In the eight century, Shankara, a prominent Indian saint, popularized the Kumbha Mela among
the common people, and soon the attendance began to grow to enormous proportions.
Shankara placed special importance to the opportunity of associating with saintly persons while
at Kumbha Mela. Both hearing from sadhus (holy men) and sacred bathing are still the two
main focus at Kumbha Mela.
By 1977, the number of pilgrims attending Kumbha Mela had to risen to 15 million! By 1989,
the attendance was in the range of 29 million-nearly double that of the previous record.
Photographer David Osborn and I contributed to this year's record participation by spending
seven austere weeks living in a tent on the banks of the Ganges, observing the Kumbha Mela
with wonder and admiration.
The ancient origin of the Kumbha Mela is described in the time honored Vedic literatures of
India as having evolved from bygone days of the universe when the demigods and the demons
produced the nectar of immortality. The sages of old have related this story thus: once upon a
time, the demigods and demons assembled together on the shore of the milk ocean which lies
in a certain region of the cosmos. The demigods and demons desired to churn the ocean to
produce the nectar of immortality, and agreed to share it afterwards. The Mandara Mountain
was used as a churning rod, and Vasuki, the king of serpents, became the rope for churning.
With the demigods at Vasuki's tail and the demons at his head, they churned the ocean for a
1,000 years. A pot of nectar was eventually produced, and both the demigods and demons
became anxious. The demigods, being fearful of what would happen if the demons drank their
share of the nectar of immortality, stole away the pot and hid it in four places on the Earth:
Prayag (Allahabad) Hardwar, Ujjain, and Nasik. At each of the hiding places a drop of immortal
nectar spilled from the pot and landed on the earth. These four places are believed to have
acquired mystical power, and festivals are regularly held at each, Allahabad being the largest
and most important.

Besides the Ganges, there are also two other sacred rivers located at Allahabad, the Yamuna
and the Saraswati . The Yamuna, like the Ganges has its earthly origin in the Himalayas. The
Saraswati, however, is a mystical river which has no physical form. Its is believed that the
Saraswati exists only on the ethereal or spiritual plane and is not visible to the human eye. This
holy river is mentioned many times in India's sacred texts such as the Mahabharata and is said
to be present at Allahabad where it joins the Yamuna and the Ganges.
This confluence of India's three most sacred rivers at Allahabad is called the sangam. The
combined sanctity of the three holy rivers, coupled with the spiritual powers obtained from the
pot of nectar of immortality, has earned Allahabad the rank of tirtharaja, the king of holy
places.
The main highlight for most pilgrims during a Kumbha Mela is the observance of a sacred bath
at the sangam. It is said that a bath in either of the sacred rivers has purifying effects, but
where the three rivers meet, the bather's purification is increased one hundred times.
Furthermore, it is said that when one takes a bath at the sangam during the Kumbha Mela, the
influence is one thousand times increased.
According to astrological calculations, the Kumbha Mela is held every twelve years and begins
on Makar Sankranti, the day when the sun and moon enter Capricorn and Jupiter enters Aries.
The astrological configuration on Makar Sankranti is called " Kumbha snana-yoga" and is
considered to be especially auspicious, as it is said that the passage from Earth to the higher
planets is open at that time, thus allowing the soul to easily attain the celestial world. For such
reasons it is understandable why the Kumbha Mela has become so popular among all classes of
transcendentalists in India
This year Makar Sankranti fell on January 14th and the Kumbha Mela began with all the pomp
and glory for which it is famous. The temperature dropped to 35 degrees Fahrenheit on the
evening of the 13th, but bathers were not to be discouraged. Just past midnight, thousands
began to enter the confluence of the three rivers, immersing themselves in the icy cold water.
Loud chanting of "Bolo Ganga Mai ki jai (all glory to Mother Ganga)" filled the clear night air as
the pilgrims washed away their bad karma. They came away from the bathing area wrapped in
blankets and shivering from the cold. But as quickly as they came out of the water, thousands
more came in their wake. With continual chants of " Bolo Ganga Mai ki jai" they entered the
waters.
At dawn the sky reddened and the sun rose to reveal a crowd of five million enthusiasts slowly
advancing towards the sangam. From the center of that mass of humanity came a marvelous
procession announcing the official beginning of the Kumbha Mela. Bands played, people
danced in jubilation, and colorful flags and banners flew above the crowd.
At the head of the procession were the nagas, India's famed naked holy men. These holy men
engage themselves in renunciation of the world in search of equilibrium. They hope to escape

the world's concomitant reactions and suffering by their austere practices such as complete
celibacy and non-accumulation of material possessions. Thus they are known as liberationists.
With matted locks of hair, their bodies covered in ashes, and their tridents ( the symbol of a
follower of Shiva) raised high, they descended upon the bathing area. Entering the water in a
tumult, blowing conchshells and singing " Shiva ki jai, Ganga ki jai," they splashed the sacred
waters upon each other and played just like children. Indeed, they are said to be the very
children of the Ganges.
Next came the Vaisnava vairagis, the wandering mendicants who dedicate everything to Visnu,
the Sustainer. These saints live a life of service and complete dedication.Then came the
innumerable other sects of ascetics dressed in saffron colored cloth and carrying their staffs of
renunciation. All the centuries gone by of India's spiritual evolution were simultaneously there
together in the procession. Each in turn bathed in the sangam.
Several hours passed before the procession had finished. Then began the mass bathing of the
pilgrims. From the high banks of the river one could see the dark blue water of the Yamuna
mixing with the silver gray water of the Ganges. Bathers, immersed up to the waist, scooped up
water with folded palms and offered it to heaven in a timeless gesture. Boatmen rowed their
boats full of pilgrims to a small sandbar in the middle of the sangam which soon disappeared
under a cloud of bathers.
There was none to young or old for this occasion. A young mother sprinkled a few drops of the
rivers' water over the head of her newborn baby, asking God to bless her child with a good life
and prosperity. In another place an elderly couple eased themselves into the cold water. Some
bathers made offerings of flowers, sweets, and colored dyes to the sacred waters, while others
offered Vedic hymns. The chanting of OM - the supreme combination of letters - and Sanskrit
mantras issued from the lips of every pilgrim.
As night fell, thousands of campfires could be seen burning along the riverbanks. In the central
festival area, gaily decorated pandals (large tents) accommodated the thousands who listened
to some of India's most exalted gurus lecturing on spiritual and philosophical topics.
In some pandals there were Indian drama and classical dance groups whose exotic costumes
and performances attracted large audiences. In other pandals there were elaborate displays
and dioramas illustrating the stories from India's ancient epics like the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. There was so much to see and do that there was never a dull moment.
Some pilgrims prefer to come to the Kumbha Mela on the days of the big sacred baths like
Makar Sankranti and then return home, while others prefer to set up camp and stay for the
duration. This year at Kumbha Mela there was six scheduled days for important baths. Those
who remained for the full 41 days of the festival and observe all the important baths are called
kalpvasis.

This year the Indian government spent more than 8 million dollars on preliminary organization
for the Kumbha Mela. According to national newspaper reports, arrangements provided 5,000
gallons of purified drinking water every minute;8,000 buses which shuttle pilgrims in and out of
the festival area that spread over 3,00- acres; 16,000 outlets and 6,000 poles which provided
electrical facilities; 6,000 sweepers and sanitation employees who worked around the clock to
maintain health standards; 9 pontoon bridges which spanned the Ganges at intervals; 20,000
policemen, firemen, and the Indian National Guard who kept a constant vigil at checkpoints and
with closed circuit TV guarded against traffic congestion and other possible outbreaks or
disturbances; and 100 doctors and nurses on call at all times at medical assistance stations.
An entire city sprang up along the banks of the river during the Kumbha Mela complete with
markets, hospitals, and even a tourist camp to accommodate visitors from foreign countries.
The tourist camp informed me that they had sheltered over 1,000 visitors from abroad during
the festivities, most being from Europe and South America. Some of these visitors from abroad
had never been to India before. Others seemed as well acquainted with what was happening as
did the Indians.
In the market areas all the required necessities and luxuries of Kumbha Mela were for sale. In
one place fruits and fresh vegetables were available. In another place wool blankets, which sold
briskly, were piled in big stacks for easy selection. Along the main thoroughfares gypsies spread
their wares which included different shapes and sizes of brass pots and bowls, beads for
meditation, exotic perfumes, incense like kastori(musk) and chandan (sandalwood), and even
tiger's claws set in gold.
It was also interesting to note that all the food arrangements throughout the festival were
vegetarian. There was not a trace f meant, fish or eggs to be found in any camp or in any public
eating place. We learned that meat is strictly taboo amongst all types of transcendentalists in
India.
For the novelty seekers there was also a wide selection of oddities in the market. For a rupee or
two one could employ a snake charmer who, when playing on his pungi (snake charmer's flute)
would make the cobras dance, swaying to and fro. It is a long standing belief that the cobra is
charmed by the sound of the pungi. Having observed several of these performances , however,
it was our conclusion that the snake charmer charms his audience rather than the snake.
many palm readers and mystic soothsayers set up shop along the Ganges offering passers-by a
look into the future. Astrology and palmistry are traditional sciences in India, but one could not
help but think that some of these "mystics" were simply out to turn a fast rupee from a gullible
public. No doubt that among the sincere and authentic spiritualists at Kumbha Mela there were
also the cheaters and hence the cheated. Buyer beware.
The camel, a hardy beast of burden, used in India for centuries to transport cargo long
distances and through difficult terrain, was the unsung hero of Kumbha Mela. Carrying heavy

