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Applications of Nickel, Cobalt and Titanium based alloys

With an introduction of nickel, cobalt and titanium alloys, these alloys became the core of various industries like
aerospace, energy, chemical, in fact medical industry too. The outstanding mechanical properties, corrosion
resistance and bio compatibility make these alloys the best material for crucial applications. This article describes the
relationship between microstructure and mechanical characteristic of traditionally produced cast cobalt and Nickel
based superalloys and directionally solidified and mono crystal castings of nickel based super alloys. The
development of vacuum melting and casting technology for processing surgical replacements constructed of
titanium alloys are more emphasized.
Introduction
Development of aerospace has needed regular enhancements in the characteristics of materials because high speed
increases the material heating due to friction with air and increased power also increases the engine temperature.
The skin materials used have developed from wood to alloys of nickel, titanium and aluminum materials. Steel has
been replaced by nickel and cobalt alloys in the aeronautic engines.
Several advanced metals that are used in the present time were made with a single use in aircraft gas turbine or
engine. The parts in gas turbine engines are subjected to external conditions of every type: elevated temperatures,
corrosion gases, vibrations and high mechanical loads caused by centrifugal forces. An engine starts, accelerates,
decelerates ad stops every time when an engine propels, takes off and lands. The repletion of this procedure leads
to damage that is called as low cycle fatigue and simultaneously bending a wire back and forth repeatedly can result
in breakage of metal fatigue.
The key design of an aero-engine remained basically the same for almost thirty years. As the metallic materials have
been made to adhere in the elevated temperatures and large stresses, these have been included directly into
engines, replacing parts of less suitable components and hence improving functionality as well as consistency.
Manufacturing the aero-engines has been the most driving factor in the production of latest metals and the gas
turbine engine shows each type of vigorous condition that attacks to metals in correspondence to the advanced
aerospace engines.
The parts in the different segments of engine have various structural needs. The blades and vanes in the compressor
should be capable to withstand aerodynamic pressures and rotating blades should prevent the creep damage that is
the ability to extend gradually due to centrifugal force. The disks that possess rotating blades should be able to
adhere in the corrosion gases and at the elevated temperatures as compare to those occurred in compressor. The
parts across the engine should have a consistent microstructure to retain their characteristics for prolong periods of
utilization.
Super alloys of iron, nickel and cobalt have been used in these operations and are normally utilized at temperatures
above 800oC such as usually in 0.7 of the melting point. Cobalt, nickel and iron metals are transition metals with
successive positions in the periodic table. The nickel super alloys are commonly utilized. Their suitability depends on
the availability of chromium, particularly to offer oxidation resistance and other alloying elements to enhance
elevated temperature strength, particularly creep resistance.
However cobalt, nickel and titanium alloys are employed in cast as well as wrought forms, this article focus on alloys
that are made by melting and casting process.
Nickel based super alloys
Phases and structure: Nickel based superalloys comprise of austenitic face centered cubic matrix phase gamma
together with different secondary phases. The basic secondary phases are carbides of MC, M23C6 and M6C and
gamma face centered cubic structure ordered Ni3(Al, Ti) intermetallic compound. The strength of nickel based super
alloys is received from the toughness with which mono dislocations travel through cuboids of gamma phase.

A dislocation travels more easily through the undeformed gamma matrix of superalloy. Since the gamma phase is
ordered, although a single dislocation cannot travel through it conveniently and hence the cuboids of gamma in the
matrix pin traveling dislocations in place, making it more difficult to deform the material. When a second moving
dislocation welds the first one, the dislocation group can travel together across gamma cuboids with a nominal high
energy antiphase boundary between them. The superalloy hence prevents deformation and is tougher than a
traditional alloy.
The carbides may offer controlled reinforcing directly or higher indirectly. Directly refers to dispersion hardening and
indirectly refers to stabilized grain boundaries against excessive shear. Moreover those elements that offer solid
solution hardening and enhance carbide and gamma production, elements like boron, zirconium, hafnium, cerium
etc are included to improve the mechanical and chemical functionality. The following table shows a general list of
ranges of alloying elements and their contribution in the properties of super alloys.
Element
Chromium

Range %
5 to 25%

Molybdenum, tungsten
Aluminum

0 to 12%
0 to 6

Titanium
Cobalt
Nickel

0 to 6
0 to 20
Rem.

