5-Geosynthetics and New Materials

Geosynthetics and New Materials
A Case History of Using Geosynthetics for Slope Remedial Work

C. S. Chen
SSP Geotechnics Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (cschen@sspsb.com.my)
ABSTRACT There are many options to be used for slope remedial work. Geosynthetics is an option which
has become popular due to its cost effectiveness and easy to handle. This paper presents a case history for a
slope repair work. The failure of the slope was in a water treatment plant and adjacent to the sludge lagoon.
After the failure, soil investigation mainly consisted of boreholes had been carried out to gather the subsoil
information. Few options for slope remedial design were considered and comparison had also been carried
out. The comparison results indicated that using geosynthetics is the most suitable option for this site. The
design of the geosynthetics is briefly presented and discussed.
INTRODUCTION
A slope failure occurred after heavy downpour
in a water treatment plant. Tension cracks of
about 80m long can be observed at the top of the
slope. The perimeter fence and drains had also
been damaged. Figure 1 shows the conditions of
the slope after failure. As the slope is near to the
existing sludge lagoon, to prevent aggravation of
the failure which may affect the plant operation,
subsoil
investigation
was
carried
out
immediately after the incident to gather subsoil
information for remedial design.
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION
The soil investigation program consisted of 2
numbers of boreholes located within the failure
zone as shown in Figure 2. Standard Penetration
Tests (SPT) were carried out at 1.5m depth
interval and disturbed soil samples were
obtained for soil physical properties tests.
Fig. 1 Site conditions after slope failure.

(For colour figure, refer to CD)
The subsoil profile at the failure zone can be

simplified into 3 main strata. The first layer
mainly composed of soft clayey silt with
thickness of about 7 to 13m. The results of SPT
were around 3 to 4. Liquid Limit and Plasticity
Index are about 60% to 70% and 30% to 35%
respectively.
Fig. 2 Location of boreholes.

The second layer mainly composed of medium
stiff to stiff clayey silt with the results of SPT of
about 5 to 10. The Liquid limit and Plasticity
Index are about 40% to 60% and 14% to 33%
respectively. The thickness of the second soil
layer varied from about 3m to 17m.
Underlying the medium stiff to stiff soil layer is
hard soil layer with the SPT results of generally
more than 30. Judging from the slope failure
condition, the slip circle would not cut beyond
this hard soil layer. Figure 3 shows the typical
subsoil profile at the slope failure zone.
870
6th
International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

BH-1
SPT-N
(blows/300mm)
0
10
20
30
40
20
Ground surface
15
Ground Level (RL, m)
10
BH-2
SPT-N
(blows/300mm)
0
10
20
30
40
Retaining Structures Measures

The retaining structures include gravity type
retaining walls such as reinforced concrete wall,
crib wall, reinforce soil wall, gabion etc and
embedded type walls such as sheet piles,
contiguous bored piles, soldier piles etc. This
option is generally more costly as compared with
the geometrical measures. However, for sites
with space constraint, this usually is the option
to be adopted.
Soft clayey silt
Medium stiff
clayey silt
-5
-10
p
enhances the stability of the slope. However, this
method should not be relied completely.
Normally this method is used in combination
with other options.
Hard soil layer
-15
-20
0
10
15
20
25
Distance (m)
Fig. 3 Subsoil profile at failure zone.
THE PROPOSED REMEDIAL OPTIONS

There are many remedial measures can be
adopted for a slope failure. In general, the
commonly adopted options can be grouped into
the following categories (Popescu, 1996; Broms
and Wong, 1985):
Geometrical Measures
This method is to remove the materials from the
area driving the slip and/or to fill the toe of the
unstable slope. This is to counter balance the
driving force and therefore to enhance the
stability of the slope. This method involves only
earthworks and is generally easy and cheaper.
However, there should be sufficient space for the
earthwork. As there is a sludge lagoon at this
slope failure site, there was not enough space if
this option was to be adopted.
Drainage Measures
The main reason to cause the slope failure was
the increase in pore water pressure and
saturation of subsoil after heavy downpour.
Proper surface and subsoil drainage system
could minimize the potential of building up pore
water pressure and saturation of subsoil thus
Internal Slope Reinforcement Measures

This option is to increase the strength of soil
mass by installation of ground anchors, soil nails,
grouts, stone columns or others to increase the
stability of a slope. Generally this option is
costly and sometime could be used in
combination with retaining structures measures.
Adopted Measure
As the site is bounded by a sludge lagoon and a
small river at the toe of slope, there was not
sufficient space for the geometrical options.
Internal slope reinforced measure was not
considered as this is not suitable at site
especially when subsoil is soft and there was
also concern of higher construction cost.
Retaining structures measure in combination
with the drainage measure was the most suitable
option. Gravity type retaining walls were
selected after consideration of the cost and
method of construction at site. Few types of
retaining wall had been considered. The
reinforced concrete wall, crib walls, reinforced
soil wall and gabion were not in favour as the
owner preferred to have a green and natural
slope after remedial work. It was decided to use
geosynthetics wall with slope gradient similar to
the adjacent slopes and the surface would be
covered by vegetation.
Chen
THE REMEDIAL DESIGN

Investigation results indicated that the slope
failure was mainly caused by the increase of
pore water pressure and saturation of subsoil
which had resulted the subsoil strength reduced
significantly. Back analysis of the slope failure
was carried out to evaluate the soil strength and
the obtained soil strength was adopted in the
remedial design. The design analysis results
showed that the required width of the
geosynthetic wall should be at least 5m and this
geosynthetic wall shall be founded below the
slip surface. To prevent building up of pore
water pressure and to discharge the infiltration of
the surface runoff immediately, a 500mm thick
free draining sand blanket layer and a granular
base were designed to be located behind the
geosynthetic wall and underneath the
geosynthetic wall. Although the geosynthetic
wall can be built with steeper slope facing, a
gentle gradient was adopted in this case mainly
due to aesthetic purpose. The geosynthetic wall
will not be seen once the facing was covered by
vegetation. The reinstated slope and the adjacent
stable slopes will look similar. Figure 4 shows
the typical geosynthetic wall adopted in the
remedial design.
871
g
founding level, an investigation program by
using light dynamic cone penetrometer was
planned and implemented to ensure that the
geosynthetic wall was founded on suitable
subsoil. Any soft material found at or below the
founding level, it will be removed and replaced
by compacted suitable material.
The light dynamic cone penetrometer consists of
a cased harden steel pointer of 2.5cm diameter
with a cone having apex angle of 30 degree that
fixed onto a penetration rod. This penetration
rod is 1.25cm diameter and 1.2m long. When
more than a rod is required, the rods can be
connected by couplings. The driving is executed
using a 5 kg small hammer free fall through a
fixed height of 30cm along a guide rod. The total
number of blow counts for the pointer to
penetrate 30cm into the subsoil is recorded. The
consistency of subsoil can be assessed based on
the blow counts. Details of the light dynamic
cone penetrometer can refer to Ooi and Ting
(1975).
The construction work was carried out in section.
Once the excavation had reached to the design
founding level, a geotextile filter layer was laid
followed by a well compacted 500mm thick
granular base as shown in Figure 5.
Fig. 4 Typical section of geosynthetic wall.
THE CONSTRUCTION WORKS

The remedial work commenced with the
removal of the failed slope. The excavated soil
was temporary stockpiled at nearby location as
this material would be reused for the
construction of the geosynthetic wall. When the
excavation was about to reach to the design
Fig. 5 Installation of granular base.

The construction of the geosynthetic wall

commenced after the granular base was laid. The
designed geotextile was laid and then backfill
with compacted suitable soil as shown in Figure
6. To minimize the cost of imported suitable
Geomembrane Floating Cover for Anaerobic Lagoons in Thailand

H.B. Ng
GSE Lining Technology Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand (hermannn@gseworld.com)
R. Vengadasamy
GSE Lining Technology Co., Ltd. - India Liaison Office, Mumbai, India (vravikumar@gseworld.com)
ABSTRACT Today, HDPE geomembranes are gaining widespread popularity as a sealing system in cover
and bottom liner system of wastewater facilities, anaerobic/aerobic treatment ponds and evaporation ponds in
animal waste facilities. With its water-tightness and outstanding performance in many aspects, HDPE
geomembrane is a suitable material that meeting the Kyoto-driven greenhouse gas emission restrictions
and/or for Carbon Trading. The paper summarizes the experiences in Thailand that installed floating covers
on anaerobic lagoons to achieve benefits of using HDPE geomembrane for biogas collection and recovery,
energy production, odor control, protection against evaporation and contamination of groundwater.
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetic lining system has been extensively
used particularly for liquid and wastewater
containments, sanitary landfill facilities, etc since
its introduction in the mid 1980s. Among the
plastic materials utilized for geomembranes
purpose, high density polyethylene (HDPE)
geomembrane, with its superior hydraulic and
mechanical properties in combination with its
greater chemical resistance and ultra violet (UV)
light degradation resistance, is the most widely
used geosynthetic lining materials adopted for
various containments applications. Not only
served as barrier to isolate leachates generated by
waste to prevent underground water contamination,
HDPE is commonly used to contain precious
products to prevent loss into the ground, to
prevent rain water from becoming leachate and
avoid the groundwater contamination. This paper
presents the application of HDPE geomembrane
on wastewater treatment systems in Thailand.
HDPE geomembrane was introduced as base liner
system and geomembrane floating cover in two
anaerobic waste lagoons at brewery facilities with
the main objectives to enhance the anaerobic
digestion activity; control odor; and enable the

collection of methane gas that can be used as an
alternative fuel to reduce reliance on petroleum
fuel and natural gas. The paper focuses on the
wastewater treatment aspects based on the use of
geomembrane components to provide treatment
plants for industrial wastewater.
GEOMEMBRANE FLOATING COVER FOR
BIOGAS RECOVERY SOLUTION
Scientific consensus is in growth that natural
disasters such as floods, draughts and storms over
the past decade may have triggered by activities
such as farming, deforestation and burning fuel for
transport, power generation and manufacturing.
With the global warming effects, energy shortage
and environmental pollution problems causing
growing concern worldwide, the world energy
industry has reached a global consensus on the
issues include develop renewable energy resources,
speed up the application of new and clear energies
and actively promote an energy revolution. Global
alarm over climate change inspired the Kyotoprotocol, which set ambitious targets for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions among industrialized
874
6th
nations. Carbon trading allows these developed

countries to buy reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions from other countries with fewer
emitting activities, like developing Asian
countries
include
Thailand.
The
Clean
Development
Mechanism
(CDM)
allows
developing countries to sell carbon credits in the
form of certified emission reduction (CERs) to the
developed nations with emission-cut-obligations
under the Kyoto accord. This is a recognized
commitment in helping the world tackle climate
change. CDM is a source of additional income but
also an economic tool that helps to clean and
protect the environment particularly on reducing
the global warming effect. The CDM projects not
only help to improve the environment, but also
bring profits to local businesses and reduce
Thailands fossil fuel imports if the methane is
captured and recovered as energy source.
Geosynthetic liner is commonly adopted in
landfill base lining and capping system, mining
leach pad and water containment system. It is also
widely used to line lagoons, wastewater treatment
ponds and evaporation ponds in animal waste
facilities. Today, flexible geomembrane floating
cover has evolved into a proven technology for
protecting finished water resources from
evaporation, contamination and algae growth.
HDPE geomembranes have been extensively used
on waste containments as substitutes for
conventional clay, and works efficiently since its
introduction in 1980s. An important principle for a
floating cover system is to keep the liquid and
gases contained in the pond and keep rainwater
and other contaminants out, it is thus essential that
the membrane used has very low permeability and
water vapor transmission rate. HDPE is a wellsuited candidate among the geomembrane
materials used for floating cover system. Koerner
(1997) stated that a cover is required for many of
liquid containment structures for one of the
following reasons: loses due to evaporation (up to
80% per year), savings on chlorine treatment for
water reservoirs, savings on algae control
chemicals for water reservoirs, reduced air
pollution from reservoirs holding chemicals,
reduced need for drainage and cleaning, increased
safety against accidental drowning, protection

from natural pollution entering the reservoirs, e.g.
animal excretion, and protection from intentional
pollution, i.e. sabotage. An impermeable HDPE
liner with superior ultraviolet and exposed
weathering resistance can be a more cost-effective
solution compared to a rigid roof structure.
Herman (1999) reported that geosynthetic covers
are one-eighth the cost of metal covers and feature
a longer life expectancy. HDPE geomembrane
cover, as well as the other polymeric covers, has a
density lower than water density, floated on the
surface of reservoir or liquid containment, and no
infrastructure is needed to support the liner, hence
ease for installation. Increased environmental
awareness coupled with the increase in size of
many large animal farms has forced many animalproducing companies in the US to develop
environmentally friendly alternatives for treating
and releasing animal waste products (Ivy &
Corrigan, 2001). There are three direct benefits
resulting from covering the animal residual pond:
the odor control, rodents prevention, and the
electricity generated from the biogas in the animal
waste containment. At the peak time, one farmer
can capture enough gas to meet 70% of his farms
electricity needs (Herman, 1999). Using electricity
generated from the biogas can reduce two-thirds
of the monthly electricity bill of the farm owner.
By utilizing HDPE geomembrane as floating
cover to improve the anaerobic efficiency, it also
allows capture of methane gas for a clean energy
(Sadlier et al., 1994). An essentially impermeable
HDPE geomembrane sheet, with its excellent long
term weathering performance and chemical
resistance, provides an innovative and costeffective solution to the wastewater treatment
system. Taylor et al. (1993) emphasized on the
important of taking into account some special
design criteria on selecting a floating cover
geomembrane, which include: (1) proven history;
(2) weatherability; (3) strength; (4) seamability; (5)
flexibility (fatigue resistance); (6) potable water
compatibility; (7) chemical compatibility; (8)
repairability; and (9) floatability.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HDPE LINER
Ng and Vengadasamy
HDPE geomembrane is a flexible synthetic liners

manufactured from polyethylene resin with small
amounts of carbon black, UV stabilizers and
antioxidants. A thorough quality assurance
program needs to be established prior to the
manufacturing process as to ensure consistent
production of quality materials that meeting both
manufacturers requirements and the project
specifications. All the raw materials have to meet
the geomembrane manufacturers specifications
and pass the acceptance of conformance tests prior
to their utilization. Heat and UV stabilizers are
normally blended with the virgin polyethylene
resin to improve the longevity of the material in
exposed condition. Geomembrane sheet will pass
through an electrical spark monitoring device to
provide immediate notification of pinholes and
defects in the finished product before wound into
a plastic core. No fillers and leach-able additives
are allowed in order to ensure the HDPE
geomembrane maintains excellent resistance to
brittleness that may occur over time when
plasticizers are used. A series of laboratory
conformance tests shall be conducted to form the
final examination on the finished products. The
geomembranes must pass through various industry
standards on laboratory test, meet manufacturers
minimum and project specifications.
Round die co-extrusion technology is capable of
producing colored surface geomembranes such as
white. White surface geomembrane has been used
over the past few years in applications like water
reservoirs, landfill capping, tunnel lining and
floating cover system. It is a coextruded HDPE
geomembrane which incorporates a UV-resistant
light-reflective surface layer that can help to
minimize the heat buildup on liner, reduce thermal
expansion and minimize wrinkles, improve
visibility and easier damage detection, provide a
better working condition. Koerner et al. (1995)
concluded that the temperature monitoring
conducted on both black and white exposed HDPE
geomembranes shows significant reduction in
surface temperature of the geomembrane by as
much as 50% during Spring and Summer. The
surface temperature moderation tends to promote
lengthened lifespan of exposed geomembranes.
875
Thermal expansion/contraction needs special

attention during installation as to prevent bridging
effect at the toe of the slopes and corners, avoid
over-tensioning the liner when it cools, etc. With
the white geomembrane, it can be installed with
fewer, smaller wrinkles because the colored liner
exhibits less expansion and consequently less
contraction. A study conducted by Cadwallader et
al. (1993) showed that the calculated contraction
of a white surface geomembrane can be 39% less
than that of a black geomembrane and less prone
to potential failures due to stress cracking.
GEOMEMBRANE
COVERED
WASTE
LAGOONS IN THAILAND
This section presents the application of White
HDPE geomembrane floating cover at breweries
wastewater treatment plants in Thailand. The main
by-products of producing beer and spirits
comprise of wastewater and solid waste from the
organic raw materials used. For industrial effluent,
the water quality must comply with industrial
effluent standard of Ministry of Industry issued
under the Thailand National Factory Act B.E.
2535 (1992). The guideline for the relevant water
quality standard is published in Regulation and
Guideline of MSW Management issued by
Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Science,
Technology and Environment.
Jones (2009)
reported that a typical Thai distillery produces
about 120-150 cubic meters of wastewater each
day and a large aerated lagoon is used to treat this
water. Treated water is recycled and typically used
for plants watering. The aerobic digestion
treatment is a bacterial process occurring in the
presence of oxygen. Under aerobic conditions,
microorganisms rapidly consume organic matter
and convert it into carbon dioxide. Distilleries and
breweries usually produce high-strength waste that
needs intensive treatment. The waste is sent to the
wastewater treatment plant that consists of an
anaerobic lagoon covered by HDPE geomembrane
to keep oxygen out in order to enhance the
anaerobic digestion activity. Anaerobic digestion
is a bacterial decomposition process that is carried
out in the absence of oxygen. The wastewater
exiting the anaerobic digestion facility will
typically have elevated levels of biochemical
876
6th
oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen

demand (COD). BOD and COD are measures of
reactivity of the effluent which indicate the
polluting power of the waste or an indication of
water quality. Wastewater that is efficiently
treated by a three-stage process would have a
BOD value of less than 20 mg/L, the minimum
standard of Thailands Factory Act. The industry
benchmark for efficiency in reducing the COD is
about 70-75%. The first treatment is done by an
anaerobic system, which is effective in reducing
pollutants by 70-80% and has a low operating cost
and with biogas as a by-product. The final
treatment is through an activated sludge system,
which is an aerobic system that finally reduces
pollutants by 95%. The system helps to reduce the
organic content of wastewater.
Biogas contains approximately 60% methane and
the brewery biogas plants are designed to produce
33,000 cubic meters of biogas a day, providing
savings of 100% of the energy that required to
heat boilers and more than 6 millions Thai Baht
(USD$181,818) per month in fuel charges. The
factory reported that there is currently a surplus of
13,000 cubic meters per day of biogas that the
company is planning to use to produce about 500
MW of electricity. At one of the brewery, about
8,000 cubic meters of biogas can substitute for
about 4,000 liters of heavy fuel needed, which is a
saving of 2.4 millions Thai Baht (USD$72,727) a
month. Using methane to heat boilers also reduces
CO2 emissions by more than 20,000 tons per year.
HDPE floating cover is a cost-effective solution to
control odor and to generate electricity using the
methane collected from the waste ponds. As
shown in Figure 1, the waste lagoon in Khon Kaen
was lined with HDPE geomembrane as base liner
before covered it with White HDPE geomembrane.
The waste lagoon is designed with slope angle of
about 30o. The cross section of the anchor trench
is 500mm x 500mm in square with one meter long
runoff from the pond edge and is backfilled with
soil for anchoring purpose. The plant needs
treating up to 600 cubic meters of wastewater a
day from ethanol distilleries in the brewery facility.
The perforated gas collection pipe was installed
around the edge of the pond. The gas collected
from perforated pipe is transferred for further

treatment and provide energy for heating process.
A total of 155,000m2 HDPE liners were deployed
and seamed together to form the base barrier and
floating cover system of waste lagoon in the
breweries. A completed white covered anaerobic
lagoon in the brewery plant at Surat Thani is
shown in Figure 2. Biogas has been utilized in the
factory boilers for process heat as replacement to
natural gas and fuel, saving considerable costs on
energy while providing a payback on the
wastewater treatment. The bad odor was
effectively controlled and this has improved the
environment through geomembrane floating cover.
Fig.1 A near-to-completion floating cover system using

White surface HDPE geomembrane in Khon Kaen
GENESIS
Fig.2 A completed White surface HDPE Geomembrane