loads of firewood, tents, and foodstuffs on their raised backs these awkward creatures formed
the very lifeline to the Kumbha Mela residents. In the soft sand, cars, trucks, and even horse
carts often got stuck. But the camel was rugged and the goods always got through.
For everyone at Kumbha Mela, early mornings were the most austere time of day because it
was always colder than at any other time. However, chilly sunrise is considered the most
auspicious time of the day for spiritual practices.Every day at dawn , thousands arose early to
bathe in the Ganges and return to their camps to change mantras and meditate.
At the northern end of the festival grounds, cast against the stil blue sky, stood a lone grass hut
built upon sturdy stilts. This was the ashrama of Devara Baba who, according to his followers, is
more than 200 years old. Devara Baba is a lifelong vegetarian and celibate yogi. His admirers
believe that his exceptional longevity is due to the fact that he only drinks and bathes in the
Ganges, whose waters are considered very sacred.When we asked Devara Baba about his exact
age, he replied, " I have lost count of the years. It has been a very long time."
Every morning and evening tens of thousands of pilgrims walked the two mile stretch along the
Ganges to the ashrama of Devara Baba with the hope that they might get a glimpse of this
ancient sage. Much to their delight Devara Baba was always willing and even happy to
accommodate them. Sitting on the veranda of his simple raised hut, the old sage relaxed in the
warm rays of sunlight and blessed his visitors. Sometimes smiling or raising his hand in a
gesture of grace Devara Baba radiated the aura of peacefulness. Some pilgrims brought
offerings of fruits and flowers, while others came only with their prayers for blessings. It was
our prayer to the sage that he allow us to take a few photographs, and in his usual gracious
manner he consented.
As prominent as Devara Baba was, we sensed that there were many great souls who went
undetected in our midst. We photographed until we ran out of film and were left only with a
feeling of helplessness. Kumbha Mela was indeed a magnificent and awesome encounter.It was
impossible to capture the festival. Indeed, it was the festival that captured us. Words, film,
print, and paper can not do justice to the event it is one that has to be experienced
personally.

9. Indus Valley Civilization

By N. S. Rajaram
Extracted from a paper on Vedic Seals by N. S. Rajaram, presented at a recent conference of
leading historians on Vedic history.
(Based on The Deciphered Indus Script by N.Jha and N.S. Rajaram)
Background
The year 1996-97, the fiftieth year of Indian independence, was important in more respects
than one. In that year Natwar Jha published his monograph Vedic Glossary on Indus Seals
containing a complete decipherment of the Indus script along with more than a hundred
deciphered readings. Shortly after its publication, I began my collaboration with Jha leading to
our soon to be published book The Deciphered Indus Script. In our book, we present
deciphered readings of well over five hundred texts with Vedic references and explanations.
Since many of the messages are repeated on different seals, they probably cover between 1500
and 2000 seals, or about half the known corpus. We have read more that are not included in
our book for reasons mainly of logistics.
The main conclusion to follow from our work is that the Harappan Civilization, of which the
seals are a product, belonged to the latter part of the Vedic Age. It has close connections with
Vedantic works like the Sutras and the Upanishads. The style of writing reflects the short
aphorisms found in Sutra works. The imagery and symbolism are strongly Vedic. The vocabulary

depends heavily on the Vedic glossary Nighantu and its commentary by Yaska known as the
Nirukta. The name of Yaska is found on at least two seals possibly three. There are references
to Vedic kings and sages as well place names. Of particular interest are references to Plakshagra
the birthplace of the Sarasvati River, and Sapta Apah or the Land of the Seven Rivers.
This means that the Rigveda must already have been quite ancient by the time of the Harappan
Civilization. Since the Harappan Civilization was known to be flourishing in the 3100 1900 BC
period, the Rigveda must have been in existence by 4000 BC. This now receives archaeological
support following R.S. Bishts investigation of the great Harappan city of Dholavira. Bisht (and
other archaeologists) have concluded that the Vedic Aryans of the Sarasvati heartland were the
people who created the Harappan cities and the civilization associated with it. Our deciphered
readings tell us the same thing.
Message of the Indus seals
I will not present the decipherment here which both Jha and I have discussed in detail at other
places. I will only note that the script is a highly complex hybrid that includes (1) an alphabetical
subset; (2) a large number of composite signs; and (3) numerous pictorial symbols. The
language of the Harappan texts is Vedic Sanskrit, and the script itself is heavily influenced by
the rules of Sanskrit grammar and phonetics. It is clear that the later Brahmi script is a
derivative of the Harappan that evolved borrowing heavily from its alphabetical subset. In fact,
there exist examples of writing that combine features of both. It is therefore reasonable to call
the Harappan script Old Brahmi or Proto Brahmi. Its decipherment was the result of more than
twenty years of research by Jha a Vedic scholar and paleographer of considerable distinction.
As previously observed, Jha and I have read close to 2000 seals; for most of these we have also
found references in the Vedic literature, particularly the Nighantu and the Nirukta of Yaska.
With this body of material, we are now in a position to take a broad look at what these seals
have to say about the people who created them. This is particularly necessary in the light of a
couple of highly publicized claims over the contents of the seals made in the last few months.
One linguist (Malati Shengde) has claimed that the language of the Harappans was Akkadian, a
West Asiatic language. This claim, made without being able to read the writing, is not supported
by our decipherment. The language of the seals is Vedic Sanskrit, with close links to Vedantic
works like the Upanishads. For instance, we have found and deciphered a seal which contains
the word shadagama (shat agama) a reference to the six schools Vedantic knowledge. This
shows that they must already have been in existence before 2000 BC. (Most of the seals were
created in the 3100 1900 BC period.)
Another recent claim by a retired archaeologist (M.V. Krishna Rao) relates to the career of Sri
Rama. According to Krishna Rao, the Harappan seals tell us that Rama was born not in Ayodhya,
but in the present state of Haryana. He further claims that according to his study of the seals,
Rama invaded Babylon and defeated and killed the famous Babylonian ruler Hammurabi whom
he equates with Ravana! This account, if true, would call for a radical revision of both Indian

and Babylonian history. Hammurabi is a well-known historical figure. He is known to have died
in 1750 BC of natural causes and not killed in battle. His date therefore is too late to have found
mention in the Harappan seals. We have no such sensational findings to report. Our fairly
extensive readings indicate that the seals contain little in the way of history. To begin with, the
writings on the seals are brief, with an average length of five to six characters. This makes them
unsuitable for recording historical details. Whatever historical information we do find is
incidental. There are occasional references to Vedic kings like Sudasa, Yadu and Puru, and to
sages like Kutsa and Paila. We find also references to ancient places like Plaksagra (birthplace of
the Sarasvati river), Sapta-Apah or the Land of the Seven Rivers referred to in the Vedic
literature. But such historical seals are few and far between; they probably do not exceed
five percent of the total. Other historical information has to be inferred from indirect messages
like the one about the six schools of Vedanta mentioned earlier.
References to Rama We do find references to Rama, but they are nowhere near as dramatic as
his invasion of Babylonia and the killing of Hammurabi-Ravana. Seals speak of kanta-rama or
Beloved Rama, and kanta-atma-rama or Beloved Soul Rama. One seal in particular speaks
of samatvi sa ha rama meaning Rama treated all with equality. All this finds echo in the
Valmiki Ramayana as arya sarva samashcaiva sadaiva priyadarshanah, or Arya to whom all
were equal and was dear to everyone.
There is also a reference to Rama performing a successful fire ritual (or launching a fire missile)
which again is mentioned in the Ramayana. There is another reference to Ramas successful
crossing of the sea which again touches on the Ramayana. Of particular interest is the presence
of Rama in at least one West Asiatic seal from pre-Sargon layer in southern Mesopotamia.
We know from Zoroastrian scripture that Rama was well known in ancient West Asia. The
readings suggest that this goes back to a period long before 2500 BC. What is interesting in all
this is that Rama is treated as an ideal man and ruler loved by everyone; nowhere have we
found anything to suggest that he was regarded as divine. All this suggests that history books
are in need of major revision. The Aryan invasion stands shattered, the Proto Dravidians are
found to be a myth, and the cradle of civilization assuming there was such a thing is not
Mesopotamia but Vedic India. Also, a version of the story of Rama existed five thousand years
ago, and known both in India and West Asia. And the Sanskrit language at least the Vedic
version of it is of untold antiquity; it was certainly not brought to India by invading nomads in
the second millennium.
Floods and maritime activity
To return to the seals and their contents, such historical seals are exceptional. A great
majority of the seals are different in character and content. Often their texts can be quite
mundane. We find a reference to a craftsman by name Ravi whose products last twice as long
as those made by other craftsmen (dvi-ayuh). One inscription speaks of a short-tempered
mother-in-law; there is even mention of relieving fever with the help of water from a saligrama

