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2, JUNE 2012
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I. INTRODUCTION
ESTORATION is an important part of Advanced Distribution Automation (ADA), which seeks to restore the
unfaulted and outaged parts of a system due to the isolation
of a fault. Mathematically, the restoration problem is a combinatorial problem with the objective of maximizing the supply
of power for as many customers as possible while satisfying
source, line/cable loading, and often radial network constraints.
Different reconfiguration techniques have been proposed to
solve this problem, such as deterministic mathematical programming, heuristic techniques and knowledge-based systems.
In deterministic mathematical programming, the restoration
problem is often formulated as a mixed integer programming
(MIP) problem. Then, any available MIP technique can be
applied to solve the restoration problem. Nagata et al. [1] proposed a two-stage algorithm which decomposes the restoration
problem into two subproblems (the maximization of available
power to the de-energized area, and the minimization of the
amount of unserved energy). The algorithm is limited to dc
models which do not take into account the reactive power as
well as voltage variations. In [2], the authors presented the
Manuscript received December 20, 2010; revised June 20, 2011; accepted
January 18, 2012. Date of current version May 21, 2012. This work was supported by the Perfect Power project at Illinois Institute of Technology, fully
funded by the Department of Energy, Illinois Institute of Technology, and S&C
Electric Company under Award DE-FC26-08NT02875. Paper no. TSG-003812010.
C. P. Nguyen is with the GE Energy, Schenectady, NY 12345 USA (e-mail:
cuong.p.nguyen@ge.com).
A. J. Flueck is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616 USA (e-mail: flueck@iit.
edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2012.2186833
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NGUYEN AND FLUECK: AGENT BASED RESTORATION WITH DISTRIBUTED ENERGY STORAGE SUPPORT IN SMART GRIDS
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fault. In the latter case, the agent will detect the fault, then
locate and isolate the fault via MAS communication.
3) TRANSIENT: This contains the intermediate state where
the agent stays temporarily before transitioning to another
state.
4) RESTORATION: After moving to this block, the agent
will start the restoration process, including checking if the
team is ready for restoration, finding the restoration path,
and closing the switch to restore the team load.
During operation, the measurements including present status,
voltages
and
, and current
, are sampled regularly
and processed by the agent. Based on the measurements and
MAS communication, the agent will determine the new desired
status of the switching device. In addition, the switching agent
is also given the total load in each of the X and Y teams, the
capacity rating of the X and Y team line segments as well as
the capacity of the switching device, and the capacity rating
of a connected source, if any. These pieces of information are
used in the restoration process to describe source and network
constraints local to each agent.
(4)
(5)
It is seen from (3)(5) that both current magnitude and current
angle vary according to the three-phase terminal voltage.
Second, in POWER CHARGE mode, the objective is to
charge or draw the power from the grid at a user-defined
complex power setpoint. In this case, the DES can be modeled
as a voltage dependent current sink. That is, given the total
three-phase power charge setpoint
at the rated
voltage level
, if the terminal voltages are
,
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can be
TABLE I
POWER FLOW DATA OF THE MODIFIED IEEE 34 NODE TEST FEEDER
(6)
(7)
(8)
It is seen from (6)(8) that only the current angle varies according to the three-phase terminal voltage. The current magnitude is always constant in POWER CHARGE mode. Typically,
the charging power factor is maintained at 1.0, so
in (6) is
zeroed out.
Third, in VOLTAGE CONTROL mode, the objective is to
control the DES terminal voltage. The DES works like a generator that regulates its terminal voltage. That is, given the desired
voltage setpoint
, a set of balanced three-phase terminal voltages
is maintained as follows:
(9)
(10)
(11)
An example of DES power flow data is given in Table I with
the parameters explained as follows.
B. Agent Model
The DES agent is represented by the SYSTEM CONTROL
block seen in Fig. 3. During operation, the agent receives the
measurements including interface switch status (not shown),
mode, terminal voltages, and injection currents. Then, the agent
decides the proper interface switch status, mode, and settings
for the DES.