Floating Cover System in Surat Thani, Thailand.
CONSTRUCTION QUALITY ASSURANCE

White HDPE geomembrane panels are seamed in
the same way as that of black geomembrane, with
the same thermal welding methods and quality
control procedures. Geomembrane floating cover
installation requires experienced installer and
welders. It can be carried out on empty pond and
Ng and Vengadasamy
on the existing waste lagoon. The installation on

dry site can be done immediately after the base
lining. The liner installation on existing pond
involves: (i) excavating anchor trenches around
the existing ponds; (ii) arrange and deploy
membrane cover to position. In the case where
waste ponds are fully functioning, geomembrane
can be cut into the required dimensions and the
panels were seamed on the empty land. With
assistance of a floating raft on the waste as shown
in Figure 3, the cover membrane is positioned as
predetermined; (iii) the cover membrane is
anchored in the trench, and the trench is then
backfilled with soil; (iv) weight pipes are allotted
on the cover membrane. The storm water weight
pipes are HDPE pipes with diameter 150mm filled
with sand/concrete. The pipes are located such
that they can effectively maintain tension in the
cover while taking out the slack material. The
storm water weight pipe takes the slack out by
forming a trench in the cover as shown in Figure 4.
Fig.3 Floating Cover Installation on Wet Condition

HDPE floating cover

HDPE pond liner
Weight
Pipe
Anchor trench
with back fill
Fig.4 A Typical Section of Floating Cover System

877
A proper geomembrane installation and associated

construction quality assurance (CQA) is crucial to
the long-term performance of lining system. A
CQA plan is developed before construction and
used during construction to guide observation,
inspection, testing and documentation of all field
records. After seaming, a series of installation
quality assurance tests include non-destructive and
destructive weld tests, are carried out in order to
ensure the welding quality at site fully compliance
with the design requirements. The most common
methods of non-destructive seam testing adopted
in the field are air pressure testing and vacuumbox tests. The primary welding technique using
thermal wedge welder creates a double-track weld,
leaving an air channel in between these two weld
tracks, which can be used to non-destructively air
pressure test the integrity of the seam. When the
seam is completed, both ends of the air channel
are sealed off and the seam is pressure-tested to
determine its continuity. The non-compliance
seams shall be patched with extrusion welding
before retesting. Non-destructive vacuum-box test
is used to check the continuity of wedge weld
seam, extrusion weld seams, repairs and patches
that is not practical to conduct air pressure test.
Destructive seam test is used to evaluate bonded
seam strength, which involves cutting out a
section of the seam and tested until failure is
attained. Test strips are cut from the section and
tested on site. The destructive samples are tested
for shear-strength and peel-strength values, carried
out as per ASTM D 6392. Destructive shear test
involves application of a tensile stress from the
edge of one sheet, through the weld to the edge of
the adjoining sheet. For peel test, the overlapping
portions of the sheet are pulled in opposite
directions to observe weld separation behavior.
For floating cover, the destructive seam tests are
commonly carried out during the trial welds.
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
With the fast-growing of carbon development
mechanism projects for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and to improve the global environment
by using a clean energy source, many investors
have focused on the abundant resources of carbon
market in Asia. A more environmental friendly
878
6th
alternatives of treating and releasing waste

products than a traditional compacted clay liner
has become a new trend in this century. To control
the environmental pollution and groundwater
contamination, HDPE geomembranes are gaining
widespread popularity as a sealing product in
floating cover system of wastewater facilities.
HDPE geomembrane provides a more costeffective alternative to other storage containers
and is a well-suited material that meeting the
Kyoto-driven greenhouse gas emission restrictions.
The paper presents Thailands experiences of
using HDPE geomembranes in anaerobic waste
lagoons to serve as lagoon gas containment and
collection, odor control, and protection against
evaporation or contamination of groundwater.
Two successful projects on the application of
White HDPE geomembranes as floating cover
system for anaerobic waste lagoons enable
methane gas collection that allowing an alternative
electricity generation for factory operations are
discussed in the paper. Light reflective white
surface HDPE geomembrane is an excellent
candidate for exposed geomembrane floating
cover system. It not only helps to minimize the
heat buildup on liner, reduce thermal expansion
and minimize wrinkles problem, but it also
improves visibility and damage detection,
provides a better working condition. Since
different covers suit different types of lagoons, it
is important to conduct a complete evaluation and
diagnosis of the critical factors for geomembrane
installation and the operational requirements
specific to floating covers. It is recommended that
a qualified designer be consulted to review the
design and application. A proper selection of high
quality geomembrane liner and engage suitable
geomembrane specialist contractor associated with
a proper construction quality assurance program
are crucial to the long term performance of
geomembrane floating cover system.
From the successful experiences in Thailand and
the developed countries over the past years, it
concludes that with strong motivation and support
from carbon trading and the trend of utilizing
renewable energy source as a global climate
change mitigation, these can be of great economic
value and environmentally sound in promoting the

application of HDPE geomembrane in the waste
lagoons. HDPE geomembrane floating cover
offers a sealed environment to improve anaerobic
activity in the wastewater system; and is capable
of controlling odor problem. Through the biogas
recovery and utilization as an alternative energy, it
brings profits to local businesses and helps to
reduce the countrys reliance on fossil fuel, thus
contribute to the nations sustainable development
of energy and environment.
REFERENCES
Cadwallader, M., Cranston, M. and Peggs, I.D.
(1993). White-Surfaced HDPE Geomembrane:
Assessing Their Significance to Liner Design
and Installation, Geosynthetics 93 Conference
Proceedings, Vancouver, Canada, IFAI, Vol. 2,
1065-1079.
Herman, A. (1999). Floating Covers Usage for
Tanks Is Growing, GFR, Vol. 17, No. 7, 26-29.
Ivy, N. & Corrigan C. (2000), Animal Waste
Containment Using Geosynthetics, GFR, Vol.
19, No. 5, 30-33.
Jones, R. (2009). Thai Beer and Spirits Go Green,
Asia Food Journal, 1st September 2009.
Koerner, G.R. and Koerner, R.M. (1995).
Temperature Behavior of Field Deployed HDPE
Remembrances, Proc. of Geosynthetics 95
Conference, Vol. 3, Nashville, Tennessee, USA,
921-937.
Koerner, R. M. (1997). Designing with
Geosynthetics (4th edition), Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.
Sadlier, M.A., Russell J. and Harris M. (1994),
Innovative Geosynthetic-Based Waste Water
Treatment Systems, Proceeding of Fifth
International Conference on Geotextiles,
Geomembranes
and
Related
Products,
Singapore, 1057-1062.
Taylor, R.T., Schader L.R. (1993), Geomembrane
Floating Covers: Technology for the Nineties,
Geosynthetics 93 Conference Proceedings,
Vancouver, Canada, IFAI, Vol. 3, 1161-1172.
Constr uction of an Economic Road Using J ute Geo-textiles in Flexible

Pavements- an Exper imental Study
Er. M K Deb
Managing Director, Civil Engineering Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata -700084, India
(er.mkdeb@gmail.com)
S Chakrabarti
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata -700032, India
ABSTRACT In this study one small stretch in a road under construction have been selected where Geo-Jute
(Jute Geo-textile) in Woven and Non woven form have been placed in the various interfaces like SG-SB,
SB-BC with much more lesser thickness than the designed thickness in one side of the road and the other
side kept without JGT but with the same thickness of Pavement components. The Benkleman Beam
Deflection Tests have been conducted after completion of surfacing in regular interval and deflections were
observed where from requirements of overlay thickness have been calculated. It has been found that the
portion of road with Geo-Jute(JGT) have attained the deflection criteria for which no overlay required but
the other side are still in requirements of considerable overlay thickness . The results concluded with uses of
lesser thickness of road pavement with Geo-Jute in turns considerable saving in materials in the pavements.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent years the whole world has been
experiencing a great infrastructural development
in all regards. Road communication is one of the
basic components of this development. The Geotextiles are one of the most popular materials
which may be used in various road projects for
saving materials, time and providing durability
and longivity .Things are well enough if natural
Geotextiles can be used in solving the
construction problems as these are eco-friendly
and having no negative impact in the
surrounding environment. Jute Geo-textile
(JGT/Geo-jute) is one of the most wanting
natural geo-textile which can be used effectively
in solving various problems in road construction
and very much latest in terms of technology.
Experimental research projects have been
continuing by the researchers from various parts
of India and outside of the country for
approximately last twenty years where from
various results are coming out supporting the
uses of Jute Geo-textile in road construction

whether paved or unpaved. Ten numbers of Pilot
projects are already have been taken up in the
five nos of states of India i.e. West Bengal,
Orissa, Chattishgarh, Assam and Madhya
Pradesh by Central Road Research Institute, New
Delhi., Jute Manufacturers Development Council
(S) , National Rural Road Development Agency
(I). The Total evaluations of these projects are
yet to come.
This paper deals with an application of Jute
Geo-textile in woven and Non-woven form for a
small stretch of 200m at Agartala-MohanpurChebri Road at Tripura where one side of the
widened portion of the road was constructed
with inclusion of JGT in terms of different
combination of woven and non-woven form and
the other side of the road was constructed
without JGT with the same thickness of the
pavement. The works find out the comparative
6th
880
performance of with/without JGT Roads through

the results obtained from Benkleman Beam
Deflection Tests as well as field density tests.
EXPERIMENT AND METHODOLOGY
200m of Road Stretch was permitted for the
research purpose by the Chief Engineer (R&B),
Tripura at the mentioned road i.e. AgartalaMohanpur-Chebri Road, near Rangacherra
wherefrom 150 m of stretch was selected for the
purpose. The mentioned road is a old paved road
but designed to be widened by both the side
equally along-with strengthening of the existing
pavement. Research was mainly concentrated on
the widened portion only treating it as a unpaved
road. The widened portions were properly filled
up and compacted. The whole section has been
divided in three stretches with/without JGT as
detailed in the table 1
Type of Soil: Clayey Sandy Silt / Silty Sand

Grain size: Sand- (35 - 55) %, Silt- (20 - 50) %,
Clay- (3 - 30) %, OMC: (11.5 13.5) %,
Compaction at Field: (95-100) % CBR (Soaked):
(4.8-5.6) %, LL- (24-29) %, PL: (12.5-16.8) %
FMC- (10.81-22.02) %, FDD: (1.65- 1.96) T/m3
Soil Permeability- (2.34-4.39) x 10 -4cm/sec,
D50 <75 micron.
Laboratory Tests have been conducted for
finding out the properties of JGT as detailed
below:
TABLE 2 Laboratory tests results of jute geo-textile
Sl.
No.
Type of tests
Type of Cloth
TABLE 1 Road section
Stretch
Chainage
0.00 m
to
50.00 m
II
III
50.00 m
to
100.00
m
100.00
m to
150.00
m
Left hand side

towards Agartala
Woven JGT at the
interface of Subgrade and Subbase
Woven JGT at the
interface of Subgrade and Subbase and Non
woven JGT at the
interface of Subbase and Base
Course.
Non Woven JGT
at the interface of
Sub-grade
and
Sub-base
and
Sub-base
and
Base Course.
Right
hand side
towards
Agartala
2
3
4
Without
JGT
5
Without
JGT
6
7
Without
JGT
Soil Investigation in different phases in terms of

Field Density tests by sand replacement method,
Laboratory soaked CBR tests, Grain size,
Atterbergs Limit etc. reveals following average
characteristics of filled up compacted soil:
Weight(g/sqm) at
20 % MR
Thickness(mm) at
2 Kpa
Porometry (AOS)
(micron) O95
i)Tensile Strength.
(KN/m)
(Strip
method
Gauge
Length 20 cm
speed
250mm/min) and
% of Extn. At
Maximum Load.
Bursting Strength
(KN/Sqm)
Permittivity (/Sec)
at 100mm constant
Water
Head
Pressure
Permeability(cm/s
ec) at 100 mm
Constant Water
Head Pressure
Puncture Strength
(N)
Non
JGT
Woven
woven
Character JGT
JGT
DW SandTwill, wiched
Cloth Type
2up- Scrin
1Dn Cloth
790
623
1.72
4.57
180
240
MD
45.1
2.74
% Extn.
5.74
2.23
CD
21.3
2.20
% Extn.
4.69
2.36
679
169
0.18
0.58
0.03
0.26
620
130
Deb and Chakrabarti 881
205
225
20PC
430
Plate 1,
IRC:372001
Name of Road:
Agartala-Mohanpur-Chebri
Section:
Cumulative Design
Traffic :
Rangacherra
1.00 msa
JGT have been placed on prepared sub-grade

with a sand fill of 25mm thickness and in other
case directly over the layer materials.
Afterwards nailing have been done around
500mm spacing throughout the Jute mat placed
over sub-grade.
Binder Course
(mm)
Wearing Course
(mm)
Total Pavement Thickness

(mm)
Reference
Design CBR
(%)
Granular
Sub-base
(mm)
Granular Base
(mm)
Binder
Course
(mm)
Wearing
Course
(mm)
Total Pavement
Thickness
(mm)
Pavement Compositions
Bituminous
Surfacing
Reference
TABLE 3 Design provisions
TABLE 4 Practical provisions
50
20PC
275
Plate
1,
IRC:37
-2001
9 & 10
(Assumed
an
increment
of about
200 % due
to
inclusion
of JGT in
the
interfaces
than the
125
normal
Sub-grade
and
pavement
layers
were
arranged
to near by
value
compared
to IRC 372001)
Granular Base
(mm)
Pavement Compositions
Bituminous
Surfacing
Granular Sub-base
(mm)
Projected Design CBR

(%)
Proposal for the new pavement was made on the

basis of Design CBR and Traffic condition as
detailed below:
a) Type of proposed pavement:- Bituminous
carpet road
b) Carriageway width:- 7.0 M including 1.75m
Widening in both side.
c) Shoulder width:- 1.75 M(1.0m hard shoulder,
0.75m earthen shoulder)
d) Thickness:- 50mm BM over 100mm WBM in
Overlaid portion, 430mm in widened portion.
e) Bituminous Surface course
:-25mm
PMC
f) Base Course:-100 mm WBM (II) and 50mm
BM
g) Sub-base (in widened portion):-225mm
Granular material (Jhama, 63mm-80mm)
100
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Benkleman Beam Deflection Tests have been
conducted as per IRC:81-1997 and Field Dry
Density Test by Sand Replacement Method as
per IS:2720 (Part XXVIII)-1974 at regular
interval for assessing deflection and dry density
of the both sides of the constructed roads as well
as the requirements of further overlay thickness
have been calculated as detailed below:
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882
Fig.1
Road Cross section
TABLE 5 Comparative results of deflection in the

pavement after 32 (Thirty Two) days of carpeting
Stretch
Characteristic
Deflection
(mm)
LHS
I
II
III
0.624
0.617
0.636
RHS
3.175
3.208
0.146
Percent of
Reduction Of
Deflection In LHS
Than RHS
(%)
80.34
80.76
-
TABLE 6 Comparative results of deflection in the

pavement after 60 (Sixty) days of carpeting
Stretch
I
II
III
Characteristic
Deflection
(mm)
LHS
RHS
0.646
0.628
0.635
3.197
3.253
0.164
Fig. 2 BBD test on constructed flexible pavement

Fig.3
Installation of JGT
Percent of
Reduction Of
Deflection In LHS
Than RHS
(%)
79.78
80.68
-
TABLE 8 Determination of overlay thickness after

60 (Sixty) days of carpeting
Stretch
I
II
II
Fig.4
BBD Test could not be performed at this stage

(just after two years of construction) due to
machinery defects and will be presented in the
next course of time. Sand replacement tests have
been done at close interval where the earlier tests
had been done.
TABLE 7 Determination of overlay thickness after
32 (Thirty Two) days of carpeting
Stretch
LHS
I
RHS
LHS
II
RHS
LHS
II
RHS
NR-Not Required
0.624
3.175
0.617
3.208
0.636
0.146
0.646
3.197
0.628
3.253
0.635
0.164
TABLE 9 Determination of FDD & FMC before

placement of JGT
Stretch
I
Characteristic
Deflection
(mm)
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
Design Overlay
Thickness
(mm) (Ref. IRC
81,1997, Fig.9)
For 1.0 msa
NR
145
NR
150
NR
NR
NR-Not Required
Pavement construction
Road
Side
Road
Side
Characteristi
c
Deflection
(mm)
Design Overlay
Thickness
(mm) (Ref. IRC
81,1997, Fig.9)
For 1.0 msa
NR
145
NR
145
NR
NR
The performances up to Sixty days after

carpeting shows that the inclusion of Geo-Jute in
the different interfaces of the pavement layers
significantly affects the elastic modulus of the
pavement in an increasing order which ultimately
reduces the deflection of the pavement which is a
basic parameter of evaluating E value of the
II
III
I
II
III
Road
Side
LHS
LHS
LHS
LHS
LHS
LHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
RHS
Chainage FDD
(m)
(T/m3 )
15.00
30.00
75.00
90.00
135.00
145.00
5.00
45.00
60.00
95.00
130.00
145.00
1.73
1.67
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.66
1.65
1.67
1.67
1.65
1.96
1.94
FMC
(%)
19.07
16.49
21.14
13.86
13.09
13.46
15.64
22.00
18.12
22.02
10.81
11.75
pavement as a whole or by layers. The actions of

Geo-jute under which this reduction in deflection
have been occurred up-to this period are due to
simultaneous actions of the basic functions of
Geo-Jute i.e. initial reinforcement, Separation
and drainage. At this stage the function of initial
reinforcement is governing followed by the
function as separator and the function of
drainage features have been continued along with
the running monsoon. On the other end
III
25.00
40.00
70.00
55.00
140.00
140.00
1.79
1.69
1.79
1.70
1.73
1.98
FMC
(%)
Net % Increment of FDD

Due to Contribution of Geo-jute
Net % Decrease of FMC Due
to Contribution of Geo-jute
II
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
LHS
RHS
Chainage FDD
(M)
(T/m3)
Net %
Decrease of FMC
Road
Side
Stretch
6.70
I
15.60
1.18
6.90
5.52 8.70
Stretch
7.80
II
19.34
1.76
3.00
6.04 16.34
Stretch
4.04
III
7.30
1.01
6.60
3.03 0.70
Stretch Designation
Stretch
Net %
Increment of FDD
TABLE 12 Comparative results of FDD & FMC
TABLE 10 Determination of FDD & FMC after two

years of Carpetting
Net %
Decrease of FMC
6th
Net %
Increment of FDD
884
13.91
20.48
17.05
17.56
12.14
10.97
deflections are also revealing the fact that the

stretches covered by JGT have attained the
pavement stability whereas the other end without JGT
is still crying for considerable thickness of overlay.
The fact that stretch III of RHS showing lesser
deflection due to the presence of earlier pavement
below the filled up soil because few distance from this
point onwards the earlier road consists of old
pavement; was diverted towards Left side of the road.
At the same time the density tests after two years as
conducted reveals the increment of subgrade

strength to a better extent in the portion of
applied geo-jute than the portion of without geo
jute.
The results attest the increment of Sub-grade
Density as well as increment of moisture
reduction capacity along and across the sub-
With Geojute
Without
Geo-jute
grade due to the use of JGT as explained. The

conditions of JGT as used, were also verified
after taking out used Geo-jute from the Subgrade and from other interfaces. It is found that
the JGT as used just over the Sub-grade were
almost degraded and some new growing roots
TABLE 11 Determination of FDD & FMC after two

years of Carpetting
FMC Just After Two

years of Construction
Before
FMC
Just
Construction
FDD Just After Two

Before
FDD
Just
Construction
FMC Just After Two

Before
Without Geo-jute Portion
FMC
Just
Construction
FDD Just After Two

Before
FDD
Just
Construction
Stretch Designation
With Geo-jute Portion
Stretch I
1.67
1.79
16.49
13.91
1.67
1.69
22.00
20.48
Stretch II
1.65
1.79
21.14
17.05
1.67
1.70
18.12
17.56
Stretch III
1.66
1.73
13.09
12.14
1.96
1.98
11.75
10.97
early degradation due to enhanced bio-logical

degradation for the presence of bio-logical factors
already present in the soil sub-grade.
The results also confirm the material saving leading to
the economic aspects of the use of Jute Geo-textile. In
case of Total Thickness saving of materials is nearly
36% if Geo-Jute/JGT is used within the interfaces of
the pavement layers as in this case. However the use
of JGT in other interfaces except SG-SB do not attract
any meaningful contribution in the pavement
performance due to bursting and puncture failure of
JGT.
Fig.4
FDD Test by Sand replacement method