(fossil stone) a remedy still followed in many Indian households. We find numerous references
to rivers (apah) and flows (retah), suggesting the existence of an extensive system of
waterways. We have texts like a madra retah (flow to the Madra country), and a vatsa retah
(flow to the Vatsa country) indicating their presence. The Vedic Civilization was of course
largely a maritime one, as indeed was the Harappan a fact noted by David Frawley. The seals
confirm it. There is recent archaeological evidence suggesting the presence of Indian cotton in
Mexico and Peru dating to 2500 BC and earlier (Rajaram and Frawley 1997), which again
suggests maritime activity. As noted earlier, archaeological evidence also supports the fact that
the Vedic people (and the Harappans) engaged in maritime activity. References to floods are
common, and can sometimes be quite vivid. There is a particularly dramatic inscription, which
speaks of workers laboring all night by fire, trying to stem the floods. The readings suggest that
the floods were due to the encroachment of seawater and not necessarily the rivers. These
messages should be of interest to archaeologists who have noted the damage to sites due to
floods and salination. The great Harappan city of Dholavira in Gujarat is a striking example.
Vedic symbolism
While historical references are rare, and many seals contain much mundane material, a
substantial number of seals have messages reflecting Vedic symbolism. This symbolism can be
quite profound, and one has to dig deep into the Vedic and Vedantic literature in trying to
interpret them. But once understood, it helps to explain the symbolism of the images on the
seals also. This can be illustrated with the help of the famous Pashupati seal, alongside its
deciphered text.
The seal contains a meditating horned deity surrounded by five animals. The animals are
elephant, musk deer, buffalo, tiger and rhinoceros. These five animals are often identified with
the five senses, and the five associated elements fire, water, space, wind and earth (or soil).
These elements that go to make up the material universe are known in the Vedic literature as
panca maha-bhutas or the Five Great Elements. The reading on the seal is ishadyatah marah.
Mara is the force opposed to creation one that causes the destruction of the universe. The
seal message means: Mara is controlled by Ishvara. The seated deity is of course a
representation of Ishvara.
Hindu cosmology holds that both creation and destruction of the universe result from the
action of the Five Great Elements. So Mara, the destructive force, is also composed of the Five
Great Elements. With this background, the deciphered message ishadyatah marah allows us to
interpret the symbolism of the famous Pashupati seal. It expresses the profound idea, that, in
every cosmic cycle, both the creation and the destruction of the universe are caused by the
action of the panca maha-bhutas (Five Great Elements) under the control of Ishvara. This
remarkable interpretation was decoded and brought to my notice by Jha.
We find numerous such seals with close links to the Vedic and Vedantic literature; our book
includes several such interpretations. The written messages are brief in the form known as

sutras to Sanskrit scholars. These are short formula-like aphorisms made famous by such
works as Paninis grammar, and Patanjalis celebrated Yogasutra. They invariably need
elaboration. An example is the message ishadyatah marah just described. The seals are
products of the same cultural, and, no doubt, historical milieu. Thus they confirm the earlier
findings of Sethna and this writer that the Harappan Civilization overlapped with the Sutra
period. This is what Frawley and I in our book have called the Sutra-Harappa- Sumeria
equation. (We have also found mathematical formulas on a few seals.) All this provides a
window on the Harappan world, and calls for a complete revision of Vedic history and
chronology.
Conclusion
In summary, one may say that the deciphered seals, while they may not contain much in the
way of history, they do provide a clear historical context for the Harappans by establishing a
firm link between Harappan archaeology and the Vedic literature. Thanks to the deciphered
seals, the Harappans, who until now had been left dangling like the legendary king Trishanku,
find at last a place in history in Vedic India. The Harappans were the Vedic Harappans. The
Rigveda therefore must go back well into the fifth millennium. If there was a cradle of
civilization, it was Vedic India, not Sumeria. This recognition is bound to bring about a
revolution in our understanding of history.
Rerefences
Jha, N. (1996) Vedic Glossary on Indus Seals. Ganga-Kaveri Publishing House, Varanasi.
Jha, N. and N.S. Rajaram (To appear) The Deciphered Indus Script: Methodology, Readings,
Interpretation.
Rajaram, N.S. (1996) Jhas Decipherment of the Indus Script, in the Quarterly Journal of the
Mythic Society (October-December 1996).
Rajaram, N.S. and David Frawley (1997) Vedic Aryans and the Origins of Civilization: A Literary
and Scientific Perspective, 2nd edition. Voice of India, New Delhi.

10. Sanskritization A New Model of Language Development

(David Frawley)

The Current Indo-European Model: The Migration of the Proto-Indo-Europeans

The primary model used today for explaining the close relationships that exist between IndoEuropean languages is a migration theory. It proposes a Proto-Indo-European people who
spread their language by a process of migration from an original primitive homeland. According
to this view, as the Indo-European people moved in different directions, their language changed
in predictable ways that can be traced back to their parent tongue, native culture and original
environment.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans are usually defined racially as a European ethnic type, though not all
scholars accept that they were of one race only. Their homelandwhich is the subject of much
debateis placed in various regions including Eastern Europe, Anatolia, Central Asia and
Western China, in short, at almost every point in the Indo-European world. From there, a
migration is proposed over a period some centuries, if not millennia, to the parts of the world

from India to Ireland where Indo-European languages came to be spoken by the first
millennium BCE. The beginning of these migrations is proposed from as early as 7000-4000 BCE,
reaching areas like India in 1500 BCE and Ireland as late as 500 BCE.
These migrating Indo-Europeans are often popularly called Aryans. However, we should
recognize that this term does not reflect the original Sanskrit meaning of Arya, which has no
racial or linguistic connotation but simply means noble or refined. These so-called Aryans were
said to have taken their language with them, which explains the connections between IndoEuropean tongues like how the trunk of a tree creates various branches. The theory proposes
that Indo-European languages share a substratum of common terms that reflect the conditions
of their original homeland. Linguists have endeavored to recreate the original Indo-European
language (PIE or Proto-Indo-European) spoken there. They find common words that indicate a
homeland in a northern region of birch trees and salmon, far from any ocean. While it is
impossible to verify such a language, even dictionaries of it have been created as if it were a
real language that was spoken once.
We can call this a migration model of language, with the migrants at a later time militant
invaders, bringing their language with them and imposing it on existing populations.
Flaws of the Existing Model
However, this migration model suffers from many flaws, of which I will mention the main ones.
Of course, many problems arise from the different opinions about the timing or place of these
migrations. The original homeland is proposed for diverse places throughout the Indo-European
world many thousands of miles apart. The inability to find anything like a single homeland
naturally makes the entire theory questionable. The date of the proposed migrations from it
are also a matter of much debate and vary by centuries, if not millennia. How linguists can be
certain about a language but not about its time, place, or origin certainly casts doubts on the
theory.This means that the theory, though popular, is vague in many respects and that its
details are either not clear or are unconfirmed.
The attempts to connect Proto-Indo-European with a single race or ethnic group is particularly
problematical given the spread of such languages through diverse ethnic groups by the first
millennium BCE, particularly owing to the ethnic diversity of eastern Europe and Central Asia
that are the main proposed homelands. However, I would like to raise more fundamental
objections about the theory, including its linguistic basis.
First, in the primitive state of civilization, the rule is one of language diversity not of language
uniformity, with languages changing quickly from region to region, often over short distances.
For some examples, the languages of the Native Americans and Native Africans are quite
diverse and change every few miles. This is particularly true of nomadic peoples. Such Proto-

Indo-Europeans would not have been different. Their language would have changed every few
miles and could not have had the consistency required of it to endure even at its place of origin.
Second, in the primitive state of language, languages change quickly over time as well, lacking a
sophisticated culture or written traditions to sustain it. This process of time change would be
faster for primitive groups that are migrating, whose travel exposes them to new cultural and
environmental influences that require changes of vocabulary and which brings them into
contact with other language groups. How such a Proto-Indo-European language could have
maintained its continuity through the long time and vast migrations required is hard to explain.
This is particularly true when we consider that the Indo-Europeans are credited with spreading
their language to many cultures that were both more sophisticated in civilization and larger in
population, especially their spread to the subcontinent of India. Such primitive migrants usually
lose their language into the existing more developed culture, under the general rule that more
advanced cultures will maintain their language over primitive groups that come into contact
with them. This is what occurred historically in India where many different invaders have been
absorbed into the indigenous culture throughout the centuries. Why it should have been
different in the second millennium BCE, the proposed time of the Aryan migration into India,
after India had a long indigenous tradition and large population, does not make sense.
In fact, throughout the ancient world, whether in Europe, the Middle East or India, we naturally
find considerable linguistic diversity such as the more primitive state of culture and
communication would require. India was not the only region in which the Indo-European
speakers existed along with those of other linguistic groups. It happened everywhere in the
Indo-European world, including in the proposed Indo-European homeland in Central Asia. In
Europe we find groups like the Basques, Etruscans and Finns that did not speak Indo-European
tongues. In Central Asia there were many Turkish and Mongolian tribes as well as Europeans
and Iranians. Mesopotamia shows Semitic, Indo-European, Caucasian and other language
groups like the Sumerians. India has its Dravidian and Munda speakers. We do not find the IndoEuropean language groups existing alone without other language groups anywhere. We do not
find a pure Indo-European region from which there was a spread to regions of different
language groups. We find mixed linguistic regions everywhere and from the earliest period.
With an interaction with diverse peoples and language groups, primitive Indo-Europeans would
have witnessed a quick deterioration of their original pure tongue, whatever it might have
been, unless they had some powerful culture to sustain it.
Specifically, the region of Central Asia and Eastern Europe of the proposed Proto-IndoEuropean homeland is a transitional areaa kind of way station containing various populations,
races and cultures on the move and constantly interacting with one another. Historically, it has
witnessed the movements of Mongols, Turks, Huns, Germans, Slavs, Celts, Scythians,
Hungarians, and other peoples, both Indo-European in language and not. The development of a

