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Liquid
saturation
Critical point
Vapor spinodal
Vapor saturation
Pressure
(p)
T = TC
Subcooled
liquid
Mechanical
unstable region
Specific volume ()
T=T2>T1
G
T=T1
p
< 0
T
Determination of thermodynamic limit of superheat
1.Need a reliable state equation , such as the van der Waals
or the Berthelot equation :
P + n 2 ( b ) = RT
T
=0
v Tc
2P
2 = 0
v Tc
Thus,
9
n +1
a =
RT c v c
8
1
b = vc
3
3
+
n
1
8
=
3
3
= 0
> 0
n +1
3 1)
(
=
4 3
Pl
Tl
Pv
ilv
dP
=
dT Tsat Tsat lv
ilv = iv il
vlv = vv vl
Tsat
2
Pv Pl =
r
: surface tension
Pl
r22
r11
r2
r1
r2
Pv
[1 2 r1 + 21r2 ]
1 1
Pv Pl = +
r1 r2
r1 = r 2 = r Pv Pl =
2
r
T sat v lv
i lv
T sat v lv
= (P l P v )
i lv
2 T sat v lv
i lv
re
2
=
T l T sat
T sat v lv
i lv
2
re =
Psat (Tl ) exp {vl [Pl Psat (Tl )] / RTl } Pl
G (r ) =
Free energy
4 r
2
Additional
surface energy
4
r 3 (Pv Pl )
3
Work done by the vapor
to the surrounding liquid
2
Pv Pl =
re
Gmax
4
G ( r ) = 4 r
r
3
2
2
re
2r
= 4 r 1
r
3
e
r/re
d [G (r )]
=0
dr
at
r = re
4 2
16 3
G ( re ) = re =
2
3
3(Pv Pl )
Since the free energy is less, a nucleus smaller than re will collapse
and a nucleus larger than re will grow spontaneously.
If one more molecules collides with the equilibrium nucleus ,
than the nucleus will grow and vice versa.
Rate of nucleation: J
J = the number of critical size nuclei per unit volume per unit time
which grow to macroscopic size .
J = N ( re )
N ( re ) = N l exp
G ( re )
kT l
k = Boltzmann constant
Nl = Number density of liquid molecules
kTl
h
=
1
2 2
Westwater
Bernath
h is Planks constant
m is the mass of a single liquid molecule
2 Tsat vlv
re =
Tl Tsat ilv
2. Evaluate
3. Evaluate
4. Evaluate
4 2
G(re ) = re
3 G ( re )
N (re ) = N l exp kTl
J = N l exp
G ( re )
kTl
Tl
5. J > 109 to 1013 m-3s-1 , if yes, then Tl- Tsat is the superheat of
homogeneous nucleation , if not, repeat the procedure form 1 to 5
Tl-Tsat
Van der Waals 175(174)*
70
155
11.2(14) *
-5.75(-7.1) *
Berthelot
223(223) *
47.2(49.2) *
10.3(10.2) *
Kinetic
206
49.3
10.4
Lienhard
214
46.0
10.6
2
Pv Pl =
Pa
re
The presence of dissolved gas reduces the
superheat requirement to maintain a nucleus of radius re
With the presence of a flat solid surface surface
wettability effect
Contact Angle
Liquid
Vapor
Soild
: contact angle , measuring from liquid side
= 0 perfect wetting ; eq. Freon on metal surface.
= 180poor wetting.
Typically , = 60~ 90
s,
R
Liquid Supply
Liquid Withdrawal
Static advancing
Vapor/air
Vapor/air
Static receding
d,A
Dynamic advancing
d,R
Dynamic receding
Pl
Alv
Flat surface
Pv Vv
vs
ls
Vapor
lv =
vs + lv cos( ) = ls
vs ls = lv cos
re
Avs
G ( re ) = Alv lv + A vs vs Avs ls V v ( Pv Pl )
= Alv lv + Avs [ vs ls ] Vv
2 lv
re
2Vv
= Alv + Avs cos
r
e
Avs = re sin 2
2
2 3
3
2
Vv =
re (1 + cos ) + re cos sin
3
3
3
4
4 2
= re ( )
3
4 2
re
3
( )
0.5
0.0
0o
90o
180o
G ( re )
)
N (re ) = N exp(
kTg
2
3
q , k W /m 2
R , m
T w - T s, K
5
T y p e o f site
1
2
2 7 .9
2 8 .1
6 .8
7 .2
4
8
2 9 .0
2 9 .0
8 .0
8 .3
6
4
18
2 9 .6
9 .0
5 .5
19
2 9 .6
9 .0
2 .5
20
2 9 .6
9 .0
1 .5
P it, d e e p in p a rts
S ite a t e n d o f g ro o v e , 2 0 m
w id e
33
34
3 3 .9
3 4 .3
9 .3
9 .5
3
2
P it, d e e p in p a rts
P it, d e e p in p a rts
41
3 5 .1
9 .5
1 .5
42
3 5 .1
9 .5
1 .5
E lo n g a te d p it, d e e p a t o n e e n d
P it, la rg e st in c ra te r o f 9 0 m
P it, d e e p in p a rt
L a rg e st c a v ity in c ra te r o f 8 0 m
d ia m e te r
E n d o f g ro o v e ,1 2 m w id e
P it, d e e p c e n tra l p a rt o f 4 m
d ia m e te r
P it, e lo n g a te d a n d d e e p , 6 1 8 m
44
4 4 .6
1 0 .2
2 .5
d ia m e te r
P it, d e e p p a rt o f 2 m d ia m e te r
45
4 4 .6
1 0 .5
1 .5
P it, d e e p p a rt o f sc ra tc h , 1 m w id e
50
4 4 .6
1 0 .6
P it, s h a llo w c ra te r 2 5 m w id e
Gas(or vapor)
Retreating of a liquid sheat
(advancing of a gas-liquid interface)
Liquid
Type of cavity
steep ( small)
Condition
Poorly wetted ( big,
steep ( small)
> , > )
Well wetted( small < ,
< )
shallow( big)
shallow ( big)
> , < )
Well wetted( smaller,
Trap neither
< , > )
Trapping Ability
Trap gas only
< 90
> 90
Re-entrant Cavity
< 90
r2
r3
ra
r1
rc
rc
Form Tong et al. 1990 (Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.33, pp.91-103)
1
sin ( )
sin
sin
r
2
2
=
2
rc
tan
3
tan
cos 2
2
+ 2 3 sin + sin 3
2
2
tan
2
tan
2
1
tan
,
in rad
T Tsat
2
=
rc
Tsat vlv
1
=
ilv
dp
dT Tsat
rc
l t
I.C. t =0, Tl = T
yb
rb
B.C.
y=0
y =
Case 1
Tl = Tw
q = q o
T = T
case
case
1
2
T = Tw
or
q = q 0
n 2 2 l t
Tl T y 2 cos n
y
=
+
=
sin (n )
exp
2
Tw T
n =1
y
t ,
=
Tv Tsat
2 Tsat vlv
=
rb ilv
Criterion for the bubble embryo to grow is the condition that the liquid
temperature at the bubble cap (y=yb)is equal to or greater than the
bubble interior temperature.
2 Tsat vlv
Tl ( y = yb ) T sat +
rb ilv
where rb = c1 rc
c1 = 1
y b = rb = rc
for
=
2
Tv Tsat
2 Tsat vlv
=
rb ilv
Tl-T
t
Tsat-T
rc,min
y or rc
rc,max
rc ,max
sat
sat
= 1
+ 1
2 w
w
4A
w
rc ,min
sat
sat
= 1
+ 1
w
2 w
4A
w
2Tsat vlv
A=
ilv
where
T T sat = Tsat T ; w = Tw T
Boiling incipience
No cavity will be effective if the discrininant in the above two
equation is negative
sat
1
w
4A
<0
w
( w sat )
8Tsat vlv
=
w
ilv
2
For
2A
2 A 2 A
kl
q =
2A
sat +
+
2 A 2 A
2 sat +
R 2 l
R
P(t) = Excess pressure of bubble
b
Rb
Continuity equation
Rb &
&
4r v = 4Rb Rb (r ) = 2 Rb
r
dRb
&
where
Rb =
dt
2
R0
P
v
P
l
& 2
R R
Rb
4
b
b
l 2 r dr = P(t )4r 2 dr
Rb
Ro
2
r
2
Rb
1
3 &
2
l Rb ( Rb ) = P(t )r 2 dr
R0
2
Operating on the above equation by
d dRb
=
dt
dt Rb
( )]
d
1
3
l
Rb R& b
2 dt
dRb
=
dt Rb
3 & 2 P (t )
&
&
Rb Rb + (Rb ) =
2
l
Rb
R0
2
P (t )r 2 dr = R& b P(t ) Rb
2
+ ( rr ) R
P(t ) = Pv Pl
Rb
Pl
2
=Capillary pressure due to the bubble interface.
Rb
( rr ) Rb
r
dv r 2
= l 2
V =Normal stress due to the liquid motion
dr 3
(v r )R
dRb
=
= R& b
dt
v r
r 1 d
2
2 & R& b
2
v = 2 2 (r v r ) = v r +
=
Rb +
R
r
Rb
r dr
r R
4 R& b
4 1 &
Rb
( rr )Rb = l
3 r R 3 Rb
R& b
R& b (Rb + r ) R& b
r = lim
r 0
r
Rb
R& b
r
rr
Rb
r & 2r &
Rb
1
&
&
R 1
Rb =
Rb = 1
Rb
2
2
Rb
( Rb + r )
r
Rb
1 +
Rb
R& b
= (2)
Rb
R& b ( Rb + r ) =
4
R& b 4 R& b
R& b
= l (2)
= 4 l
Rb 3 Rb
Rb
3
&
R
3
1
2
2
b
&& + ( R& ) =
Rb R
P
P
4
b
b
l
l
2
l
Rb
Rb
Pv and are function of liquid temperature at the bubble interface.
Therefore, the energy equation for the liquid region must be solved
simultaneously.
Liquid energy equation
2
T
T
1
T
Rb &
+ vr
= 2 T = l 2
r2
v r = 2 Rb
t
t
r
r r
r
Initial conditions
Rb (0) = R0
R& (0) = 0
b
T (0, r ) = Tl
Boundary conditions
T (t , ) = Tl
T
kl
r
= ilv
4Rb
Rb
ilv d
4
d
3
3
( v Rb ) =
( Rb v )
2
3
dt
3Rb dt
1
d &2 3
P
(
R
R
)
=
b
b
2
l
2 R& b Rb dt
2
P & 2
P 2 dRb
P 2
3
d (R& b ) Rb = 2
Rb Rb dt = 2
Rb
dt = 2
Rb dRb
dt
l
l
l
2
2P 1 2
3
&
Rb + c
(Rb ) Rb =
l 3
(1) if
R(0) = 0
c=0
2 P
R& b =
3 l
R b (t ) = t
and
2
3
1
2
(2) if
R (0) = R0
c = ( 1)
2 P 3
R0
3 l
2
2 P
3
&
(Rb ) Rb = 3 Rb 3 R 0 3
l
P
l
2
&
(Rb )
R& b = 0
and
2 P
1
=
3 l
1
3
Rb
R 0
1
R& b 2 P 1
=
1
2
3
R0 3 l R0
R b
R 0
1
2
Rb
R0
as
R& b 2 P 1
=
2
R0 3 l R0
Rb =
2 P
t
3 l
t
1
2
Tl
Tsat
Rb
Theremal boundary layer
1 2 T Note: At this stage, the bubble is relatively big
T
= l 2
r
t
r , is relatively small and convection may be neglected.
r r
T (0, r ) = Tl
T (t , Rb ) = Tsat
T
k
r
=
R
ilv
3Rb
d
3
Rb v
dt
2
2 Ja
Ja
l t = 1.13Ja l t
Rb (t ) =
lt
1 + 1 +
Ja
Note: Rb (t ) is proportional to t
Other analytical solution available in the literature
Plasset and Zwick Eq.
3
Rb (t ) = 2
Ja l t
(Tl Tsat ) l c p ,l
Rb (t ) = 2
Ja l t
Ja = Jacob number =
2
v ilv
Forster and Zube Growth of a Vapor Bubble in Superheated Liquids,
J. Appl. Phys. Vol.25, pp474-478, 1954
Mikic et al.
3
3
2
+
Rb = [(t + + 1) 2 (t + ) 2 1]
3
A
Rb = Rb (t ) 2
B
+
where
12 l Ja
B=
A 2
, t = t( )
B
+
1
2
Buoyancy force
Bubble
Rb
Buoyancy force ( ) g 4 R 3
l
v
b
3
Surface tension force (2Rb sin )(sin )
If buoyancy force is greater than surface tension force, the bubble will
begin to departure form the heating surface.
Rb = c
(l v )g
Fritz correlation
Db = 0.0208
)
g
v
l
1
2
dD 2
Db = 0.0208
1 + 0.0025( )
g(l v )
dt
dD
( )
dt
in mm / s
E0 = 1.5 10 J a
1
2
5
4
E0 = 4.65 10 J a
g ( l v ) Db
E0 =
5
4
for
water
for
Ja =
other
fluids
l c p ,lTsat
vilv
Bubble Frequency
1
f =
tw + t g
2
l
q Nn
1
4
q N 0.47
F
v
v
v2
2
dt + (udt ) F + 0(dt ) + 0(dx ) = 0
F (x, t) +
t
F v
+ u F = 0
t
v v
F ( x + dx , t + dt ) = 0
v
dx = u dt
v
F ( x, t ) = 0
F ( x , y , t ) = ( x, t ) y = 0
F
=
t
+ (u x i + u y j ) ( i j ) =
+ ux
t
x
t
F =
uy =
b.
i j,
x
+ ux
t
x
v
u = u xi + u y j ,
uy = 0
x
v (1)
t
dA
v
C = x (s)
v ( 2)
t
v
n
v
v
v (1)
t
Forces = 0
dA
v (1) v (2)
v
v
( t + t )dA + v ds = 0
C = x (s)
A
v ( 2)
C
t
v
v
dx v
v
v v
v
v ds = ( n) ds = ( nds) = (1) n dx
C
C
C ds
C
v
n
v
v
t
+t
( n )n + dA = 0
A
Note: ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2
v (1) v ( 2 )
v v
t + t ( n )n + = 0
v (1)
(1) v
(1) v
t = nn n + ns s
v ( 2)
v
( 2) v
t = nn
n ns( 2 ) s
(1)
nn
(1)
ns
(2)
nn
(2)
ns
v
= ( n ) = Continuity of normal stress
=
Continuity of shear stress
s
w
=
u
=
0
u
=
Irrotational
v
Incompressible u = 0 = 2 = 0
v
u
=
,
u
=
is flow potential function, u = x i + y j x x y y
1
P
2
+ ( ) + = C (t )
Bernoulli Eq. :
t
V1,1
y
x
V2,2
Upper fluid
Lower fluid
1 1
=
+
y
t
x x
y = ( x, t )
at
1 1
P1
2
+
+
+ g = A(t )
(
)
Bernoulli Eq.