It is also understood that JGT placed within SG-SB

would have a better contribution if the JGT is
sandwiched by pure sand of considerable thickness
just over the sub-grade and just over the JGT layer.
The thickness of sand layer above JGT shall be
something higher than just over the sub-grade to
reduce the bursting and puncture effects of Sub-base
material with the JGT .
CONCLUSIONS
Following Conclusion have been framed after
this stage of experiments and analysis:
i) Inclusion of Geo-Jute in different layers
in flexible pavement performs very well with
considerable saving in material costs in Subgrade, sub-base as well as in total thickness.
Fig.5
Degraded JGT after two years

were found which are caused due to the existence

of seeds in filling soils. As in the interfaces it is
found that the JGT were not completely
degraded but torn out totally due to the
puncturing and bursting effects from the
interaction of supporting interface layers and
failed ultimately to contribute in the
performance. But the initial contribution by
initial reinforcement and initial separation during
the arrangements of layers in attaining
compaction can not be ignored. It is also
understood that the rate of degradation is lesser
in applied JGT in the other interfaces than the
interface between SG-SB as in sub-grade the
JGT comes directly in contact with the soil even
after using of 25mm sand filling and caused
ii) Geo-jute inclusion in the layers of road

pavement increases the layer modulus as well as
subgrade modulus of soil because BBD Tests
output i.e deflection is related to elastic modulus.
iii) As the provided thickness in the
stretches where inclusion of Geo-Jute in different
layers with average 40% lesser thickness than the
designed thickness are performing very well.
iv) Inclusion of JGT increases the FDD of
the soil sub-grade and reduces moisture content
as well, to a considerable extent.
v) The degradation of JGT is higher in SGSB interface than the other interfaces which can
be reduced by introducing sandwiched sand layer
over and below the applied JGT.
vi) As the inclusion of JGT reduces the
pavement materials as well as costs thus the total
energy is also reduced in road construction .
886
6th
REFERENCES
Chattopadhyay (1998 ) Application
of Geo Jute in Civil Engineering, ISTE,
B.E. College Chapter, 1998.
IRC:37-2001 Guidelines for the Design
of Flexible pavements, The Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi, 2001.
IRC:81-1997
Guidelines
for
strengthening of Flexible Road
pavements using Benkleman Beam
Deflection Technique, The Indian Road

Congress, New Delhi, 1997.
IS:2720
(Part
XXVIII)-1974
Determination of Dry Density of Soils
In-place by the Sand Replacement
Method, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, 1974.
Mandal, & Murti (1988) The Geojute
Age, 1st Indian Geotextile Conference,
IIT Bombay, Proc.
Bearing Capacity of Footings on Sand Beds Reinforced

with Wrapped Cushions
M H A Mohamed
888
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Mohamed and Mohamadien
889
890
6th
Bypass of Soft by the use of Vertical Columns in Combination

with Geocell Reinforced Load Transfer Platforms
A. Emersleben
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Clausthal University of Technology, Clausthal,
Germany (ansgar.emersleben@tu-clausthal.de)
N. Meyer
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Clausthal University of Technology, Clausthal,
Germany (norbert.meyer@tu-clausthal.de)
ABSTRACT Vertical columns are commonly used for the construction of embankments over soft soils to
reduce the settlement and improve the stability of embankments. The vertical columns are designed to
improve the bearing capacity of the soft soil and to transfer the load of the embankment through the soft
compressible soil layer to a firm foundation. To support the load transfer from the soft soil into the stiff
columns, especially if the layer thickness above the columns is small, geocell reinforced load transfer
platforms above the columns can be used.
INTRODUCTION
Vertical columns are designed to improve the
bearing capacity of the soft soil and to transfer the
load of the embankment through the soft
compressible soil layer to a firm foundation. If the
layer thickness above the columns is adequate and
the columns are placed close enough together, soil
arching occurs and the load is transferred to the
columns. If the distance between the single
columns is to large or the layer thickness above
the columns is too small, soil arching cannot be
mobilized In this case, load transfer platforms can
be used to transfer the applied loads into the
columns (figure 1). These load distribution
platforms consists for example of one or more
layers of geosynthetics reinforcement, which are
placed above the columns. Soil layers with a high
stiffness, for example hydraulic bonded base
layers placed above the columns are also possible
to transfer the loads to the columns. As an
alternative to these constructions geocell,
reinforced layers can be used as a load distribution
platform above the columns. Geocells are
honeycomb-interconnected cells that completely
encase the soil and provide all-around
confinement, thus preventing the lateral spreading

of the infill material. Due to the soil confinement,
the geocells increase the stiffness and the loaddeformation behavior and reduce the deformation
of the soil. The soil-geocell layers act as a stiff mat,
thus distributing the vertical traffic loads over a
much larger area of the subgrade soil. Several
model tests (e.g. Emersleben and Meyer, 2008a,
2008b, 2008c and Mhaiskar et al., 1992) have
shown the positive effect of geocells on the load
bearing capacity of soils.
Fig. 1: stress distribution above vertical columns in

combination with a load transfer platform
892
6th
LOAD TRANSFER PLATFORMS

To evaluate the arching effect within a soil layer,
trap door tests were carried out for example by
Terzaghi (1943) (figure 2). These tests have
shown that the arching effect mainly depends on
the layer thickness and the soil density.
Fig. 2: soil arching effect in a trap door test, Terzaghi

(1943)
With decreasing layer thickness above the stiff

vertical elements and decreasing soil density
between the vertical elements the arching effect
decreases. In this case, additional construction
methods are necessary to mobilize the load
transfer from the soft soil to the vertical elements
(figure 3).
preventing the lateral spreading of the infill

material. Due to soil confinement, the geocells
increase the stiffness and the load-deformation
behavior of gravel base layers and thereby reduce
the deformation of the soil (figure 4). Several
model tests (e.g. Emersleben and Meyer, 2008a,
2008b and 2008c; Mhaiskhar and Mandal, 1992)
have shown the positive effect of geocells on the
load bearing capacity of soils. Due to the
installation of geocells the stiffness and the load
bearing capacity of gravel base layers is increased
between two and four times. Besides the soilgeocell layer acts as a stiff mat and distributes the
vertical loads over a much larger area of the
subgrade soil. Because of that, the vertical stresses
on the subgrade and the settlements between the
load distribution platform and the subgrade
material are reduced. In the past geocells were
usually used for the stabilization of road shoulders
or gravel base layers of different road
constructions over soft subgrade materials
(Emersleben und Meyer, 2008a, 2008b and
2008c).
Fig. 3: construction of the load transfer platform

depending on the layer thickness and the load
application
Different load transfer platforms with and without

geosynthetics are commonly used to transfer the
loads into the vertical elements. For example:
x Load transfer platform with geosynthetics
(single or multiple geogrid layers)
x Load transfer platform without geosynthetics
(concrete base plates, stiff load induction)
x Hydraulic bonded load transfer platforms
Geocell stabilized load transfer platform
Geocells are honeycomb interconnected single
cells, which completely encase the infill soil and
provide an all-around confinement, thus
Fig. 4: reinforcement mechanism of geocells
Because of the load distribution mechanism of the

geocells, geocells can also be used as a kind of
load transfer platform above vertical columns. To
evaluate the influence of a geocell stabilized load
distribution platform placed above vertical
columns different field test were carried out. The
main goal was to transfer the applied vertical loads
from the soft subgrade into the vertical columns
and hence to optimize the thickness of the load
distribution platform (figure 5).
Emersleben and Meyer 893
TABLE 1: ground conditions

Depth
[m]
0,0 - 0,4
0,4 -14,2
4,5 - 11,3
0,3 - 11,3
Fig. 5: use of geocell stabilized soil as a load transfer
platform above vertical columns
BYPASS CONSTRUCTION FOR THE CITY

OF NEUHARLINGERSIEL IN NORTHERN
GERMANY
Construction
A 2.5 km long by-pass road was constructed for
the traffic discharge of the city Neuharlingersiel
in the northern part of Germany. The 2.5 km long
road section passes two sewers in the east and in
the west which had to be spanned by two bridges.
In addition, a small tunnel construction was
necessary to guarantee a safe crossing of walkers
and cyclists. The 2.5 km long road section is 6.50
m in width. At both sides of the road, 1.50 m wide
road shoulders and drainage channels are located.
To pass the two existing water channels the road
was build up on 3 m height embankments. The
two concrete girder bridges are 21.45 m (in the
area of the east sewer) and 38.25 (in the area of
the west sewer) long.
Ground Conditions
In the area of the construction site a stratification
of clay and sand layers with thicknesses between 6
and 14 m were explored below the surface level.
In some areas, 0.3 m thick peat layers are
interbedded.
Pleistocene sand layers are located below the soft
soil layers. An overview of the construction
ground is given in table 1: The water table was
found at a depth between 1.15 and 1.62 m.
7,1 -14,2
11,1 - 16,0
Soil
organic, sandy silt
Soft organic sandy silt
interbedded peat layer with
thickness up to 30 cm
Stratification of sand and
clay
Holocene layers
Pleistocene sand layers
Stiffness
[MN/m]
1,0 - 5,0
0,9 - 4,0
0,3 - 0,9
8,0 - 45,0
30 - 100
15 - 25
Construction
For the construction of the bypass road, a backfill
on the existing area between 0.50 m and 1.50 m
was necessary. In the area of the bridge abutments
the thickness of the backfill rises up to 2.90 m.
Due to the backfill large settlements were
expected. During the planning of the construction,
it was considered to carry out a pre-consolidation
as an alternative to a ground improvement. The
dumping height of the ballast needs to be more
than 5.80 m to ensure the required vertical loads,
which caused in large dam dimensions and
therefore further constructions problems. To
reduce the dumping heights controlled modulus
columns in combination with a load transfer
platform of geocell stabilized sand was carried
out. In addition, vertical drains were installed in
some sections to reduce the consolidation time. In
the area of the bridge abutments, a vertical load
due to the ballast and the traffic of 81.5 kN/m was
expected after construction, which caused in a
load of 400 kN on each column. The columns
were installed in a raster of 2.2 on 2.2 m. The
standard construction consists of a 20 cm thick,
sand filled geocell layer above the vertical
columns. The geocells were made from high
density polyethylene (HDPE) (figure 6).
894
6th
In the area of the two-layered geocell systems, one

earth pressure cell was installed between the
columns and another one was installed on the
column. In addition, one inclinometer monitoring
point was installed between the columns. Figure 8
gives an overview over the position of the
measurement equipment.
Fig. 6: installation of geocells above the columns
In one part of the construction, the geocells were

installed in two layers above the columns. After
installation of the geocells, a 1 m thick sand layer
was placed on the geocells. A schematic overview
of the construction sections is presented in figure 7.
Measurement
To evaluate the influence of the geocells on the
load transfer in one part of the construction
measurement equipment was installed (figure 7).
Fig. 8: position of measurement equipment and position
of the columns in the area of the bridge abutment
Fig. 7: schematic overview of the construction

alternatives and position of measurement equipment
In the area of the one-layered geocell system two

earth pressure cells were installed directly on the
columns and one earth pressure cell was installed
on the soft subgrade between the columns. The
earth pressure cells were placed beneath the
geocell layer. In addition to the stress
measurement, two inclinometer monitoring points
were installed. One monitoring point was installed
between the columns the other one was placed on
the column.
Measurement results
After the installation of earth pressure cells the
vertical stresses beneath the geocell layers were
measured during and after the construction at
different times. The measurement results for the
one-layered geocell system are presented in figure
9. The results show that due to the installation of
the geocells the vertical stresses are transferred
from the soft subgrade material to the vertical
columns. While vertical stresses of 150 - 160
kN/m were measured above the columns due to a
ballast thickness of 2.2 m, vertical stresses of 25
kN/m were measured between the columns on the
soft subgrade.
Emersleben and Meyer 895

600
vertical stresses [kN/m]
geocells, installed in one layer
500
EPC between columns

EPC above columns
EPC above columns
400
vertical stresses directly
on the columns
300
200
100
vertical stresses between

the columns
installation
of sand layer
0
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
1.20 2.20 3.20 3.20 4.20 5.20 5.20
30.0 19.0 11.0 31.0 20.0 10.0 30.0
Fig. 9: measured vertical stresses beneath the onelayered geocell stabilization, ballast height 2.2 m
In the test section of the two-layered geocell

system, similar measurement results were
observed. The measured vertical stresses on the
columns are significantly higher than the stresses
on the soft subgrade material between the columns.
On the columns, vertical stresses of 400 kN/m
were measured while only vertical stresses of 17
kN/m were measured between the columns
(figure 10).
600
vertical stresses [kN/m]
geocells, installed in two layers
500
EPC between columns

EPC above columns
400
300
vertical stresses directly

on the columns
installation
of sand layer
200
100
vertical stresses between

the columns
0
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
1.20 2.20 3.20 3.20 4.20 5.20 5.20
30.0 19.0 11.0 31.0 20.0 10.0 30.0
Fig. 10: measured vertical stresses beneath the twolayered geocell stabilization, ballast height 2.2 m
Compared to the one-layer geocell system the

measured vertical stresses on the columns were
significantly higher in the section of the two-layer
geocell system. The load transfer mechanism of
the two layer geocell systems seems to be more

pronounced. Measurements during vehicle
crossing tests after the completion of the
construction showed similar results. Compared to
the vertical stresses between the columns, the
measured vertical stresses above the columns were
significantly higher in both sections. The
measured settlements in the area of the
instrumented sections were between 15 and 20
mm, as predicted. It has to be observed that the
consolidation process has not been finished.
Further measurements will be carried out in the
future to evaluate the long term behavior of these
constructions.
REFERENCES
Al-Quadi I. L.; Hughes J. J. (2000): Field
evaluation of geocell use in flexible pavements,
Transportation Research Board 1709, S. 26
35, National Research Council, Washington
DC
Berthelot, P. ; Pezot, B. ; Liausu, Ph. (2005): Ein
neues Verfahren zur Bodenverbesserung CMC (Controlled Modulus Columns), 8.
European Conference on soil mechanics and
geotechnical engineering, S. Prag 2003
Bochert, K. M.; Kirsch, F.; Mittag, J. (2005):
Betonsulen als pfahlartige Tragglieder:
Herstellverfahren,
Qualittssicherung,
Tragverhalten und Anwendungsbeispiele,
Tagungsband zum Pfahl - Symposium 2005, S.
219
238,
Technische
Universitt
Braunschweig
Chaumeny, J. L.; Kirstein, J.F. (2005): Ein neues
Verfahren zur Bodenverbesserung: CMC
(Controlled Modulus Columns), GeotechnikKolloquium 2005, S 71 - 86. Technische
Universitt Freiberg
Cowland, J. W.; Wong S.C.K. (1993):
Performance of a road embankment on soft
clay supported on geocell mattress foundation,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes Vol. 12, S.
687 - 705
896
6th
EBGEO Entwurf 2009 Empfehlungen fr den

Entwurf und Berechnung von Erdkrpern mit
Bewehrungen aus Geokunststoffen
Emersleben A.; Meyer M. (2008a): Bearing
capacity improvement of asphalt paved road
construction due to the use of geocells - falling
weight
deflector
and
vertical
stress
measurements. Geosynthetics Asia 2008
"Geosynthetics in civil and environmental
engineering, Proceedings of the 4th Asian
Regional Conference in Geosynthetics, S. 474753, Shanghai, China 2008
Emersleben A.; Meyer M. (2008b): The use of
geocells in road constructions - falling weight
deflector and vertical stress measurements.
EuroGeo 4, Proceedings of the 4th European
Geosynthetics
Conference,
Edinburgh,
Scotland 2008
Emersleben A.; Meyer M. (2008c): Bearing
capacity improvement of asphalt paved road
construction due to the use of geocells - falling
weight
deflector
and
vertical
stress
measurements. Geosynthetics Asia 2008
"Geosynthetics in civil and environmental
engineering, Proceedings of the 4th Asian
Regional Conference in Geosynthetics, S. 474753, Shanghai, China 2008
Grundbaulabor Bremen: Geotechnischer Bericht
Nr.
1:
Gemeinde
Neuharlingersiel,
Ortsumgehung mit zwei Brcken und
Fahrradtunnel, 26427 Neuharlingersiel, 2002
(unverffentlicht)
Meyer, N.; Emersleben A. (2005): Einsatz von
Geozellen im Verkehrswegebau, Tiefbau
Ingenieurbau Straenbau (TIS), Heft 11, S.
32 37, November 2005
Meyer,
N.;
Emersleben
A.
(2006):
Bodenstabilisierung
mit
Geozellen
im
Straenbau, 21. Christian Vedder Kolloquium
q
(CVK)
Neue
Entwicklungen
der
Baugrundverbesserung, Heft Nr. 28, S. 85-101,
Technische Universitt Graz (TUG), 20-21.
April 2006
Meyer, N.; Emersleben, A.; Hartmann, I.;
Strauberger, D.: (2008): Tragverhalten
mineralischer Tragschichten im Straenbau
mit und ohne Stabilisierungsmanahmen,
Bauingenieur Band 83, Februar 2008, S. 71-78
Mhaiskar S.Y., Mandal J.N. (1992), Soft clay

subgrade stabilization using geocells,
Geotechnical special publications, Vol. 30, S.
1092 1103
Rogner J.; Stelter J. (2002): Bauverfahren beim
Straenbau auf wenig tragfhigem Untergrund
Aufgestnderte Grndungspolster, BASTBericht Nr. S 26
Terzaghi, K. (1943): Theoretical soil mechanics,
John Wiley & Sons, New York (bzw.
bersetzung ins Deutsche von R. Jelinek
(1954):
Theoretische
Bodenmechanik,
Springer Verlag, Berlin
Vollmert L.; Kahl M.; Giegerich G.; Meyer N.
(2006): Schleuse Neuer Hafen Bremerhaven
In-Situ Verifizierung eines erweiterten
Berechnungsverfahrens fr geogitterbewehrte
Grndungspolster
ber
vertikalen
Traggliedern,
Tagungsband
zur
Baugrundtagung 2006, S. 83 - 92, Deutsche
Gesellschaft fr Geotechnik DGGT, Bremen
Zaeske D. (2001): Zur Wirkungsweise von
unbewehrten und bewehrten mineralischen
Tragschichten
ber
pfahlartigen
Grndungselementen,
Schriftenreihe
Universitt Kassel, Heft 10, Februar 2001
Geosynthetics for Ground Improvement:

An Overview
Gohil D.P
Research Scholar, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India.(dpgohilcapri_2005@yahoo.com)
Dr. C. H. Solanki
Associate Professor, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India (chs@amd.svnit.ac.in)
Dr. A. K. Desai
Associate Professor& Head, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India (akd@amd.svnit.ac.in)
ABSTRACT
Soil transfers the built up forces in earth to reinforcement by friction which develops tension in
reinforcement. Geosynthetics is used in locations where shear stresses are generated because shearing stress
between soil and reinforcement restrains the lateral deformation of the soil. Under dynamic shear excitations,
slip deformations occur along smooth geosynthetic interfaces. Preliminary shaking table test on smooth high
density polyethylene and geotextile showed the concept of using geosynthetics to isolate a structure from
incoming seismic waves. Building model placed on a selected geosynthetic liner results the benefits of
utilizing a special geosynthetics liner as an energy absorbing system that can reduce building response during
an earthquake. This paper presents a review of the existing work done in this field and identifies different
areas needing further attention.
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics include a broad range of synthetic
products:
Geotextiles,
geogrids,
geonets,
geomembranes, geocomposites are the largest and
most diverse group of geosynthetic materials and
include all fabrics produced from polymer bers.
reinforcement involve
surrounding soil.
interactions
with
the
There are ve main functions of geosynthetic

materials: to separate dissimilar geomaterials; to
reinforce soil masses; to act as a lter in
controlling the transport of solid particles within
the soil; to provide drainage pathways within the
soil mass; or to impede uid ow by acting as a
containment/ ow barrier.
Apart from these functions the specific functions
of geosynthetics are too used as a localized stress
reduction layer to prevent damage to surface; to
damp dynamic mechanical action; to improve
shear resistance between two layers. Geosynthetic
functions
of
separation,
ltration,
and
Fig.1 Different function of geosynthetics
USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics are widely used to reinforce soil
masses in the design of retaining walls,
embankment, shallow foundations, roads, railway
tracks and slopes. In mechanically stabilized earth
898
6th
(MSE) applications, horizontal layers of

thegeosynthetics are sandwiched between
compacted layers of ll during construction.
Lateral spreading of the soil mass is resisted by
shearing along the soilgeosynthetic interface and
the development of tensile stresses within the
reinforcing layers. Internal stability also requires
that the geosynthetic layers provide tensile
anchorage against potential slope failures by
extending into the stable soil mass.
The design parameters are the tensile strength,
stiness of the geosynthetic, and the soil
geosynthetic interface shear and bond resistance.
Horizontal layers of geosynthetics are also used as
basal reinforcements for embankments constructed
over soft foundation soils. Tensile stresses develop
due to membrane action in the centre of the basal
reinforcement due to undrained deformations of
the soil. These stresses transfer through interface
shear tractions into both the overlying
embankment ll and underlying soft soil
improving coherence in the side slopes and
redistributing the forces transferred to the
underlying clay studied by Ausilio et.al. (2000).
The geotextiles which separate the soil sub grade
from the overlying aggregate (unpaved) road base
or railway ballast rely on tensile stiness and
strength properties of the geosynthetics. The
geotextile allows drainage but prevents intrusion
of aggregate into a softer underlying material
while preventing the pumping of ne particles
from the sub grade into the ballast. Geosynthetic
materials are routinely used for subsurface
drainage; these include edge drains behind earth
retaining walls and prefabricated vertical drains
used to accelerate the consolidation of low
permeability clays.
SOIL GEOSYNTHETIC
INTERACTION
Soil- geosynthetic interaction is important for
behaviour of the reinforced soil which depends on
the factors like soil and reinforcement mechanical
characteristics; soil-reinforcement interaction
mechanism and properties; geometry of the

reinforced system; shape, number, location and
alignment of reinforcements;; process of
construction; etc.
Hu Liming & Pu Jialiu [2004] studied by a
charge-coupled-device camera was used to
observe the sand particle movements near the
interface. It is shown that two different failure
modes exist during interface shearing. Elastic
perfect-plastic failure mode occurs along the
smooth interface, while strain localization occurs
in a rough interface accompanied with strong
strain-softening and bulk dilatancy.
Ling & Liu (2001) showed that geosynthetic
reinforcement increased the stiffness and bearing
capacity of the asphalt concrete pavement. Under
dynamic loading, the life of the asphalt concrete
layer was prolonged in the presence of
geosynthetic reinforcement.
Sireesh (Article in press) studied that geocell
mattress can increase the bearing capacity and
reduce settlement of the clay sub grade with void.
The geocell mattress must spread beyond the void
at least a distance equal to the diameter of the
void. With increase in the height of the geocell
layer, its moment of inertia and hence bending and
shear rigidity of the geocell mattress increases that
it effectively bridges the void and transmits the
footing pressure to the adjacent soil mass. It is
therefore profitable to have a dense fill in the
geocells.
Ghazavi & Lavasan (2008) did a parametric study
for the distance between reinforcing layers and
footings and the width and depth of reinforcing
layers on the bearing capacity. The results showed
that the reinforcement caused the bearing capacity
of interfering footings to increase by about 1.5 and
2 for one and two reinforcement layers.
Sharma et. al. (2009) showed that the bearing
capacity of soil improved when reinforced by
geosynthetics the reinforcement is placed within a
certain depth (or influence depth) beyond which
no significant improvement will occur.
Gohil, Solanki and Desai
Hajiani, et al. (2003) proved that the bearing

capacity increase with increasing number of
reinforcement layers, if the reinforcements were
placed within a range of effective depths.
GEOSYNTHETIC
ISOLATION
FOR
BASE
Base isolation systems have attracted considerable

attention in recent years. A large number of
studies have proved that these systems could be
used effectively for protecting structures and their
contents during a severe earthquake. Indeed, base
isolation is the separation of a building from the
destroying effects of ground motion utilising some
kind of isolators between foundation and
superstructure.
The use of reinforced soils to support shallow
foundations has received considerable attention.
Many experimental, numerical, and analytical
studies have been performed to investigate the
behaviour of reinforced soil foundation (RSF) for
different soil types.
The selection or development of a proper
geosynthetic material for use as foundation
isolation was the first important task of the
research. Several candidate interface materials
were explored for their suitability as foundation
isolator. Ideally, foundation isolation material
should satisfy requirements including:
The friction coefficient during sliding should be
small to minimize the acceleration transmitted
through the interface. In general, friction
coefficients between 0.05 and 0.15 would be
desirable for the isolation concept to be used
worldwide not only in regions of high seismicity,
but also where earthquakes pose a moderate threat,
and seismic mitigation measures can be cost
prohibitive.
The static friction coefficient should be slightly
larger than the dynamic coefficient to prevent
sliding under non seismic loads including wind.
To simplify introduction of foundation isolation
in engineering design, the friction coefficient
should be insensitive to several factors including
899
sliding velocity, normal stress, sliding distance,

moisture, and temperature.
The interface material should be resistant to
chemical and biological attacks, and to long-term
creep effects.
The maximum and permanent slip displacements
induced by an earthquake should be small enough
to allow functionality of the structure and its
utilities.
Cyclic loading
The suitability of various synthetic materials
for the purpose of foundation isolation. The
dynamic interface properties of these materials
are being investigated using a shaking table to
identify the most promising material for this
application.
Now- a- days geotechnical engineers have
interested in research program that was focused on
exploring the technical feasibility of using
synthetic materials as an alternative low-cost
seismic isolation technique. A base isolator
provides a discontinuity between a footing and
the overlying column. A base isolator performs
two functions: (1) It shifts the natural period
of the building away from that of the earthquake.
(2) It provides additional damping to absorb the
energy.
Thusyanthana et. al. [2007] showed that moderate
earthquake loading (base acceleration between 0.1
and 0.3 g) can result in a permanent increase in
geomembrane tension of 525%.
Unnikrishnan et. al. (2002) indicate that a thin
layer of high-strength sand provided on both sides
of the reinforcement is effective in improving the
strength and deformation behaviour of reinforced
clay soils under both static and cyclic type
loadings.
Hazarika (2006) explained the hysteretic
behaviour during unload-reload cycles is
significant above 0.5% strain as shown in fig: 2
900
6th
structure. This approach is foundation isolation

and is shown schematically in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 In-isolation cyclic load tests on HDPE

geogrid
Interface slip
The sliding block procedure assumes that
permanent deformation initiates when earthquakeinduced inertial forces acting on a potential sliding
mass exceed the yield resistance along the slip
surface. Deformations continue until the inertial
forces decrease and the velocities of the sliding
mass and underlying ground coincide.
Yegian and Kadakal (2004) explained the use of
geosynthetics liners for dynamic response of
landfill. Slip deformations occurring along
geosynthetic interface can limit the earthquake
energy transmitted to overlying waste or soil.
Results from dynamic analysis demonstrated that
smooth HDPE geomembrane/ geotextile liners
significantly reduce the landfill acceleration,
beyond an input base acceleration of 0.2g.
Hushmand & Martin (1991); Kavazanjian et al.
(1991); and Yegian & Lahlaf (1992) proposed the
concept of using a smooth geosynthetic liner
underneath building foundations to dissipate
earthquake energy through sliding along the
geosynthetic interface, thus transmitting reduced
accelerations to the overlying structure. The
research program identified a synthetic liner that is
well suited for seismic isolation. Two alternate
schemes were explored for the use of the liner.
The first was the placement of the liner
immediately underneath the foundation of a
Fig. 3 Foundation isolation

In the second approach, the synthetic liner is
placed within the soil profile at some depth below
the foundation of a structure. This approach is
referred to as soil isolation.
Yegian & Catan (2004), paper presented results of
shaking table experimental tests that were
conducted using a rigid block as well as a model
structure to investigate the performance of a
foundation-isolated structure.
Various tests including cyclic loading and rigid
block shaking table experiments are performed to
evaluate the dynamic response of various
interfaces. Displacement transducers are use to
measure the slip along the geotextile interface and
to measure the distortion of the columns of the
building model.
Fig. 4 Building model on shaking table experiment
Gohil, Solanki and Desai
Using UHMWPE/geotextile liner, the column

shear force in the building model placed on the
geosynthetic liner to the column shear force in
the model that was fixed to the table were
compared. The horizontal axis defines the peak
accelerations to which the three earthquake
records were scaled. The results show that at
a base acceleration greater than 0.07g the
geosynthetic liner absorbs energy, and thus
dramatically reduces the column shear forces
in the building model. For example, at a base
acceleration of 0.4g, the column shear force in
the building model on foundation isolation is
only 35% of that corresponding to the fixed
case. This demonstrates the excellent energy
absorption capacity of UHMWPE/geotextile
interface.
CONCLUDING REMARK
Geosynthetics are best option to improve
behaviour of soil mass in geotechnical projects.
New immerging field for geosynthetics as
foundation isolator to reduce seismic energy
transmitted to buildings can be a very cost
effective. It is also a simpler alternative to
earthquake
hazard
mitigation
measures
conventionally used in current engineering
practice.
REFERENCES
1) Ausilio E., Conte E., & Dente G. (2000)
Seismic stability analysis of reinforced
slopes Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering 19 159172
2) De, A., and Zimmie, T. F. (1997).
Factors inuencing dynamic frictional
behaviour of geosynthetic interfaces.
Proc. IGS (International Geosynthetic
Society) Geosynthetics97, Long Beach,
Calif., 837849.
3) Deb K., Chandra S. & Basudhar P. K.
(2005) Settlement response of a
multilayer
geosyntheticreinforced
granular
fillsoft
soil
system.
Geosynthetics International, , 12, No. 6
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4) Ghazavi Mahmoud &Lavasan Arash

Alimardani (2008) Interference effect of
shallow foundations constructed on sand
reinforced
with
geosynthetics
Geotextiles and Geomembranes Volume
26, Issue 5, October, Pages 404-415
5) Hajiani
Javad
et.al.
(2003)
Experimental
and
numerical
investigation of the bearing capacity of
model circular and ring footings on
reinforced sand. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes 21 241256
6) Hazarika Hemanta (2006) Stressstrain
modelling of EPS geofoam for largestrain applications Geotextiles and
Geomembranes Vol 24, Issue 2, April,
Pg. 79-90
7) Hu Liming & Pu Jialiu (2004) Testing
and
Modelling
of
Soil-Structure
Interface Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental engineering ASCE /
August / 851
8) Hushmand, B., and Martin, G. R. (1991).
Layered soil-synthetic liner base
isolation system. Final Report, NSF
Small Business Innovation Research
Program.
9) Hussain, S.M. (1994) Performance of
base isolated buildings in the Northridge
Earthquake, Proc.
Seismic Base
Isolation: State of the Practice, SEAOSC
Seminar, CA.
10) Ingold T S (1994) Geotextiles and
geomembranes
Manual.
Elsevier
Advanced Technology, Oxford, UK
11) Kadakal, U. (1999). Geosynthetics in
earthquake
hazard
mitigation.PhD
dissertation, Northeastern University,
Boston.
12) Kavazanjian, E., Hushmand, B., and
Martin, G. (1991). Frictional base
isolation using layered soil-geosynthetic
liner system. Proc., ASCE,3rd U.S.
Conf.
on
Lifeline
Earthquake
Engineering, Los Angeles,11401151.
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13) Kelly, J. M. (1997). Earthquake-resistant

design with rubber, 2nd Ed.SpringerVerlag, Berlin.
14) Kodikara Jayantha (2000) Analysis of
tension development in geomembranes
placed on landfill slopes. Geotextiles
and Geomembranes, 18 47-61
15) Koerner R M (1998) Designing with
Geosynthetics, 4th edn. Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ
16) Krystyna
Kazimierowicz-Frankowska
(2007)
Inuence of geosynthetic
reinforcement on the load-settlement
characteristics of two-layer sub grade.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes 25 366
376
17) Lahlaf, A. M. (1991). Dynamic interface
shear strength properties between
geomembranes and geotextiles. PhD
thesis, Department of Civil Engineering,
Northeastern University.
18) Lawson C R (1990) Geosynthetics. In:
Holloway E L Polymers and Polymer
Composites in Construction. Telford,
London, Chap. 10
19) Liming Hu and Jialiu Pu(2004) Testing
and
Modelling
of
Soil-Structure
Interface. Journal of Geotechnical and
August / 851
20) Ling Hoe I., & Liu Zheng (2001)
Performance
of
GeosyntheticReinforced Asphalt Pavements Journal
of geotechnical and geoenvironment
engineering Feb / 77
21) Luettich S M, Giroud J-P, Bachus R C
(1992) Geotextile lter design criteria.
Journal of
Geotextiles
and
Geomembranes 11 (4), 1934
22) Mahmoud Ghazavi and Arash Alimardani
Lavasan (2008) Interference effect of
shallow foundations constructed on sand
reinforced
with
geosynthetics
23)
24)
25)
26)
27)
28)
29)
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Geotextiles and Geomembranes Volume

26, Issue 5, October, Pages 404-415
S. Sireesh(Article in Press) Bearing
capacity of circular footing on geocell
sand mattress overlying clay bed with
void. Geotextiles and Geomembranes.
Sharma Radhey, Qiming Chen, Murad
Abu-Farsakh and Sungmin Yoon (2009)
Analytical modelling of geogrid
reinforced soil foundation. Geotextiles
and Geomembranes Volume 27, Issue 1,
February, Pages 63-72
Skinner, R. I., (1993). An introduction to
seismic isolation, Wiley, New York.
Unnikrishnan N., Rajagopal K. and
Krishnaswamy N. R. (2002) Behaviour
of reinforced clay under monotonic and
cyclic
loading.
Geotextiles
and
Geomembranes Volume 20, April Issue
2, Pages 117-133
Yegian, M. K., and Catan, M. (2004).
Soil isolation for seismic protection
using a smooth synthetic liner, J.
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering,130(11), 11311139.
Yegian M. K., & Kadakal U. (2004)
Foundation Isolation for Seismic
Protection Using a Smooth Synthetic
Liner Journal of Geotechnical and
November / 1121-1130
Yegian, M. K., and Lahlaf, A. M.
(1992a). Dynamic interface shear
properties of geomembranes and
geotextiles. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental engineering ASCE,
118(5), 760779.
Yegian, M. K., and Lahlaf, A. M.
(1992b). Geomembranes as base
isolation. Geosynthetic Fabric Rep.,
September.
Protective Polyethelyne Liner for Cast-In-Situ

Piles
V. T. Ganpule
M/s. V. T. Ganpule & Associates, Dadar (W), Mumbai, India (vtgasso@hotmail.com)
Samir H. Mali
M/s. Stefon Constructions, Dadar (W), Mumbai, India (stefons@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
The concrete shaft of bored cast-in-situ piles establishes contact with the ground water no sooner the guide
casings are removed i.e. within 15 to 20 minutes of the mixing. At that length of time concrete has not gained
even the initial set. And if the water is aggressive the pile shafts need a protective barrier preventing contact
of the freshly laid / concrete and water. When the piles are constructed in standing water column the steel
liners are obligatory but in all other cases the cost of the steel liner is prohibitive. It is for situations like this
polyethelyne liner is conceived and used successfully in Mumbai.
The paper deals with design, construction methodology of polyethelyne liner and outlines the limitation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The usefulness and versatility of concrete as a
construction material are due to the efforts of
many field and laboratory investigations, made
over the past century into its performance when
exposed to aggressive conditions. Quality of
concrete is not necessarily related to the
mechanical strength to fulfill the purpose for
which it was designed, but it will have to be
durable to resist attack and disintegration in
any environment in which it is placed. It is
essential that a concrete structure should continue
to perform its intended function to ensure the
required strength and serviceability during the
specified or expected service life.
The instability, induced in cast in situ piles as
consequence of certain elements like chlorides and
sulphate percentage is studied in depth. Here also
the study mostly relates to hardened concrete.
Moreover the harmful composition of water is not
completely revealed by the existing specification
of water testing procedure. Many a times the
damage is not due to chloride or sulphate
principally but some other phenomenon which
clears the ground for sulphate/chloride attack
leading to the disintegration of piles.
2. NEED OF STUDY - THE REVELATION

BY CASE HISTORIES
In last two decades it was observed, at number of
sites, that bored cast in situ piles on exposing,
were deteriorated. The studies undertaken to
analyze revealed that proper investigation and
testing of soil and water samples conforming to
the relevant Indian Standard specifications
(I.S.456) was carried out. Only after proper
analysis of data of soil investigation designers
proposed the bored cast in situ piles and yet the
piles on exposure were found to be deteriorated
probably because of adverse influence of
aggressive ground water subsoil.
It is in this background the study of aggressive
parameters of water which delay the setting and
hardening of freshly laid pile concrete and
preventive methodology was taken up.
3. CASE HISTORIES
There are many cases observed in and around
Mumbai where inspite of proper investigation
confirming the existing procedures of water
testing the bored cast in situ piles were found to be
in extremely deteriorated conditions. The sites
given below show pH, sulphate, chloride and
904
6th
Ganpule and Mali 905
The testing of cubes covered by polyethylene liner

is carried to see the effectiveness of the barrier in
preventing the degradation or loss of strength. The
experimental work is extended for flexural
strength and tensile strength of cubes. The 7.5 x
7.5 x 7.5 cm cubes were casted and tested to verify
the effect of size. (Surface/area ratio)
6. PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
There are two types of situation that are expected
in practice namely open footings and piling. The
providing thick PCC layer below the footing
projecting on all sides and continuous dewatering
for a period of 7 days shall solve the problem of
shallow foundation like open footings and raft
situated in aggressive ground water. The
polyethylene layer may be place below PCC and
also cover the thickness of PCC. But for piles
more attention as outlined below needs to be given.
The precautionary measures for piles in
underground environment falls in three groups are
detailed below.
i Type Of Cement
The first group of precautionary measures relate to
the selection of the proper type of cement
possessing adequate chemical composition. From
the literature it is noted that C3A develops strength
immediately on mixing. The addition of C3A
content in higher percentage shall help this aspect
but there are some other disadvantages and hence
percentage of C3A in is restricted and it is
obligatory not to exceed it.
The durability of concrete made up of Portland
slag cement and Portland pozzolona cement is far
superior to that of OPC. The laboratory results
amply show that use of Portland slag cement is
most beneficial from the durability point of view.
It is therefore desirable to use Portland slag
cement for all underground work.
ii Mix Design
The limiting the water cement ratio to 0.4 shall
reduce the permeability of the concrete and hence
improve its durability. The other aspects is proper
gradation of aggregates both coarse as well as fine
cement shall lead to a dense mix by virtue of
minimizing the void in dry mix Naturally the
concrete produced with proper gradation of
aggregate shall have less permeability.
From the experimental results it can be seen that

with the richer grade of concrete durability
improves. It is therefore desirable to have
minimum M 30 grade of concrete on limiting w/c
ratio to all underground works.
iii Protective Liner
It is quite customary to use steel sacrificial liners
in piling. But the cost of steel liners is very high.
Moreover the steel liners are corrosive in nature.
Therefore to be purposeful though out the service
life of a structure it is necessary to have thicker
liners (5mm and above) which further increases
the cost. It is in this background the use
polyethelyne liner is conceived.
Both experimental observation and field
experience confirm the effectiveness of such liner.
The following paragraphs cover the design and
construction aspects of use of polyethylene liner.
7. THE POLY-ETHELYNE LINER AS
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
i Hydration And Setting Of Concrete
In order to prevent the contact of cubes and the
curing water the polyethelyne liner was introduced
on covering the cubes from all sides. The top of
the cube was not covered. The effectiveness of the
liner is established on noting that the water
penetration on side faces is totally absent and the
water has not penetrated at all while penetration of
water below the top surface of the cubes not
covered with liner is observed to be more or less
closer to the penetration of water in the other
cubes not covered with polyethylene liner.
There was a drop in crushing strength of cubes
covered with polyethelyne liner cured in ground
water when compared with the strength of cubes
cured in normal water. The drop is more or less
constant irrespective of nature of curing water.
Introduction of polyethelyne liner to cover the
surfaces resembles the membrane type of curing.
It is known that for hydration to continue the
relative humidity shall be maintained atleast upto
80 %. In the case of underground concrete being
cured in under ground water the loss due to
evaporation does not take place and relative
humidity minimum required is always assured for
all underwater concrete. At this juncture, it is of
906
6th
interest to note the hydration of sealed specimen

like the cubes covered with polyethelyne liner can
proceed with the amount of water present in the
pores is twice that of water already combined in
chemical reaction. The desiccation is important in
mixes with water cement ratio below say 0.5; for
higher water cement ratio of hydration of sealed
specimen does not slow down. But for water
cement ratio less than 0.5 such slowing in the
hydration process is anticipated. For the concrete
used in the experimental work the water cement
ratio of 0.45 was adopted. Naturally, somewhat
slow rate of hydration is expected. It should noted,
however that only half the water present at a
instant can be used for chemical combination; this
is so even if the total amount of water present is
less than water required for chemical combination.
Nowadays the water cement ratio of 0.45 or lower
is used for bored cast in situ piles which may
delay the complete hydration of the concrete
covered with the membrane like polyethylene but
eventually as the water cement ratio used in the
mix is more than the minimum water cement ratio
required for chemical reaction the hydration will
reach it completion or near completion though
some what slowly. The test results do confirm
delay in hydration but it may be remembered that
the pile will be subjected to a full load after
relatively greater period probably more than
couple of months atleast the resort to polyethelyne
liner will not prevent the complete hydration but
the liner will only help in ensuring the hydration
take place completely without deterioration or
degradation due to quality of ground water by
providing impermeable barrier between the water
and pile shaft.
This particular observation is confirmed by results
of the cubes covered polyethelyne liner that were
the tested for 90 days the desired strength on 28
days is certainly achieved confirming the
hydration has been nearly complete within 45 days
to 90 days.The detailed discussions on the design
and construction aspects of polyethylene liner are
presented below.
ii Design Aspects:
The freshly laid concrete of pile shafts induces
hydrostatic pressure on the polyethelyne liner or
guide casings. The hoop stress thus developed is
quite appreciable particularly when the depth of
liner/casings
serving
the
purpose
of
shiel/protective layer is more than 4 meter. In
most of the field situation, the liner to the tune of 6
meter and above is necessary to be purposeful.
Such hoop stress can easily be negotiated by steel
liner. But the polyethelyne liner comprises of
material which is weak as observed from the
properties of material and hence will give way.
Similarly in case of deep piles the bottom portion
of the shaft gets initial set and the socketing in
soil/rock formation renders partial fixity. With
effect the liner will be subjected to biaxial bending.
The polyethelyne liner is not capable of
negotiating either of these forces and shall give
way if exposed to these forces. It is in this
background one has to provide an oversize liner so
that it expands without being stressed and touches
the wall of bore. On getting the support of the bore
/soil wall the liner will not be required to negotiate
the induced stresses as, it becomes part of soil wall.
This aspect shall be reflected in procedure and
methodology of using/deploying the liner as
separation barrier. The subsequent paragraph
explains the method of construction which ensures
that the liner is not stressed.
iii Properties Of Liner:
The properties of polyethelyne are given in the
table below. From the properties it can be
observed that the liner has very small breaking
strength and hence the size of liner is of particular
importance. The dia of liner sack must be
preferably 5 % more than the pile dia so that the
liner expands and takes the shape of bore without
being subjected to hoop or bending stress exerted
by the semi fluid concrete.
TABLE 1 Properties of polyethelyne liner
p
p y
Parameter
Weight per sq, meter in gms
IS : 1964 -2001 R.A. 2006
Breaking strength in kgs.(Specimen
size: Ravelled strip of 5 x 20 cms)
Lengths wise
Width wise
% Elongation at break :
Length wise
Width wise
(IS : No. 1969 - 1985 RA 1999)
y
Sample No.
I
II
122.6
165.2
33.8
36.2
48.8
72.0
12.3
15.0
19.1
21.4
Ganpule and Mali 907
908
6th
upto the bottom of aggressive environment.

