Fraction hyperbolas on the input stack. The input seismic lime is assumed to dip line.

If the line is not

along true dip, the migration velocities are calculated by dividing the rms velocities by the cosine of
the angle seismic line with true dips, as discussed by French
Kirchhoff or Summation Migration Kirchhoff migration is conceptually the simplest of migration
approaches. This discussion will follow Johnson and Franch.32 a reflector may be visualized as made
up of many closely space point scatterers. The impulse response in the domain to a point scatterer
the subsurface z is a hyperbola whose curvature is a function of the overlying velocity. Therefore,
summation over the hyperbola appropriate for each the sample of the input data set will add inphase all diffraction hyperbolas, image all the reflectors. The velocity field v = v(x,t) is used to
determine hyperbolic summation curves (portrayed earlier on the diffraction overchart). The
summation operator is weighted so as to honor the wave equation. The method is based on
kirchhoffs theorem for a point source integral solution to the wave equation. Scheneider35 describes
a 2-D operator which requires time domain convolution beneath hyperbolic apertures, than spatial
summation, the differentiation to correct the phase.
Aperture size is a key concept in seismic data acquisition and processing (see Fig. 10-11 and its
discussion in the text). Aperture size in kirchhoff migration referes to the number of trace forming,
or the width of, the summation (hyperbolic) operator. Energy cannot move farther than half the
aperture width: the larger the aperture, the longer the run time. The aperture should therefore be
carefully chosen to handle the maximum dips of interest. With proper aperture size, steep dips can
be handled well. Weighting schemes easily be apllied to decrease noise. The Kirchhoff techniques
has been adapted to migration before stack and 3-D migration.
Finite- difference techniques the widely used wave equation migration method pioneer by claerbout
and Johnson used a finite difference solution to the one way acoustic wave equation to describe and
manipulate propagating waves. Operating in the domain, finite-difference operator push or
propagate the wavefronts throught the earth. Due to certain approximation dips up to about 15
were migrated properly. Subsequent formulations of the migration operators allowed dips to 45o or
more to be properly migrated.
The cmp stack is the customary input for migration programs. Perfect prcessing has transformed
(stacked) the multioffset data collected in the fieldinto the zero offset section required in migration.
The zero offset section is the simplest, conceptual description of the end product of cmp stack. By
definition, the zero offset section is the wave field that would be recorded if each source on the line
used only one collocated receiver to record the reflection energy (see fig. 7-44).
The exploding reflector model(ERM) is currently the mathematical model of the zero- offset section
from which the finite-difference treatment of seismic data is derived. The zero-offset field
experiment concept is replaced by one in which the sources are on the reflectors, and the strength
and sign of the source are determined by the reflection coefficient of the reflector. At the time zero,
the sources are activated, following which the receivers, located on the surface of the
earth,recordedthe upgoing wave field. The recorded wave field is considered to be the zero-offset
section, as generated by the ERM. The travel time in the ERM, which one way time. In practice, the
velocities are halved, so that the time axis is unchanged.

There are, however, at least three situations in which in the ERM fails to mimic the zero- offset
section(claerbout14):(1) travel paths in which the downgoing path is not the same as the upgoing
path are present on the zero offset section and not in the ERM (see Fig. 7-45a). (2) multiple
reflections are incorrectly predicted. On the zero offset section, a flat seafloor reflection at t s has
multiples at 2t, 3t, etc. in the ERM, the seafloor reflection arriving at t s has multiples arriving 3t, 5t,
7t, etc. (3) in real data, reflection can exist from both sides of an interface, e. g., the sides of salt
domes, or salt swells, etc. 9see Fig. 7-45b). by the definition of a reflection coefficients, the two
reflection will have ooposite signs. The ERM will require the boundary to be assigned one reflection
coefficient, with the result that waves radiating from both sides of the boundary have the same sign.
Another limitation of the ERM is related more generally to the wave fields recorded in seismic
exploration : the ERM does not addres the problem of how to migrate non zero offset data.
Downward continuation. The closer the receivers are to the reflecting horizon. i. e. the sources in the
ERM, the truer and less complicated the reflected representation is. This is especially obvious in the
case of a syncline with a buried focus (see Fig. 8-18). Wave propagation operators, based on the one
way equation are used to calculate the wave field that would be recorded if the receivers were
closer to the reflectors. This treatment of the seismic data, termed downward continuation, is the
effective movement of the recording surface downward into the earth. The size of the Fresnel zone
discussed in sec. 9-1), the area of the reflecting surface contributing the major portion of the
reflected wave, depends upon the travel time of the wavefront[see Eq. (9-1). The shorter the
effective travel tim, the smaller the effective Fresnel zone, and the better the reflector is imaged.
The virtual movement of receivers into the earth shortens the travel time, thus having the effect of
decreasing the Fresnel zone and increasing the spatial resolution.
Downward continuation uses the stacked section as the initial wave field. This data set, recorded at
the surface of the earth, z= 0, is the wave field, P(x,0,t, )where (x,z,t) is the pressure amplitude of a
traveling acoustic disturbance at (x,z,t) (Johnson and French32). The propagating wave field is
describe by the 2-D scalar wave equation
The one way wave equation is used for simplycity of formulation and speed of computation, so only
waves propagating down (or up) are handled. The receivers are downward extrapolated, and at each
depth the wave field is evaluated for t = 0. If there is energy at t = 0, the receiver must be on source,
i.e., on are reflector.the wave field for each t = 0 as the receivers are pushed z steps into the earth
is stripped off as the migrated data set. The final section of time migrated data is P(x, z, 0). At t = 0 in
the ERM one has a snapshot of the reflectors before the complicatedeffects of waves propagation
begin.
cascaded migration a recent innovation is the sequential or multistep migration of data using the
inexpensive 15o finite difference operator to obtain superior migrated result at no additional cost
(larner and Beasley36). Since the time dip of an event is related to its earth dip by the overlying
velocity, a fraction of the true migration velocity, when used nto migrate the data, will cause the
time dips to be seen as a fraction of their true dip. Thus the effective dip of thew event usually be
well under 15o limitation, so minimal error or dispersion will ensue with each migration. A possible
division of stages in this type of cascadedmigration is to perform N migration with a velocity function
that is the true migration velocity divided by . The cost of multistage migration when the