1
t 2
1
2 2 = 0
B.C. 2 V2 x
as
2 2
=
+
at
y = ( x, t )
y
t
x x
2 1
P2
2
+ ( 2 ) +
+ g = B (t )
Bernoulli Eq.
t
2
P1 P2 =
v
= n
at
y = ( x, t )
1 2 P1
V1 +
= A0
2
1
V1
1 2 P2
V1 +
= B0
2
2
=0
V2
1 2
1 2
1 ( A0 V1 ) = 2 ( B0 V2 )
2
2
(4) For small amplitude problem, assume:
( x, t ) = ( x, t ) ,
<< 1
1 = V1 x + 1
P1 = P1 + P1
2 = V2 x + 2
P2 = P2 + P2
A(t ) = A0 + A(t )
B (t ) = B0 + B (t )
1
y
1
=
y
y =
y =
y =0
1
2
+ 2
y
1
=
y
y =0
y =0
+ LLL
y =0
1
2
+ 2
y
y =0
=
+ (V1 +
=
+ V1
+ 0( 2 )
)
t
x
x
t
x
=
+ V1
y
t
x
at
y = 0 (1)
at
y = 0 ( 2)
Similarly,
2
=
+ V2
y
t
x
+ V1 + V1
+
+
+ g = A + A(t )
t 2
x
1
1
1 P11
1 2 P10
+ V1
+
+ g = A0 + A(t ) V1
1
x 1
2
t
Similatly,
2
2 P21
1 2 P20
+ V2
+
+ g = B0 + B (t ) V2
2
x 2
2
t
at
y=0
at
y=0
at
y=0
; 1 = 1 + A(t )dt
Let 2 = 2 + B (t ) dt
1 2
1 2
0
0
(
A
V
)
=
(
B
V
P
=
P
)
,
Since 1 0
1
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
1 P11
2 P21
1
+ V1
+
+ g = 2
+ V2
+
+ g
x 1
x 2
t
i j
v F
x
=
n=
i j
F
x
2 2
1+ (
)
x
2
v
= n = ( i+
j ) (
i j) =
x
y
x
x 2
2
P1 P2 = 2
x
Thus,
1
2
2
1
2
1
+ V1
2
+ V2
+ 2 + ( 1 2 ) g = 0
x
x
x
t
t
at
y = 0 (3)
2 = G exp[ik ( x Ct )] exp(ky)
to satisfy B.C at y =
ik (V1 C )
ik (V C )
2
( 1 2 ) g k 2
k
0
D
E = 0
0
k
1ik (V1 C ) 2 ik (V2 C ) G
k
=0
1ik (V1 C ) 2 ik (V2 C )
1V1 + 2V2
1
1 + 2
1 + 2
V
V
(
)
(
)
)
1
2
1
2
1 2
1
2
1
2
Special cases:
1. Taylor instability
g
if , k < ( 1 2 )
k
c =
= 2
kc
g ( 1 2 )
( kC ) = i
1
d
dk
[g (
)k k
= 0 k = k
= 2
1
2
3
(
max
(
=
)g
1
2
3
=
)g
1
2
2
D
if
( 1 + 2 ) k < 1 2 (V1 V 2 )
, C is an imaginary number.
Therefore, if V1 V2 is sufficiently large, instability may occur.
( 1 + 2 )
2
= 1 2 (V 1 V 2 ) 2
= 2
1 + 2
1 2 (V 1 V 2 ) 2
vapor
fraciton =
mixture
Vv
volume
=
volume Vv + Vl
mx
v
1
=
=
mx m(1 x)
1 x v
+
1+
v
l
x l
= void
m& v
( v wv )
m& v
m& l
+
( v wv ) ( l wl )
1
=
=
m& l v u v
(1 x) v
1+
1+
( )s
&
mv l u l
x
l
where
wv
s=
= slip ratio
wl
jv
jv
jv
=
=
=
wv C 0 j + wvj C 0 ( jv + jl ) + wvj
Gx / v
jv
jl
jdA
C0 =density parameter =
jdA + dA
A
x
v wvj
v
C0 [ x +
(1 x)] +
G
l
g ( l v ) 14
]
For bubbly flow, C01.2, wvj = 1.41[
2
l
(Taitel, Y., 1990, Proc. of 9th Int. Heat Transfer. Conf., Vol.1, pp.239-254.)
(Hewitt & Roberts, 1969)
(W/m2)
4.33
570
4000
80
590
2600
2.5-cm-I.D. tube, T = 80
l Liquid sodium at 5m/s in a 1.3-cm-I.D. tube, at 370
75000
Situation
Boiling water
l During film boiling at 1 atm
l In a teakettle
l A peak-pool boiling heat flux at 1 atm
l A peak-flow boiling heat flux at 1 atm
l Approximate maximum convective heat
flux under optimum conditions
Condensing
l Typical value in a horizontal
cold-water-tube steam condenser
l Same but condensing benzene
l Dropwise condensation of water
h (W/m2)
300
4000
40000
100000
900000
15000
1700
100000
g
qtr = 0.11 v ilv [
]
l v
1
2
q CHF
qtr
Individual bubbly
region
1
4
Vapor
mushroom
region
T w T sat
q CHF
qtr
Tw Tsat
Gaertner, 1965
Tl
3
1
rc,crit
Tw
From: Moody & Lahey
d Tl
=0
2
dy
and
Tl ( y = 0) = Tw
k dTl
= q
l
dy y =0
q
y
Tl ( y ) = Tw
kl
Tv = Tl
and
dTv dTl
=
drc
dy
Using
dTv dTl
=
drc
dy
Bk l 12
rc ,crit = (
) = optimal cavity size
q
T v
B = (2 ) sat lv
ilv
At y = rc ,crit Tv = Tl holds.
Thus,
1
2
B 2
) ( )
= 2(qONB
kl
k l ilv
1
2
(Tw Tsat ) ONB
4
(2 )Tsat vlv
Tsat ,ONB
qONB
0.463P 0.0234
]
= 0.556[
1.156
1082P
The relative contribution of the latent heat flux, the natural convection
heat flux, and the enhanced convection heat flux observed in nucleate
boiling.(Paul & Abdel-Khalk Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.26, No.4,
pp509-519, 1983)
Vapor-liquid exchange
Nu = C Re x Pr y
hD
Nu =
kl
Re =
UD
l
f Cp l
Pr = =
kl
l
D = departure diameter
g
(
)
l
q
=
il l
q
D
1
2
hD Tsat
1 q
Nu =
=
=
kl
kl
k l Tsat g ( l )
UD q
=
Re =
l
il l
g
(
)
l
Assume that
1
m
Nu =
Re1 n Prl
C sf
l
l
1
m
= C sf Re n 1 Prl
Nu
Re Prl
m +1
= Csf Re n Prl
Nu
2 1 l Cp l
i
g ( l ) l k l
Re Prl l
=
LHS =
1
Nu
2
q 1
Tsat k l g ( l )
RHS = C sf
l il
C pf Tsat
il
m +1
2 Cp
(
)
g
l
l
= C sf
l il
Cp l Tsat
ilv
g ( l )
m +1
Cp
k
l
n=0.33
m=0.7but m=0 for water
q
l ilv
g(l v )
C
Form: Rohsenow 1952
pl
T sat
i lv Pr
1 .7
l
0 .5
l
= Jacob
1
t 0 .5
T sat l Cp l
=
l
v lv
Ja 2 l
R& R
Ja 2
=
=
l
vl
Pr l
l
R ( t ) R& ( t ) Ja 2
UD
Re =
v
Nu =
hD
kl
number
T sat
=
kl
2 R
kl
l Cp
Pw Pl
Pw Pl
2 R 0
2
R0
; ( Pw Pl ) (T w T sat )
Pw Pl
l
q
0 .5
0 .5
(
) Ja l (
) (
) 0 .25
T sat
Pw Pl
Pw Pl
Nu =
kl
Nu = C 1 Re m Pr ln
Gorenflo Correlation
q nf R p 0.133
h = h0 FPF ( ) [
]
q0
RP 0
h0=reference heat transfer coefficient evaluated at
q 0 =20000W/m2,R =0.4m, P =0.1(reduced pressure)
p0
r0
Rp=surface roughness inm, it can be set to 0.4m for an
unknown surface.
Fpf=pressure correction factor
Pr
P
0.27
Pr =
=1.2Pr + 2.5Pr +
,
Pcrit
1 Pr
nf = 0.9 0.3Pr
For water,
0.3
(= 0.75
FPF = 1.73Pr
0.27
nf = 0.9 0.3Pr
at
Pr = 0.1)
0.68
2
) Pr
+ (6.1 +
1 Pr
0.15
b u lk liq u id a n d s u r f a c e a f te r a b u b b le d e p a r tu r e .
q b = f b
1 / fb
n b = C 1 r sm (
q idt = 2
k l ( T w T sat )
i lv v m
) ( T w T sat ) m
2 T sat
fb
g ( l v ) 0.25
0.5
1.25
f b Db = 0.6[
]
Db = C 2 [
] ( Ja )
2
l
g(l v )
4
1
.
5
10
, water
Cp
T
l
l sat
, C2 =
Ja =
4
v ilv
4
.
65
10
, non water fluids
qb
g(l v )
l ilv
m +1
19 / 8 ( m 23 / 8 )
l
lv
9/8
( m 11 / 8 )
Cp
l (l v )
Tsat
kl
1/ 2
= B m +1 (Tw Tsat ) m +1
17 / 8
l
rs 1.55 1
5/3
B=
C
C1
2
9/8
2 g
( m 15 / 8 )
( m 15 / 8 )
Pan and his co-workers model (for high heat flux regime)
Ref. 1.Pan & Lin, 1989,Marangoni Flow on Pool Boiling Near Critical
Heat Flux, Int. Comm. in Heat & Mass Transfer, vol.16,
pp.475-486.
2.Ma & Pan, 1990,Thermocapilly Driven Flow in Macrolayer at
High Wall Heat Fluxes, Int. J. of Numerical Methods for Heat
and Fluid Flow, vol.7, pp.788-808.
3.Ma & Pan, 1999, The Effect of Heated Wall Thickness and
Materials on Nucleate Boiling at High Heat Flux, Int. Comm. in
Heat and Mass Transfer, vol.26,pp.1103-1114.
Nucleation Site Interactions
Nucleation Site Density
-Gaertrer & Westwater, 1960 (individual bubble regime)
2.1
nb = 2.6 10 (q )
7
11 l
0.6
+ 1)
0.8 (
l
16 v
nb = 1043
v ( l + 1)
0.5
2
l q 4
v (1 + ) ( )
v ilv
Db 4.4
)
2rc
1
2
2
exp[
(
)
/(
2
g ( ) =
<
>
)]
0.5
( 2 )
nb = n c
g ( )d
rc , max
rc , min
f (rc )drc
(nb a) na e nb a
P(na) =
(na)!
Shoji, 1998
CHAPTER4
dz
D
= w
4
Tl ( z ) = Tli +
GDCp l
q ( z ) dz
Wf(kg/s)
Tl ( z sc ) = Tsat
e.g.
4
= Tli +
GDCpl
zsc
q( z)dz
q( z) = q0
GDCpl
z sc =
Tsub,i
4q0
Tsat,i = Tsat Tl ,i = inlet subcooling
Tsat ( z) = Tsat Tl ( z) = local subcooling
q ( z ) = h[Tw ( z ) Tl ( z )]
Tw ( z ) = Tl ( z ) + q ( z ) / h
h = heat transfer coefficient
For turbulent flow in a pipe
Dittus-Boeiter correlation
GD Cp
hD
= 0.023
kl
l
l
0.33
4
1
z
h
+ = Tsub,i
q
Recall that
GDCpl h
4
T l ( z ) = T li +
GDCp
q ( z ) dz
if q ( z ) = q = constand
4
T l (z) = T li +
GDCp
4z
T li + q [
GDCp
or q [
4z
GDCp
+
l
q z
l
1
+ ] T sat
h
1
] T sat T li = T sub , i
h
Non-boiling region
Tsub,i
k l ilv
1
Tsat ,ONB
4
(2 )Tsat vlv
T sat
, ONB
q ONB
0 . 463
= 0 . 556 [
]
1082 P 1 . 156
0 . 0234
For a tube with a constant heat flux, q , a mass flux, G, the location
of boiling incipience may be evaluated in the following way:
Tw ( z ) = Tl ( z ) + q / h
T w T sat
8 T sat v lv
=
k l i lv
0 .5
( q ) 0.5
Thus,
8 T sat v lv
q
Tl ( z ONB ) + ( ) T sat =
k
i
h
l lv
Recall that
4 q z
Tl ( z ) = Tl ,i +
GDCp l
0 .5
( q ) 0.5
Thus,
0.5
8Tsat vlv
4q z ONB q
0.5
Tli +
+
Tsat =
(
q
)
GDCp l
h
k l ilv
z ONB
0.5
GDCpl
q 8Tsat vlv
0.5
=
(q )
Tsat ,i +
4q
h k l ilv
z ONB
GDCpl
=
4q
qONB
q
0.463 P 0.0234
]
Tsat ,i + 0.556[
1.156
h
1082P
qONB
qONB
kl ilv
1
2
= (Tw Tsat ) ONB
.