stable linguistic culture in such a borderless region is difficult to explain, much less maintaining
its purity through its spread beyond it.
There have been various attempts to identify the Proto-Indo-Europeans with archaeological
remains, like the Kurgan culture. Unfortunately, we cannot identify the language a people
speak by their ruins or by their artifacts. The movement of such populations west and south has
also been highlighted as a movement of the Indo-Europeans. That people move through and
out of Central Asia to the west and south has occurred many times historically with different
groups. This reflects the instability and difficult circumstances of life in the dry and cold region
of Central Asia, as compared to the warmer and wetter climates of the south and west. To try
to identify one such group as the Indo-Europeans because of such a geographical spread proves
nothing.
There are many other factors against this migration theory as well, to highlight a few. There is
no genetic influence of such a migration into India, the land that has the oldest continuous
Indo-European language and culture. There is no real archaeological evidence of such a
migration into India, where no ruins or artifacts of the migrating/invading Indo-Europeans has
been found apart from the existing culture. The coming of the Indo-Europeans is also difficult to
trace in Europe and the Middle East, where the date of their entry is being continually pushed
back.
Another major problem with the reconstruction of a Proto-Indo-European language is that
primitive languages are usually not specific in their terminology. For example, primitive people
may have a word for fish or tree, but it may not always mean a salmon or a birch. The
word mriga, which in Sanskrit means a deer, in closely related Persian means a bird, as the
original meaning of the term is a fast moving animal. Even the Vedic word vrika, which means
a wolf, in other Vedic contexts means a plow, or something that tears things up.[1] Such an
adjectival, general or descriptive use of words precedes the existence of specific nouns. The
kind of specific reconstructions that are used to identify the PIE homeland reflect a later stage
of language than what such primitive people would have spoken anyway!
Yet the main objection to this Proto-Indo-European model is our first point: It is contrary to the
main trends of language development. Languages spread more by culture than by migration.
Linguistic uniformity increases with the development of civilization, while linguistic diversity
characterizes the primitive state of culture.
Cultural Elite Dominance
The main way that languages have spread historically is through a process of what I would
callCultural Elite Dominanceor cultural diffusion. We can see how the English language is
spreading throughout the world today, even in regions where the number of people of English
ancestry is small. This Anglicization of languages reflects the dominance of American and
British cultural influences, particularly in science, technology and communication. It even

extends to familial terms, with people all over the world calling their parents mommy and
daddy.
Many of the connections between Indo-European languages in Europe reflect a process of
Latinization, the effect of the dominant Roman culture in ancient times. The Romance family
of languages (French, Spanish, Italian and Romanian) arose through this Roman cultural
influence, not by the migration of a primitive Roman race. Even Romania, which was only under
Roman rule for a short period, had its language Latinized. This process of Latinization strongly
affected English and had its influence on German as well.
In India, this process of cultural diffusion is called Sanskritization, from Sanskrit meaning what is
cultured or refined. It involves new populations taking up Hindu culture mainly through the
elite language of Sanskrit that is its basis. The process of Sanskritization is evident not only in
the languages of North India that appear to derive from it, but also in the many Sanskrit loan
words found in Dravidian languages, including Tamil.
Based on this model, I would propose an original dominant Indo-European culture and elite that
spread the language more by diffusion than migration.One notes that Indo-European peoples
share many cultural traits including religious and political factors. They have the same basic
gods, the same basic tripartite social system and common concepts of kingship. Their
connections are not simply limited to primitive traits or familial relations. There should be some
dominant culture behind the Indo-European languages to explain these broader and more
sophisticated connections.
Moreover, the first noticeable Indo-European groups that occur in the Middle East, like the
Hittites, Mittani and Kassites appear as ruling elites, not as primitive nomads. Early Greeks,
Hindus, Persians and Celts have a strong concept of nobility, often expressed as the term Arya.
We could, therefore, also call this process of Sanskritization as Aryanization. Early IndoEuropeans were conscious of a great culture beyond them and an elite status for their peoples.
Such elite predominance occurs in other language families like the diffusion of Mandarin in
China or Arabic in the Islamic world. An early and sustained elite dominance of an IndoEuropean culture is necessary to explain the Indo-European family of languages. Given the
spiritual nature of ancient and of Vedic culture, it would not have simply been a military elite
but more a religious elite.
A Galactic Model of Language
I would propose a model of language development like that of the formation of the galaxy, an
organic development from a primal field. By this view, there was an original primordial cloud of
language potentials in humanity, with different groups making expressions based upon various
internal and external factors from the shape of their faces to the influences of their food or
climate. This cloud of sound-expressions gradually coalesced into certain centers or islands that

emerged over time as specific languages, just as the stars arose out the primordial nebula. As
these language centers emerged, the stronger ones, by a kind of gravitational pull, influenced
and absorbed the weaker ones, just as the Suns gravitational pull drew planets to revolve
around it. The more that culture and civilization developed the larger these centers became.
This resulted in certain large islands or even continents of language being formed that over
time became language families. Eventually, many of the languages that served as intermediates
between these different language groups disappeared, making them appear separate or
unique. This means that the linguistic uniformity that we find arose only at a later stage of
language development and a later stage of history.
This is what we see in history: Linguistic uniformity is primarily a product of civilization.
Civilization, along with communication, trade, urbanization and religion requires a
standardization of language. This restrains the basic human tendency towards linguistic
diversity and results in the formation of set languages and language families.
This is the basic point to note in history: The human tendency is towards linguistic diversity, not
uniformity. A strong civilization is necessary to bring about linguistic uniformity. This uniformity
is often only an upper crust as with Greek in the Eastern Roman Empire and English in India,
while a multitude of vernaculars were used by the common people. Even in the Islamic world,
Arabic has not succeeded in replacing existing languages from Berber in North Africa to Bengali
in Bangladesh. People for the most part continue speaking the languages they always did,
modified according to needs and changes.
The Indo-Europeanization of LanguageSanskritization
This process of elite dominance has occurred many times with different waves of civilization.
There have been many waves of Indo-European linguistic dominance. There have been many
periods in which Indo-European language groups have exerted a strong and extensive cultural
sway. English, Spanish, Portuguese and French languages have done this in the colonial and
modern eras. In the late ancient period and Middle Ages in Europe a process of Latinization
went on, as did a diffusion of Greek through Greek culture at an earlier period. The Persians
spread their language as well. An older wave of Indo-European peoples in the second
millennium BC occurred with the Hittites, Kassites and Mittani. Perhaps yet earlier waves
existed as well.
In some instances, Aryan groups were rearyanized. When the Celts came to Europe they
already found Indo-European groups as the Thracians and Phygrians and Aryanized them
further. In other instances, the Indo-European influence affected the culture but did not change
the language. For example, the Finns and Hungarians in Europe, like the Dravidians in India,
share a common culture with dominant Indo-European speakers but have retained their own
different language on a common level.

Some scholars see the German language as an Indo-Europeanization or Aryanization of a

population originally speaking a Finno-Ugrian language. This means that the Germans, thought
to be a major or original Aryan group, might not have been Aryans at all originally in terms of
race or ethnicity. In fact, the spread of Indo-European languages is so broad through different
populations that it was probably never the expression of a single race or ethnic group, which is
what the process of Sanskritization provides us.
The spread of Indo-European languages requires a sophisticated and enduring early ancient
culture to promote it and to sustain it, not a group of nomadic invaders but a cultural elite.
Harappan India, the worlds largest urban civilization of its time, from 3300-1900 BCE, could
have produced an earlier wave of cultural influence, or several such waves, which would not
have required a massive movement of people to bring about.
Prakritization: The Development of Common Languages
A dominant cultural elite seeks to elevate the language through noble forms of expression such
as art, religion and culture, as well as through terms of trade and politics. At the same time,
there is an opposite movement to create a common language that is easier to speak, reflecting
the needs of the less educated or non-elite of the culture. This process of an elite language
breaking down into popular tongues can be called Prakritizationfrom Prakrit, the Sanskrit term
for common languages.
One great mistake linguistics have made is to look at all languages as Prakrits or common
dialects and to try to determine their rate of change accordingly. They fail to note that such
refined or Sanskritic tongues are meant to exist for centuries and to stand above these changes,
just as Latin endured with few changes throughout the Middle Ages.
Sanskritization aims at creating a pure but artificial language that transcends local language
variations and which can endure over time, thus sustaining an enduring civilization. At the same
time, local influences break down these purer but more artificial forms into simpler but less
elegant forms. Common dialects develop with their own logic as well as their interaction with
the elite language of the culture.
Classical Sanskrit, for example, has taken in some Prakrit words, while the Prakrits of India,
north and south, have many borrowings from Sanskrit. Common dialects can enrich elite
languages, which can otherwise become artificial or sterile, while the influence of elite
languages can bring continuity and depth to common tongues.
The process of Sanskritization is thus not always complete. It may not always change the
common language or Prakrit of the people. A Latin or Sanskrit elite, for example, existed in
groups like the Hungarians or Dravidians that do not have an Indo-European language. It is also
possible that a Prakritization of a language that occurred at an early period could over time lose
any traceable connection with its parent. It is possible, for example, that Dravidian languages