Fig. 5 shows a high level DES agent state diagram. A description of the detailed diagram with 12 states is given in [25].
Basically, there are three blocks and two states.
1) POWER DISCHARGE: The DES injects power into the
grid at the user setpoint of
.
2) POWER CHARGE: The DES draws power from the
grid to charge its battery system at the user setpoint of
. This mode is not allowed
while the DES is operating in an island. Before the DES
enters this mode, MAS communication is required to determine if the distribution network and associated source
can supply the charging current.
3) VOLTAGE CONTROL: The DES works as a voltage
source in an island. A voltage setpoint of
is maintained at the DES terminals. Within an island,
only one DES is allowed to work in VOLTAGE CONTROL mode. That DES is also called the master DES.
The decision on which DES is the master depends on
the availability of the energy and size of the DES units
in the island, which is determined in real-time via MAS
communication.
NGUYEN AND FLUECK: AGENT BASED RESTORATION WITH DISTRIBUTED ENERGY STORAGE SUPPORT IN SMART GRIDS
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Fig. 6. Configuration of modified IEEE 34 node test feeder equipped with agent-controlled switches, and distributed energy storage.
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NGUYEN AND FLUECK: AGENT BASED RESTORATION WITH DISTRIBUTED ENERGY STORAGE SUPPORT IN SMART GRIDS
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TABLE II
CASE 2: FULL RESTORATION SWITCHING SEQUENCE
TABLE III
CASE 2: FULL RESTORATION SWITCHING SEQUENCE
NGUYEN AND FLUECK: AGENT BASED RESTORATION WITH DISTRIBUTED ENERGY STORAGE SUPPORT IN SMART GRIDS
be activated to reconfigure the network such that the upstream island can be merged with the downstream island.
Initially, SCT_28 is opened to break Team 4 from the
upstream island.
At 18.3743 s, SCT_52 is closed to make Team 4.
At 18.6077 s, DES_16 is shut down to break Team 2.
At 18.6079 s, SCT_28 is closed to make Team 2.
At 18.6081 s, after sensing good voltage at its terminal,
DES_16 is reconnected to operate in POWER DISCHARGE mode.
At 18.7745 s, SWI_18 is closed to restore Team 3.
This case study shows the full service restoration following
breaker failure and communication failure events. The failures
cause the system to operate in two islands initially. Due to the
limited capacity of one of the DES units, merging is necessary
to achieve full service restoration. Priority load is also considered during the restoration process. The break-before-make
transfer scheme is employed for reconfiguring the network
during the restoration.
C. Loss Reduction and Voltage Improvement in Normal
Operation
Loss reduction is observed in the distribution system under
normal operation. With the presence of the DES units, the total
system loss is 120.056 kW as compared to 274.673 kW without
the DES units. The loss is reduced mainly because part of the
load is locally supplied by the DES units rather than the substation, which is electrically farther away.
In terms of voltage profile, most of the node voltages are increased slightly with the presence of the DES units. In particular,
the maximum voltage increase of 7.4% occurs at node 814.
VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
As the communication network penetrates deeper into the
distribution system and as distributed computing power improves in both speed and cost, the implementation of agent
based advanced distribution automation is becoming more
practical. The dNetSim-JADE simulation package provides a
realistic testing environment for advanced distribution automation via autonomous agents.
A new model and distributed control strategy for DES were
presented. Multiple benefits of DES were demonstrated through
two test cases: 1) In normal operation, the total system loss
was cut by more than a half and the system voltage profile was
slightly improved; 2) in abnormal operation, dynamic islanding
was achieved to restore the islanded portion of the grid; 3) Coordination of multiple DES units in the same island as well as in
different islands was achieved; 4) Load priority was considered
during restoration.
Future work will explore the optimal dispatch problem of
multiple distributed energy storage system units from the distributed perspective.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the sponsors for their financial support.
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Department of Energy Disclaimer: Neither makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability of responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process,
or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise
does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the U.S. Government or any agency
thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do
not necessarily state or reflect those of the U.S. Government or
any agency thereof.
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