Nowadays all the designs are earth quake resistant
based on the data of last 100 years. In the
metropolitan cities the leakage of sewerage pipe
line often takes place. And the probability of
occurrence of such event is much brighter than
occurrence of earthquake. It is therefore necessary
to safe guard the piles. Even the hardened pile
shafts are susceptible to continuous attack by
water with high BOD, COD and Ryzner index. It
is in this background it is suggested to line the
piles with polyethelyne liner irrespective of
whether aggressive ground water conditions are
met or not. Even for piles for bridges jettys and
factories the possibility of diesel/hydrocarbon
spillage can not be overruled. The cost of liner is
not much and hence the liner may be deployed for
all pile upto a depth of 6-8 meter on scarifying
small frictional component.
e) For all underground work and particularly in
piling the use of slag cement must be made
obligatory. The slag cement has extra ordinary
resistance to BOD, COD etc. and leads to
relatively impermeable shaft as per results of
experimental work carried out.
9. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
On the strength of experimental work carried the
following conclusions are drawn.
1) The polyethylene liner serving as a barrier to
prevent contact of ground water and green
concrete is an effective method. The cube results
as well as field behaviour of the pile shafts
covered by polyethylene liner confirm the
effectiveness of such liner. The details of
execution method, design and limitation presented
in the earlier paragraphs.
2) For all underground works the use of PSC/PPC
is recommended from durability aspect. The
P.S.C. has the extra ordinary good characteristic to
negotiate
aggressive
underground
water
environment.
3) From the experimental work carried out and the
field observation of many problematic piling site,
it is confirmed opinion of the Authors that the
tests like Ryzner Index BOD and COD must be
included in the testing procedure for evaluating
out the characteristics of underground water from
concreting point of view.
4) From the discussion earlier there exists a
possibility of contamination of water during the
service life of a structure. It is therefore suggested

to use of polyethelyne liner upto a depth of 6 to 8
meters for every pile below the ground level to
ensure durability of piles during service life of
structure.
REFERENCES
Ganpule V. T. (Sept 2005), Study on Strength of
Green Concrete Cured In Ground Water
Asian Conference.
Ganpule V. T. and Gadgil Vivek, (Jan.1996),
Relevance of Ryzner Index in under water
concrete, 6th International Conf.
Ganpule V. T., (Sept. 2008), What soil
investigation did not reveal, II, ISSE journal.
Part I and Part II.
Lea F. M. and Arnold Edward, (1970) The
chemistry and concrete third Edition.
Larbi L. A. (1993), Micro structure of interfacial
zone around aggregate particles in concrete,
Heron 38, No. 1, 69.
Langelier W. F. (1936), The Analytical control
of anticorrosion water.
Margi Eglinton Resistance of Concrete to
Destructive Agencies, Leas chemistry of
cement, 4th edition Edited by Hewlet P. W.
Mehta P. K., Monitor P., (2005), Concrete Micro
Structure Property and Material.
Nevillie A. M., Properties of concrete, 4th
edition P Person Education
Odlier I, ( 1992 ). 9th International Congress on
Chemistry of Cement, Vol. 2:9, New Delhi.
Papadarkis V. G. and others, Physical and
chemical characteristics affecting durability of
concrete, ACI materials journal 88:2:186.
Ryzner J. W, (1944) A New Index for
determining amount of calcium.
Tomilson M. J., (2007) Pile design and
construction practice, Fifth Edition, Publisher
Routedge.
Tayler HFW, (1983), Advances in cement based
material, Vol. 1:38
Resistance of High-Density Polyethylene Geonets Against Chemical Ageing

J.R. Carneiro
Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Portugal (rcarneir@fe.up.pt)
P.J. Almeida
Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Portugal (pjalmeid@fc.up.pt)
M.L. Lopes
Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Portugal (lcosta@fe.up.pt)
ABSTRACT This paper reports research about the

resistance of three high-density polyethylene geonets
(specially produced with different colour pigments) against
chemical ageing. The geonets were immersed in liquids
(solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide),
exposed to thermo-oxidation (oven-ageing tests at 100
C) and exposed to weathering (both under natural and
artificial conditions). The degradation suffered by the
geonets was evaluated by tensile tests.
INTRODUCTION
The geosynthetics are polymeric materials widely
applied in civil engineering infrastructures, some of
them of environmental nature, such as the waste
landfills. In their applications, the geosynthetics may
be exposed to many degradation agents, such as:
ultraviolet (UV) radiation and other weathering
agents, high temperatures, oxygen, acids, alkalis or
microorganisms. An extended exposure to these
degradation agents can cause a negative impact on
the properties of the geosynthetics, affecting their
durability and shortening their useful lifetime. In
some applications (for example, in waste landfills),
the premature failure of these materials may have
serious environmental consequences.
For the proper application of the geosynthetics, it is
necessary to take into account their degradation
throughout the time. In fact, in many cases, these
materials must maintain minimum values of some
properties (physical, mechanical and/or hydraulic)
during the entire lifetime of the structure where they
are inserted. Therefore, they must be highly resistant
against many damaging agents. This way, it is
important to determine their resistance against

physical, chemical and biological ageing.
EXPERIMENTAL DESCRIPTION
Geonets
Three high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geonets
(GNTs) (85 g.m-2) were specially produced with
different colour pigments. GNT W (white) had no
pigments, GNT B (black) had 1.05% (w/w) of carbon
black and GNT G (green) had 1.10% (w/w) of a copper
phthalocyanine.
Immersion Tests
The GNTs were immersed in acid (sulphuric acid, 0.5
mol.L-1) and alkaline (sodium hydroxide, 0.5 mol.L-1)
solutions at 90 C during 28 days. After immersion,
the GNTs were washed with deionised water and
were dried during 7 days in a dark place.
Thermo-Oxidation Tests
Oven-ageing tests were carried out at 100 C (21%
O2, circulating air) in order to study the resistance of
the GNTs against thermo-oxidation; the GNTs were
exposed during 28 and 56 days.
Artificial Weathering Tests
The GNTs were exposed to artificial weathering
agents (UV radiation, rain and dew/moisture) in a
laboratory weatherometer (Q-Panel Lab Products,
model QUV/spray). Fluorescent UV lamps (type UVA340) were used to simulate the UV radiation emitted
by sunlight (UV step). Rain was simulated by a direct
water spray (flow of 5 L.min-1) against the GNTs
910
6th
(spray step), while dew was simulated by the

condensation of water on the GNTs surface.
The GNTs were exposed (during 1000, 2000 and 4000
hours) to the following weathering cycle:
After 24 test-months, the GNTs were exposed to

11938 MJ.m-2 of solar radiation (between 300 and
3000 nm) and to 1725 mm of rainfall. The average air
temperature was 18.3 C.
Step 1: UV exposure (6 hours, 60 C)

Step 2: Water spray (10 minutes, thermal shock)
Step 3: Condensation (2 hours, 45 C)
(Return to step 1)
Tensile Tests
The mechanical properties - tensile strength (TS) and
elongation at maximum load (EML) - of the GNTs were
determined (in the machine direction of production)
according to the European standard EN ISO 13934-1
(Table 2; Fig. 2).
An UV irradiance of 0.68 W.m-2 at 340 nm was selected

during the UV step. The total UV radiant exposure
(290-400 nm) increased as the total test time increased
(Table 1).
TABLE 2 Experimental Conditions Used on the

Tensile Tests (EN ISO 13934-1)
TABLE 1
Total UV Radiant Exposure
Test time
(hours)
Total UV radiant exposure

(290-400 nm) (MJ.m-2)
1000
2000
4000
104
207
415
Natural Weathering Tests

The GNTs were exposed to natural weathering in
Portugal (latitude of 4113N, longitude of 839W,
elevation of 49 m above sea level). The specimens
were mounted on exposure racks facing south with
an exposition angle of 30 (Fig. 1).
Specimen width
50 mm
200 mm
Specimen length a
Number of specimens
5
Test speed
100 mm.min-1
a
between grips
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 Tensile Tests (EN ISO 13934-1): (a) Before the

Test; (b) After the Test (For colour figure, refer to CD)
The degradation suffered by the GNTs during the

durability tests was evaluated by comparing the
results obtained for the exposed specimens with the
results obtained for reference specimens. Some
results are expressed in terms of retained strength
(RS) (obtained by dividing the TS of the exposed
specimens by the TS of the reference specimens).
Fig. 1 GNTs Exposed to Natural Weathering
The GNTs were exposed to natural weathering during

a maximum period of 24 months (between April 2007
and April 2009). Test-specimens were removed
regularly (every 6 months).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Resistance Against Liquids
The HDPE GNTs had no visible damages after the
immersion tests. The mechanical parameters of the
GNTs, before and after the 28-day immersions (at 90
Carneiro, Almeida and Lopes
C) in sulphuric acid and in sodium hydroxide, are

summarized in Tables 3 (TS) and 4 (EML).
TABLE 3 Tensile Strength of the GNTs, before and
after the Immersion Tests
Immersion
test
Reference
H2 SO4
NaOH
Tensile strength (kN.m-1)

GNT W
GNT B
GNT G
12.7 (0.3) 12.7 (0.3) 13.6 (0.2)
14.1 (0.4) 12.9 (0.2) 13.3 (0.3)
14.0 (0.3) 13.0 (0.2) 13.9 (0.3)
(in brackets are the obtained standard deviations)

TABLE 4 Elongation at maximum load of the GNTs,
before and after the Immersion Tests
Immersion
test
Reference
H2 SO4
NaOH
Elongation at maximum load (%)

GNT W
GNT B
GNT G
21.4 (1.2)
32.6 (3.3)
33.6 (2.3)
22.6 (1.5)
34.5 (2.3)
34.7 (2.6)
23.8 (2.1)
32.4 (1.7)
33.8 (2.2)
TABLE 6 Elongation at Maximum Load of the GNTs,

before and after the Oven-Ageing Tests
Immersion
test
0 days
28 days
56 days
The TS of the GNTs was almost unaffected by the

exposition to the oven-ageing tests (all GNTs had a
RS higher than 100% after 56 days at 100 C).
However, a considerable increase occurred on the
EML of the GNTs. Indeed, the EML increased for more
than the double.
The mean curves TS-elongation obtained for GNT
W are illustrated in Fig. 3 (the curves obtained for
the other GNTs were much similar to these ones).
Reference
Resistance Against Thermo-Oxidation

The HDPE GNTs did not present visible signs of
degradation after 56 days of oven-ageing at 100 C.
The tensile results obtained for the GNTs, before
and after the thermo-oxidation tests, can be found in
Tables 5 (TS) and 6 (EML).
TABLE 5 Tensile Strength of the GNTs, before and
after the Oven-Ageing Tests
Exposition
test
0 days
28 days
56 days
Tensile strength (kN.m-1)

GNT W
GNT B
GNT G
12.7 (0.3)
13.2 (0.5)
13.5 (0.3)
12.7 (0.3)
13.2 (0.5)
13.4 (0.8)
13.6 (0.2)
14.4 (0.5)
14.6 (0.5)
28 Days
56 Days
15
-1
Tensile strength (kN.m )
The HDPE GNTs (W, B and G) had a very similar

behaviour during the immersions in sulphuric acid
and in sodium hydroxide. The materials presented
quite a good resistance against degradation under
acid and alkaline conditions.
Elongation at maximum load (%)

GNT W
GNT B
GNT G
21.4 (1.2) 22.6 (1.5) 23.8 (2.1)
45.7 (2.2) 53.0 (3.9) 49.3 (3.5)
51.0 (3.9) 51.2 (5.0) 50.2 (2.0)
The TS of the GNTs remained almost unchanged

after the immersion tests (RS between 97.8% and
111%). Contrarily to the TS, the EML of the GNTs
suffered a significant increase after the tests.
911
12
9
6
FIG.
3
0
0
20
40
Elongation (%)
60
80
Fig. 3 Mean Curves Tensile StrengthElongation of GNT

W, before and after the Oven-Ageing Tests
The HDPE GNTs (W, B and G) presented a good

resistance against oxidation induced by heat. It is
interesting to note that, under the same oxidative
conditions, a polypropylene (PP) geotextile (100%
PP, non-woven, mass per unit area of 280 g.m-2)
would be completely destructed after 19 days (RS of
0%) (Carneiro et al. 2008). This shows that the
unstabilised HDPE materials are more resistant to
thermo-oxidation than the PP ones. Indeed, GNT W
(100% HDPE) still had a RS of 106% after 56 days at
100 C.
912
6th
Resistance Against Artificial Weathering

The GNT W had no visible signs of degradation
after 1000 hours of accelerated weathering. The
increase of the exposition time (from 1000 to 2000
hours) caused the appearance of damages on this
material. Indeed, after 2000 hours, the GNT W has
highly damaged (the test-specimens were broken and
could be easily transformed into small pieces)
(Fig. 4).
102% and 99.3%, respectively). The increase of the

exposition time caused a slight decrease of the TS of
both GNTs (decrease more pronounced for GNT G).
Indeed, after 4000 test-hours, the GNT B had a RS of
90.6%, while the GNT G had a RS of 71.8%.
The EML of GNT B did not suffer relevant changes
during the artificial weathering tests. Contrarily to
what happened for the EML of GNT B, the EML of GNT
G suffered a decrease after 4000 test-hours (decrease
from 23.8% to 19.9%). The mean curves TS-elongation
obtained for GNT G are illustrated in Fig. 5.
-1
Tensile strength (kN.m )
Reference
15
Fig. 4 GNT W (100% HDPE) after 2000 Hours of

Artificial Weathering
Contrarily to GNT W, the GNTs B and G had no

perceptible damages after the artificial weathering
tests. This readily showed that the presence of the
black and green pigments retarded the degradation
caused by weathering. The evolution of the RS of
the GNTs can be seen in Table 7.
The TS of GNT W decreased significantly during
the accelerated weathering tests (RS of 39.8% and
0% after 1000 and 2000 test-hours, respectively); this
decrease was accompanied by a decrease in the EML
(after 1000 test-hours, EML of only 4.1%).
TABLE 7 Retained Tensile Strength of the GNTs after
the Artificial Weathering Tests
Exposition
time (hours)
1000
2000
4000
Retained tensile strength (%)

GNT W
GNT B
GNT G
39.8
0
0
102
91.3
90.6
99.3
81.6
71.8
The TS of the GNTs B and G remained practically

unchanged after 1000 hours of exposition (RS of
1000 Hours
2000 Hours
4000 Hours
12
9
6
3
0
0
10
20
30
40
Elongation (%)
Fig. 5 Mean Curves Tensile StrengthElongation of

GNT G, before and after the Artificial Weathering Tests
The weathering resistance of the HDPE GNTs was

highly improved by the presence of small amounts
of the black (1.05%) and green (1.10%) pigments. In
the absence of these pigments, the GNTs would be
totally destructed after 2000 hours of artificial
weathering.
The presence of carbon black resulted in a better
resistance against weathering than the presence of
the green copper phthalocyanine. It is well known
that carbon black is a very efficient UV-stabiliser.
The accelerated weathering tests distinguished, in
terms of weathering resistance, three HDPE GNTs
with different chemical compositions. In absence of
data obtained in real outdoor-exposure tests, the
Carneiro, Almeida and Lopes
laboratorial tests can be very useful to predict the

relative weathering resistance of many polymeric
materials. However, caution must be taken when
performing such predictions (outdoors, there are
many ageing agents that can not be reproduced in
laboratory, which can lead to different degradation
mechanisms).
Finally, it is interesting to compare the weathering
resistance of the GNT W (100% HDPE) with the
weathering resistance of a 100% PP geotextile (a nonwoven with a mass per unit area of 280 g.m-2); this
PP geotextile was completely destructed after the
exposition to 50 MJ.m-2 (290-400 nm) of UV radiation
(RS of 0%) (Carneiro et al. 2006). This shows that
the unstabilised HDPE materials have a higher
resistance against photo-oxidation than the PP ones
(the GNT W still had a RS of 39.8% after the exposition
to 104 MJ.m-2 of UV radiation).
Resistance Against Natural Weathering
The HDPE GNTs had no visible damages after 24
months of natural weathering. Indeed, even GNT W
was undamaged (contrarily to what happened after
2000 hours of artificial weathering). Table 8
summarizes the evolution of the RS of the GNTs
during the 24 months of natural weathering.
The TS (and EML) of the GNTs had no significant
changes after the exposition to natural weathering
(exception after 12 test-months). In fact, at the end
of the test, the RS of the GNTs was close to 100%.
This way, 1000 hours in the weatherometer caused
more damages to GNT W than 2 years of outdoor
weathering.
TABLE 8 Evolution of the Retained Tensile Strength
of the GNTs during the Natural Weathering Tests
Exposition
Retained tensile strength (%)
time (months) GNT W
GNT B
GNT G
6
12
18
24
92.9
84.3
101
94.5
104
89.0
108
108
102
89.0
106
100
Like GNT W, the GNTs B and G were also more

damaged in the weatherometer than in the outdoor
913
tests. Indeed, after 24 months outdoors, the RS of

the GNTs B and G (108% and 100%, respectively)
was higher than after 4000 hours in laboratory (RS of
90.6% and 71.8%, respectively).
The three GNTs had an identical behaviour during
the natural weathering tests. So, and contrarily to
the laboratorial tests, the outdoor tests (24 months)
were unable to distinguish (in terms of weathering
resistance) the different GNTs; the materials may be
distinguished by increasing the exposition time.
Lastly, and once more, it is interesting to compare
the results obtained for GNT W with the results
obtained for a 100% PP geotextile (a non-woven with
280 g.m-2). In similar ageing conditions, this geotextile
was practically destructed just after 18 months (RS
of 0.7%) (Carneiro et al. 2009). This confirms that the
unstabilised HDPE materials are more resistant to
weathering than the PP ones.
CONCLUSIONS
The HDPE GNTs (W, B and G) presented a quite
good resistance against immersion in liquids (acid
and alkaline solutions), against thermo-oxidation and
against natural weathering. The exposition to
artificial weathering (UV radiation, rain and dew)
caused some damages on the materials.
The GNT W (100% HDPE) was totally destructed
during the artificial weathering tests. The presence
of the pigments carbon black and the green copper
phthalocyanine retarded significantly the damages
promoted by weathering.
In contrast with the laboratorial tests, the GNT W
had a very good resistance against the degradation
caused by natural weathering (RS near 100% after 24
test-months). Indeed, a 42-day exposure in the
laboratory weatherometer was more damaging for
the GNT W than a 2-year outdoor exposure. The
other GNTs (B and G) were also more damaged in the
laboratorial tests than in the outdoor tests.
Besides the colouring functions, the pigments can
also have an important role in the protection of the
914
6th
GNTs (and other polymeric materials) against the

degradation caused by weathering. The lifetime of
the polymeric materials can be highly extended by
the incorporation of chemical additives (like UV
stabilisers, antioxidants or even pigments) in their
composition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Guerner & Irmos,
S.A. (Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal) for producing the
HDPE GNTs studied in this work and Lipor II (Maia,
Portugal) for giving the place for exposing the GNTs
to natural weathering.
This paper reports research developed under financial
support provided by FCT Fundao para a Cincia
e a Tecnologia, Portugal (Project PTDC/ECM/67547/
2006).
REFERENCES
Carneiro, J.R., Almeida, P.J. and Lopes, M.L. (2006).
Durability of polypropylene geotextiles exposed
to several degradation agents Importance of the
incorporation of a chemical stabilizer on the
geotextiles formulation. Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Geosynthetics, vol.
4, pp. 1559-1562.
Thermo-oxidation of polypropylene geotextiles.
Proceedings of the 4th European Geosynthetics
Conference, 8 pages (CD-ROM Paper 180)
Natural weathering of geosynthetics in Portugal.
Proceedings of the XVII International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, vol. 1, pp. 901-904.
EN ISO 13934-1 (1999): Textiles Tensile properties
of fabrics. Part 1: Determination of maximum force
using the strip method.
The Behaviour of Geosynthetics on Drainage Systems in Carajas