developed from Prakrits of Sanskrit or from an earlier ancestor of Sanskrit but at such an early
period that their connection has been lost. As an elite language develops common forms of
expression, it ceases to resemble its parent. With languages of many thousand years ago, it can
be difficult to trace the connection between elite and common forms of expression.
Such Prakrits can develop their own culture or refinement, just as we now have English or
German literature while in the Middle Ages such literature would have been only in Latin. Such
elite Prakrits can become Sanskrits or new elite languages and have similar such influences.
Three Forms of Elite Predominance
We can propose three forms of elite predominance based upon the nature of ancient
civilizations and their social stratification. These would be cultural diffusion through the priests
or sages (Brahmins), the nobility or kings (Kshatriya), or the merchants and farmers (Vaishya).
Let us start with the last.
Merchants traveled throughout the ancient world as a necessary part of trade. They set up
trading colonies in different, sometimes far away places. The most evident example of this was
the Phoenicians, mainly a sea-faring people, whose various trading communities were spread
far and wide. Harappan India, as the largest civilization in the third millennium BCE, would have
had the largest and most extensive set of trading influences that could have facilitated language
changes.
Kings, aristocrats and armies traveled as well. Some influence was by intermarriage. We note an
extensive intermarriage in the royal families of north India as recorded in ancient records like
thePuranas.Some intermarriage outside this sphere, perhaps as far as Mesopotamia and Egypt,
would be probable. Sometimes bands of warriors traveled. The main Indo-European groups
that appear in the Near East in the second millennium BCE like the Hittites, Kassites and Mittani
appear mainly as bands of warrior elites that ruled a mass of people speaking a different
language and having different customs. We see strong such warrior traditions in early IndoEuropeans like the Greeks, Celts and Persians. The very term Arya among the Persians, Celts
and Hindus seems to reflect primarily a warrior type of aristocracy. Such groups could have
been responsible for such an elite predominance stimulating cultural and linguistic changes.
However, the third and most important group was the priests and sages, the Brahmins
and rishis. Ancient India was a rishi culture, a culture dominated by the influence of various
families of great sages like the Angirasas, Bhrigus, Kashyapas and their diversifications as other
Vedic families. Great rishis like Vasishtha and Vishvamitra and their families had a stature and
an influence that was much more important than any king or dynasty. In the struggles between
kings and rishis in ancient India, it was the rishi that usually won. A king without the sanction of
a great rishi was regarded as illegitimate and was often removed from power.

The Vedic rishis were something like missionaries in spreading their spiritual culture as we have
noted elsewhere in the book. The rishis traveled far and wide, bringing their teachings to all
types of people and setting up new cultures. In this process, their language would have spread
as well.
Of course, there is an occult or fantastical side of the rishi idea, such as we find among sages
and prophets in the ancient world. They were attributed with superhuman powers of body and
mind and were regarded as capable of achieving great longevity. Some of this can be explained
by the practice of yoga and the mastery of prana (the vital force) that was always part of
the rishitradition. However, given the spiritual nature of ancient cultures, with their Gods and
sense of the sacred everywhere, we can understand how religious and spiritual ideas would
have the greatest impact on cultures and languages.
The rishis would have the strongest and most conscious influence on culture. They would
educate and train new people in traditions of chanting, rituals and other daily customs, perhaps
giving them new names. The Vedic rishi language or Proto-Sanskrit could have been the basis of
many such language and cultural changes in the ancient world. The Vedic rishi was famous as a
loka-krit or maker of culture.
In all three instances of elite predominance, small groups could effect major changes on
cultures without requiring a major migration of people. Such an influence would be stronger on
groups that did not have a large population or set traditions of their own. This explains how
Indo-European languages and culture could spread through Central Asia and Europe, which was
a sparsely populated area. It explains why such groups could influence Mesopotamia, which
had its own larger populations and older traditions, but not become the dominant culture over
time. More importantly, it explains why ancient India could not have been Aryanized the same
way. Ancient India had a significant population and old traditions that could not be easily
changed down to a mass level by a process of elite predominance from Iran or Central Asia.
I would propose that the ancient Europeans were gradually Aryanized by a combination of
these factors of elite predominance. No doubt some peoples did migrate out of the Indian
cultural domain, which in ancient times included Afghanistan, if not portions of Central Asia and
Iran. These were probably mainly Kshatriya or warrior people but must have included other
groups with priests, merchants and servants as part of their retinue. Merchants, of course,
traveled on their own. Overland trails like the Silk Trail were probably in operation by that time.
But, most importantly, the rishis traveled. They came into new cultures and molded them along
Vedic lines. Let us note that the Vedic model of religion is more culturally based and is not
simply a belief or label change as is the case with missionary religion. Therefore, the rishi would
have had a deeper and more sensitive impact on native cultures. As the rishis traveled,
the rishi culture became modified according to local influences. New rishi cultures were
produced, like the Druidic culture of the Celts that continued a process of Aryanization in a
slightly different form. This process of Aryanization on different levels of merchants, aristocrats

and rishi, taking new forms in new cultures, easily explains the linguistic connections between
Indo-European groups as well as other cultural connections in the ancient world.
As an extension of the idea of Sanskritization, I would propose a process of Aryanization mainly
based on the rishi model, but also considering the influence of the aristocracy and trade.
Limitations of Any Linguistic Model
We should, however, not push the language model of culture too far. The limitation of any
linguistic model is that culture is always more than language, however important language may
be. Culture also has an important place for religion, technology and commerce as well as the
other aspects of civilization and cannot be reduced to language alone. The spread of culture
does not always include the spread of language. Groups that share the same culture may speak
diverse languages. The best example of this is Mesopotamia. There is a cultural continuity
between the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians and Assyrians of the region, extending to
Hittites and Kassites without a corresponding dominant elite language shared by all.
If we look at cultural diffusion through language alone, we can make many mistakes. It is also
possible that a dominant cultural elite can impose much of its culture but not its language.
Beyond the spread of language is a more general spread of culture that may not proceed
through language but through religion, technology, agriculture or other factors, in which
language may not be dominant. For example, Indian civilization spread to Indonesia without
turning the local language into an Indo-European tongue, though many common and place
names became Sanskritic.
Isolating language and looking at its development apart from the rest of culture can be
misleading. A purely linguistic approach to history is dangerous. Linguistic data, particularly that
surmised or reconstructed, must be brought into harmony with more solid archaeological and
other forms of evidence. Otherwise, it can cause more confusion than clarification.
One main piece of evidence that is proposed is the division of Indo-European languages into
kentum and shatam divisions, based upon sh and k pronunciation. However, in north India,
traditional Vedic pronunciation (the Shukla Yajur Vedatradition) of the Vedic word Purusha, has
always been Purukha, showing that such proposed divisions are not rigid at all. This sh was
pronounced as a kh. So linguistic boundaries are often not as rigid as supposed.
Conclusions
A migration theory, particularly of a primitive people, cannot explain complex connections
between languages, or the existence of language families such as the Indo-European. More
diverse cultural interactions are required for this.
We cannot speak of an original Indo-European language but only of the emergence of an IndoEuropean language family over time through a long process of cultural development, with

migration playing a secondary role. It is possible that some existing Indo-European languages
were Aryanized at a later time, rather than being Indo-European at their origin.
It is probably better not to speak of language families at all but only of language affinities, not
by a common ancestry but by a process of communication or interaction. Just as individuals can
have various affinities without being members of the same family, so can languages.
The Indo-European group of languages does not reflect the spread of a single group of people
or speakers of an original Proto-Indo-European tongue. It is a construct that arose through
history by the interaction of various cultural and linguistic influences, dominated by groups that
spoke mainly Indo-European tongues.
We cannot speak of an original Indo-European homeland but only of the region where an IndoEuropean cultural influence first arose. We cannot speak of an original Indo-European people
but only of the oldest people that spoke such a type of language, and even this group may not
have been uniform in its ethnicity.
We must discriminate between common dialects that change quickly over time and more
enduring courtly or priestly languages that can exist for centuries with little change. We cannot
apply the same rates of language change to each.
The spread of Indo-European languages requires an early dominant culture. Prior to
Anglicization, Latinization and historical diffusions of Indo-European languages must have been
earlier waves into the third millennium BCE and earlier.
We can at best speak of an original dominant Indo-European culture that I would identify with
Vedic/Harappan India. So far, it is the oldest significant Indo-European culture that could give
the basis for such a vast and enduring cultural diffusion, including language. It would also
require a large population growing out of a fertile region like India to seed so many cultures in
different parts of the world. This would not be easy in steppe-nomadic region, especially in
ancient times, which could only support small populations leading a precarious existence.
Throughout history, more Indians have migrated out of India than have come in. This is still the
case today.
To explain the Indo-European connections, we need an advanced culture, with a dominant
Indo-European language, before 3000 BCE, which was able to sustain its influence into the
second millennium BCE. Vedic/Harappan India, which included parts of Afghanistan, alone can
fit this need.
Ancient India
The RigVeda, the oldest Indian text, shows a dominant religious, political and merchant
(Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaishya) culture that Sanskritized the region of north India and then
areas beyond. This is mainly the influence of the Bharata and Ikshvaku kings and rishis. Yet