4
(2 )Tsat vlv
2klTsat
(Tw Tsat ) ONB
..
2
ilv v (rmax )
rmax
kl
Ts = Tw Tsat
Boiling hysteresis
Tsat
TONB
Tw
Tw K
Ts = Tw Tsat
Boiling curve hysteresis
Distance z m
Wall temperature profiles
Form: Hino and Ueda, 1985, Studies on Heat Transfer and Flow
Characteristics in Subcooled Flow Boiling Part1, Boling
Characteristics, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, vol.11, pp.269-281
X EXP
X 0.05
X =
( Tsat ) ONB
) 0.5 Prl
( qONB
Subcooled boiling
heat transfer
Rohsenow correlation
+ q scB
q = q spL
spL : single phase liquid
scB : subcooled nucleate
= h [T w T l ]
q spL
h : Dittus Boelter
:
q scB
boiling
correlatio n
q scB
Cp l T sat
= C sf
i lv
l i lv
g(l v )
0 . 33
Cp l l
k
l
1 . 0
1 . 7
for water
for other
fluids
Full developed
Partial
qONB
B
qC
qscB
Tw
Tsat
(Tw ) ONB
Wall temp
q spL
0.5
+ ( q scB
+ qC ) 2
q = q spL
Calculation procedure
q
q c
scB
1 +
= q spL
1
q scB
q spL
1. Pick Tw
[= h(Tw Tsat )]
and q spL
2. Evaluate q scB
0.5
0.5
Low subcooling
High subcooling
ln(q)
H Low G
L High G
ln(q)
H
H
L
ln(Tw Tl )
L
ln(Tw Tl )
Fully
developed
boiling
P
62
P
87
q
h=
=
Tsat
P
62
q
25(q ) 0.25 e
P
62
P
62
1
= [ e ]( q ) 0.75
25
4
(
)
e
sat
P 4
25
1 62
q
h=
=
= e (Tsat ) 3
Tsat
Tsat
25
h=?
At P=70bar
70
62
= 8.1k
70
1 62 0.75
h = [ e ]1 = 0.124MW / m 2 k = 1.24 10 5 W / m 2 k
25
At P=150bar
155
62
= 2.1k
1 62 0.75
h = [ e ]1 = 0.487 MW / m 2 k = 4.87 10 5 W / m 2 k
25
(Tsat ) ONB
) 2 + (q scb
) 2 1
q = (q FC
Tsat
0.5
= 0.023
k l ,b
l, f
0.8
l , f Cp l ,b
k
l ,b
1/ 3
f = film =
q scB
l ilv
(
)
g
l
v
0.5
Tw T f
2
b = bulk , T f
l17 / 8 Cp l19 / 8 v1 / 8
3
= BM
Tsat
7/8
9/8
5 / 8 1/ 8
l ilv ( l v ) Tsat
kl
1/ 2
1
1
(Tsat ) ONB =
(
NTsub )
1 N 4 N
for rc ,crit < rmax
1
(Tsat ) ONB =
1 + (1 + 4Tsub )1 / 2
2
k l ilv
=
8Tsat vlv hFC
hFC rmax
N=
kl
rc ,crit
4Tsat vlv
=
ilv (Tsat ) ONB
Tw Tsat F
q Wm 2 10 6
q Btu 1 ft 2 10 6
Tw Tsat K
Comparison of equation with data of Cheng et al.
From: Bjorge, Hall and Rohsenow, 1982
(i il )GA = q ( z )Ddz
z sc
xilv GA = D q ( z )dz
z sc
z
4
x( z ) =
q ( z ) dz
ilv GD z s
Subcooled
Superheated
DNB
Saturated
Saturated
nucleate
boiling
D
0
B
Dryout
Two-phase
forced-convective heat transfer
From: Collier & Thome, 1994
m& LF
dP
dz
For example,
and
dP
dz
i 2 ( R ) dz +
dP
(P +
dz ) ( R ) 2 +
dz
v g ( R ) 2 dz
= (R )2 P
(R )
dP
i =
(1)
v g
2
dz
dP
P+
dz
dz
v g
P
Liquid film
Vapor flow
ri
2rdz + P (r 2 ri 2 )
= 2ri i dz
dP
+ (P +
dz )(r 2 ri 2 )
dz
+ l g (r 2 ri 2 )dz
2
2
ri
dP
(ri r )
= i ( ) +
+ l g
r
2r
dz
dz
P+
dP
dz
dz
Vapor flow
Liquid film
du
dr
l
=
l + t ( r )
m& LF = 2ru (r ) l dr
0
DT
2
Cp
= k T +
Dt
u
z
Assumption
1.Steady state
2.Constant properties
3.Negligible axial conduction
y
4.Negligible viscous dissipation
5.The flow is one-dimensional
6.Because of the film is quite thin, the film may be treated as a slab.
T
2T
Cpu ( y )
= k
z
y 2
where
y = R r,
y : distance
from
Because
the flow is 1 D
u
= 0,
z
( uT )
2T
= k
Cp
z
y 2
Operate
Cp
z
this
equation
uTdy = k
by
dy
2T
dy
2
y
T
T
= k
y
y
= q w q i
wall
Tb =
uTdy
udy
0
uTdy
Q
uTdy = QT b
Q Cp
dT b
= q w q i
dz
Since qi = q w ,
dTb
= 0(fullly developed), T = T ( y ) and
dz
d 2T
= 0 T = ay + b
2
dy
dT
= q at y = 0
B.C ' s (a) T = Tw and ()k
dy
q
T = Tw
y
k
q
T ( y = ) = Tsat = Tw
k
q
k
=( )
h
Tw Tsat
h
=1
or Nu =
k
d 2u
= 0
2
dy
B .C .' s
u = 0 at y = 0
u =
Q =
du
dy
=i
y =
i
y
1 1
( i )
2
u ( y ) dy =
2Q
=
1
2
k 2 i
k
h =
=
Q
2
1
2
dT
q w = (k + H Cp )
dy
M = n uy 1 exp( n uy / ) , y = yu / 20
2
( du / dy ) 3
= kk
,
y
20
2
2 2
( d u / dy )
u = w /
usually n 2 = 0 .01 ; k k = 0 .36
Define the nondimensional temperature in the following way:
Cpu
(Tw T )
T+
q w
Thus,
Tsat+
Cpu
Cpu
=
(Tw Tsat ) =
q w
h
q w
Cpu
=
h=
+
Tw Tsat
Tsat
Recall that
q = q w = ()(k + H Cp )
dT
dy
dT +
q
1
= (1)(k + H Cp ) + ( 1)
Cpu / u
dy
1 H dT +
1=[ +
] +
Pr v dy
Thus,
+
dT
1
k k (du + / dy + ) 3 dT +
+
for
y
1= 2 +
,
> 20
+2 2
+
(d u / dy ) dy
y
du
) = l (v + )
dy
R
y
)
R ,
= ( 1) +
v
l (du / dy )
( w / v)(1
1
1 + +
du / dy +
y+
as + << 1 for a thin film
R
u
Where u =
u
y
+
y =
y
+
u = w / l
v
y =
u
du +
=1
+
dy+
5
du
=
+
+
dy
y
du + 2.5
dy + = y +
y+ 5
5 < y + < 30
y + > 30
-Temperature distribution
+
1
dT
1= + +
Pr v dy
with T + = Tsat+ at y + = +
T+ =0
at y = 0
0
y+ 5
y+
= 1 +
5 < y + 30
v
5
+
y
1+
y + > 30
2.5
a discontinuity at y+ = 30
Case(1), 5,
=0
v
1 dT +
1=
Pr dy +
+
Viscous sublayer
+
T Tsat
T + = Pr y + + C
Applying the B.C. at y+ = +
C = Tsat+ Pr +
T + = Pr y + + Tsat+ Pr +
T + ( y + = 0) = 0 = Pr* 0 + Tsat+ Pr +
Tsat+
Cpu
=
(Tw Tsat ) = Pr + , + 5
q w
5
+
+
sat
T + = 5 ln[
y
1
1
+ ( 1)] 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + Tsat+
5
Pr
5
Pr
5
+
+
5
1
1
30
+
T
or
+
sat
+
1
= 5 ln Pr + 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + 5 Pr
5
Pr
Cpu
+
1
(Tw Tsat ) = 5 ln Pr + 5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + 5 Pr
q w
5
Pr
+
= 5Pr + ln[1 + Pr(
1)]
5
Case(3), + > 30
For the turbulent core region
1
y + dT +
1 = [( 1) +
] +
Pr
2.5 dy
+
+
y
1
1
T + = 2.5 ln[
+ ( 1)] 2.5 ln[
+ ( 1)] + Tsat+
2.5 Pr
2.5 Pr
Recall that
for the viscous sublayer,
T + = Pr y +
for the butter zone
+
y
1
+
T = 5 ln[ + ( 1)] + C
5
Pr
so, the continuity of temperature at y+ = 5 results in
1
5 Pr = 5 ln[1 + ( 1)] + C = 5 ln(Pr) + C
Pr
C = 5 ln(Pr) + 5 Pr
1
30
1
T sat+ = 2 . 5 ln[
+ (
1 )] 2 . 5 ln[
+ (
1 )]
2 .5
Pr
2 .5
Pr
1
+ 5 ln[ 5 +
] + 5 ln(Pr) + 5 Pr
Pr
Tsat+
+
+
(
1
= 5Pr + ln(5 Pr + 1) + ln[ 2.5
30
2
(
+
2.5
1
1)
Pr
]
1
1)
Pr
1 +
T 5Pr+ ln(5Pr+1) + ln( )
2 30
if Pr 1
+
sat
+
Pr
Cpu
(
T
T
)
+
w
sat
Tsat =
= 5Pr+ ln[1 + Pr( 1)]
q
5
1 +
5Pr+ ln(5 Pr+ 1) + ln( )
2 30
T sat+
Viscous
sublayer
Buffer zone
30
+ 5
5 < + 30
+ > 30 & Pr 1
Turbulent region
hD
CpDu
=
Nu =
k
kT sat+
Du
v DU u 1
=
= ( )(
)( ) +
+
v
U T sat
T sat
u 1
= Pr Re
U T sat+
u Re
U +
u
Pr Re
Nu =
+
U 5 Pr + ln[1 + ( 1) Pr]
Pr Re
u
+
U
1
)
Pr + ln( 5 Pr + 1) + ln(
2
30
w
u =
l
Note that
w / l
v
5<
30
> 30 & Pr 1
UD GD
Re =
=
for fully occupied case
v
1 2
V ( R ri ) = U D
4
D 2U
V =
, D = 2R
2
2
4( R ri )
2
ri
4 ( R 2 ri2 )
=
2R
2( R ri )( R ri )
=
R
Annular flow
2( R ri )
DU
R
VDe 4( R 2 ri 2 )
UD
=
Re =
=
v
v
v
2
D
U
Full-pipe flow
-For both cases, the appropriate physical properties are those of the
liquid, therefore, Pr is the same for both cases.
=
k
k
hTP D
D
1
=
hl
De 4 1
( R 2 ri 2 ) ( R + ri )( R ri ) 2 R
4
(1 =
=
=
=
)
2
2
2
D
R
R
R
(dP / dz ) l
=
(
dP
/
dz
)
v
1 = f n ( X tt )
hTP
1
= f n ( X tt ) or f n (
)
hf
X tt
Chens Correlation (1963)
hTP = hNCB + hc
hNCB : Saturate nucleate boiling
hc :Two-phase forced convection
-For hNCB Chen used the equation of Zuber and Forster as a beginning
k l0 . 79 Cp l0 . 45 l0 . 49
h = 0 . 00122 0 . 5 0 . 29 0 . 24 0 . 24 T sat0 . 24 Psat0 . 75
l i lv v
Which is from the instantaneous bubble diameter and growth rate.
However, the actual superheat controlling the bubble growth is not
Tsat = Tw Tsat but Te = Tl ( at bubble tip ) T sat , which is smaller
than Tsat
In pool boiling, the boundary layer thickness is thick,
therefore, Te Tsat
However, in forced convective boiling, the boundary thickness is thin,
consequently Te < Tsat
Pool boiling
T l (y )
T sat
Te
T sat
Tl (y )
T sat
Te
T sat
h NCB
Te
S
Tsat
0.99
Te
=
Tsat
0.24
Pe
Psat
0.75
T sat v lv
T Tsat
i lv
Pe = T e
T sat v lv
Psat = T sat
h NCB
i lv
T sat v lv
Pe
Te
Psat
T sat
0 .24
0 .75
T
P
sat
sat S
-For hC
It is assumed that hC could be represented by a Dittus-Boeltet
type equation.
h C = 0 . 023 Re
0 .8
TP
Pr
0 .4
TP
k TP
D
G (1 x) D
0.8
= Re l F =
0.8
0.8
G (1 x) D Cp k l
hC = 0.023
( )F
k l D
0.4
F = f n ( X tt )
Chen presented F and S graphically as follows.
[1 + 0.12(Re TP )1.14 ] 1
Re TP < 32.5
S = [1 + 0.42(Re TP ) 0.78 ] 1
32.5 Re TP < 70.0
0. 1
70 Re TP
G (1 x) De 1.25
Where ReTP =
F 10 4
l
Heat Flux
(kW/m2)
q kWm 2
Tsat C
Comparison of Chens correlation with Thoms and Jens-Lottess correlations.
P=10MPa, G=5.4Mgm-2s-1, De =0.3cm.
From: Hewitt, Delhaye & Zuber, 1986. Vol.2 ch3.