Niobium

0 to 5

Tantalum

0 to 12

Influence
Oxidation and hot corrosion resistance, carbides
and solution hardening
Carbides, solution hardening
Precipitation hardening, oxidation resistance,
gamma
Precipitation hardening, carbides, gamma former
Influences amount of precipitate
Stabilizes gamma phase, produces hardening
precipitates
Carbides, solution hardening, precipitation
toughening
Carbides, solution hardening, oxidation resistance,
gamma former

Traditional melting and casting procedure: to make a traditional turbine blade, molten metal is poured into a
ceramic mold and permitted to solidify. The eventual result is a fine grained polycrystalline structure in which the
special grains orient randomly. Various super alloys, specifically those with cobalt and iron, are air melted through
different methods applied to stainless steels, although for many nickel based super alloys vacuum induction melting
(VIM) is needed as the basic melting process. The vacuum induction melting method decreases the magnitude of
interstitial gases like oxygen and nitrogen, enables larger and controllable extents of aluminum and titanium to be
received and the outcomes in less contagion from slag or dross production as compare to air melting.
The nickel and cobalt based super alloys with large volume fraction of gamma phase are treated to complex
ultimate shapes through investment casting. The investment casting begins with preparation of extensible pattern,
often wax from pattern die. The application of extensible pattern has been considered as a differentiable attribute of
the investment casting procedure. The patterns are made on wax runner to produce an assembly that is shielded or
invested with a fine coating of refractory materials. In the major formation ceramic shell technique, the pattern is
executed with adjacent layers of refractory powder as long as a full shell has been produced. The wax is removed
from weld and it is blazed to produce strength, molten metal is dispensed into the hot mold and once it is cooled, it
is broken to give castings that are then eradicated from the runner systems and finished as per customer needs. This
procedure changes the molten metal in a sole operation to precision engineered parts with nominal material
wastage and minor machining need. It is definitely, the model of near-net- form.
Microstructure properties: Primary carbides MC, are initially produced while quenching of the super alloy melt.
Through additional quenching o the melt the gamma phase solidifies first and with decreasing temperature more
small cuboids of gamma are clustered in the gamma matrix. Finally residual melt solidifies as the matrix of double
phases such as gamma + gamma eutectic. The final size of gamma precipitates can be monitored through changing
the rate of material quenching subsequent to solidification. Slower quenching gives smaller gamma particles. The

superalloy engine parts become the most powerful when these are made of high extent of smallest gamma
particles.
The nickel based super alloys, specifically those containing gamma phase, normally sustain considerable strength at
the high temperatures about 900oC. The gas turbine parts of aero-engine are made of heat resistant nickel alloys.
These alloys are used to construct compressor blades in parts that encounter with air at its maximum temperature
and pressure limits. The turbine blades in the regions nearest the combustion segment where the exhaust gases are
hottest, are constructed using nickel super alloys.
The selection and use of super alloys widely depend on their characteristics. Considering this factor, the aero-engine
turbine blade and disks are constructed of nickel super alloys. Although, in the nickel based turbine blades, elevated
temperature operation may result into variation in microstructure that can be cause of vigorous damage of
mechanical properties. The blocky plate carbides having rectangular edges are noticed at the grain boundaries. The
count of gamma particles significantly reduces. A gamma denuded region occurs close to the grain boundary. Wit
increase in temperature, magnitude of gamma particles decreases considerably. Simultaneously this reduction is
more vigorous when the higher quenching rate was executed. Creeping resistance also decreases with increase in
temperature.
Directional and mono crystal solidification: Latest technologies are followed for processing of metals to produce
advance alloys. These methods empower a manufacturer to give form to specimens of popular alloys that were
never had before.
The most essential latest processing technique is known as directional solidification. Unlike multi- crystalline
solidification, the directional solidification includes preheating of mold to a temperature limit equal to the molten
metal, the lower portion of mold is connected to water quenched chill plate. It is kept in a warm region covered by
insulated heat baffles. The melt is poured into the mold and starts to crystallize in the portion of the cooled plate.
The whole mold is then slightly lowered and withdrawn, bottom prior, from the hot region. Generally, several small
sized individual crystals produce and randomly develop at the copper cooled plate combine with increased columnar
region of grains developing perpendicular to the cooled plate. The ultimate outcome is a specimen constructed of
multiply long, columnar parallel grains with hardly in the identical favorable orientation such as <100>.
An identical process can give rise to mono crystal castings without grain boundaries. In order to form a mono crystal,
a melt is dispensed into a ceramic mold that contains a pig tail shaped selector among the chill plate and the upper
portion of the mold. When the mold is taken out from the heat baffles, the columnar grains start to develop, but the
selector is very tight that just one of the crystals will develop across it. In fact as the mold extends the selector, a
crystal becoming bigger in diameter is the just one to develop into the mold and so the eventual specimen will be
formed of a mono crystal with a featured dendritic structure.
Inconel 939 contains high magnitudes of chromium and cobalt superalloy made for blades and vanes in the seawater
and land based turbines. The super alloy turbine blades of dissimilar microstructures are shown in the following
figure:

The typical casting is constructed of several crystals arbitrarily oriented, in directionally solidified blade columnar
grains are parallel to the vertical axis of the blade and several grains is widely decreased, mono crystal blade doesnt
comprise of grains. The outcomes of stress-rupture life analyzing of Inconel 939 super alloy show the considerable
enhancement in creeping resistance when the count of grain boundaries is decreased and parallel to unaxial stress
or in fact fully discarded. The improved gamma phase while heat processing enhances the stress rupture resistance.
The stress rupture life of the mono crystal castings was quite longer as compare to the stress rupture life of the
directionally solidified or particularly the traditionally cast material. This outcome describes longer stress rupturing
resistance of the mono crystal that is stated as the result of unavailability of grain limits as feeble portions in the
structure. The stress rupture life corresponding the mono- crystal of Inconel 939 castings are the nominal many
times more than the earlier reported in the study.
Cobalt Super alloys
Nickel based super alloys show drawbacks at the extremely high temperatures and therefore parts in the
combustion chamber that encounter with high temperatures up to 1100oC are often constructed of cobalt based
alloys.
The cobalt super alloys are stated in the following table that however do not have strength comparable to nickel
super alloys but these keep their strength at the elevated temperatures.
Alloy
X - 45

Carbon Manganese Silicon Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Tungsten Iron


0.25
0.5
0.9
25
10
7.5
Less
than 2
0.5
0.5
0.9
25
10
7.5
Less
than 2
0.35
0.5
0.9
29.5
10
7.5
Less
than 2
0.45
0.4
0.4
21
11
2

Cobalt
Rem.

0.1

1.2

0.8

20

10

15

Rem.

0.25

0.5

0.8

28

Less
than 0.2

Haynes 0.06
Ultimet
Cobalt 1.1

0.8

0.3

25

Less
than
1
9

Less
than 3
Less
than
0.75
3

0.8

29

Less

Less than 1.5

5.5

Less

Rem.

X 40
FSX
414
WI
52
Haynes
25
F 75

Rem.
Rem.
Rem.

Rem.