earlier forms of Sanskrit probably existed that had already started the process, such as probably
existed at a much earlier period like that of King Yayati. Manu himself probably represents the
earliest phase of the Sanskritization process, particularly as the name of his daughter Ila means
speech and probably refers to both the spiritual culture and elite language that his influence
initiated. Classical India under the Mauryas and Guptas had another phase of Sanskritization
when the ruling elite spoke classical Sanskrit as in the plays of Kalidasa.
The process of Sanskritization goes on today. It is most evident in Dravidian languages that have
a greater percentage of Sanskrit words. We also note that South Indians have more classically
Sanskrit surnames.
Perhaps there were earlier forms of language like a Proto-Sanskrit that had more
commonalities with Dravidian or Semitic languages as we move more back into the primordial
linguistic field.
In any case, an Aryan invasion/migration model is not necessary to explain the existence of
Indo-European languages in India. Such an invasion/migration raises more questions than it
answers. To replace it, we must look to a process of Sanskritization and Aryanization that is
more spiritual and cultural in form, rather than a crude shift of populations.
The Place of the Sanskrit Language
This model of elite predominance means not only that there was no PIE per se behind all IndoEuropean languages, but also that Rig Vedic Sanskrit is not the mother of all languages either.
The oldest form of Sanskrit, Vedic Sanskrit, is already a highly evolved elite language and not
the first stage of language at all, much less a commonly spoken tongue. Its original name was
chhandas, meaning meter or poetry. It possesses a complex metrical form, a sophisticated
system of inflections, many synonyms, and a long sense of its own history.
The Rig Vedarepresents a synthesis of many Gods and of many rishi traditions, uniting the
different modes of worship throughout the region. Similarly, it presents a synthetic
poetic/religious language that has taken various elements from the different languages of the
region, including those that modern linguists might not define as Indo-European. That would
explain why the language has so many synonyms, particularly for religious terms, and why for
more special cultural aspects, like names of different grains, it has so few terms. Rig Vedic
Sanskrit was a synthetic religious languagea kind of all India religious languagethat also
included contributions from communities speaking Munda and Dravidian dialects, as well as
those we might recognize as more Indo-European. Our modern compartmentalization of
language should not be confused with a compartmentalization of culture. It may indicate more
how we perceive language than how ancient cultures, which had considerable linguistic
diversity, organized themselves or perceived their cultural boundaries.

Vedic Sanskrit is probably not the earliest Indo-European tongue or that responsible for the
earliest diffusion of this group of languages, though it is probably the oldest Indo-European
language that has survived. Vedic Sanskrit represents the elite language of the Vedic culture
and was probably finalized during its later period. Earlier forms of Sanskrit and related Prakrits
would have been spoken in the region previously, simpler in form, and these would have better
represented the earliest diffusion of Indo-European languages. They would also probably
contain elements of Dravidian and Munda languages. Their languages would have had more
diversity as well as more interchanges with other languages.
The closest thing to any original language for humanity would be a language of root sounds, not
inflected, and reflecting a range of meanings depending upon manner and intonation of
expression. This is much like the language of bija or seed mantras.
In any case, we should look to culture to explain language and interpret language as part of
culture. History can explain language, but language cannot explain history. The more dominant
the language or language family, the stronger the culture needed to create and sustain it over
time. This does not mean that migration and ethnicity play no role in the spread of language
but that they should not be made into the prime determinative factors.
-----------------------------

11. Various Aspects - The Aryan Invasion

The Aryan Invasion theory was first propounded when linguistic similarities between Sanskrit
and the major European languages were discovered by European scholars during the colonial
era. In an atmosphere of raging eurocentricism, it was inevitable that any explanation of this
seemingly inexplicable discovery would taken on racial and ideological overtones. (See Refs. 1)
Colonial expositions of the Aryan Invasion Theory
British intellectuals were particularly nonplussed by this apparent link between the languages
of the conquerors and the conquered. In the earliest phases of British rule in India, the East
India Company proceeded largely unconsciously - without moral dilemmas and without overt
recourse to ideological or racial superiority. But as the rule of the East India Company
expanded, and battles became more hard fought and the resistance to British occupation in
India grew, the ideology of European racial superiority became almost essential in justifying
British presence in India - not only to assuage British conscience, but also to convince the Indian
people that the British were not mere colonial conquerors but a superior race on a noble
civilizational mission.
After 1857, the British education system in India had been deliberately designed to assist in the
development of a narrow but influential class of deeply indoctrinated and predominantly loyal
agents of British colonial rule in India. British elaborations of the Aryan invasion theory became
powerful and convenient ideological tools in generating legitimacy for British rule. In it's most
classical and colonially tinged incarnation, it portrayed the Aryans as a highly advanced and
culturally superior race in the ancient world, locating their original home in Northern Europe. It
then went on to suggest that some time in antiquity, the Aryans migrated from their original
home in Europe and brought with them their language and their superior culture and
transcendental philosophy to civilize the primitive and materially backward Dravidian people of
the subcontinent. All the greatness of Indian civilization was ascribed to the Aryans, thus
implying that if India were to ever achieve greatness again, a return to Aryan rule was
imperative.
And by claiming a cultural continuity between this noble race of ancient times and themselves,
the British could become inheritors of the grand Aryan tradition and assert their "legitimate"
civilizational right to rule over the people of the subcontinent - not to exploit them, but so as to
"reinvigorate" Indian civilization by reintroducing Aryan rule that had been disfigured and
corrupted by the violent and barbaric incursions of the Muslims. Preposterous and distorted as
it was, this absurdly racist proposition was made palatable to a self-doubting and repressed
class of upper-caste Hindus who were told that they were descendants of the Aryans, and could
identify with the manifold and globally encompassing achievements of the Aryan people by
accepting British authority so as to participate in this great Aryan renaissance in India. (See Ref.
2)
The theory gained rapid currency amongst upper-caste Hindus who had legitimate gripes
against the Muslim nobility for having been denied equal access to power in the Muslim courts,

but were too enfeebled to put up a fight on their own, and were too alienated from the mass of
artisans and peasants to join in popular rebellions against the feudal dispensation. The British
rulers offered the opportunity of gaining petty privileges in exchange for acquiescence to
colonial rule, and the Aryan invasion theory provided the ideological justification for betraying
the rest of ones nation. By placing the ancestral home of the Aryans far off in Northern Europe,
the British were putting the idea in the heads of such upper-caste Hindus that they were far
removed from the Indian masses and had no good reason to identify with them.
Wittingly or unwittingly, the Aryan invasion theory thus became the emotional bait for a
section of the Indian population who were to aid and abet the colonial project in India.
Although some of these Indians ultimately did develop national feelings, and forged a national
identity that eventually came into conflict with the continuation of colonial rule, the theory
continued to play an important role in confusing the psyche of the post-independence Indian
intelligentsia.
Since the Aryan invasion belongs to a period of considerable antiquity, and there is little
physical evidence to support any authoritative conclusion, theories affirming (or opposing) the
invasion hypothesis can vary from being wildly speculative at worst, to being reasonably
plausible at best. Even the most diligent and objective of historians can at best come up with
informed conjectures, leaving open the possibility for uncertainty, and ideologically-driven
diversionary postulations. The absence of concrete data and the ambiguity involved in
interpreting surviving texts from the Aryan period makes the task of combating history-writing
that has been colored by colonially influenced analysis doubly difficult.
Nevertheless, it is possible to construct the contours of what may be more plausible, and at
least eliminate what is obviously fiction or fantasy.
Arguments for and against the Invasion Theory
Opponents of the invasion theory make a somewhat plausible case that the sacrificial rites and
rituals described in some of the Vedic texts bear a resemblance to practices that may have been
common during the Harappan period. The similiarity of Harappan and Vedic altars is indeed
intriguing. This would bolster the argument that Brahmins of the Vedic age emerged from the
Harappan priesthood, and not from any Aryan invasion. But a link between the Harappan
priesthood and Vedic Brahminism does not preclude the possibility of an invasion or foreign
migration. It is not inconceivable that the Vedic Brahmin developed as a composite of the
Harappan priest and the priest of an invading (or migrating) tribe or clan. Animal sacrifices were
common amongst many tribes in that age - and it is not entirely implausible that some kind of
synthesis may have taken place.
Philological Analysis

Proponents of an invasion (or migration) theory feel quite strongly that the Indo-European
linguistic commonality cannot be explained in any other way, and cite philological studies that
appear to bolster their case.
However, opponents of the invasion theory argue that the structural commonality of the IndoEuropean group of languages could have been achieved without an Aryan invasion. They
observe that the Harappan civilization had extensive trade and commercial ties with Babylon as
well as with civilizations to the further West. There is a remarkable similarity in seals and
cultural artifacts found in Harappan India, Babylon and even the early civilizations of the
Mediterranean such as Crete. Hence, they argue that a linguistic commonality may have
developed quite early through trade and cultural contacts and that this common linguistic
structure may have subsequently moved from South to North. Since Mediterranean Europe and
the Middle Eastern civilizations developed well before the civilizations of Northern Europe, such
a possibility is not altogether inconceivable.
But such a hypothesis does not preclude the possibility that invading or migrating clans may
have also introduced non-Indian words into the existing Indian languages - leading to a
composite language stream that incorporated both Indo-European and indigenous features.
(Urdu is an example of a language that was introduced as a result of a series of invasions,
adding a large body of foreign words while maintaining the syntactical structure and vocabulary
base of the previous language.)
Since much of the Indo-European linguistic commonality appears to correspond to the basic
vocabulary of a pastoral nomadic population, intrusions by patriarchal warrior clans from
Central Asia cannot be ruled out. Authors such as Gimbutas (The Civilization of the Goddess, the
World of Old Europe) present a reasonably convincing model of how the older matriarchal order
in Europe was gradually broken down by migrants/conquerors who spoke a language that
might account for certain common elements of the Indo-European group of languages.
Although it would be inappropriate to mechanically apply the same conclusions to India, the
linguistic and philological arguments are hard to ignore.
It must nevertheless be noted that there are both similarities and differences amongst the
various Indo-European languages, and often, historians (and philologists) tend to downplay (or
ignore) the contributions of the Adivasi and Tamil language streams in the development of the
Indic languages. Philological analysis of the Indian languages points to both Indo-European
links, as well as to a considerable degree of independent development. Moreover, just as South
Indian languages have absorbed Sanskrit words, North Indian languages have also absorbed
words from Tamil and languages related to it.
Another criticism of the inasion theory lies in the interpretation of the word "Arya" to mean
race, nationality or even linguistic group. Critics suggest that the word Arya as used in the Rig
Veda and other texts is better translated as one who was noble in character (or noble in deed)
or perhaps hailing from a noble background. Hence, to use the term "Aryan" to describe the

racial or national characteristics of an invading clan or clans would naturally be erroneous.