F =1
0.8
0.4
l
Pr
F = 2.35[(1 / X tt ) + 0.213]
0.736
h NCB
kl
D
1 / X tt 0.1
1 / X tt > 0.1
q m
P 0.27
1. 8
P R p 0.133
)( ) (
)
= h0 ( ) 2.1( ) + ( 4.4 +
P Pc R p 0
q o
Pc
(1 )
Pc
S=
kl
0.5
0 .5
0
.
041
h
[
]
g(l v )
( 1)
1
exp
kl
0 .041hc
g
(
)
l
v
q 0 = 2 10 4 W / m 2 ,
R p 0 = 1 10 6 m
0 .3
h0 = 2 .3 10 3 W / m 2 K
-Gungor-Winterton Correlation
Ref: Gungor. K.E and Winterton, R.H.S(1986),A general correlation
for flow Boiling in tubes and annuli, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer.
Vol.29 pp.351-358
F = 1 + 24000 Bo
hNCB = 55 Pr
0.12
1.16
0.8
0.4
l
Pr
kl
D
q
1 0.86
+ 1.37(
) , Bo =
X tt
Gilv
(0.4343 ln( Pr ))
0.55
0.5
( q )
0.67
P
Pr =
Pc
M , Molecular weight
S = [1 + 1.15 10 6 E 2 Re l
1.17 1
G (1 x ) D
Re l =
l
where q in W / m 2 ; h in W / m 2 K
For horizontal
Fr = Froude
flow boiling
G2
No . =
( l2 gD )
If Fr < 0 . 05
E = EFr
( 0 . 1 2 Fr )
& S = S
Fr
For subcooled
flow boiling
q = h l ( T w T l ) + Sh NCB ( T w T sat )
This correlation for subcooled boiling is with an accuracy of 25%
hcal
hexp
The Chen correlation compared with our data
Fluid R12 From Hahne et. al. 1989
hcal
hcal
hexp
hexp
q&
Comparison of flow boiling
correlation at 6105Pa
q&
Comparison of flow boiling
correlations at 11105Pa
Tsat ,ONB
2
2
) 1
q = (q c ) + (q NCB
Tsat
1/ 2
Re l > 1125
50 < Re l < 1125
Re l < 50
q NCB
l ilv
g(l v )
1/ 2
l17 / 8 Cp l19 / 8 v1 / 8
3
= BM
Tsat
7 /8
9/8
5 / 8 1/ 8
l ilv ( l v ) Tsat
kl
1/ 2
Tsat ,ONB
8Tsat vlv hc
q c
=
, hc =
k l ilv
Tsat
hTP = h
3
NCB
3 1/ 3
c
+h
q n f D 0.4 Ra 0.133
=( ) ( ) (
)
F ( M ) FPF ( Pr )
q 0
D0
Ra 0
0.8 0.1exp(1.75Pr ),
non cryogens
nf =
cryogens
0.7 0.13 exp(1.105Pr ),
F ( M ) = 0.377 + 0.199 ln M + 2.8427 10 5 M 2
1.7
0.45
3.7
FPF ( Pr ) = 2.816 Pr + [3.4 +
P
] r
7
(1 Pr )
hc = hl 0 F
F=
1.5
0.6
0.01
0.35 1.1
{[(
1
)
1
.
9
(
1
)
(
)
]
x
x
x
l
v
0.01
0.7
0.67 2 1 / 2
[(
/
)
(
1
8
(
1
)
)(
)
] }
+
+
h
h
x
x
v0
l0
l
v
x
l
G2
Fr =
= Froude number
l gD
G (1 x) D
hl = 0.023
0.8
0.4
l
Pr
kl
D
hNCB
230 Bo 0.5 hl
0. 5
Bo
(
1
46
)hl
+
=
0.5
0.1
FBo
exp(
2
.
74
)hl
14.70
F =
15.43
if Bo > 0.0011
if Bo < 0.0011
q
Bo =
Gilv
q CHF
Individual
bubble
region
Vapor
mushroom
region
q tr
Topics to be discussed
T w T sat
Critical Heat Flux for Pool Boiling
Critical Heat Flux for Flow Boiling
-Dryout: Dryout of the liquid film, theoretical modeling
-DNB: Departure from nucleate boiling, theoretical modeling
Empirical Correlation for Flow Boiling CHF
= Cilv v1 / 2 [g ( l v )]1 / 4
qCHF
0.16
C=
0.131
Collier
Lienhard
Zubers model
Ref.: N. Zuber, 1958, On the Stability of Boiling Heat Transfer,
Trans. ASME, vol.80, 711
Recall that for the Helmhotz instability to take place,
v l
k
2
(
U
U
)
v
l
v + l (v + l ) 2
k=
=
g
(
)
l
v
1 / 2
g(l v )
=
1/ 2
From the Taylor instability and assume that the bubble is sphere,
Liquid
Vapor
Vapor
(U v U l ) = [ g ( l v ) ]
1/ 2
l + v
lv
Q (U v U l ) 2 (U v ) 2
(U v ) = [ g ( l v ) ]
1/ 2
q CHF
= i lv v
(
l + v
lv
4
1 2
( )3 ( 2 ) =
i lv v
3
4
24
( ) 3 is the bubble
3
4
period )
Uv =
q CHF
l + v 1/ 2
ilv v [
=
] [g ( l v )]1 / 4
l v
24
1/ 2 l + v 1/ 2
ilv v [
=
] [g ( l v )]1 / 4
l
24
= 0.131ilv v
1/ 2
l + v 1/ 2
[
] [g ( l v )]1 / 4
l
Vapor bubble
c
D
D = The most dangerous wavelength wave length for the Taylor instability
= 31 / 2 2
g
(
)
l
v
1/ 2
c = macrolayer thickness
1
H
4
+ v Av 2 v ilv 2
l
( ) (
)
2
l v Aw
q
At CHF
d q Aw = l c ( Aw Av )ilv
2
D
Haramura and Katto postulated that CHF appears when the liquid
film evaporates away at the end of the hovering period.
q CHF
v i lv
g ( l v )
2
v
Av
Aw
1/ 4
4
= 11 2
2 3
1 / 16
11 l
3/5
(
+
1
)
16
v
= 0 . 0654
l
(
+ 1)
Av
Aw
5/8
A
1 v
Aw
5 / 16
+ 1)
(
( 11 l + 1) 3 / 5
16
v
5 / 16
1/ 2
Assume q CHF
predicted is the
same as the Zuber ' s model
qCHF
(10 6 W / m 2 )
(T ) CHF
Pressure (kPa)
Effect of system pressure on CHF (From Pan & Lin, 1990)
q CHF
(10 6 W / m 2 )
q CHF
= q Zuber
[ 1 + B T sub ]
B = 0 .1(
sub
l
v
0 . 75
Cp
(
i lv
1 + k Ja
=
[ 1 + 0 . 102 Ja
Ja
Ja =
Tsub (K)
(From Pan & Lin, 1990)
10
/
= (
Cp
0 . 75
0 . 75
Ja
T
i lv
sub
CHF
(MW/m2)
11
l
+ 1
16 v
Av
n
= C
l
Aw
+1
v
C = 0.00179 ; n = 2
3/ 5
1/ 2
Contact Angle
Effect of surface wettability on the critical heat flux:
comparison between model prediction and experimental data
(From Pan & Lin, 1990)
Wl + DDd dz =
dWl
[Wl +
dz] +
dz
q
EDdz + Ddz
ilv
dz
Wf
Deposition
Entrainment
evaporation
Deposition
dz
Entrainment
evaporation
Deposition rate
Dd = C
K = The depositionor mass transfer coefficient(m / s)
2
C = Droplet concentration
= WE /[(WE / l ) + (Wv / v )) (kg / m3 )
Wv = Mass flow rate of vapor
= x( z)W
4 z
x( z) =
q( z)dz
ilvGD z s
Entrainment rate
-Based on the observation that, under equilibrium conditions during
adiabatic operation, the entrainment and deposition rates equal.
Dd=CE=E
Where CE is droplet concentration under equilibrium conditions
It is assumed that the same relationship holds away from equilibrium.
CE can be correlated as a function of i/
C E (kg / m 3 )
i /
Correlation of equilibrium entrained droplet concentration
(Hutchinson and Whalley) Form Collier, 1981
Summary
Conservation of liquid film mass
dWl
q
= D[ Dd E ]
dz
ilv
Conservation of entrainment mass
dWE
= D[ E Dd ]
dz
Deposition mass flux
i
Dd = kC = 87
v
l2
WE
D l WE Wv
+
l
v
C is droplet concentration
Entrainment flux
D E = kC E = 87C E
i
v
D l
2
l
C E = f n ( i / )
( R ) dP
i =
[
v g]
2
dz
dP
= f n (Wl + WE ,Wv ) , see, e.g., Martinelli correlation
dz
, see, e.g., Martinelli
D
= f n (Wl + W E , WG ), = (1 ) correlation
2
dWG q D
=
dz
ilv
l jv v 1 / 2
1 / 3
0.8
( ) 11.78 N Re l
for Re l < 1635
l
N 0.8
for Re l 1635
N = Viscosity number = l / l ( / g ( l v ))
l jl D
Re l =
l
1/ 2 1/ 2
v
Govan et al. (1988) model for droplet deposition and entrainment in
annular two-phase flow (From: Collier & Thom, 1994)
v D 1/ 2
)
k(
Dd = kC
if C < 0.3 v
v D 1/ 2
) = 0.18
if C > 0.3 v
k(
v D 1/ 2
k(
) = 0.083(C / v ) 0.65
D
= 5.75 10 5 (GlF Gl ,crit ) 2 ( 2l )
v
E / Gv
0.316
Re l ,crit = exp 5.8504 + 0.4249 v ( l )1 / 2
l v
D l
v2
v 1/ 2
ED
) (Re lf Re l ,crit )
( v ) 0.26
= C Wev ( l
l
v
l
l j f D
Re lf =
= Reynolds number for liquid film flow
l
v jv D
Wev =
Dd = KC
K=
v D
v 0.422 C 0.65
= 0.036( )
( )
l
v
(From: Tai,2000)
(From: Tai,2000)
Assumption:
m& 3
(1)Under subcooled and low quality
conditions, CHF is caused by the
limited enthalpy transport between
m& 4
the bubbly layer and core. CHF is
a local phenomenon.
(2)At the CHF location, the bubbly
layer is assumed to be at the
maximum thickness that the turbulent
eddy size is insufficient
to transport the bubbles radically.
m2
x2
m 1 , x1
m& 3
m& 4
m2
x2
m1 , x1
x 2 , crit
1
1
=
=
(1 crit )
1 0 . 82
1+ ( l )
1+ v (
)
S
0 . 82
v
crit
l
q b
= x 2 , crit x 1
i lv G 3
q b = boiling
heat
flux = q CHF
i id
il i d
G 3 = G ib
=
v11
1 v11 2 1 v11
exp[ ( ) ] ( )erfc(
)
2 v
2 v
2
2 v
1
v = standard
deviation
G
= ( )ib
1
= v = [ v l + v lv x ave ]
of radial velocity
fluctuatio n
x ave
1
=
GAi lv
Z CHF
Zd
PH q b
]dz
[
PH q cond
1+
l (i l i )
=
v ilv
q cond
ilv A
(
) < > ( T sub )
H0
=
v lv PH
0
for i i d
for i < i d
0 .1
(l v )
(
) [1 + a
]
D
v
Dp
0 .6
0.135
a=
G
0.2
0
.
135
(
)
9.7 10 6
if G 9.7 10 6 kg / m 2 h
if G > 9.7 10 6 kg / m 2 h
1
=
v 1 x ave
1+ ( )
l
x ave
0 =
v v ilv 2
(0.0584 ) v 0.4
( ) (1 +
)
(
)
2
l
l v q b
q b = q hl 0 (Tw Tl )
= q (1 0.00435 Bo 0.5 )
( 230 Bo 0.5 1)Tsub
hl 0
230 Bo 0.5
(Katto,1990)
2 ( v + l )
Lb =
v lU b2
-Bubble velocity
U b = ku
y+
+
u = 5.0 + 5.0 ln( y+ / 5)
5.5 + 2.5 ln( y + )
0 < y+ 5
5 < y+ 30
30 < y+
u + = u / u ; u = w / ; y + = 0 u / v
1 G2
w = f
8
1 xt
x
= t +
v
l
= v + l (1 )(1 + 2 . 5 )
( v / l )1.28
3.76, if < 0.355
k1 =
0 , if > 0.355
> ( v )b
l
l
v
v
< ( )b
l
l
( v / l ) b is given by
[ 0 .0197 + ( v / l ) b0 .733 ][1 + 90 .3( v / l ) b3 .68 ]
0 .09256
( v / l ) 1b.28
[1 + k 1 ( 0 .355 )][1 + k 2 ( 0 .100 )]
=
1 + k 3 ( 0 .355 )
=
1+ (
v 1 xt
)(
)
l
xt
xe
1)
xe ,d
x
exp( e 1)
xe ,d
xe x e,d exp(
xt =
1 x e,d
x e = thermodynamic quality =
i il
ilv
q DCpl
0.0022 i k
lv l
=
q
154
Gilv
GCpl D
Pe =
kl
, Pe < 70000
, Pe > 70000
-Friction factor
1
f
f ) 0.8 ; Re =
GD
l
= Lb / U b
-Critical heat flux: The minimum heat flux to extinguish
a sublayer of initial thickness by evaporation during the period .