Mining.
M.G.A.Gardoni
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil (gardoni@etg.ufmg.br)
Villar L. F. S.
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil (lvillar@etg.ufmg.br)
Cardoso M.M.
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil (mariliaengenharia@hotmail.com)
Almeida F.B.
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil (bernardino_fabio@yahoo.com)
ABSTRACT: This paper presents results of a research which aimed at studying the possibility and the
efficiency to utilize geosynthetic in the drainage and filtering systems of Vales iron ore from Carajs. The
ore moisture content variation was monitored by moisture content and suction measurers. The performance
of geosynthetics-ore systems under high stress level was analyzed by Gradient Ratio tests (GR). Two kinds
of iron ore were analyzed a thicker one and a thinner one, sinter feed and pellet feed respectively. The
moisture content retention curves of the ores were determined through the filter paper method.
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics have achieved a prominent role
in filtration and drainage of geotechnical
engineering and environmental protection
works. The utilization of synthetic drainage and
filter systems in mining projects is particularly
interesting since these systems can be
constructed very quickly. However, in many
mining applications such as larger dams and
mining waste piles the drainage system faces
very severe conditions because of complex flow
regimes, iron ore heterogeneity, aggressive
construction and environment conditions and
high stress levels, for instance (Gardoni e
Palmeira, 2003, Heibaum et al., 2006 e Palmeira
et al., 2009).
Serra de Carajs mining complex which belongs

to Vale Company produces one of the best iron
ore in the world but it has one inadequate
characteristic: high moisture content found in
the natural product. This characteristic is
significantly aggravated by the wet sieving
process utilized to obtain the adequate grain size
distribution on the final products. The group of
iron ore called Sinter Feed (SF) with medium
grain size (0.15mm<0<6.3mm) constitutes 70%
of the types of iron ore exported by Vale and the
Pellet Feed (PF) with fine grain size (0mm
<0<0.15mm). Sinter Feed leaves sieving
process with moisture content of 12% and it is
transported on a conveyor belt to the storage
yard where it is deposited on piles that reach
916
6th
20m in order to be exposed to dry during 2 or 3

days. The water content causes the instability of
the piles in the storage yard. The transport
through Vales railroad allows the drainage of
the water of the wagons along with the ore fines
contaminating the railroad ballast and therefore
decreasing its work life. The final moisture
content around 9% corresponds to a high
volume of water that is transported along with
the iron ore considering that the volume of the
export around 35 millions of tons per year.
Figure 1 shows Carajas Mining complex.
This paper describes a study of the utilization of
geosynthetics for drainage in the iron ore
transportation systems (wagons and conveyor)
in Carajs Mining, VALE, in order to decrease
the iron ore moisture content
Table 2 presents the results of the tests to

determine the moisture content, permeability to
the constant (SF) and the variable load (PF) and
the maximum (eMx) and minimum (emim) void
ratio for SF and PF.
Table 1 Grain size distribution of the iron ore.
D15(1)
D50
D85
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
c/d
s/d
c/d
s/d
c/d
s/d
PF
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.02
SF
0.02 0.12 0.21 0.28
1.5
1.7
Note: (1) D15 = diameter of the soil particle for
which 15% of the soil in weight is smaller than
that diameter;
Iron
ore
Table 2 Characteristics of the mineral analyzed

Iron
ore
PF
w
(%)
10,3
S
g/cm3)
4,75
k
(cm/s)
8,4x10-
eMx
eMn
1,4
0,84
1,2
0,72
SF
9,7
4,91
3,0x103
Note: w = moisture, S = particle density, k =

permeability coefficient, eMx = maximum void
ratio, eMn = minimum void ratio.
Fig.1 General view of Carajs mining.

IRON
ORE
AND
GEOTEXTILES
CHARACTERISTICS.
Two types of iron ore produced in Carajas were
analyzed in this research: Sinter Feed (SF) and
Pellet Feed (PF). Grain size distribution of SF
and PF (with or without defloculant) and one
grain size distribution analysis utilizing laser
granulometer (with or without ultrasound) were
carried out. The grain size distribution of the
iron ores analyzed is presented in Table1.
Four types of geosynthetics were analysed as

two nonwoven geotextiles , with mass per unit
area 400 g/m2 (GA) and 600 g/m2 (GB) and two
geocomposite as GC (with geonet) and GD
(with geomats).
The samples of both iron ore, Sinter and Pellet,
were prepared in the laboratory using the total
densities and field moisture content according to
the data provided by VALE. Due to the
probable variability existing among the piles in
terms of depth, time, and the stocking
conditions, these values are considered
average and approximate. The trampling
technique was utilized to prepare because it is
the closer to what really takes place in the field,
the lower layers of the iron ore piles are
Gardoni et al.
Gravimetric
Moisture
Content
Umidade
Gravimtrica
(%)(%)
statically compressed by the upper layers. The

test was performed at obtaining three
characteristic curves: the wetting and drying
paths and the intermediate curve. Due to the
histerese phenomenon, the water retention curve
changes according to the path. Eleven samples
were molded for both types of iron ores and for
the three paths analyzed adding up a total of 66
samples. The preparation and the saturation
process can be more detailed in Villar (2002).
The Figures 2 show some of the results obtained
for PF.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10-2
10-1
10 0
101
102
103
104
105
106
Suco
Matricial
(kPa)
Matric
Suction
(kPa)
pellet-umedecimento-sem-ajuste-umid-gravimtrica
Trajetria
de Umedecimento
Wetting path
Trajetria
de secagem
Pellet-trajetria-de-sacagem-umid-gravimetrica
Drying path
Trajetria
mista
trajetria
-umidade
gravimtrica
Mixedmista
path
(part wetting,
part drying)
Fig.2 Water retention curves for Carajs iron

ore - Pellet Feed.
It was admitted for the curve following the

mixed trajectory to have an air entrance around
4 to 5 kPa to a gravimetric moisture value of
28.5%. The results obtained stand out that the
sample might have a pore distribution bi-modal
structure that is characterized by the step
observed on the retention curve. Through the
mixed trajectory, the iron ore would quickly
lose the moisture from its saturated condition
until reaching the gravimetric humidity rate of
approximately 12% close to the molding
moisture rate of the samples. Nevertheless, from
this point on, the soil would have difficult to
lose moisture. It would be necessary to apply
another air pressure entry at an approximate
917
value of 300kPa. In other words the macro pores

formed by the soil would lose moisture rapidly
but the micro pores would keep retaining
humidity until they experiment a new value of
air entry. The final residual moisture rate would
be in the neighborhood of 1% to 2%.
GRADIENT RATIO TEST (GRT) AND

TESTS WITH AND WITHOUT SUCTION
This test is to assess the effect of high stress
level on the behavior of the geosynthetic-ore
systems submitted to different gradients. In
terms of the performance of the drainage
systems, the geosynthetics present high drainage
capacity. However, it can significantly vary
depending on the confining stresses that the
geosynthetics are susceptible at the engineering
work (Gardoni, 2000, Aguiar & Vertematti,
2004 Palmeira et al, 2009). Two types of non
woven geotextiles, two types of geo composed
drains and two types of iron ores SF and PF
with different granulometry were utilized
aiming at assessing the geosysnthetic-ore under
the laboratory filtration conditions.
In order to evaluate the moisture reduction on
the iron ore, tests under stress up to 2000 kPa
were carried out with or without the vacuum
application utilizing the same permeameter for
GR tests. The GCSF1 and GCSF2 are a system
of geotextile GC and SF1 and SF2 are samples.
The test with GSCF3 was carried out without
the vacuum application and it is used for
comparison. Figure 3 shows one of the results
obtained for GCSF system. The tests carried out
with a geo net core presented the lowest
moisture content results at the end of each trial
and a moisture content reduction on the iron ore
in the neighborhood of 50%.
In relation to the tests for moisture content
decreasing the lowest moisture content found
was 6.08% for the test carried out with
geocomposite drain in GCSF2 system with
vacuum application.
918
6th
REFERENCES
Umidades ao final dos ensaios
18,00
16,00
14,00
w(%)
12,00
10,00
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
1
2
GCFS1
3
Pontos
GCFS2
5
GCFS3
Fig. 3 Final moisture content of the GCSF1,

GCSF2 and GCSF3. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions are summarised below:
x The findings obtained in the research
show that in the end of the GR tests,
moisture content 50% lower than the one
found in the field utilizing the existing
drainage system was obtained. Such
results preliminarily show the good
performance of the geotextiles utilized as
filters.
x In relation to the determination tests for the
characteristic curve, it was observed that the
limit humidity values found coincide with
limit values of the GR tests. Because the
mineral shows signs of pore distribution bimodal structure which is characterized by the
step observed on the retention curve.
x So far, the results obtained point out a
potential to utilize the geosynthetics in
vacuum associated drainage systems in order
to reduce the moisture content on the iron ore
produced in Carajas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to the following
institutions: Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais, University of Braslia, VALE mining
company, FAPEMIG and CNPq for supporting
this research programme.
Abro, G.S. (2005). Iron ore water retention.

Master Thesis, Polytechnique School of the
So Paulo University, So Paulo, 137, p.
Alonso, E.E. Quan, Y.D. and Rahardjo, H.
(1998). Modelling the volumetric behaviour
of an Unsaturated expansive soil. 2nd
International Conference on Unsaturated
soils, Beijing, China, Vol. 2, pp.249
ASTM (1992). Standard Test Method for
Measuring the Soil-Geotextiles System
Clogging Potential by the Gradient Ratio,
ASTM D5101-90. In 1992 Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, sect. 4, vol. 04.08. ASTM,
Philadelphia, USA, pp. 1190-1196.
Fredlund, D. G. and Xing, A. (1994). Equations
for the soil water characteristic curve.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 31.
pp. 521-532.
Gardoni, M. G. A., Palmeira, E.M., (2002).
Microstructure and pore characteristics of
synthetic
filters
under
confinement.
Geotechnique 52, No. 00, pp. 1-14.
Heibaum, M. , Fourie, H., Girard, H.,
Karunaratne, G.P., Lafleur, J., Palmeira,
E.(2006). Hydraulic Applications of
Geosynthetics. 8th Interantional Conference
on Geosynthetics, Yokohaama, Japo,
pp.79-120.
Marinho, F.A.M (1997). Filter Paper Method
dor suction rate. Unsaturated soils
Conference. Porto Alegre, Brazil, p.112.
Palmeira E.M, Beirigo, E.A., Gardoni, M.G.
(2009).
Tailings-Geotextile
Filter
Compatibility in Mining Applications.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes (in press).
Villar, L.F. (2002). Study of tailings
consolidation of Bauxita, PhD. Thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, PUC-Rio,
Rio de Janeiro, 443 p. (in Portuguese).
Evaluation of the Biological Clogging on the Geotextile Drainage

Systems of Landfills
M.G.A.Gardoni
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil (gardoni@etg.ufmg.br)
T. Senra Prado
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil( tania_senra@hotmail.com)
D. Cyrino Neto
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil (djalmacn@hotmail.com)
ABSTRACT: This paper presents long-term permittivity tests results to evaluate biological clogging of
geotextiles. For the evaluation of the biological clogging, an experimental programme with three types of
non-woven geotextiles (mass per unit area varying from 150 g/m2 to 600 g/m2) was performed. The
properties of the leachate used in the tests were monitored by physical and chemical analyses. Microscopic
and microbiological analyses of the geotextile specimens showed the biofilm formation and the high level of
geotextile clogging. The results obtained at this moment have showed the reduction of geotextile
permeability due to a critical biological clogging.
INTRODUCTION
Nonwoven geotextiles have been used as filters
in many drainage applications in geotechnical
and environmental protection works. Many
studies of the geotextiles behaviour such as
drains and filters in engineering works can be
found in literature. However, the landfills
drainage systems may be subjected to the
complex biological clogging processes, caused
mainly by the heterogeneous nature of leachate
while simultaneous actions of physical and
chemical mechanisms can occur during the
work lifetime. The knowledge of these complex
clogging mechanisms that rules the biofilme
formation and the physical, chemical and
biological clogging of the geotextile filters has
been refered in many pioneer researches
(Koerner and Koerner, 1990; Bhatia et al., 1991,
Rowe, 2005 e Remgio, 2006. The main
objective of this paper is to evaluate the
biological clogging process of the non woven

geotextile, using long-term permittivity
laboratory tests and the leachate collected from
Belo Horizonte landfill. The sanitary landfill is
located in a highly urbanized area with 132
hectares at the BR-040 SLU/PBH.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Apparatus Using in the Test Programme
The permittivity tests were conducted using a
equipment developed at the Federal University
of Minas Gerais, Brazil, designed based on the
similar according to Brasilia University
(Remgio, 2006). The apparatus used in the
series of tests is schematically presented in Fig.
1 (a). It consists of a set of six permeameters,
made of acrylic, with 100 mm diameter and 125
mm high, and connected to leachate reservoir
systems. Ports are distributed along the cell
920
6th
height for head losses measurements around the

geotextiles specimen.
according to APHA (1996), such as pH,

chemical oxygen demand (COD), and
ammonium nitrate.
TABLE 1 Geotextile characteristics.
tGT (b)
Kn(c)
Os(d)
(m/s)
(mm)
(mm)
G1
130
1.4
0.004
0.13
G2
300
3.4
0.002
0.11
G3
600
4,6
0.002
0.06
Notes: (a) Geotextile code, (b) MA = mass per unit area
(ASTM D3776); (c) tGT = geotextile thickness; (c) kn
= permeability normal to the geotextile plane; (d)
Filtration Opening Size, (e) fiber diameter.
Geotextile
Code (a)
Materials and Methodology

Three types of geotextiles used in the tests were
nonwoven, needle-punched fabrics made of
continuous filaments of polyester from the same
manufacturer. It will be referred to hereafter as
geotextiles G1, G2 and G3. The main
characteristics of the geotextiles used are
summarised in Table 1. The mass per unit area
of the geotextiles varied between 130 and 600
g/m2 and their filtration opening size varied
between 0.130 and 0.090 mm. The geotextiles
filtration opening sizes (FOS) obtained in
hydrodynamic tests were equal to 0.135mm
(geotextile G1), 0.11mm (G2) and 0.06mm
(G3).
The leachate properties might change widely

(largely) with time according to the age of
sanitary landfills or the waste decomposition
process. Although it has been collected from the
same landfill area the period of leachate
transportation and the durations of the
laboratory tests also cause changes in leachate
properties. The variations of pH with time
during testing are shown in Fig. 2.
10
8
6
pH
Fig. 1 View of the permittivity test.

M A(b)
(g/m2)
Test duration up to 15 days
Test duration up to 30 days
Test duration up to 45
The leachate used in the tests was collected

from Belo Horizonte landfill, and its properties
were monitored by physical and chemical
analyses after and during the tests. The
geotextile specimen is placed at the mid height
permeameter and subjected to an upward flow
of leachate under constant head conditions. The
leachate was firstly filtered by a sand filter and
after being injected through the bottom of each
permeameter in order to minimize the
suspended particles which cause mainly
physical clogging. Chemical analyses were
performed in the leachate used in the tests
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Time (days)
Fig. 2 Variation of leachate properties with time - pH

versus time.
Permittivity tests were performed with time

intervals of 15 to 45 days in order to investigate
the evolution of the biological clogging
mechanism along the time and the effect on the
geotextile hydraulic performance. A second
series of tests without flow varying were
50
Gardoni, Prado and Neto
collected at the same time of the permittivity

tests in order to compare the results. In the end
of the tests the geotextile specimens were
removed from the permeameters and they are
subjected to the microscopic investigations
using an Electronic scanning microscope and
low vacuum technique. The specimen
preparation technique used was to coat the
sample with a three-nanometer layer of
conductive material, such as gold, from a
sputtering machine.
921
used for testing 15 days and 45 days was the use

of the leachate immediately after collection.
According to Tortora (2006), the effect of low
temperatures can lead to the death of several
types of microorganisms. This explains the fact
that the test with 30 day shows permeabilities
values higher than that of 40 days.
1,0E+00
G1
G2
G3
1,0E01
RESULTS
Figure 3 shows the results of permeability of
geotextiles Gi, G2 and G3. The tests were
performed in three different periods (15, 30 and
40 days) with two repetitions of the three types
of geotextiles G1, G2 and G3. According to
Figure 3, greater variability can be observe in
the values of permeability and this may be
attributed to the initial unsaturated state of the
geotextile After this period it is observed that
the behavior of geotextiles is similar and the
reduction of permeability is less pronounced.
the geotextile G3 has a lower value of
permeability after 45 days of testing, which is
consistent with the analysis of scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) indicating a higher degree of
biological clogging in the geotextile.
It is important to note that the test duration of 30
days showed a decrease much less pronounced
than the others. This is due to the fact that the
leachate collected was first stored in a freezer
before being used in the test and the procedure
k (cm/s)
1,0E02
Microbiological analyses were also performed

for the identification of the microorganism in
the solutions of leachate and geotextiles. The
leachate volume found in 2 cm2 pieces of
geotextiles from the permittivity tests were
submitted
to
microbiological
analyses.
Chemical analyses were also performed in the
leachate used in the tests according to APHA
(1996), such as pH, chemical oxygen demand
(COD), orthophosphate and ammonium nitrate.
1,0E03
1,0E04
1,0E05
1,0E06
0
10
20
30
40
50
T ime(days)
Fig. 3 Geotextiles permeability coefficients versus

time (all tests).
The methodology used for the preparation of

samples for scanning electronic microscopy
analysis followed the procedure presented in
Gardoni (2000) and Gardoni and Palmeira
(2002). Figures 4 (a) to (c) show the results
obtained for the analysis of scanning electron
microscopy for geotxil G3 submitted to the
flow of leachate to 15, 30 and 45 days of
testing. It can be noted that the biological
clogging is critical independent on the
geotextile considered and the biofilm formation
is more evident according to the time of the test
and therefore with a greater number of
microorganisms in the matrix. The SEM results
confirm those obtained in tests of permeability.
Similar results were obtained for the other two
types of geotextiles analyzed (G2 and G3).
CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions of the study are
summarized below:
Great reduction of geotextile permeability
coefficient was observed since the beginning of
922
6th
the test, increasing successively with the

advance of the duration of the flow of leachate
indicating the occurrence of clogging of the
synthetic matrix.
the biofilm. The complexity of the phenomenon

of biological fouling requires the continued
study of biofilm formation of microorganisms
and determination of appropriate procedures for
processing samples of geotextile.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to FAPEMIG-Minas Gerais
Agency for Research Support, CNPq, Microscopic
Centre of Federal University of Minas Gerais and
Bidim S.A.
REFERENCES
(a)
APHA. (2005) Standard Methods for the

Examination of Water and Wastewater. 21th
Edition. American Public Health Association,
Washington, DC. USA.
ASTM, (1995). ASTM Standards on

Geosynthetics. American Society for
Testing and Materials, PA, USA, p. 178
Biofilm
(b)
Fig.4 Bacteria films in the geotextiles after 15 days,
and 45 days of leachate flow.
The analysis of scanning electron microscopy

after testing showed that the biological clogging
by biofilm formation occurred mainly on the
surface of the geotextile. In addition to the
presence of biofilm, we can observe the
existence of many particles clustered inside the
geotextile matrix indicating that physical
(geotextile blinding by the sedimentation of
particles in suspension) and biological clogging
take place simultaneously. It can also be
detected the presence of numerous crystals in
Bhatia, S.K., Mlynarek J., Rollin A.L., Lafleur J.