Thus, if an invasion did take place, and if the invaders identified themselves as "Aryans", it
would merely reflect their claim to noble status, and would not reflect upon their national or
racial origin.
On the other hand, historians favoring the invasion theory have based many of their arguments
on postulates connecting the introduction of the horse and chariot in India to invading (or
migrating) "Aryans". They also point to the balladic character of some of the verses in the Rig
Veda with references to armed cattle raids and warriors on horse-driven chariots who appear
to portray a race or a group of clans of pastoral nomadic warriors. The imagery fits particularly
well with artifacts found in Babylon and Ancient Persia (and other regions near the Caspian Sea)
that depict warriors riding on horse-driven chariots. Other literary evidence from the Rig Veda
also appears to connect the authors of these Rig Veda verses to the "Aryan" identified
civilization of ancient Persia.
On the other hand, there is no tangible evidence of warrior clans in the numerous urban
settlements that comprise the Harappan civilization. There are also few references to pastoral
nomadism or cattle raids. The Harappans appear to have been a relatively urbanized people
and based their existence on what seems to be primarily settled agriculture. The character of
such verses in the Rig Veda texts does not fit well with a people who designed vast granaries,
roads, urban bungalows, and for their time a highly sophisticated drainage system. And while
there is evidence to suggest that the Harappans had a priestly class, there is almost no evidence
of standing armies. There is evidence of a local police force but there is little to suggest that the
police forces were as well armed or proficient in the use of archery as were the warrior tribes
that find mention in the Rig Veda. Unlike the contemporaneous civilizations of Babylon and old
Persia, where the institution of monarchy may have been already established, requiring the
existence of standing armies and warrior clans to support the monarchy, the Harappan
civilization seems to have been largely republican in character, with a much weaker and smaller
police force to ensure stability. Based on a survey of surviving physical artifacts, it is possible to
surmise that priests may have played a greater role in ensuring the legitimacy of the Harappan
state, whereas the warriors may have begun to play a more powerful role in the civilizations of
the Middle East and Central Asia.
It is therefore, not unlikely that the introduction of monarchy and standing armies (and the
introduction of the Kshatriya caste and the subsequent institutionalization of the caste system)
may have come about, at least indirectly, as a consequence of an invasion or conquest. Another
argument favoring some kind of an invasion is the evidence for Aryan-like invasions of other
settled civilizations such as in Greece, and other parts of the Near East and Europe, and
references in the Manusmriti to ruling clans who were clearly of non-Indian origin. Considering
how frequently the subcontinent has faced invasions from the North West, an "Aryan"
identifying invasion would not be entirely out of character with the experience of the
subcontinent. As to the physical origins of these possible invaders, it is very hard to be

definitive - but in all likelihood, their origins could not have been too far from the Caspian
region.
Some verses in the Rig Veda paint a picture of a people who were familiar with settled
agriculture, but whose economic life was dominated by animal husbandry, and who had been
exposed to a large body of water such as the Caspian Sea. Geographically, parts of Persia fit
quite well with such a description as might other regions bordering on the Caspian or located in
the geographical vicinity of the Caspian. These regions offered rather limited possibilities for
settled agriculture and shepherding played an important role in the semi-urban civilizations
that emerged around the Caspian basin.
The Aryan identifying warrior clans could have been a branch of the ruling warrior clans of early
Persia, or else they may have originated in Central Asia or Southern Russia with a civilization
that closely resembled the civilization of the old Persians. While some of the verses in the Rig
Veda point to a Persian connection, other verses suggest that while these warrior tribes who
came to India followed practices that closely resembled those of the Persians, they may not
have originated in Persia. The close similarities between names for various kinship ties and
familial relationships in India and Russia appears to place these Aryan identifying clans or tribes
on the northern side of the Caspian. An explanation that reconciles this apparently conflicting
evidence is that there was not a single invasion but a series of intrusions (or migrations) by
different Aryan identifying clans - some of whom collaborated with each other while others saw
each other as rivals or enemies.
Examples from more recent history might also offer us some clues of what may have occurred.
Just as India was confronted by a series of invasions by Islamic rulers from different parts of the
Middle East and Central Asia, it is not implausible that several Aryan identifying tribes or clans
developed certain common cultural features that spanned Persia, Central Asia and the South
Caucasus region and then spread South East towards India, (and also North and West into
greater Russia, Europe and the Mediterranean). Of course, it is possible and likely that upon
their entry into India, they also borrowed from the settled agriculture civilizations of India who
may have been culturally more advanced in many ways.
Alternatively, the invaders of the Rig-Vedic period may have been like the Rajputs or Gujjars,
entering India as warrior clans, conquering territories in India, but adopting the culture of India
albeit with certain modifications, and enjoining their balladeers to introduce into the Rig Veda,
verses that glorified their conquests, and expressed their particular world view. This would not
be too dissimiliar from how the Rajputs and other ruling dynasties had local court chroniclers
invent fictional noble lineages to create an impression of continuity.
Links between Harappan and Vedic Civilization
However, it should be noted that regardless of the geographical origin of such invaders, it is
almost certain that the ruling clans of the Gangetic plain included both locals and invaders (or

migrants). Later texts (such as the Manusmriti) describe a large number of ruling clans (of
varied national origin, including Dravidian origin) as being "Aryan" i.e. of noble descent. Hence,
it would be incorrect to argue that the ruling clans of the Vedic period were exclusively made
up of "invading Aryans".
There is also compelling circumstantial evidence linking the settlers of the Gangetic plain to
earlier Harappan settlements. For instance, emerging geological evidence pointing to ancient
river systems drying up and changing course, and the excavation of numerous settlements
along the banks of these ancient river systems (such as the Saraswati basin that ran in parallel
to the Indus) lends credence to the argument that the settlers of the Gangetic plain must have
been predominantly domestic migrants.
Finds of Shatranj (chess) pieces, dice and terracotta animal and goddess figurines also point to
connections between Harappan and later civilizations. It is also quite remarkable how the
ornamentation of some temples in Rajasthan and Western Madhya Pradesh appears to derive
from some of the excavated jewelry from Harappan sites in Northern India.
Some scholars also see a continuity between the Sulva Sutras and the Harappan civilization
which owing to it's material advance must have very likely developed a level of arithmetic and
ritual and abstract philosophy concomitant with it's achievements in urban planning and
agricultural management. The evidence for decimal weights and measures in the Harappan
civilization, and the later perfection of a decimal numeral system in India lends further
substance to such claims.
Relevance of the Aryans
All this suggests that there is a much greater degree of continuity in Indian civilization than
previously realized, and further examination of the Indian historical record will demonstrate
that the numerous developments in philosophy and culture that have taken place in India
cannot be attributed to "Aryan" invaders. In fact, the main significance of the invasion theory
lies not in the determination of whether such an invasion took place or not, but rather in how
much of a debt Indian civilization might owe to such an invasion.
For instance, prior to the series of Islamic invasions, and long after the Aryan period of Indian
history, there have been numerous other invasions that had an impact on the subcontinent. Yet
it is only the "Aryan" invasion that attracts popular and scholarly attention. This is primarily
because of the importance ascribed to the "Aryan" invasion by British colonial historians.
Before the invention of the "exalted" Aryan by British ideologues, references to the Aryans in
the Rig Veda were not treated with any particular importance, and few Indians had any
conscious memory of an "Aryan" warrior past. This is not surprising, because the legacy of such
invading warrior tribes or clans to Indian civilization is not especially significant.