= 0 l ilv / = 0 l ilvU b / Lb
qCHF
(Katto, 1990)
<0.7
307
1.012
0.132
USSR
Scientific
Council (1972)
270
1.050
0.105
Thompson/MacBeth,
1964
R-11
37
1.039
0.271
R-12
53
1.064
0.291
Katto/Yokoya, 1982;
Katto/Ashida, 1982
R-113
35
1.494
0.387
51
1.165
0.145
11
1.038
0.179
Katto/Yokoya, 1984
1.147
0.260
Ogata/Sato, 1976
(Katto, 1990b)
<0.7
(mm)
(MPa)
kgm-2s-1
xe
374
307
2.9-19.6
500-5000
0-0.835
270
270
3.4-13.8
37
37
R-12
53
53
1.9-3.4
35010360
13908800
770-5400
0.010-0.493
R-11
7.7211.07
12.47
R-113
35
35
10.2
0.9-2.2
0.005-0.544
51
51
12.80
0.5-1.7
12805600
550-2260
11
11
0.199
35-90
0.021-0.191
1.09
0.194-0.199
79-104
0.034-0.216
1.0-2.5
0.155-0.619
0.004-0.264
0.042-0.477
) min (qCHF
) (qCHF
) max
(qCHF
For a uniform heat flux
(Tsub ) i
) min =
( qCHF
, (i.e. Tw = Tsat )
( 4 z / GCp l D ) + (1 / hl 0 )
q
Recall that Tw ( z ) =
+ Tl ( z )
hl 0
z
1
2
and (G D )Cp l [Tl ( z ) Tl ,i ] = q Ddz = q Dz
0
4
4q Dz
4q z
Tl ( z ) = Tl ,i +
= Tl ,i +
2
GCp l D
GD Cp l
q
4q z
1
4z
=q [
+
] + Tli
Tw ( z ) =
+ Tl ,i +
hl 0
GCp l D
hl 0 GCp l D
Tw ( z ) Tsat
q [
4z
1
+
] + Tl ,i Tsat
GCp l D hl 0
Tsat Tl ,i
) min
q
= (q crit
4z
1
+
GCp l D hl 0
) max
(q crit
GDilv
Cpl (Tsub ) i
=
[1 +
], (i.e. x = 1)
4z
ilv
Recall that
z
1
2
,maxDz
(G D )[Cpl (Tsat Tl ,i ) + xilv ] = q Ddz = qCHF
0
4
,max .Thus,
Note that x = 1 for qCHF
) max
( qCHF
GDilv
Cpl ( Tsub ) i
=
[1 +
]
4z
ilv
= f n (G , (Tsub ) i , P, D, z )
qCHF
GCp l D
slope =
4z
4z
1
slope =
+
hl0
GCp l D
( T sub ) i , inlet
subcooling
q DL
i ii =
m&
i il
xe =
ilv
The effect of tube length on critical heat flux at fixed exit conditions.
(From: Collier & Thome, 1994)
From: Tong
Development of correlation
-Barnett and Macbeth approach
4q z
x ( z )ilv + (isub ) i =
( for uniform heat flux)
DG
4q z
(i sub ) i =
x ( z )ilv
DG
q CHF
z
4 q CHF
x ( z )ilv ]
= A + B[
DG
qCHF
A Bx( z )ilv
=
4 Bz
1
DG
Recall that
= A + B (i sub ) i
qCHF
( N )(i sub ) i
Milv
=
+
ilv 4 Nz / DG ilv 4 Nz / DG
DGilv
M(
) + DG (i sub ) i / 4
4N
=
DGilv
+z
4N
qCHF
A + DG (i sub ) i / 4
=
C + z
Bowrings correlation
DGilv
A = 2.317[
]F1 /[1.0 + 0.0143F2 D 1 / 2 G ]
4
C = 0.077 F3 DG /[1.0 + 0.347 F4 (G / 1356) n ]
n = 2.0 0.00725 P
: W / m 2 , (i sub ) i : J / kg , z : m
qCHF
D : m, G : kg / m 2 s, ilv : J / kg , P : bar
x
(
z
)]
for
the
high
quality
region
(
G
<
30
g
/
cm
)
0.6
n
D G
where n = 0.4 for D 1cm
n = 0.6 for D < 1cm
f ( P) = 0.7249 + 0.099 P exp( 0.032 P )
8.99 P
h( P ) = 1.159 + 0.149 P exp( 0.019 P ) +
10 + P 2
in W / cm 2 and P in bar
where qCHF
qCHF
G
= 0.705 + 0.237 6
for x < x1
6
10
10
qCHF
G
= 1.634 0.270 6 4.710 x
for x1 < x < x1
6
10
10
qCHF
G
= 0.605 + 0.164 6 0.653x
for x 2 < x
6
10
10
x1 = 0.197 0.108G / 10 6 ,
in Btu / hrft 2
q CHF
x 2 = 0.254 0.026G / 10 6
G in lbm / hrft 2
(at P ) = q CHF
(at 1000 Psia ) + 440(1000 P )
q CHF
Range of application
P=600 to 1450 Psia
G=0.4106 to 6.0106 lbm/hrft2
x=negative to 0.45
De=0.245 to 1.25 in
L=29 to 108 inches
In 1971 Slifer and Hench reported the General Electric lower
envelop correlation
For low-mass-velocity CHF at pressures less than 1000 Psia.
For G<0.5106 lbm/hrft2
For 0.5106G0.75106 lb/hrft2
qCHF
= 0.84 x
6
10
qCHF
= 0.80 x
6
10
(From L.S. Tong, 1972 Boiling Crisis and Critical Heat Flux TID25887 NTIS.)
-W-3 correlation
For uniform heat flux dist.
qCHF
= {(2.002 0.0004302P ) + (0.1722 0.0000984P )
6
10
exp[(18.177 0.004129P ) x]}
[(0.1484 1.596 x + 0.1729 x x )(G / 10 6 ) + 1.037]
(1.157 0.869 x)
[0.2664 + 0.8357 exp(3.15De)]
[0.8258 + 0.000794( H sat H in )]
in Btu / hrft 2
qCHF
Heated perimeter
= 0.88 to 1.00
Wetted perimeter
Geometries = circular tube, rectangular channel and bare rod bundle.
For nonuniform heat flux
, NU = qCHF
, EU / Fc
qCHF
C
Fc =
lcrit
(1 xcrit ) 4.31
1
C = 0.15
in
(G / 10 6 ) 0.478
(1 xcrit ) 7.9
1
C = 0.44
in
( From : Collier & Thome, 1994)
6 1.72
(G / 10 )
D2=0.875in., 6- and 12-ft heated length, various axial profiles, P=123 psia,
G=0.54106lb/hft2(Shiralkar, 1972) (From: Lahey & Moody, p100)
Explanation for Fc
h
Liquid core
dz
VH
VH
d ( VH
+
dz
dz
Bubble layer
Energy Balance:
d ( VH )
1
q Pdz + VHSP = H
dz ]SP
( H H b ) Pdz + [ VH +
Cp
dz
d (H H b )
Cpq
+ C(H H b ) = C
dz
h
h
C=
VSCp
Cp
q ( z ) exp(C ( z z ))dz
H ( z) H b = C
h
By assuming that CHF occurs at a limiting value of
superheat in the liquid sublayer,
[ H ( z ) H b ]crit ,U = [ H ( z ) H b ]crit , NU
, EU
q crit
C
=
1 exp(Cl crit , EU )
lcrit , NU
q ( z ) exp(C (l
0
crit , NU
z ))dz
-EPRI-1 correlation
Ref.: Parametric study of CHF Data Volume 2 : A Generalized
Sub-channel CHF Correlation for PWR and BWR Fuel
Assemblies, EPRI-NP-2609.
Primary objective: To develop a generalized subchannel CHF correlation
based on the local fluid conditions obtained with the
COBRA-IIIC thermal hydraulic subchannel code and
covering PWR and BWR normal operating conditions
as well as hypothetical loss-of-coolant accident
(LOCA) conditions.
CHF-correlation
3607 CHF data points
65 test sections simulating PWR and BWR fuel assemblies.
Pressure: 200 to 2450 Psia
Mass flux: 0.2 to 4.1 Mlbs/hrft2
Quality: -0.25 to 0.75
The correlation predicated the source data with an RMS error of 7.2%
and average ratio of 0.995.
qCHF
A xin
=
xl xin
C+(
)
ql
, G in Mlbm / hrft 2
Pcritical
P1=0.5328, P2=0.1212, P3=1.6151, P4=1.4066, P5=0.3040, P6=0.4843
P7=0.3285, P5=2.0749
Using 3607 CHF data points from 65 fuel assembly test sections
including 33, 44 & 55.
Rave = ( Ri ) / N
i =1
RMS error
N
RMS = [( ( Ri 1) 2 ) / N ]1 / 2
i =1
Standard deviation
N
STD = [( ( Ri Rave ) ) / N ]
2
i =1
1/ 2
Predicted CHF
Ri =
Experimental CHF
A xin
x xin
CC nu + [ l
]
qlocal
C nu = 1 +
(Y 1)
1+ G
1 L
Y = q z / qldz
L 0
ql is location being considered
Vapor
flow
Liquid deficient region
Film boiling (inverted annular flow)
Topics to be discussed
-Film boiling heat transfer (Inverted annular flow)
-Heat transfer in the liquid deficient region
(High void fraction film boiling)
-Minimum film boiling temperature
-Transition boiling heat transfer
d 2u
v 2 = g(l v )
dy
Boundary conditions
q Vapor
1.at y = 0 , u = 0
du
=0
2.at y = , dy y =
u = 0
Liquid
case ( a )
case ( b )
x
y
case ( a )
case ( b )
x+dx
q
-Heat transfer
It is assumed that heat travels
x
through vapor film by conduction. Thus
dw
T
ilv
dx = k v
dx
dx
dw
dx
dx
d
( x) +
dx
dx
w( x ) +
w( x )
( x)
T=Tsat
( x )+ ddx dx
( x)
dw
w( x) +
dx w( x) = v u ( y )dy u ( y )dy
dx
0
0
( x )
g
1
1
1
( l v ) [ C 3 3 ]
v
2
2
3
u( y )dy =
0
( x )+
d
dx
dx
u( y )dy =
0
g
1 C
d
1
d
( l v ) [ ( + dx )3 ( + dx )3 ]
v
2 2
dx
3
dx
g
1 C
d
d
( l v ) [ ( 3 + 2
dx + 2 2
dx LL )
v
2 2
dx
dx
1
d
d
( 3 + 3 2
dx + 2 2
dx LL ) ]
3
dx
dx
( x )+
d
dx
dx
u ( y ) dy
( x )
u ( y ) dy =
0
g
1 C 1
d
( l v ) [
] 3 2
dx
v
2 2 3
dx
dw
g
1 C 1
d
= v ( l v ) [
] 3 2
dx
v
2 2 3
dx
ilv v
g
3 C 1
d
T sat
( l v ) [
]2
= kv
v
2 2 3
dx
d =
k v T sat v
3 C 1
v ilv g ( l v ) [
]
2 2 3
dx
Boundary condition:
=0 at x=0
8k v Tsat v x
( x) =
1
C
3[ ]ilv g v ( l v )
2 3
1/ 4
C 1
3( 2 3 )
kv
h( x ) =
=
( x)
8
1/ 4
ilv g v ( l v )k
x
sat v
3
v
1/ 4
The average heat transfer coefficient over the vertical plate is:
ilv g v ( l v )kv3
1 L
h = 0 h( x )dx = C1
L
T
L
sat v
1/ 4
C 1
3( )
4 2 3
C1 =
3
8
C p v T
]
ilv
1/ 4
Vapor
Solid
r1
z
P
Vv
h=
k vf
k vf
=
2.35[
vf k vf Tsat
ilv vf g ( l v )
]1 / 4
g(l v )
k
i
g
(
)
vf lv vf
l
v
= 0.425
vf Tsat
g ( l v )
H
P1
r2
Vapor film
P2
1/ 4
dP
d 2u
= vf
dr
dz 2
Boundary condition
z = 0
at
z =
du
Consider
dz
u=0
u = 0
du = 0
dz
= 0 first as an example,
z =
d 2u
1 dP
2 =
A
vf dr
dz
du
1 dP
=
z + C1 = Az + C1
dz vf dr
1
u ( z ) = Az 2 + C1 z + C 2
2
u ( z = 0) = 0 C 2 = 0
du
dz
= 0 C1 = A
z =
u( z) =
A 2
z A z
2
for
du
dz
=0
z =a
A 2
1
U = u ( z )dz = (1)
0
3
du
w = vf
dz
z =0
A 2 3
3U
= vf ( A ) = vf A = vf (
) = vf
3
dP 1
= w ( In fact , this is approximat ely correct only )
dr
3U
= vf 2
12U
dP
= vf 2
dr
q (r22 r 2 ) = 2r vf U (r )ilv
dP
P+
dr
dr
r + dr
T sat
2
2
k vf T sat 2
U(r )=
vf ilv 2 2 r
r
k vf T sat 2
dP
= vf 2
vf ilv 2 2 r
dr
where r22 =
1 2
3
=
12
du
=0
dz z =
for u ( z = ) = 0
for
= 2 3
g(l v )
U(r)
r
r2
r2
kvf Tsat
dP
2
dr = v 2
(
)dr
2
vf ilv r1
2 r
r1 dr
2
Db
= 2.35
r1 =
2
g ( l v )
2
r =
2
2
2
8 vf k vf Tsat
P2 P1 =
4 vf ilv g ( l v )
Assume H Db
H = 3.2
g(l v )
r2
Noting that
P2 P0 = H l g
2
P1 P0 = H v g +
R
2
P2 P1 = H ( l v ) g
R
1
( R = Db )
2
1.09 vf k vf Tsat
=
vf g ( l v )ilv
g ( l v )
1.09 vf k vf Tsat
= 1.4
vf g ( l v )ilv
1/ 4
g ( l v )
1/ 4
where1.4is to account for the ratio of total area /the area between bubble
2.6
vf k vf Tsat
= or
1.9 vf g ( l v )ilv
g ( l v )
depending on value of
1/ 4
g ( l v )
1/ 4
3
k vf
k vf i lv vf g ( l v )
h=
= 0 . 45
vf T sat
g( l v )
Cp v T sat
]
i lv = i lv [1 + 0 . 50
i lv
1/ 4
ilv g vf ( l vf )k vf3
0.724
C1 =
0.512
Tsat vf D
]1 / 4
T = 2
g ( l v )
]1/ 4
3
h = hcond + hr
4
qr
SB ( Tw2 + Tsat2 )( Tw + Tsat )
hr =
=
Tw Tsat
1 / w + 1 / l 1
-Film boiling heat transfer considering thermal radiation
h = 0.67[
ilv g vf ( l vf )k vf3
Tsat vf D
1/ 4
Governing Equations
( k uk ) + ( k vk ) = 0
x
y
k = v, l
Tk
Tk
2Tk
( Cp) k (u k
+ vk
) = kk
x
y
y 2
k = v, l
u k
u k
2uk
k uk
+ k vk
= g x ( k k ) + k
x
y
y 2
g x = g sin( x / R ) vertical surface
gx = g
horizontal cylinder
Boundary Conditions
At y=0
uv = vv = 0, Tv = Tw
k = v, l
At y=
At y=
uv = ul
ul 0 , Tl T
uv
ul
v
= l
y
y
Tv = Tl = Tsat
Tv
Tl
"
kv
+ qr = k l
+ Gi ilv
y
y
Where Gi is the interfacial mass transfer rate,
d
Gi = v uv
vv = l ul
vl
dx
dx
qr" ( ) = qrp" ( ) /
( ) = sin /
1
1
( ) = 4 sin 3 ' d '
o
sb
4
4
q =
(Tw Tsat )
1/ w + 1/ l 1
"
rp
1
= ( ) d = 0.6122
o
Similarity Transform
Sakura et al. defined the following similarity variables.