multiplexed (sec. 7-1) output is input each time to the next migration step is no greater than one
step (conventional), 15o finite difference migration.
Frequency-domain techniques frequency wave number domain techniques were introduced in 1978
by Stolt37. The data are transformed (stretched) into pseudo depth domain to approximate a
constant velocity earth. The data are then 2-D fourier transformed. The migration is accomplished by
repositioning of the energy in the frequency-wave-number domain by means of the wave equation.
The data are inverse fourier transformed and stretched back into normal transit time. The
alogarithm is formulated for a constant velocity earth; the stretch allow for a stratified velocity
earth v = v(z).slow lateral change in velocity can be handled by changing the stretching function
along the line. Rapid or large change in velocity produce effects on the seismic data that are not
treated properly. In theory, frequency wave number migration can migrate dips up to 90o.
Relative costs frequency domain migration ios generally the fastest, and hance cheapest, way to
migrate data. Kirchoff migration takes longer but suffer less from spatial aliasing effects, performing
well in step dip areas. Finite difference approaches are relatively expensive. Dispersion due to
approximations used to calculating derivatives creates noise on the out section, but section after
migration do not appear mixed (a complaint of other migration techniques) due partly to the
dispersion noise and partly to the limitation of the operator which avoids smoothing of noise.
Depth migration (post-stack)
Normal rays and images rays. For unmigrated CMP stacks, the travel time to the events are
associated with normal incident ray paths, also termed normal rays. These are rays that leavethe
source and hit the reflector at 90o and return to the surface along exactly the same ray path, the
zero offset ray path. For time migrated section, the travel time to any event is associated image ray
path. These are rays that leave the surface perpendicularly and the reflectors at arbitrary angels (see
Fig. 7-46 and 7-47). Images rays have particular use in identifyingthe severity of lateral velocity
variations. If the image rays do not deviate substantially from the vertical, they can be used to
convert a time-migrated section to a depth section. This type of time to depth conversion is more
sophisticated and more accurate than the simple stretching of the time axis by the velocity function
(which is often the method used). If the image rays do deviate substantially from the vertical,
especially if they cros, time migration is not an appropriate imaging tool and depth migration in
necessary. If the image rays should cross, energy from each crossing point is displayedat two
different spatial positions on the time migrated section a situation which makes interpretation more
difficult. Interpreters prefer energy from a given subsurface reflecting horizon to be manifest only
once on a migrated section and placed correctly in space. Figure 7-46 illustrates the image rays for
the velocity plot of fig. 7-47a, and for the time migration shown in Fig. 7-37a. a further discussion of
image rays and normal rays is in Hubral and Krey38.
Depth migration is design to migrate data in the presence of strong lateral velocity variation. An
example of this shown in Fig. 7-47a, and the depth migrated data are shown in fig 7-47b should be
compared to Figs 7-36 and 7-37. For these data, depth migration is clearlythe more correct imaging
procedure, due to the radical lateral velocity variation. The input CMP stack is assumed to be the
zero offset section with no multiples. The output migrated section is in depth, and its appearance is
quite sensitive than time migrations to the accuracy of the velocity depth model.

Sometimes a geophyisicist has just the CMP stack, not accompanied by an image ray plot, with which
to decide wheter to time migrate or depth migrate. The presence of significant velocity anomalies
(pull-ups, push down, etc) on anomalies stand out when the seismic rms velocities are color plotted
on the wiggle trace or contured upon an overlay sheet to the stacked section. A time migration
would migrate the spurious (velocity induced) dips just like true structural dips, thus causing
further, and more complicated, distortion on the output (time migrated) section. When the
distorting velocity layers (or lenses) are accurately described in the input velocity field to the depth
migration program, the output, depth migrated section will have the velocity anomaly removed and
will portray an accurate image of the subsurface in depth. The accurately migrated depth section will
match the input depth model.
Time migration do not shift apexes of diffraction hyperbolas sideways. Depth migrations do. An
important example of this necessary spatialshift is the locity contrasts.the crest of the anticline is
incorrectly located in space after depth migration with the correct velocity field.
Most depth migration algorithms require the geophysicist to input a velocity model v(x,z) handle
dips up to about 45o, and work in (x,) space. The one way. Acoustic wave equation is used to
design the operators, which means, among other things, that multiples are not handled properly.
Depth igration is usually more expensive thant time migration, but produces a superior (and more
nearly correct) section when the correct velocity model is used.
Event migration in complex for data areas, it can be difficult to construct, without computer
assistance, the velocity model required for the depth migration. Iterative depth migrations, a
desirable approach, may be prohibitively expensive. Event migration is the in expensive tool used to
build the velocity depth model. The interpretable significant events on the time section are digitized
and depth migrated by use of ray theory and the geophysicists best guess for the velocitydepth
model. The model is updated by the new depth