(1991). Effect of pores structure of nonwoven
geotextiles on their clogging behavior.
Geosynthetics91 Conference, Atlanta, USA, Vol.
2, p. 629-642.
Koerner, G.R., Koerner, R.M., 1990. Biological
activity and potential remediation involving
geotextile landfill leachate filters. In: Koerner,
R.M. (Ed.), ASTM STP 1081, Philadelphia, PA,
USA.
Gardoni, M.G., 2000. A study on the drainage and
filtration behaviour of geosynthetics under
compression. PhD. Thesis, University of
Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil, p. 313 (in
Portuguese).
Gardoni, M.G., Palmeira, E.M. (2002) Microstructure
and pore characteristics of synthetic filters under
confinement. Geotechnique 52 (6), 405418.
Remigio, A.F.N., 2006. Study of biologic clogging of
synthetic drainage systems of waste disposal
areas under anaerobic conditions. PhD.Thesis,
University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil, p. 134 (in
Portuguese).
Rowe, R.K., 2005. Long-term performance of
contaminant barrier systems. Rankine Lecture.
Geotechnique 55 (9), 631678
Tortora, G.J; Funke, B.R.; Case, C.L. (2006).
Microbiologia. EditoraArtmed, 8 Edio, 894p.
Enhanced Filter Press Dewatering of Sewage Sludge Using Electrokinetic

Geosythetics (EKG): a Case Study
Dr Jean Hall
Lecturer in Engineering Geology, School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Newcastle University,
Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU. UK. jean.hall@ncl.ac.uk
Dr John Lamont-Black
Director, Electrokinetic Ltd. Drummond Building, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU.
UK. John.lamont-black@electrokinetic.co.uk.
Dr Stephanie Glendinning
Reader in Environmental Geotechnics, School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Newcastle
University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU. UK. Stephanie.glendinning@ncl.ac.uk
ABSTRACT Disposal of sewage sludge is a growing global challenge for both industry and
government, particularly when viewed in the context of an increasing global population. New
technologies can contribute to the solutions to sewage disposal. Electrokinetic enhancement of filter
press dewatering of sewage sludge has proved to be an effective emerging technology for the
dewatering of a by product of the treatment process, Surface Activated Sludge (SAS). This paper will
describe the findings of both laboratory testing and a field trial of the use of electrokinetically enhanced
filter pressing of blended primary and SAS sewage sludge.
INTRODUCTION
As the global population increases and many rural
communities migrate to the city centres the
management and subsequent treatment of the
resulting sewage sludge is an environmental
challenge for both industry and governments.
Sewage sludge management in the UK is the
responsibility on regional water companies.
Historical infrastructure and investment policies
have resulted in many of these wastewater plants
operating at near capacity.
Traditional methods of sewage sludge disposal
including disposal to land for agricultural uses has
many tight regulations associated with it and thus
it is often not the favoured option. Incineration or
lime treated sludge are two common methods of
sewage sludge disposal in the UK however neither
methods are favoured by the industry in their
current form. New technologies are trialled for
their effectiveness at dewatering whilst
maintaining throughput of the operational plant

and complying with wastewater directive policy to
ensure that the sludge is disposed of in an
environmentally safe and economic manner
In addition, in order to improve throughput of the
plant, a by-product of the modern treatment
process is surface activated sludge (SAS). This
material is particular difficult to dewater with the
existing wastewater dewatering equipment. The
current disposal of SAS is either via blending with
the more readily dewatered primary digested
sludge in typical ratios of the primary sludge to
SAS of the order of 70:30 in current near capacity
operating facilities or by liming followed by
disposal to land. Both of these techniques lower
the quality of the dry cake output and liming is
also hazardous and expensive as an operation.
Therefore there is an obvious driver to be able to
increase the amount of SAS to be disposed of
whilst maintaining the dry solids of the cake
suitable for incineration or storage on land.
6th
By using a novel application of electrokinetic

technology, the aim of the work is to investigate
the potential of maximising the throughput of SAS
whilst maintaining the final cake quality and dry
solids percentage. The key performance indicator,
as identified by the waste water treatment
industry, of achieving consistently over 30% final
cake dry solids in the electrokinetic cells would be
of interest economically to the industry.
LABORATORY TESTING
Prior to conducting any field experiments, initial
laboratory tests were conducted on the SAS
material in order to establish the electrokinetic
dewatering potential.
Plate filter press dewatering in the UK wastewater
industry is an established batch dewatering
technology. These plate pressures used a high
pressure pumping regime and, in many cases, a
subsequent membrane squeeze cycle to maximise
the dewatering capabilities.
In order to reflect the pressures existing in plate
filter presses, a high pressure electrokinetic test
cell was developed. A standard high pressure,
100mm triaxial cell was adapted to apply an
isotropic consolidation pressure to a sample while
at the same time using EKG filter electrodes to
apply a voltage gradient across the sample and
vent electrolytic gasses.
Special nylon platens were manufactured on a
nylon pedestal allowing both electrical and
hydraulic connections to both ends of the sample.
By the use of bespoke pressure glands in the
platens and a specially machined access ring
pressures can be applied up to 1,700 kPa to a
sample whilst maintaining electrical contact to
each side of a 100mm long x 100mm diameter
sample.
As the SAS sludge samples exhibit very little
cohesion a special specimen former was
developed in order to prevent the sample

collapsing under its own weight. During use,
natural latex membranes were used to isolate the
sample from the applied pressure, and at set-up a
small negative pressure (vacuum) was applied
prior to assembly of the cell.
Tests were carried out on samples of 100% SAS,
as a basis of the worst case scenario expected from
the waste water treatment process, at three sample
thicknesses (50mm, 100mm and 150mm) and
produced positive results (Fig. 1). These positive
results identified the dewatering potential of the
technology to enable the field testing phase to
begin.
Solids content after 360mins
% dry solids
924
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
72.19
30V
28.1
7.94
50
0V
7.46
100
10.86
5.86
150
Sample thickness
Fig 1: A summary of the dry solids results from

the laboratory experiments on different sample
thicknesses (in mm) (For colour figure, refer to CD)
FIELD TRIAL
Trials were conducted on 10 representative waste
water treatment samples consisting of a blended
mix of SAS and digested primary sludge and using
a small 300mm mobile plate filter press unit with
electrokinetic capability. The cells of this filter
press were configured to allow a direct
comparison between standard plate filter press
cells and those adapted to induce enhanced
electrokinetic dewatering (Fig. 2).
Hall, Black and Glendinning
925
Parameters monitored
TABLE 1: Identification of the main parameters

monitored during the trial.
Performance
Trial variables
indicators
Ratio of SAS to Final dry solids of
primary sludge
cake
Conductivity of feed
Cake thickness
Initial dry solids of Measurement
of
feed
ammonia gas in and
around system
Discharge of filtrate
Cake thickness
Current loadings of Chemical testing on
circuits
cake and filtrate
Cake temperatures
Fig. 2: Schematic configuration of the plate filter
press during the field trial.
In order to minimise the variables within the

experimental system, in particular with respect to
fill cycle, membrane squeeze and the application
of electrokinetics, a conceptual framework for the
work was identified which allowed a experimental
consistency with respect to fill time cycle, squeeze
cycle time and electrokinetic application time.
METHODOLOGY
Tests were conducted on samples with a ratio of
SAS to primary sludge from 50:50 to 70:30 over a
period of 10days. During this time, variables
within the trials control were minimised however
it is recognised that polymer type and dosing,
polymer mixing and delivery feed were all
controlled by the wastewater treatment plant.
However it is not anticipated that during the trial
these factors changed significantly.
Parameters monitored
During the trial, Table 1 identifies the main
parameters which were monitored.
RESULTS
Conductivity
The conductivity of the feed was observed to be
138 to 463mS/m with an average of 223 mS/m.
The larger the proportion of SAS generally
reduced the electrical conductivity of the overall
feed.
Duration of electrical cycles
The cake temperatures varied from 45.5 to
91.0C. Although temperatures this high are
potentially useful in control of pathogens it was
observed that the maximum flow discharge
achieved from the 30min EK cycle was before the
end of the stage. Therefore there is potential for
further work in order to maximise the use of
power in this process.
Comparative dewatering performance
The results shown in Fig. 4 show that in general
terms, increasing proportion of SAS in the sludge
blend has the effect of reducing the dry solids
content of the dewatered cake for both the
electrokinetic and control tests. However the
effect is diminished for the electrokinetic tests
such that for the highest proportion of SAS in the
feed blend, the dry solids content of the cake was
above the minimum of 30%ds requirement as
identified as of economic interest to the industry.
926
6th
Fig. 4: Average cake solids for each blend of

sludge [Error bars indicate +/- one standard
deviation, dashed lines represent best fit lines by
linear regression]
Fig. 5a: Discharge flows observed during the

phases of the trial from Run 5 (70%SAS)
Table 2 demonstrates the increase in relative

performance of the electrokinetic cells over that
observed in the control cells as the proportion of
SAS to primary is increased in the blended feed
sludge.
TABLE 2: Relationship between the composition
of the feed sludge and the %change in dry cake
solids indicating a percentage improvement of the
EK cake to the control cakes
Range of %improvement
Mix
SAS : Primary of EK cake observed
over control cake
sludge
40:60
21 31
50:50
47 82
60:40
59 74
70:30
91 98
Origin of improved performance
The results have indicated that the greater the
proportion of SAS in the feed sludge, then the
greater the relative electrokinetic effects. The
origin for this is presented below (Fig. 5a and 5b)
by comparing the flow response for the trial runs
from each end of the range (i.e. Run 5 70%SAS
and Run 7 40% SAS)
Fig. 5b: Discharge flows observed during the

phases of the trial from Run 7 (40%SAS)
As can be seen from these graphs the dewatering

characteristics observed in both runs, during the
squeeze phase, are as expected and in correlation
with the low hydraulic conductivity characteristic
of the SAS material.
The application of an electric field (EK cycle)
showed a marked increase in flow in both runs. In
the higher SAS ratio run (Run 5) the peak flow
occurred approximately 25mins into the cycle and
for the lower SAS ratio (Run 7) the peak flow was
observed 15mins into the cycle.
CONCLUSION
In general the use of electrokinetics to dewater
sewage sludge containing a high proportion of
SAS has been demonstrated to be feasible. In
addition the higher the proportion of SAS in the
sludge a greater improvement deviation in dry
solids from the controls is achieved.
Hall, Black and Glendinning
The use of electrokinetic phenomena applied to

existing dewatering technology in the field, such
as plate filter presses, has been demonstrated to be
achievable both in the implementation of the
electrical components and, more significantly, in
final cake solids result. The ability to demonstrate
consistent performance of cake solids to in excess
927
of 30%ds is of economic benefit to the water

industry operators in the UK.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was carried out in conjunction with TSB
TP/3/WMM/6/I/15971 and Thames Water Ltd.
Settlement Control of Filled Trench Using Geosyntethics

Mahmoud Ghazavi
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran,
(ghazavi_ma@kntu.ac.ir)
Pedram Ravanshenas
Ph. D. Student, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
(p_ravanshenas@dena.kntu.ac.ir)
ABSTRACT In urban areas, the ground is normally excavated for water, waste water, and gas pipeline
installation and then back-filled. The back-filled trenches are then subjected to surface traffic loading and
gradually settle, especially when become saturated. This paper presents a method to control or reduce such
ground settlements using geosynthetic reinforced trench soil at the shallow surface. For this purpose, the
above procedure for excavation and back-filling is simulated using a numerical scheme based on finite
element methods. An elasto-plastic behavior is assumed to govern the soil behavior. Geosynthetic layers are
used at shallower depth around the trench and parallel to the trench longitudinal axis. The numerical
procedure involves the trench excavation with respect to the pipe. Geosynthetic layers are in different layers
above the crest of the trench. The simulated numerical results are presented for both reinforced and
unreinforced cases. The results show that the use of geosynthetics can significantly reduce the filled soil
settlement even though the trench soil is not compacted.
Keywords: Trench, excavation, geosynthetics, finite element, settlement .
1) INTRODUCTION
The ground is normally excavated for water, waste
water, and gas pipeline installation and then backfilled. At first, the trench is excavated such that the
trench width is larger than the pipe diameter. The
bottom of trench is then stabilized and the pipe is
installed. The trench is subsequently filled with
soil. The trench soil should not settle significantly.
The buried pipelines may be damaged due to
insufficient quality control, resulting in poor
installation, little or no inspection and maintenance,
and a general lack of uniformity and improvement
in design, construction and operation practice.
Many researchers have focused on this topic and
developed the soil-pipe interaction experimentally,
numerically or presented the mathematical
relations or empirical equations. The original work
was carried out by Marston and Anderson (1913),
and a theory for calculating diametric change
under soil overburden, was used by Spangler (1941)
To obtain a formula for calculating the horizontal

deflection of buried pipes under soil overburden.
Masada (2000) was revised the classical work of
Spangler to derive a modified Iowa formula for
estimating vertical deflection of flexible pipe under
soil overburden. These design methods, whether
developed from empirical or theoretical bases, deal
with predicted loading experienced by embedded
flexible pipes as a result of static stress. Hence,
study the pipe behavior under temporary or
permanent repeated load similar to heavy vehicles
is an important case. Many laboratory or field
studies have been carried out by Rogers et al.
(1995), Faragher (1997), Faragher et al. (2000), etc.
Arockiasamy et al. (2006) performed field tests on
polyethylene, PVC, and metal large diameter pipes
subjected to highway design truck loading, then
the numerical simulations using finite element
method are performed to determine pipe-soil
interaction under live load application. Bueno et al.
(2006) conducted an experimental testing program
Ghazavi and Ravanshenas
to evaluate the effect of geosynthetic

reinforcements on vertical stresses acting on top of
the pipe. In spite of extensive experimental or
numerical studies carried out on soil-pipe
interaction, there is little information on pipe line
performance embedded in soil reinforced with
geosynthetic layers.
This paper presents the use of geosynthetic layers
to reinforce the trench soil to control and reduce
the soil settlement.
2) Numerical simulation
Figure 1 shows a trench for pipe line installation.
The trench is excavated completely and then filled
with granular material.
The properties of the native soil and infill material
are pressed in Table 1 and 2. In these tables, E is
modulus of elasticity, c is cohesion, M is the
friction angle, X is the soil Poisson's ratio, J is
unit weigh, and R is interface ratio.
TABLE 1 Properties
of native soil
2
E (kN m )
c (kN m )
(degree)
2
( kN m 3 )
TABLE 2 Properties of
infill material
2
2E6
E (kN m )
40
c (kN m 2 )
M (degree)
10
0
18
Q
(kN m3 )
R
5E4
Fig.1Trench geometry and total displacement

TABLE 3. Influence of
dimension on total
displacements of soil
before trench making
h4b1
4.42E-3
h3b3
h 3b2
h 3b1
3.76E-3
3.26E-3
3.04E-3
TABLE 4. Influence of
dimension
on
total
displacements of soil after cut
of soil
h4b1
3.68E-3 (m)
h3b3
3.01E-3 (m)
h 3b2
2.44E-3 (m)
h 3b1
2.24E-3 (m)
0
35
0.25
18
0.7
The soil environment is considered 11 m by 9 m

and dimension of the trench is taken 3 m by 1 m.
The results of analyses for gravity run for total
displacements and plastic points are shown in
Figures 1.
The results for the influence of soil block
dimensions on total displacements are presented in
Table 3. In this table, h is the height and b is the
width of the trench.
Before excavation of trench soil, displacements of
soil are according to Table 3.
And after excavation of trench, for swelling of soil,

displacements of soil are given in Table 4.
Upon the installation of the pipe line and filling he
trench soil, another analysis is performed. The
results for the deformed mesh are done in 3 steps
and ultimate result is shown in Figure (2).
Values of settlement for trench upon the
performance of a gravity run due to the soil weight
are determined. Then the distribution of the
bending moment in the pipe and also is shown in
Figures (3). The value bending moment of pipe is
equal to 970.83E-3 kN.m/m
929
930
6th
Total displacements of soil trench after installation

of pipe in reinforced backfill are reduced to about
2.54 mm.
Fig. 2 Deformed mesh of trench soil after installation of

pipe (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Fig. 4 Deformed mesh after installation of pipe in

reinforced soil (For colour figure, refer to CD)
The value of bending moment in this case

decreases to 947.68E-3 kN.m/m.
Figure 5 shows the situation in which 3 layers of
geosynthetics are used. The extension of
reinforcement layers to the trench wall is limited to
5 cm.
Fig. 3 Bending moment distribution in pipe due to gravity

run in un-reinforced soil (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Total displacements of soil trench after installation

of pipe equal to 2.68 mm.
3) Influence
geosynthetics
of
soil
reinforced
with
In this section, the soil above the pipe line is

reinforced using geosynthetic layers. The
reinforcement dimensions are 50 cm by 50 cm.
Figure 8 shows the soil is reinforced with 3 three
layers of geosynthetic. settlements of these
reinforced soils are proposed in Figure 4.
Fig. 5 Application of 5 cm extension of geosynthetics in

native soil in trench wall (For colour figure, refer to CD)
As seen, the settlement and bending moments

decrease significantly.
The values of displacement of soil and bending
moment in pipe for three cases are expressed in
Table 5.
Ghazavi and Ravanshenas
TABLE 5 values displacement of soil and bending

moment in pipe for three case
Case of trench soil
Without reinforcements
With reinforcements
(Without extension of reinforcement
layers to the trench wall)
With reinforcements
(With extension of reinforcement layers
to the trench wall is limited to 5 cm)
2.68E-3
Bending
moment
(kN.m/m)
970.83E-3
2.54E-3
947.68E-3
2.28E-3
863.34E-3
Displacemen
t (m)
4) Conclusion
In urban areas, the ground is normally excavated
for water, waste water, and gas pipeline
installation and then back-filled. To reduce the
settlement of the ground surface and the bending
moment in the pipe, the soil at the pipe crest is
reinforced using geosynthetic layers. A number of
numerical analyses were performed using PLAXIS
software. It has been shown that the use of
reinforcement layers can reduce the ground
settlement and bending moment in the pile
significantly.
5) References
Marston, A., & Anderson, A.O. (1913). The
theory of loads on pipes in ditches and tests of
cement and clay drain tile and sewer pipe. Bull.31,
Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.
931
Spangler, M. G. (1941). The structural design of

flexible pipe culverts. Bull. 31, Iowa Engrg.
Experiment Station, Iowa State College, Ames,
Iowa.
Masada T., (2000), Modified Iowa Formula for
Vertical Deflection of Buried Flexible Pipe,journal
of transportation engineering ,September/October
2000, pp.440-446.
Rogers, C. D. et al.. (1995). The structural
performance of profile-wall drainage pipe-stiffness
requirements contrasted with the results of
laboratory and field tests. Transp.Res. Rec. 1514,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.,
83-92.
Faragher, E. (1997). Structural performance of
thermoplastic drainage pipes, Mphil thesis,
Loughborough
University,
Loughborough,
Leicesterhire, U.K.
Faragher, E, Feleming,P.R, Rogers, C.D.F. (2000).
Analysis of repeated-load field testing of
embedded plastic pipes. Transp.Res. Rec. 1514,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.,
271-277.
Arockiasamy. M., Chaallal. O., Limpeteeparakarn.
T. (2006). Full-scale field tests on flexible pipes
under live load application, Journal of
performance of constructed facilities, ASCE, Vol.
20, No. 1.
Clogging and Transmissivity of Geosynthetics Confined in