k
f k ( k ) =
, k = l, v
M k ( )
Tv Tsat
Tl T
v (v ) =
, l (l ) =
Tw Tsat
Tsat T
( ) y k
k = N k
dy , k = l, v
o
r
ks
where
ks k
ks k
uk =
; vk =
,
k y
k x
M k = v vs g ( l ks )r /(v ks )
N k = M k / vvs
2
ks
k = l, v
k = l, v
k = l, v
Thus,
'
( k ) k '
Cp k
'
+
3
Pr
f
k
ks
k k = 0
Cp ks
( k ) ks
'
( ) k "
'
f
2
f
k
k
( ) ks
( )
k = l, v
( l k ) / k
+ 3 fk f +
=0
( l ks ) / ks
"
k
At v = 0
f v ( ) = f v' ( ) = 0,
v ( ) = 1
At l
f l' = l' = 0
and interfacial conditions. Numerical solutions is required.
k = l, v
Approximate solutions
-Neglect convective terms in
all the conservation equation
-Vapor flow is driven by
buoyancy force
-Liquid flow is driven by
vapor flow.
g ( l v ) 2 g ( l v )
uv =
y +
2 v
2v
+ 2
l
+ y
v
l / v
g ( l v )
g ( l v ) 2 ( l / v )( / )
ul =
z+
2 l
l / v + /
2 l
l / v + /
Tv = Tw ( y / ) (Tw Tsat )
Tl = Tsat ( z / ) (Tsat T )
d
kv (Tw Tsat ) kl (Tsat T )
ilv ' vuv dy =
dx o
k l (Tsat T )
d
Cpl o l ul (Tl T ) dz =
dx
Thus,
d 3
Cl
( ml ) =
dx
d 3
Cv1 Cv 2
( mv ) =
dx
Where
mv = ( f + 4 ) /( f + ),
ml = f /( f + )
2
Cv 2 = 12 v kv (Tsat Tw ) /[i g v ( l v )]
'
lv
C l = 6 l k l /[ gCp l v ( l v )]
f = l / v
= /
4 4( f + o ) (C v1 o C v 2 )
=
x
3( f + 4 o ) o
o = U + V + C v 2 /(3C vl )
Where
U = W1 + W2
V = W1 W2
2
v1
3
v1
Thus,
4Cl ( f + o ) x
=
3
3
f
(Tw Tsat )
( x)
NuvL
[
q
=
"
ave
1
(Tw Tsat ) L
4L
4 34 3
f
4
=
= L
=
M
0
.
793
L
kv
3 ( L) 3 4 Cl ( f + o )
3
o
Nu vD
4
hcon D 3 14
1
D
=
= 4 0.728 Nu vL = 0.612M 4
kv
4
L
Where
{
M = {Gr
} {E [1 + E (Sp Pr )]} (R Pr Sp )
)]} {E [1 + E (Sp Pr )]} (R Pr Sp )
vD
'
v lv
Pr i
E = A+C B
) + (A C B )
1
+ (1 3) Sc
C = (1 2 )R 2 Sp Prl
R = [v v ( l l )] 2
1
GrvL = g ( l v ) L3 ( v vv )
2
GrvD = g ( l v ) D ( v vv )
3
Note that
hcon L
g v ( l v ) i l v ' k v
v (Tw Tsat ) L
hcon D
g v ( l v ) i lv ' k v
v (Tw Tsat ) D
q
Vapor
flow
q 4( z z d 0 )
=
Gilv
D
q 4( z z d 0 ) C pv (Tv Tsat )
Gilv
D
ilv
C pv (Tv Tsat )
xe x a =
ilv
dryout
q 4 z d 0 i sub,i
=
+
ilv
Gilv D
isub ,i
zd0
xd0
dx a
N l d 4 3
[ rd ]
= ( 1)
dz
G dz 3
N l 4 2 drd
rd
=
G
dz
-Energy balance equation
G (1 x d 0 )
N=
4 3
rd 0 l
3
rd : radius of the droplet
dTv
dxa
AGxa Cpv
= q D AGilv
dz
dz
-Momentum eq.
For liquid droplets
dud
v
1.16
ud
= [kl (uv u d ) g (1 )]
dz
l
v0.84 v0.16
kl = 20.25
1.84
(
2
)
r
l d
v
) : bouyancy force
l
uv: vapor velocity ;ud: droplet velocity
g (1
dz 2rd dt u d
k v = self diflusion coef .in the vapor
2
drd
= Mk v ( 1) / v R
= (1)k v F (Tv Tsat ) / l ilv
dt
F = ventilation factor
M: molecular weight
R: universal gas constant
v (u v u d ) v 1 / 3
d ( l / v )
= 1 + 0.276
(
)
= (1)
v
dP
kv v
Re 2 =
[ xe + v (1 xe )]
v
l
see more correlations in Groeneveld & Snoek, 1986.
6.3 The minimum film boiling temperature
Ref. A. Sakurai, Film Boiling Heat Transfer, Proc. of 9th Int.
Heat Transfer Conference, vol.1, pp.157-186.
k l l Cpl
Ra =
Cp
s s s
1/ 2
q
Nucleate boiling
Transition
boiling
qCHF
q min
Tw Tsat
Film boiling
Vapor bubble
Vapor bubble
V
Uv
Ul
c
Liquid film Vapor stem
Heated surface
(macrolayer)
vapor structure near heated
surface at high heat fluxes
Liquid film
Pool boiling at high fluxes on a
horizontal flat plate
= q me
F + q r (1 F )
qtot
n
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
Tw T
TI = T +
erfc
b2 (1 + b1 )
( t )
n = 0 (1 + b )(1 + b )
(1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
1
2
c
(n + 1)
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
+ b2 (1 b1 )
erfc
n =0 (1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
( c t )
b1 = [(kCp) c (kCp) h ]
b2 = [(kCp) c (kCp) l ] 2
1
k eff = k l + k t = k l + ( Cp ) l t
3/ 4
T
T
(
1/ 2
w
b
t = C ( g )
3/ 2
g
(
)
T
l
v
w
C = 1.00 empirical cons tan t
--Incipience criterion
Tl ( y = rc , t ) Tv = Tsat
2 Tsat vlv
+
rc ilv
x
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
Tw T
n
Tl ( y, t ) = T +
erfc
+
b2 (1 + b1 )
(1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
n = 0 (1 + b1 )(1 + b2 )
c t
2 lt
n
x
(1 b1 )(1 b2 )
(n + 1)
+ b2 (1 b1 )
+
erfc
(
1
+
b
)(
1
+
b
)
2
t
n =0
1
2
l
c
= q nb
q me
q
Cpl [TI (t = t cd ) Tsat ]
= C sf
1.7
ilv Prl
l ilv
"
nb
g(l v )
0.33
tme = o lilv / q
"
me
1
3 4( l + v )
5
V
=
l
4 g ( l v )
1
11
16
D = 3 2 [ g ( l v )]
1
"
qme
tme + ( tme ) qv"
=
t v = t me
t cd + q me
t me + qvt v
qcd
q =
t cd + t me + t v
h
= C ( P )(q / q0)1.3
h0.3
q
Tsat 1/(1 n )
)
, n = 1.3
=(
qCHF
Tsat ,CHF
h0.3: reference heat transfer
coefficient at reduced pressure
of 0.3
d
f
v v
fdV =
dV + fv A n dA
t
dt V ( t )
V (t )
A( t )
-Gauss Theorems
v v
v
B ndA = BdV
A(t )
V (t )
v
n Mda = MdV
A( t )
V (t )
y
x
dt V
A
V
Conservation
of
Mass
Momentum
Energy
v
V
e
T
v
v
q T V
v
g
v v
g V
[ ( ) + ( V ) + J ]dV = 0
V t
Since the control volume is arbitrarily selected,
v
( ) + ( V ) + J = 0
t
v
-Conservation of mass: = V , J = 0, = 0
+ ( V ) = 0
t
v
vv
v
( V ) + ( V V ) T g = 0
t
v
v
v
V
v
+ V V g + P = 0
t
v
v
v v
-Conservation of energy: = e, J = q T V , = g V
v
v
v v
v
( e) + ( eV ) g V (T V ) + q = 0
t
above equation also be expressed in terms of temperature as:
T v
P v
Cp[
+ V T ] = kT + T [
+ V P ] +
t
t
z
y
x
v
d
k k d = k (Vk nk ) dA
k (t )
Ak ( t )
k = l , v dt
k = l,v
k = l, v
k (t )
k k d
k = l, v
Ak ( t )
w
nk J k dA
k
1
Jk
v
Vk
T k
v
g
ek
v
v"
qk T k Vk
v v
g Vk
d
k k d =
(
t
)
dt k
v v
k (t ) t ( k k )d + Ak (t ) ( k k )VA nk dA
Ai ( t )
v v
k k Vi n k dA
k = l, v
thus,
v v
d
k k d =
( k k )d + Ai (t ) k kVi nk dA
(
t
)
(
t
)
k
t
dt k
Similarly, based on the Gauss theorem,
v v
v
k k Vk nk dA = ( k k k )d
Ak ( t )
Ak ( t )
nk J k dA =
k (t )
k (t )
Ai ( t )
J k d
Ai ( t )
k = l, v
v v
k k (Vk nk )dA
nk J k dA
(
)
(
)
V
+
k k
k k k
k k d
k ( t ) t
k =l,v
v v
k k (Vk Vi ) n k + nk J k dA = 0
Ai ( t )
k = l,v
Since the control volume is arbitrarily selected, the integrand for both
integrals must be equation to zero.
( k k ) + ( k kVk ) + J k kk = 0
t
(Vv Vv ) nv + nv J k = 0
k
k
i
k
k
k = l, v
k = l, v
k = l, v
-Conservation of mass: k = 1 k = J k = 0
v
k
+ ( kVk ) = 0
t
k = l, v
v
v
-Conservation of momentum: k = g k = Vk J k = T k
,
v
v v
v
( kVk ) + ( kVkVk ) T k k g = 0
t
k = l, v
v
v
v
V k
v
k
+ k Vk V k k g + Pk k = 0
k = l, v
,
t
where k stands for the viscous stresses for the k-phase.
v v
v
v
-Conservation of energy: k = k J k = q" T k V k = g Vk
k
k
v
v
v v
( k ek ) + ( k ekVk ) k g Vk T k Vk + qvk" = 0
k = l, v
v
ik
v " Pk v
k
+ kVk ik + qk =
+ Vk Pk + k
, k = l, v
t
t
Tk v
Pk v
k Cp k
+ Vk Tk = k k Tk + k Tk
+ Vk Pk + k
t
v v
v v
l (Vl Vi ) nl + v (Vv Vi ) nv = 0
m& l + m& v = 0
v v
& k k (Vk Vi ) nk
where m
or
k = l, v
k = l, v
v
v
m& lVl + m& vVv nl T l nv T v = 0
v v
m& l (Vl Vv ) nl T l nv T v = 0
Pl + nn,l = Pv + nn,v
ns , l = ns , v
Pl + nn ,l + = Pv + nn ,v ns , l
-For energy equation:
+
= ns , v
s
v
v
v"
v"
m& l el + m& v ev + nl ql + nv qv nl (T l Vl ) nv (T v Vv ) = 0
v
v
v"
v"
m& l el + n l q l n l (T l Vl ) = m& l ev + n l q v n l (T v Vv )
v
1
f k
f kVi nk
v
T t dt = t T f k dt
k
Tk Vi n
k
k
if f k = 1
v
Vi
Tk = v
t
Tk Vi
n k
n k
or
v
Vi n k
1
k = v
Ts Tk Vi n k
t
v
v
v
1
n k Bk
v
T Bk dt = T Bk dt +
k
disc Vi n
k
k
1
M k n k
v
T M k dt = T M k dt +
disc V n
k
i
k
if M k = U = unit tensor
n k
1
k = (1) v
T disc Vi n k
-Void fraction vs. liquid fraction
Tv
Tv
v
=
Tl + Tv Ts
Tl
Tl
l = 1v =
=
Tl + Tv Ts
Where Tl and Tv are the sum of time intervals for a local point
occupied by liquid or vapor, respectively, in the time period Ts.