Rem

than
3

than

These alloy attain strength widely from a dispersion of refractory metal carbides of carbon that attempt to gather at
grain boundaries. This network of carbides reinforces grain boundaries makes alloy stable almost up to its meting
point. Besides of refractory metals and metal carbides, the cobalt super alloys normally possess high magnitudes of
chromium that provide them higher corrosion resistance that generally occurs in availability of hot exhaust gases.
The chromium atoms combine with oxygen atoms to produce a security layer of chromium oxide that secures the
alloy from the corrosive agents. Cobalt base superalloy are less harder than nickel alloys and these are not much
sensitive to cracking in the thermal shocks unlike other super alloys. The cobalt based superalloys are hence more
suitable for components that needed to be processed or welded like those in the intricate structures of the
combustion part.
Aero and Land turbines: the cobalt super alloys are highly suitable for resistance to the elevated temperature and
fatigue in the non-rotating applications that have stress levels smaller than for rotating parts. Therefore turbine
vanes and other stationary non-rotating parts are rapidly designed using cobalt alloys. These alloys also have lower
coefficient of thermal expansion and enhanced thermal conductivity as compare to nickel base super alloys that
make cobalt super alloys ideal for applications that include thermal fatigue as the prime problem. Providing prolong
operation life, land based casting structures use cobalt alloys for more vigorous conditions as compare to aircraft
engine counterparts.
Medical Industry: the alloys called as Vitallium has become popular for using in the orthopaedic implants, most
considerably as artificial hips and knees. It is normally called ASTM F75 containing chromium 29% and molybdenum
6% while carbon content is 0.35%. The inclusion of nitrogen has provided cobalt alloys to get high strength with
enhanced ductility even without compromising with corrosion resistance. The cobalt alloy implants are made by
casting, forging.
Titanium Alloys
The excellent strength, lightweight, superior corrosion resistance provided by titanium and titanium alloys have
made them popular in the wide range of industrial applications that need high extends of consistent functionality in
aerospace, automotive, chemical units, power production, oil and gas production, sports and medical industries.
As compare to nickel and cobalt super alloys, titanium based superalloys have lesser density and possess higher
strength to weight ratio for temperatures lower than 500oC. The titanium alloys are weak at temperatures lower
than half of their melting point, unlikely, superalloys retain their strength nearest to their melting point. In few
applications high strength and reliability at the elevated temperatures are not essential, and the weight of every part
is crucial. In gas turbine engines where temperatures and pressures are intermediate, the titanium alloys find many
uses.
Essential property of titanium alloys is the reversible transformation of crystalline structure from alpha hexagonal
close packed to beta body centered cubic structure at temperatures more than a specific level are called as transus
temperature. This allotropic nature that is based on the chemical composition of alloy, permits complex change in
the microstructure and further variable reinforcing as compare to other non-ferrous alloys.
The need for application of titanium and its alloys in the several sections of military and domestic applications has
been increasing in the few years due to demand for lightweights. The high cost of titanium and application of net
shape or near net shape techniques are receiving a great interest taking into account the affordable potential of this
technique in production of parts of complicated shapes. Precision casting is the fully produced net shape technique
as compare to powder metallurgy, sueperplastic producing and rolling. The major problems in manufacturing
excellent titanium and titanium alloy castings are: high melting points, intense reactivity of melt with solids, liquids
and gases at the elevated temperatures. Therefore conventional casting techniques and materials are not used in

melting and molding operations. Additionally, melting and pouring has to be done in vacuum or inert gas. The
precision molds manufacturing for titanium casting is identical to manufacturing investment molds for ferrous and
superalloys casting excluding some essential variations. The vital difference is in precision slurry production. The high
reactivity of melt titanium needs a particular care to the chemical composition of ceramic molds. Precision molds for
titanium castings should be constructed of particular high stability refractoriness like zirconia, thoria and yttria. The
most popular titanium alloy contains aluminum 6%, vanadium 4%, remainder titanium.
Medical Industry: The strength to density ratio of titanium alloy is better than other surgical implant material. Pure
titanium and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V are commonly utilized in prosthetic equipments, the selection depends on the
functional needs of material. Another benefit of these materials is their compatibility with computed tomography
and magnetic resonance. The excellent strength to weight ratio, fatigue resistance and small modulus of elasticity of
titanium alloy makes it an ideal alloy use in implantation into bone and it is commonly utilized for bone stems of
modular joints and prosthetic equipments.
Titanium alloy is used in preparing models of surgical implants that have a complex shape, a traditional precision
casting procedure was implemented using proprietart zirconium oxide ceramic shell molds.
All the three Nickel based superalloys, cobalt superalloys and titanium alloys have their own importance in the
applications of aerospace and medical industries.
----About Manufacturer
Heanjia SuperMetals Co., Ltd is an ISO certified manufacturer of nickel based superalloys. The main Nickel alloys
produced are Monel, Inconel, Incoloy, Nichrome, Nilo and Hastelloy made in wire, wire mesh, strip, sheet, plate, rod,
bar, pipe and tubing forms.

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