Prior to any "Aryan" invasion, India already had a relatively advanced settled-agriculture based
urban civilization. And within a few centuries after their possible introduction in India, the
Aryan-identified gods described in the Rig Veda ceased to be worshipped and gradually faded
from Indian consciousness. Brahmin gotra (clan) names mentioned in the Rig Veda also lost
their import and the vast majority of Brahmin gotra (clan) names that came into common use
could not have had any "Aryan"-invasion connection. As Kosambi convincingly points out in
his Introduction to Indian History, many of India's Brahmins rose from 'Hinduised' tribes that
earlier practised animism or totem worship, or prayed to various fertility gods (and/or
goddesses), or revered fertility symbols such as the linga (phallus) or the yoni (vagina). A
majority of these Hinduised tribes retained many elements of their older forms of worship, and
several Brahmin gotra (clan) names are derived from pre-Aryan clan totems and other tribal
associations.
For instance, one of the most popular gods in the Indian pantheon - Shiva - appears to have no
connection with any Aryan invasion, and may in fact have it's prototype in the fertility god of
the Harappans. Similiarly, Hanuman, Ganesh, Kali, or Maharashtra's Vithoba - none could have
any Aryan connection, since they don't even find any mention in the Rig Veda. Whether in
matters of popular religion or in matters of high philosophy, there is little contribution of note
that can be traced directly to an "Aryan invasion".
Uniquely Indian Aspects of Vedic Literature
It is important to note that much of the Vedic literature - both in the style and substance of it's
verses, appears to be uniquely Indian, and it is not impossible that at least some of the verses
may have Harappan origin. Many of the philosophical themes that are explored and developed
in the Vedic literature have insightful naturalist references that are consistent with Indian
geography. In addition, there are certain philosophical aspects of the Vedic literature that don't
appear to be replicated in quite the same way in any other civilization that was
contemporaneous to the Vedic civilization.
The best of the Vedic Shlokas refer to a common life-spirit that links all living creatures, to
human social-interconnectedness, to the notion of unity in diversity and how different sections
of society might have different prayers and different wishes. Whereas some verses point to god
as being a source for wish-fulfillment, in other verses, there are doubts and queries about the
nature of god, whether a god really exists, and whether such questions can every be really
answered. These aspects of Vedic thought were elaborated upon by later schools of Indian
philosophy, and recur frequently in Indian literature and philosophy.
While some of India's rational schools developed in parallel with the Vedas, and are included as
appendices to the Vedic texts, others developed practically independently of the Vedas, or even
in opposition - as polemics to the Vedas (such as those of the Jains and the Buddhists). (See
Philosophical development from Upanishadic theism to scientific realism) TheUpanishads,
the Sankhya, and the Nyaya-Vaisheshika schools, the numerous treatises on medicine, ethics,

scientific method, logic and mathematics clearly developed on Indian soil as a result of Indian
experiences and intellectual efforts.
India's great surviving temples and Stupas with their rich carvings and sculpture were all
created with aesthetic principles and formulations that developed centuries after any invading
or migrating "Aryans" would have completely melted into Indian society. And though it is
possible that these foreign "Aryans" may have introduced certain technological innovations and
inventions (possibly in the realm of metallurgy, metal tools or carpentry, and may have thus
facilitated the spread of settled agricultural civilizations along the Gangetic plain), knowledge of
textile production, tool-making, and metallurgy was already available to the Harappans.
The grammar of Sanskrit and its highly systematized alphabet also had little to do with any
"Aryan" invasion. Sanskrit is a highly structured and methodical language, optimized for
engaging in rational debates and expressing mathematical formulas. And its skillfully organized
alphabet bears little resemblance to the rather random and arbitrary alphabet of its European
"cousins". Much of its vocabulary and syntax developed long after any supposed invasion, and
although the structure of the South Indian languages may differ from those of the North in
some respects, the majority of India's languages (both Northern and Southern) share a large
base of a common Sanskrit-derived vocabulary. In addition, what is especially significant is how
the North Indian scripts share so much in common with the scripts of Southern India. The
phonetic organization of consonants and vowels, phonetic spelling, and the many other
commonalities that bind all of India's syllabic scripts weakens the entire linguistic premise of
the Aryan invasion theory. In fact, when it comes to scripts, consonant and vowel sounds, all
Indian languages are closely related, and their closest relatives are to be found in South East
Asia, Ethiopia (and even Korea and Mongolia to some degree) but not in Europe. (See Ref.6)
It is thus curious, to say the least, when Indian civilization is described as synonymous with an
imported "Aryan" civilization - and the self-esteem of so many Indians is tied up with trying to
disprove the Aryan invasion theory. Other than perhaps accelerate the demise of republicanism
in India, and possibly hasten the spread of settled agriculture along the Northern plains, there
appears to be few other tangible and long-lasting effects that could be ascribed to an "Aryan"
invasion.
Not only is it unclear as to how much any invading or migrant "Aryan" clan may have
introduced into the Vedic literature, Vedic civilization itself is only a subset of Hindu civilization.
While the Aryans of the Vedas may be credited with laying the foundations of "Hindu"
civilization in the Gangetic plain, the essence of Hindu civilization emerged gradually, taking
several centuries to crystallize. Undergoing both internal reform and fusion with pre-existing
tribal and matriarchal cultures, the Hinduism of both the rulers and the masses kept evolving.
Even as it retained certain philosophical elements from Vedic literature, it also broadened and
in some ways diverged completely from the Vedas.

Beyond the Northern (Yamuna/Gangetic) plains, the influence of Aryan-identified Vedic

civilization was generally more limited. Vedic influences on the civilizations in Bengal, Assam
and Orissa were initially almost minimal, and these Eastern civilizations largely followed their
own (and somewhat unique trajectories), as did the civilizations of South India - absorbing
Vedic philosophical concepts gradually and only partially. Throughout India, Buddhism and
Jainism also found converts, and in Kashmir, the North West, and in the East - Buddhism had a
particularly profound influence, while in Western India (such as in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka) Jainism was very influential. In Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, West
Bengal and Orissa, Tantric influences were important.
In essence, Indian civilization whether Hindu, Buddhist or Jain, or any other, developed
primarily from the unique (and varied) conditions of Indian geography and the human exertion
that went into modifying those conditions to advance agriculture and settled civilization. Taken
in the general context of say three or four thousand years of Indian history, it is hard to ascribe
to an "Aryan" invasion/s the sort of paramountcy assigned by the British. While British motives
in magnifying the "Aryan" character of Indian civilization are only too apparent, this
contemporary obsession with the "Aryan" question that appears to have gripped large sections
of the Indian intelligentsia suggests that the ideological confusion created by the British has not
yet been fully sorted out.
One consequence of this is that the debate on the Aryan question has been highly contentious,
with historians adopting strident and extreme positions, not seeing that there can be both
continuities and discontinuities in the development of Indian civilization. It has also diverted
many of India's historians from equally (or more) important tasks - such as describing and
integrating those periods of Indian history where considerable new archeological material is
now available and needs to be incorporated into the presently known and documented view of
Indian history.
Key aspects of Indian history remain poorly researched and documented. Many Sanskrit and
vernacular texts have not been studied and assimilated by English speaking historians. Regional
variations in Indian history have not been studied enough. A deeper understanding of some of
the lesser known kingdoms all across India is required to correct false generalizations about
Indian history. Much more effort is required in understanding social movements, gender and
caste equations. Simplifications and generalizations based on antiquated documents like
the Manusmriti (which was mainly resurrected by British historians) provide a very incomplete
and distorted picture of actual social relations and practice in India. The Manusmriti also offers
little in terms of understanding local and regional peculiarities in matters of social relations.
(See Ref.3)
Considerable work is also required in unifying haphazard and scattered studies in the area of
India's economic history and the history of philosophy, science, technology and manufacturing.
It is also important that the vast body of work that has been published since independence in

English be translated into the nation's many languages and regional dialects. It is tragic that so
much of the best research done in Indian history is available only to English speakers. These are
just some of the tasks that need greater attention from the community of Indian historians.
Intriguing as the Aryan-origin debate may be, it is in the end only one facet of Indian history,
and merits further attention only if historians and archeologists can offer fresh and new insights
on this subject and relate them to the broad dynamics of Indian civilization.
Notes and References:
1. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, famous for his work on the Indian Constitution, as well as his campaign in
support of the nation's dalit community noticed the racial overtones underlying the theory and
described the British espousal of the Aryan Invasion theory in the following words: "The theory
of invasion is an invention. This invention is necessary because of a gratuitous assumption that
the Indo-Germanic people are the purest of the modern representation of the original Aryan
race. The theory is a perversion of scientific investigation. It is not allowed to evolve out of facts.
On the contrary, the theory is preconceived and facts are selected to prove it. It falls to the
ground at every point."
b. British anthropologist, Edmund Leach also termed the Aryan invasion theory as being born
out of European racism.
2.. "What has taken place since the commencement of the British rule in India is only a reunion,
to a certain extent, of the members of the same family," John Wilson, a colonial missionary,
declared with a straight face, and naturally this happy reunion had now brought India into
contact "with the most enlightened and philanthropic nation in the world." - quoted by Sri
Aurobindo: The Origins of Aryan Speech, (The Secret of the Veda, p. 554).
3. See Madhu Kishwar: Manusmriti to Madhusmriti
4. See Marija Gimbutas: The Civilization of the Goddess, The World of Old Europe on the
philological commonalities of the Indo-European languages, and how these commonalities
relate to the culture and ethos of pastoral nomadic patriarchal warrior clans.
5. P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar (History of the Tamils) makes a similar case emphasizing the essentially
indigenous development of Tamil language and civilization. Although some of his conclusions
appear to be somewhat conjectural (such as those pertaining to Tamil Nadu possibly being the
"original" homeland of the Sumerians), his assertion that Tamil language and culture arose from
the very geography of the Tamil country is well substantiated. He does this by citing the
anthropological observations of the ancient Tamils and demonstrating how the distinct
geographical features of the Tamil country influenced the development of distinct modes of
production and patterns of living, which in turn, helped shape their culture and language.
6. See, for instance, Wikipedia's on-line article on Indian and other Syllabic/Abugida scripts.