- Derivation of local time-averaged equation
Operate on the local instaneous equation of k-phase by
yields,
1
dt
Ts
1
Ts
1
Ts t ( k k ) dt + Ts
Ts
v
( k k Vk ) dt
1
1
+ J k dt k k dt = 0 ,
k = l, v
T
T
Ts s
Ts s
Based on the limiting form of the Leibnitz rule, the first term of the above
equation can be expressed as:
1
Ts
1
Ts t ( k k ) dt = Ts
Tk
( k k ) dt
t
v
v
1 d
Vi nk
(
(
k k ) dt v
k k ) Vi nk
=
k
Ts dt Tk
Ts Ts Vi n
d Tk
=
dt Ts
Tk
( )
Tk
1
( k k ) Vi n k
dt v
Ts Ts Vi n k
v
Vi n k
d
= k k k v
k k
dt
k
Ts Ts Vi n
where,
1
k k
Tk
Tk
k k dt
Similarly, based on the limiting form of Gauss theorem, the 2nd and 3rd
terms can be expressed as:
1
Ts
v
1
Ts ( k kVk ) dt = Ts
Tk
v
( k k Vk ) dt
v
v
Tk 1
nk ( k kVk )
= ( k kVk )dt +
v
T
Ts Tk k
Ts Ts Vi nk
v
v
nk ( k kVk )
= k k kVk +
v
Ts Vi nk
Ts
1
1
J k dt = J k dt
Ts Ts
Ts Tk
Tk
=
Ts
Tk
nk J k
J k dt + v
Ts Ts Vi nk
Tk
nk J k
= k J k + v
Ts Ts Vi nk
The 4-th term can be rewritten as:
1
Ts
1
Ts kk dt = Ts
Tk
kk dt = Tk 1
Ts Tk
Tk
k k dt = k k k
Thus,
k k k + k k kVk + k J k k kk
t
v
v
V n k
Vk n k
n k J k
= v
k k v
k k v
T T V n
T T V n
T T V n
k
k
k
s
i
s
i
i
s
v
M k = ( 1)
Ts
1
v
Ts Vi nk
vd
m& Vv T k n = Vv + P + M
k
k ki
ki
k
k k
v
v
Ml + Mv = 0
)
v
= [ (q
k k ek + k k V k ek
t
)]
k k i k + k k i kVk =
t
v
v
vT
k q k + qk + k P k + Vk ( k P )
t
v
v T
+ qk k Pk V k
v v
nk J k
(V Vk ) nk k k
=
v
v
k
Ts Vi nk
Ts
Ts T Vi n
1
m& k k + J k n k
= (1) v
k
Ts Ts Vi n
k = l, v
v
1
m& k
k k + k k Vk = (1) v
t
k
Ts Ts Vi n
k = l, v
v
v v
v
k k Vk + k k Vk Vk k T k k k g
t
1
= (1) v
k
Ts Ts Vi n
m& Vv T k
k k
k = l, v
v
v
v
v v
k k ek + k k ekVk + k q" k Tk Vk k k g Vk
t
v
1
v
v
= (1)
m& k ek T k Vk n k + q"n k k = l, v
k )
T Ts (Vi n
s
Time-averaged properties
-- Density for each phase can be considered as constant in Tk where
k = k
k = l, v
fk = fk + fk '
1
fk =
Tk
Tk
f k dt
Similarly,
fk gk = fk gk + fk ' gk '
Time-averaged mass equations,
v
k k + k k Vk = k
t
k = l, v
k = ( 1)
Ts
1
m& k
v
Ts Vi nk
l + v = 0
Time averaged momentum equation
v
v v
k k Vk + k k Vk Vk
t
Where k
[ (
= k P k + k k + k
v v
= k V k 'V k '
)]
v v
+ k k g + M k
k = l, v
T
T
v
v
V k k k + k k + k : V k + ik
v
v
v
v"
d
ik = k iki + ai q ki Pki k + V k k + M k Vki V k + WkiT
t
1
< f > f dA
A A
where A is the cross section area
< k fk >
<< f k >>
< k >
v v
A F dA = z A Fz dA + C w n F dc
A M dA = z A n z M dA + Cn M dc
w
v
1
dA k k + k k Vk = k
A A t
where
1
1
=
(
k k ) dA =
k k dA = k < k >
A A t
t A A
t
v
v
1
1
( k k wk ) dA + C n ( k kVk ) dc
= a k kVk dA =
A
A
z A
w
=
k < k > << wk >>
z
1
= A k dA =< k >
1-D mass conservation equation
v
v v
1
dA ( k k Vk ) + k k Vk Vk
A A t
1
v v
T
= dA ( k p k ) + k k + k + k k g + M k
A A
where
v v
v v
v v
1
1
= k k Vk Vk dA = n z ( k k Vk Vk ) dA + n ( k k Vk Vk ) dc
Cw
A A
A z A
1
{
=
k k uk wk + k k vk wk + k k wk wk } dA
z A A
1
1
1
=
k k uk wk + k vk wk + k wk wk dA
z A A
A A
A A
=
k k wk wk dA = cwk k < k > << wk >> 2
z
A A
z
Where C wk
< k wk wk >
1
1
1
k + k T dA = 1 n k + k T dA
k
k
k
A A
z A A
1
T
+ nk k k + k dc
A Cw
Ps
1
T
T
T
=
k k xz + z yz + k zz + k xz + k yz + k zz dA
kw kw
A
z A
A
4
kw kw
D
1
v
= A k k gdA = k < k > g z
A
v
1
d
=
M
dA
=<
>
<<
W
>>
+
<
P
>
+
<
M
A A k
k
ki
ki
k
kz >
v
v
vd
1
1
1
< M k >= k Vki dA + P ki k dA + M k dA
A a
A a
A A
4
= < k > << p k >> kw kw + < k > k g z
D
z
+ < k > << wki >> + < Pki k > + < M kzd >
v
1
v" v"T
dA ( k k ik ) + ( k k i k Vk ) = k q k + q k
A A t
v"
+ ( k P k ) + V k ( k P k ) + k i ki + a i q ki + k
t
where
PH
PH
"
"
"
"
= < k > << qkz + qkz >> + kw qkw kw qkw
z
A
A
T
< k > k << ik >> + C ik < k > k << wk >> << i k >>
t
z
PH
"
= kw q kw + < k ><< Pk >> + << wk >> < k ><< Pk >>
A
t
z
+ < k > << iki >> + < ai q ki" > + < k >
< k i k wk >
1
where C ik
< k ><< ik >><< wk >>
The one-dimensional six-equation model can also be expressed in the
following vector form:
v
v
v u
v u
v
A (u )
+ B (u )
+ C (u ) = 0
t
z
v
P
v
v wl
v
v
v
Where u = and A (u ), B (u ), C (u ) are tensor depending uon
wv
il
iv
The characteristics of the set of equations can be evaluated by the
homogeneous part, i.e.,
v
v
v v
i
v u
v u
A (u )
+ B (u )
= 0 Let u = u (o) e
t
z
v
v v
i ( z t )
( z t )
v
v
A(u ) B (u ) = 0
The eigenvalue can then be determined. If is a complex number,
the system is unstable and the problem is ill-posed.
7.6 One-Dimensional Homogeneous Flow Model
The homogeneous flow model assumes that both phase have same
velocity and temperature.
-Quality vs. void fraction
v Av << wv >>
Wv
< x >=
=
Wv + Wl v Av << wv >> + l Al << wl >>
v < v > A << wv >>
v < v > A << wv >> + l (1 < v >) A << wl >>
1
=
l (1 < v >) << wl >>
1+
v < v > << wv >>
=
1
1 < x > < x >
=
+
m
l
v
The mixture momentum equation can also be obtained by combining
the two phasic momentum equations with Cwl=Cwv=1
4
2
m wm + m wm = P ( lw lw + vw vw ) + m g z
t
z
z
D
or
1 1
2
m wm + m wm = P f 2
m wm2 + m g z
t
z
z
De 2
Similarly the mixture energy equation can be obtained by combining
the phasic energy equation as:
PH "
m im + m wm im = q w + P + wm P + m
t
z
A
t
z
where
im=
mixture enthalpy
1
=
[ l l << il >> + l v << iv >>]
m
= (1 < x > ) << i l >> + < x > << i v >>
m + m wm = 0
t
z
1 1
P
2
m wm + m wm =
f 2
m wm2 + m g z
t
z
z
De 2
PH " P
P
+ wm
+ m
m im + m wm im =
qw +
t
z
A
t
z
-Define the vapor drift velocity as the difference between vapor velocity
(in the axial direction) and mixture superficial velocity.
wvj = wv j
-Gas phase velocity:
< v wv >
<< wv >>=
< v >
Thus,
Co = 1.2 0.2 v / l
The drift velocity is also a function of flow pattern:
For bubbly and churn flow,
g ( l v )
<< wvj >>= 1.53
2
l
g ( l v )D
<< wvj >>= 0.35
m + m wm = 0
t
z
The void fraction is determined by the
gas phase mass conservation equation:
1
<< wv >> << wl >>=
(Co 1) < j > + << wvj >>
1 < v >
Thus,
< v > l v
(C o 1) < j > + << wvj >>
=< v >
m
z
P
1 1
2
2
m w m + m wm =
f 2
m wm + m g z
t
z
De 2
z
< v > l v
2
(C o 1) < j > + << wvj >>
z 1 < v > m
m im + m wm im =
+ wm P +
t
z
t
z
q " PH
A
< v > v l
(<< iv >> << il >> ) [(Co 1) < j > + << wvj >> ]
z
m
1
< x >=
l (1 < v >)
1+
v < v >
-Mass conservation equation
Combine the vapor and liquid mass conservation equation yields.
[ l < l > + v < v >] + [ l < l ><< wl >> + v < v ><< wv >>] = 0
t
z
or
m + m wm = 0
t
z
where
m = mixture density
Topics to be discussed
(1) Interfacial transfer
-Interfacial area density
-Interfacial mass transfer
-Interfacial momentum transfer
-Interfacial energy transfer
(2) Interactions between each phase and wall
(3) Turbulent model in two-phase flow
8.1 Interfacial Area Density
Recall that the time-averaged 3-D phasic equation includes the
following interfacial term
1
1 Interfacial area
v v = =
L mixture volume
Ts Ts Vi n k
= Interfacial area density = ai
d
3 d
3 d
ai =
Ai =
=
Vd
3Vd / Ai
rsm
where Vd is the volume of a bubble or droplet,
Ai is the surface area of a bubble or droplet
rsm is the Sauter mean radius . For a spherical bubble or droplet, rsm=r
-Cross sectionally area averaged ai of bubbly, slug or churn-turbulent flow:
R
=
R
2Ri dz 2 Ri 2 R 4
and ai =
= 2 =
=
2
2
D
R dz
R
R
where
<>=average overall void fraction
Can=roughness parameter due to waves in the film
ld=liquid-droplet fraction in the gas core
jl
jle
jle jl
=
=
=E
jv
jv
jl j v
jle
E=
= entrainment fraction
jl
l
rsm = 0.00394
2
v v
Re
2/3
v
v 1 / 3 v 2 / 3
( ) ( )
l
l
l jl D
v jv D
Re l =
; Re v =
l
v
dz
v = ai m& v
hli (Tl Ti )
m& v =
ilv
where hli is the heat transfer coefficient between liquid and bubble.
Wolfert et al.s model
2 vr
hli = l Cpl [
Rb
l Cpl 1 / 2
]
t
kl
k l [1 + ]
kl
v
v
vd
M k = k Vki + Pki k + M k
vd
M k = M kD + M kv + M kL + M kw
D
k
v
v
v
= C L C d (VC Vd ) VC
CL=lift coefficient
The theoretical value for CL from ideal fluid flow analysis is 0.25,
Wang et al. show that CL=0.02 for bubbly flow.
The present mixture viscosity model compared to existing models for solid particle system.(From: Zuber&Ishii)
v
vv
d
dV r
c
Fd =
2
dt
v
v v
v
Vr v
1 1 + 2 d
v
M d = d
+ Vd Vr Vr VC ]
c [
2
1d
t
v
v v
v
Lb Db
Vr v
v
M d = 5[0.66 d + 0.27(
)] c [
+ Vd Vr Vr VC ]
L
t
ik k i ki + ai q ki = ai ( m& k i ki + q ki )
k and q ki have been discussed previously in the
models for mass transfer.
8.5 Interfacial between Each Phase and Wall
-Heat transfer between wall and each phase
For single-phase liquid flow or for nucleate boiling region, i.e.,
, Tw TCHF the surface is all or mostly covered by liquid.
q q CHF
Thus,
PH
lw
q
lw = 0
A
Conversely, for film boiling region the surface is mostly covered by
vapor. Thus,
P
lw 0 ;
vw =
< lw >= lw
PH
qlw
A
< vw >= vw
PH
q vw
A
P
is the two-phase frictional pressure drop, which will
z 2 , f be discussed in the next chapter.
T
k
v v
= k VkV k
T
k
v
= k v Vk
t
k
k
tb
v
v = 1.2 Rb Vr
tb
l
dP d G 2
1 1 G2
+ f 2
+ m gz
=
dz dz m
D 2 m
dP
= Frictional pressure gradient
dz F
1 1 G2
1 1 2
G (v l + x vlv )
= f 2
= f 2
D2
D 2 m
dP
= Accelerational pressure gradient
dz A d G 2
dx
2 d
2
dvv dP
= G
(vl + x vlv ) = G vlv + x
=
dz m
dz
dP dz
dz
Where the liquid phase is assumed to be incompressible.
dP
= Gravitational pressure gradient
dz G
g
= m g z =
v l + x v lv
v lv
1 1 2
dP
= f lo
G vl 1 + x
D2
vl
dz
Let
2
lo
v lv
dP
= 1 + x
vl
dz F ,lo
dP
v lv
dz F
= 1+ x
= 1+ x
vl
dP
dz F ,lo
vv
1
vl
f 2 1 2
v lv
G vl 1 + x
vl
D 2
dP
=
dz
dvv
<< 1
In general, G x
dP
2
gz
dx
2
+ G vlv
+
dz
v lv
vl 1 + x
vl
2 dvv
1+ G x
dP
dx x 2 x1
=
dz z 2 z1
z 2 z1
dx
or dz =
x2 x1
dv
Further assuming that G 2 x v << 1 , f 2 = f lo ,integration of
dP
f lo 1 2
G vl (z 2 z1 )
P = P1 P2 =
D 2
1
v lv
1 + (x 2 + x1 )
vl
2
v lv
1 + x2
vl
g z z 2 z1
2
ln
+ G v lv (x 2 x1 ) +
v lv
vlv x 2 x1
1 + x1
vl
d
d
4
2
l l wl = l Pl lw lw l l g z
dz
dz
D
d
d
4
2
v v wv = v Pv vw vw v v g z
dz
dz
D
Assume Pl = Pv = P and combing above two equations yields.
4
dP d
2
2
=
l l wl + v v wv + ( lw lw + vw vw )
dz dz
D
+ ( l l + v v ) g z
wl =
G vl (1 x)
1
wv =
G vv x
2
2
(
1
x
)
v
x
vv f lo 1 2
dP
d
2
2
l
=G
G
v
+
+
l
lo
dz 1
dz
D 2
+ [(1 ) l + v ] g z
xv
x
v
x
v
x
v v
2
2
(
1
)
(
1
)
dx
dP
2
l
l
l
+
2
=G
dz
1 x p (1 x)
dz A
2
2
2
(
1
)
dv
x
v
x
v v dP
x
2
l
v
+G
+
2
2
dz
dP P x (1 )
dP
=
dz
2
2
1 1 2 2
2
2
(
1
)
(
1
x
)
v
x
dx
xv
2
v
l
f lo
G lo + G
vl +
2 vv
2
1
D2
dz
x p (1 )
x 2 dvv (1 x) 2
x 2vv
1+ G
v 2
+
2 l
dP P x (1 )
2
[(1 ) l + v ]g z
2
2
2
x
vv
dv
(
1
)
x
x
2
v
1+ G
vl 2
+
2
dP P x (1 )
In general,
x 2
G
2
x 2 v v
dvv (1 x ) 2
v 2 << 1
+
2 l
dP P x (1 )
f lo G v l z 2 z1
P = P1 P2 =
D 2 x 2 x1
2
x2
x1
2
lo
dx
2
2
2
2
(
1
)
(
1
)
x
x
v
x
x
2
2
2
1
1 vv
v
+ G vl
+
+
2 vl 1 1
1 vl
1 2
z2 z1 x 2
+ gz
[
v + l (1 )] dx
x2 x1 x1
dP
dz F ,l
2
X =
dP
dz F ,v
0.2
1 x v l
X =
x l v
P
P
( )F
( )F
c
1
2
z
2
l =
= 1 + + 2 v2 = z
=
+
+
cX
X
1
P
X X
P
( ) F ,l
( ) F ,v
z
z
1.8
2
tt
Liquid
Vapor
Turbulent
Turbulent
20
Laminar
Turbulent
12
Turbulent
Laminar
10
Laminar
1 =
X
1 + cX + X 2
l2o = l2 (1 x)1.8
= (1 x)
1.8
l
+ 20 x (1 x)
v
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.1
l
+ x
v
1.8
0.2
l2o ( x) = 1 + ( I 2 1) Bx ( 2n ) (1 x) ( 2n ) / 2 + x 2n
0.5
l v
v l
Where I =
0.5
l
,
v
n/2
I
< 9 .5
9 . 5 I 28
>28
G ( kg / m 2 s )
500
500 < G < 1900
1900
600
>
600
B
4 . 8
2400
55
/ G
/ G
0 . 5
520 /( IG
21 / I
1500
/( I 2 G
0 .5
0 .5
2
lo
3.24 A2 A3
= A1 + 0.045 0.035
Fr2 We 2
f vo l
A1 = (1 x) + x
f lo v
0.78
0.224
A2 = x (1 x)
2
0 .91
0 .19
l v
A3 =
v l
G2
2
(vl + xvlv )
Fr2 =
gD
0 .7
l v
l
G2D
(vl + xvlv )
We2 =
P1 A2 P2 A2 = Wv ( wv 2 wv1 ) + Wl ( wl 2 wl1 )
Using the following basic equations:
G1 A1 x
G1 x
wv1 =
=
v A1 1 v 1
G1 A1 (1 x )
G1 (1 x ) A1
wl 2 =
=
l A2 (1 2 ) l (1 2 ) A2
G1 A1 (1 x)
G1 (1 x)
wl1 =
=
l A1 (1 1 ) l (1 1 )
G1 A1 x
G1 x A1
=
wv 2 =
v A2 2 v 2 A2
The pressure change through the sudden expansion can be expressed as:
2
2
2
2
A
v
A
v
(
1
x
)
(
1
x
)
x
x
2
v
v
1
1
+
P2 P1 = G1 v l
+
A
1
A
(
1
)
v
2
1
2
l
l 1 2
If the void fraction is unchanged through the expansion,
A1
P2 P1 = G1 vl
A2
2
A1 (1 x) 2 vv x 2
1
+
A2 1
vl
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
P1 P2 = l wl 2 + v wv 2 l wl1 v wv1
2
2
2
2
2
1 G2 (1 x)
1 G2 x
1 A2 G2 (1 x)
1 A2 G2 x
= l
+ v
l
v
2 l (1 2 )
2 v 2
2 A1 l (1 1 )
2 A1 v 1
vv x 2 (1 x ) vv
1 2 (1 x) 2
x2
= G2 vl
+
2
2
2
2
2
v
(
A
)
(
1
)
v
(
1
)
l 2
1
l ( A12 ) 1
12
2
If the void fraction is unchanged, the above equation can be simplied as:
1 (1 x) 2 vv x 2
1 2
P1 P2 = G2 vl 1
+ 2
2
2
2
vl
( A12 ) (1 )
where A12 = A1 / A2
Topics to be discussed
l Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based
on the 1-D drift flux model
l Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based
on the 1-D two-fluid model
l Two-phase flow characteristics in a boiling channel based
on the multi-dimensional two-fluid model
l Adiabatic two-phase bubbly pipe flow
isub , d =
Zsc
q" Cpl D
0.0022
Pe < 70,000 i = il (Tsat )
kl
q"
154
Pe > 70,000
G
Where Pe = GDCpl / k
i sub ,d and is the liquid
l
subcooling at the bubble departure point. From the
energy balance the bubble departure point can Zd
be determined as:
zd =
GD
=
(i sub,in isub ,d )
4q"
ZONB
i = ild
d
[(1 ) l wl ] = v
dz
Assume both liquid and vapor densities are constant, the above
two equations can be expressed as:
d
( wv ) = v vv
dz
d
(
(1 ) wl ) = v v l
dz
d
j = v vlv
dz
v = sat
4q"
=
i lv D
For the subcooled boiling region, the vapor generation rate may
be approximated by the following equation:
z zd
v =
sat , z d z z sc
z sc z d
where
z sc =
z zd
sat vlv z d z z sc
dj
z
z
sc
d
=
dz
z z sc
sat v lv
j (z ) =
sat vlv ( z z d ) 2
z d z < z sc
win +
2 ( z sc z d )
1
win + sat vlv ( z sc z d ) + sat v lv ( z z sc ) z z sc
2
The vapor velocity can then be determined based on the drift flux model:
wv ( z ) = C o j ( z ) + wvj
Thus, the vapor phase velocity can be expressed as:
wv (z ) =
(z zd )2
1
C o win + sat vlv
+ wvj
2
( z sc z d )
z d z < z sc
(z zd )2
1
sat v v
z d z < z sc
2
( z sc z d )
( z ) wv ( z ) ( z d ) wv ( z d ) =
1
sat vv ( z sc z d ) + sat vv ( z z sc ) z z sc
2
Assume ( z d ) = 0 leads to the following equation for void fraction
distribution in the channel:
1
2
(z ) =
( z zd ) 2
sat v ( z sc z d )
( z zd ) 2
sat lv ( z sc z d )
C o [ win + 12 v
] + wvj
z d z < z sc
sat vv ( z sc z d ) + sat vv ( z z sc )
z z sc
1
C o [ win + 2 sat vlv ( z sc z d ) + sat vlv ( z z sc )] + wvj
1
2
With the information of void fraction, the liquid phase velocity can be
obtained by the integration of mass conservation equation for the liquid phase.
0 z < zd
win
win
(z zd ) 2
1
1
z d z < z sc
sat v l
wl (z ) =
1 ( z) 1 ( z) 2
z sc z d
win
1
1
z>z
sat v l ( z sc z d ) + sat v l ( z z sc )
sc
1 ( z) 1 (z) 2
wv+ (z + ) =
+ 1 + 1 +
C o 1 + N pch z z sc z d + wvj+ z d+ z + < z sc+
2
2
1
( z + z d+ ) 2
+
C o 1 + N pch +
+
w
vj
+
2
(
)
z
z
sc
d
z sc+ z +
1 N pch Rvl ( z + z d+ ) 2
2 Rvl 1 ( z sc+ z d+ )
+
+
+
z
z
d
sc
1
( z + z d+ ) 2
+
C o 1 + N pch +
+
w
vj
+
( z sc z d )
2
N pch Rvl + 1 + 1 +
z 2 z sc 2 z d )
(
R vl 1
+
+
z
<
z
d
+
+
1 +
1 +
C o 1 + N pch ( z 2 z sc 2 z d + wvj
(z + ) =
z sc+ z +
N pch ( z + z d+ ) 2
1
1
1
wl (z + ) =
+
+
+
1 ( z ) 2 Rvl 1 ( z sc z d )
1 N pch + 1 + 1 +
z z sc z d
1
+
2
2
1 ( z ) 2 R vl 1
1
1
1
+
[N sub N sub,d ] z sc =
z =
N sub
N pch
N pch
+
d
Pe < 70,000
Pe > 70,000
N sub ,d =
N pch
q" PH L vlv
=
= phase change number
GA ilv vl
isub,in vlv
N sub =
= subcooling number
ilv vl
GDCpl
Pe =
= Peclet number
kl
A
vv
R hs =
Rvl =
PH L
vl
d
( v wv ) = v
dz
Mass conservation equation for liquid phase:
d
[(1 ) l wl ] = v
dz
Mixture momentum equation:
dwv
dwl
v wv
+ (1 ) l wl
dz
dz
dP
= v ( wl wv )
[ v + (1 ) l ]g M wl
dz
dwv
dwl
Av
+ Al
= v [wi wl (1 ) wv ] M iD
dz
dz
+ (1 ) ( l v ) g + M wl
Ph q"
d
[( 1 ) l wl il ] =
v iv
dz
A
( k k ) + ( k k Vk ) = k
t
k = l, v
Conservation of momentum
[ (
v
v v
v
t
( k kVk ) + ( k kVkVk ) = ( k P ) + k k + k Vk + k k gv
t
vD
vv
v
+ Mk + Mk + Mk
k = l, v
Conservation of energy
v
( k k ik ) + ( k k ikVk )
t
[ (
k Pk v
Akw + k
= k k k + k / Cpk ik + ki + q kw
+ Vk Pk
t
t
k
k = l, v
vD
vD 1
v v
v v
M l = M v = l C D ai (Vv V L ) Vv V L
8
v
v
v v
v
vV
vV 1
Vv Vl v
+ (Vv Vv Vl Vl )
M l = M v = v l
t
2
t
v
v
v
1
3
q
=
D
= q q vw
q lw
M l = lVki = lVv
vw
b , d v i lv f b N v
6
(b)
Steady-state mass conservation equation
v
k k Vk = 0 k = l, v
Where
v v
+ k k g + M k
k = l, v
v' v'
v
t
k = Re yonlds stress = k V k V k = l V
v
vD
vV
vL
vW
vp
Ml = Ml + Ml + Ml + Ml + Ml
T
v
Vr
Rb
M = 0.1 + 0.147 v l
n w
y
Rb
W
l
p
l
= Pli l
v
v
M v = M l
v
Pli = Pl C p v l Vr
v
v
kl
+ 0.6 Db Vv Vl
= C
l
t
l
v
lVl k l = l v lt k l + (Gl l )
v
vlt
l Gl
l2
lVl l = l
l + l C 1
C 2
k
k
l
l
v
vT
v
G l = v V l + V l : Vl
t
l
Li
I =
i Ai
dw
I
= Ppump Ploop
dt
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1) Loop inertia
(2) Pump pressure head
(3) Loop pressure drop
Li :duct length, Ai :flow area , i : i-th section.
w(t ) = w0 + w(t )
Ploop
d (w) Ppump
w
=
I
dt
w w
w w0
0
Ppump
d (w) Ploop
w = 0
I
dt
w w
w w0
0
P
Ppump t
loop
w(t ) = w(0) exp
w w I
w w0
0
lim w(t ) = 0
t
Ploop
w
>
w0
Ploop
w
<
w0
Ppump
w
stable
w0
Ppump
w
unstable
w0
Note that the excursive instabilities can be predicted through the use of
the steady-state head-flow curves of the loop and the pump.
6.9
P = P1 P 2 = constant
P2
Boiling boundary
P1
= P1 + P1
~
vext
G(s)
Forward Loop
~
vext
G
1 + GH
H(s)
Feedback Loop
Schematic of a linear negative feedback system (form Lahey & Moody,1977)
Linear system instability occurs when the system becomes self excited
Where G(s)H(s) is the open loop
v~ext [G ( s ) H ( s )] = v~ext
v~ext [1 + G ( s ) H ( s )] = 0 transfer function
v~ext 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0
G ( s)
close loop transfer function =
, becomes if 1+G(s)H(s)=0
1 + G ( s) H ( s )
I m [G( j ) H ( j )]
D-partition method-determine
the stability boundary directly.
Solving for Re[G ( j ) H ( j )] = 1
stable
-1
unstable
Im[G ( j ) H ( j )] = 0
Re[G( j ) H ( j )]
~
~
~
(P ) = 0 = (P1 ) + (P2 )
(6) Using the Nyquist theorem to determine whether an
operating point is stable or unstable; a stability map can
then be determined.