Consolidating Soils
C GHOSH
National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, India (cghosh24@gmail.com)
K Yasuhara
Ibaraki University, Hitachi, Japan (yasuhara@mx.civil.ac.jp)
ABSTRACT This paper evaluates in-plane flow through various drains system (including three types of
Hybrid drain system- a geotextile layer with thin sand mat) while the soil (Kanto loam and Silty clay)
containing these drains undergoes time dependent settlement from slurry stage to 400 kPa. Variations of
internal pore water pressure during time dependent settlement were measured. Clogging status of the drain
layer and reduction of the flow capacity of the embedded drains in-situ vis--vis a performance criterion of
selected drain systems subjected to increasing confining pressure has been evaluated in terms of confining
pressure index and flow capacity index.
INTRODUCTION
For more than four decades extensive application
of earth reinforcement, in terms of steeped slope,
increased reliability, construction feasibility, safety
and economy are quite understood especially for
granular soil. Studies in the application of the
geosynthetics layer in fine grained soil have not
attracted many mainly due to the apparent
disadvantageous role played by clogging and weak
frictional resistance at the interface. However,
there is increasing demand for the geotextiles
functioning as filtration and separation in addition
to reinforcing action augmented by thin granular
mat at the interface between fine-grained soil and
geotextiles (Mitchell and Zornberg 1995).
Therefore, permeable geosynthetics layer confined
in fine-grained soils are required to transmit
dissipating water in its plane direction in coupled
with the same functioning as reinforcement
(Gardoni and Palmeira, 2002a, 2002b). There are
several standards available for specifying in-plane
and cross-plane flow capacity of geosynthetic
drain. However, most of these test standards are
defined as index hydraulic properties,

i.e.,
transmissivity
and permittivity at unit flow
hydraulic gradients. Drain layers can be made
functional by transmitting liquid across as well as
along the its plane thus making use of the same as
composite reinforcement layer. The effectiveness
of such layer within fine grained soils has not been
studied well under varied confining pressure. Thus
index properties of permeable geotextile layer and
quantification of clogging effect needs special
attention. There have not been any standards yet
available for specifying hydraulic properties of the
geosynthetic under confining pressure. It is no
doubt that confining pressure causes reduction in
the flow capacity of drains. To what extent flow
capacity reduces and how to establish field
performance of the drains remained a matter of
research interest. In addition drains get clogged as
it is placed within the ground. Therefore, it is not
the confining pressure alone; the reducing flow
capacity of partially clogged drains in field stress
environment has to be investigated (Ghosh et al,
2001; Yasuhara, 2002). Present study is concerned
with the evaluation of effectiveness of thin sand
Ghosh and Yasuhara
mat, which generates frictional interaction force to

the geocomposite that is otherwise absent in case
of direct contact with the fine-grained soil and
reducing clogging by activating itself as granular
blanket. In order to check the effectiveness of
send mat around geotextile layer a series of inplane flow test on embedded drain have been
performed using two soils from their slurry states
to maximum consolidation pressure of 400 kPa.
GEOSYNTHETIC DRAINS
The geosynthetics generally used for drainage
purposes are geotextiles and geocomposites. The
drainage function of geosynthetics allows for
adequate liquid flow with limited soil loss within
the place of the geotextile over a service lifetime
compatible
with
the
application
under
consideration. Thick, needle-punched non-woven
geotextiles have considerable void space in their
structure and can convey large amounts of liquid.
Geocomposite drains can transmit one to two
orders of magnitude more liquid than geotextiles.
Proper design should dictate what type of
geosynthetic drainage material is necessary.
The material properties related to the
manufacture and quality control of geosynthetics
are generally referred to as index properties and
those related to the design as design or
performance properties.
Considering their
different properties, geosynthetic products can
perform different functions and, consequently,
they should be designed to satisfy minimum
criteria to adequately perform these functions. The
geosynthetic functions include: separation,
reinforcement, filtration, drainage, infiltration
barrier and protection (or stress relief).
Geotechnical, environmental and groundwater
systems frequently incorporate several types of
geosynthetics, which are designed to perform more
than one function in the system.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
A large diameter consolidation apparatus (Fig. 1)
with the facility for measuring pore water pressure
inside the soil has been developed. Two finegrained soils are selected. Three different
combinations of thin sand mat around
geocomposite layer have been attempted. The
933
purpose of the present

study
involves
1)
measuring transmissivity
of drains at increasing
consolidation pressure, 2)
evaluation of clogging,
and 3) effectiveness of
thin
mat
around
geocomposite layer to
prevent clogging. Two
fine-grained soils (one
local soil- Kanto-Loam in
Japan, the other one
artificial
silty
clay,
commercially known as
Clay-Sand in Japan) are
selected. Standard sample
thickness of 100mm was
considered when
soil
slurry was consolidated
(with slurry w% of 2.5 to
3 times LL) up to EOP
(End of Primary) under 50
kPa
consolidation
Fig. 1 Test apparatus
pressure. Consolidation load was applied in stages
with load increment ratio of
1 till 400 kPa. Facilities for conducting water flow

tests within the drains as well as collecting drained
water from the geocomposite layer have been
fabricated. Four possible arrangements; 1. A thin
934
6th
sand mat inside the soil, 2. A geocomposite layer

inside the soil, 3. Thin sand mat at the top of the
geocomposite layer (called as HyBrid system, HB1), 4. Thin sand mat on both sides of geocomposite
layer (called as HyBrid system, HB-2) and 5. Thin
sand mat covered by two geocomposite layers
(HB-3); were made (Fig. 2). In this process the
embedded drain is conveniently cut into 50mm
wide and drain water tubes are connected at both
ends. At the junction of geocomposite drain and
porous stone tip some amount of Toyoura sand
was used to avoid water flow disturbance. In the
case of HYBRID drain half of the slurry was
initially consolidated to 20 kPa and after unloading
to zero pressure dry sand was poured over the soil
surface area that matches with the drain size. After
placing the drain layer and adjusting its
connection with the drain water collection device
the remaining half of the slurry was carefully
poured. In all these tests the effective flow path in
the drain was maintained nearly to 120mm. Inplane water flow capacity test was conducted as
consolidation progresses.
TESTS RESULTS
Confining Pressure Index
It has been observed from the experimental
findings that confining pressure causes significant
reduction in the flow capacity of drain system. Fig.
3 presents flow capacity of drains with respect to a
new term confining pressure index, which is
defined as the ratio of flow capacity of each drain
system at step loading increment of 20, 50, 100,
200 and 400 kPa to the flow capacity at 20 kPa.
This index demonstrates the effect of confining
pressure to the flow capacity of the drain layers.
Evidently for GCA drain the flow capacity reduced
by 70% during slurry compression. Reduction in
the GCA drain flow capacity is severe if no sand
mat is used. Even flow capacities of the non
clogged drain (fresh geocomposite) reduced
substantially as confining pressure increases.
Among all drain systems tested in Kanto loam,
hybrid drain type-2 (HB2) underwent least
reduction in the flow capacity (about 50%)
compared to 80% or higher in GCA drain (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Confining pressure index of GC and hybrid

drains confined within Kanto loam
Flow Capacity Index
Standard test methods mostly explain how design
flow capacity of geotextiles should be determined
by set of prescribed experiments. Tests data on
clogged drains are not yet in plenty. In this
investigation flow capacity of clogged drains insitu have been obtained. In this context it can be
asserted that some guidelines for the selection of
geotextile have to be furnished. Based on this
investigation it is possible to specify flow capacity
and flow status under increasing confining
pressure. In dealing with this issue, a new term
flow capacity index (Fig. 4) has been introduced.
This index is defined as the ratio of flow of
capacity of each drain system at particular pressure
to the corresponding flow capacity of non clog
drain. From this viewpoint the flow capacity of the
non clog drain is considered as manufacturers
supplied data. Therefore, it is important to assess
the functional flow capacity of the drain system
under field operational condition.
CONCLUSIONS
Studies involving drainage performance of
embedded geotextiles in fine-grained soils are
scanty. Water flow capacity of geosynthetic layer,
for example, in an embankment with fine-grained
soil backfill, reduces with the increase in confining
pressure. In addition, the drain layer when exposed
directly to fine-grained soil is prone to clogging,
which causes significant loss in the flow capacity.
From the present investigation following terms,
confining pressure index, and flow capacity
Ghosh and Yasuhara
935
6. HYBRID system investigated in this study

proves to be a good drain medium with almost
zero susceptibility to clogging. Moreover,
frictional interaction at the
interface of
high strength geocomposite and granular mat
ensures suitable application of this system for
the stability enhancement of the reinforced
earth structures with fine-grained soil as
backfill.
REFERENCES
Fig. 4 Flow capacity index of GC and hybrid

drains confined within silty clay
index have been defined and explained. The
salient findings are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
With increasing consolidation pressure

reduction of the permeability of geocomposite
drain material was found lower than the same
for soil permeability;
Permeability of the clogged geocomposite
drain was found at least 105 times higher than
soil
permeability.
This
testifies
that
geocomposite is good enough as effective drain
material;
Flow capacities of drains reduced significantly
at confining pressure <100 kPa;
Under
increasing
confining
pressure
geocomposite drain (both clogged and non
clogged) underwent more reduction in the flow
capacity than nonwoven drain. However, this
quantitative estimate of the flow reduction is
subjected to the plausible error while
measuring flow capacity at low confining
pressure (p=20 kPa).
While recommending hybrid drain system for
field application, present investigation confirms
that flow capacity index of these systems
should not reduce below 50%. This means
hybrid system is 2 to 3 times more efficient
than GC drains.
Gardoni, M. G. and Palmeira, E. M., 2002a,

Drainage and Filtration Properties of Nonwoven Geotextiles under Confinement using
Different
Experimental
Techniques,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 20, No.2,
pp. 97-115.
Gardoni, M. G. and Palmeira, E. M., 2002b,
"Microstructure and Pore Characteristics of
Synthetic
Filters
under
Confinement."
Geotechnique, Vol. 52, No. 6, pp. 405-418.
Ghosh, C., Yasuhara, K. and Murakami, S., 2001,
Interaction Effect of Geo-composite and Sand
mat on Kanto loam Embankment, Proc. 36th
Annual Conference of Japanese Geotechnical
Society, Japan, Vol. 2, pp. 2105-2106.
Giroud, J. P., Luettich, S.M., Richardson, G.N. and
Zhao, A., 2002, "Permeability of Geotextiles
and Granular Filters". Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Geosynthetics,
Nice, France, Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, Vol.
pp. 1065-1068.
Mitchell, J.K. and Zornberg, J.G., 1995,
Reinforced Soil Structures with Poorly
Draining Backfills Part II: Case Histories and
Applications, Geosynthetics International,
Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 265-307.
Yasuhara, K., Murakami, S., Ghosh, C. and RecioMolina, J. (2001) A Diagrammatic Evaluation
of Geocomposites for Reinforcing Cohesive
Soils, IS-Kyushu, Japan, Vol. 1, pp. 299-304.
A New Geogrid Type for Ground Stabilisation

C D Hall
Tensar International Ltd, UK (chall@tensar.co.uk)
ABSTRACT The present situation is reviewed with respect to new developments in geogrids types, geogrid modelling,
and the geogrid specification. The most recent product development is the creation of more efficient structural framework
for the absorption and dissipation of strain in a mechanically stabilised layer. This fundamental review of a geogrids
physical and mechanical properties has brought forward a geogrid variant with triangular apertures; a development
beyond the more traditional rectangular shape. There is a trend towards performance specification and the geogrid
properties that govern performance are under investigation.
Historical background
As a geosynthetics type, the geogrids that were
specifically devised for ground stabilisation purposes
can be traced back to the later 1970s. Extruded net
technology was being exploited, principally in Japan,
where some of the heaviest duty nets, (formerly used
for agriculture, horticulture and packaging), were
deployed in ground stabilisation applications, Fig 1.
These extruded polymeric meshes were used, mainly

in S E Asia, until there came about the realisation
that there was a gap in the range of synthetic
materials which were then being used in ground
stabilisation. It was geotextiles, (fabrics), which were
being used to serve the three major functions of
filtration, separation and reinforcement at the fill /
foundation interface. As the use of geosynthetics
developed, the following diagram, Fig 2, was created
to illustrate the guidance on the selection of
appropriate geosynthetics and the approach was
described as design by function.
Fig.2 Application of geosynthetics under the design by

function guideline
Fig .1 Coastal reclamation using an extruded net in Japan,

in the 1970s (For colour figure, refer to CD)
In ground stabilisation, with its inherent dynamic

loads and the geosynthetics deformations that are
necessary to create the supporting mechanism, there
was scope for some other form of polymeric material
which could serve the reinforcement function in an
improved way.
Hall
937
To counter the then rising price of oil and its derived

products, to use polymer raw material more
effectively and to introduce a greater planar stiffness
in the geogrid, a new manufacturing method was
developed where polymer sheets were punched with
an array of holes and then stretched orthogonally.
Such products were introduced around 1982 and they
quickly displaced the former extruded nets in ground
stabilisation works, Fig 3.
Fig. 4 Polar diagram showing the stiffness footprint of a
biaxial geogrid.
From this cruciform shape arose the question of how

much this can be a governor of performance under
traffic and how this could be tested.
Fig. 3 Ground stabilisation on a highway using monolithic

geogrids (early 1980s) (For colour figure, refer to CD)
For some 25 years, this form of geogrid, characterised

by a monolithic structure, (i.e. made from a single
sheet) with integral junctions and molecularlyoriented ribs developed only marginally. It was the
aperture shape that had changed in the preceding
years, in the two described geogrid variants, from a
near hexagonal shape in the extruded meshes to
rectangular and then square in the monolithic
geogrids. It was time to review all of those earlier
development guidelines and investigate what geogrid
characteristics contributed to the reinforcement
mechanism and the resulting performance.
Rethinking geogrids
In moving the aperture shape from near-hexagonal
to rectangular, the stiffness of the geogrid was
organised around the orthogonal longitudinal and
transverse directions. A polar diagram of the tensile
stiffness at low strain for a biaxial geogrid, Fig 4,
shows how the stiffness is strongly aligned along
the rib directions.
Performance under traffic

Geogrid development and testing had previously
been carried out at the University of Nottingham and
the small scale rolling wheel slab tester had
established that it can demonstrate the response of a
pavement layer to traffic loading, (wheel passes), as
indicated by surface deformation, (rut depth),
(Walsh & Jenner 2008), Fig 5.
Fig. 5 University of Nottingham rolling wheel test facility

By taking the further step of placing the geogrid as

different orientations, then that performance under
trafficking can be examined with respect to that
orientation, Hall (2008).
The resulting data included a measure of the
development of the surface deformation, d, against
the count of the wheel passes, N. Hence the
938
6th
parameter N/d gives the number of wheel passes to

create a unit of deformation. This data is plotted as a
polar diagram with orientations of MD, (machine
direction in production), and MD +45 degrees, Fig 6.
the fill thickness: accordingly, there is little fill depth

remaining below the wheel track, (Cuelo, E. & Perkins,
S. 2009).
Concerning geogrid development, it is an advantage
if the geogrid is of such a form that the performance
is similar in all directions of travel, or, if the orientation
of geogrid placement is independent of traffic. The
logical conclusion is that the biaxial form of geogrid
is some way short of the more circular optimum polar
shape.
With a geogrid that has an aperture shape of a
triangle, Fig 7, rather than a rectangle, there was a
prospect that performance under trafficking could
be improved.
Fig.6 The performance polar plot for a monolithic biaxial

geogrid, first quadrant (For colour figure, refer to CD)
With its three stages of deformation, Figure 6 indicates

a high trafficking performance in the MD with N/d
values of 24 at a deformation of 15 mm and
performance increases to 160 as the deformation
develops to 25 mm. For the MD + 45 degrees, the
performance drops significantly to 6 at the 15 mm
deformation and rises to just 37 at the deformation
level of 25 mm. The figure is extended as a reflection
about the MD + 45 degrees axis in order to visualise
the form of the performance polar diagram in the first
quadrant. Overall, it is clear that the performance of a
geogrid in stabilising a fill layer varies according to
the direction of travel.
The 25 mm deformation is an upper level of interest
in deformation as it represents some 20% of the total
fill layer thickness. Within this range, the reinforcing
mechanism is considered to arise from lateral
confinement of the aggregate, (serviceability in
practical terms). Excessive trafficking and excessive
deformation leads to a transition from the lateral
confinement mechanism towards another mechanism
commonly referred to as tensioned membrane.
Beyond that, excessive deformation leads to failure
as deformation becomes a substantial proportion of
Fig.7 A geogrid with triangular apertures

The resulting performance polar plot, Fig 8, provided

an improvement in the trafficking characteristics.
Fig. 8 The performance polar plot for a triangular

monolithic geogrid
Hall
The values of N/d on the ordinate axis are similar to

those in Figure 6 but at the 45 degree axis, the
trafficking performance has increased significantly
and the polar shape is no longer cruciform and
significantly closer to the ideal of a circle. The ratio
of the minimum to the maximum N/d value has
increased from 37/160=0.23 for the rectangular
aperture geogrid to 132/176=0.75 for the triangular
aperture geogrid, for the tested samples and at the
limiting deformation of 25mm. A circular footprint
would indicate a geogrid delivering an optimum radial
performance under trafficking and the ratio of the
minimum to the maximum N/d values will approach
unity. The gap between 0.75 and unity indicated the
target for yet further product development.
Performance under static load
The geogrid form with triangular apertures offered a

different performance under the rolling wheel of
traffic loading. The instantaneous loading will have
the appearance as sketched in Fig 9.
939
With the use of pressure cells in the foundation soil

and also deflection monitors, it was possible to create
the load distribution model, Fig 10. Contour lines of
equal vertical displacement have been plotted
through the fill and into the foundation soil, thereby
indicating the pressure distribution from the load
plate, to the base of the mechanically stabilised layer
and then into the foundation soil.
35kN
84kN
0.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
Depth below surface (m)
Depth below surface (m)
10
12
14
16
18
20 22
24
26
Displacement (mm)
28 30
32
34 36
38
40
10
12
14
16
18
20 22
24
26
28 30
32
34 36
38
40
Displacement (mm)
Fig.10 Load distribution: Top - unstabilised fill, bottom stabilised fill with two layers of geogrid.
The top diagram shows the relatively narrow angle,

to the vertical, of the load distribution and the
potential for a punching type of bearing capacity
failure. The bottom diagram shows a significantly
increased load spread from a fill with its two geogrid
layers. The displacement contours in the stabilised
fill is much concentrated in the fill layer, indicating
that the structural performance is more concentrated
in the mechanically stabilised layer and, accordingly,
the subgrade soil is contributing less to the support
of the load. Scanning across the geogrid level, the
distribution of displacement is plotted, Fig 11. The
implication is that this plot is also representative of a
pressure distribution from an elastic response.
Fig. 9 Sketch of the load spread model and an indication

of the interaction of the geogrid with the fill.
The radial load spread is being counter-acted by a

multitude of geogrid rib directions at the base of the
fill. Therefore this loading snapshot was
investigated at the Building Research Establishment,
Watts & Jenner (2008).
Fig.11 Interpretation of load distribution for stabilised

and unstabilised fill (For colour figure, refer to CD)
940
6th
Deductions that can be made from this plot of vertical

displacement against the distance from the centre of
load are:
The pressure under the centre of the load
was reduced by some 60% due to the
conversion of the fill layer to a more stiff
mechanically stabilised layer
A similar effect was seen at the edge of the

plate
The influence of load increased the spread

from a 600mm diameter footprint to 900mm,
approximately
Performance indicated by numerical modeling

It is clear that there is a beneficial interaction between
the geogrid and the fill: the term interlock has been
widely adopted to characterise this phenomenon.
When interlock is efficient then the reinforcing
mechanism is termed confinement or lateral
confinement and when interlock is less efficient the
deformation profiles are greater and the reinforcing
mechanism is termed tensioned membrane. The
quality of interlock is a variable and the geogrid
geometry is one of the defining features. There is an
optimal relationship between aperture size and the
fill size, Figure 12, and yet another important
relationship that has been investigated with the aid
of numerical modelling is that between the rib depth
and the fill.
Fig. 12 With the discrete particle flow method of creating

a model, both the geogrid and the fill can be represented as
an assemblage of spheres to replicate the geometry and
elasto-plastic nature of the geogrid polymer and also the
grading of the aggregate particles by either large or small
clumps of the elemental spheres, Konietzky (2006).
By replicating a pull out test, it is possible to visualise

the compressive force trajectories between the
aggregate particles in their response to rib movement
to the right. Figure 13 shows those trajectories as black
lines which striate from the leading edge of the rib.
Figure 13 indicates that the quality of interlock is
affected by the depth of the geogrid rib. In the case
of the thicker rib, the intensity of compression
trajectories is greater. In neither case is there the
expected passive wedge as the fills response
appears to be more complex. The field is much wider
than a passive wedge and some of the trajectories
dissipate in the reversed direction, (i.e. backwards).
Fig.13 Upper, comparatively thin rib, lower,

comparatively thick rib (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Hall
The load spread through a mechanically stabilised

layer can be simplified for calculation and design
purposes but the both laboratory testing, Figure 11,
and numerical modelling, Figure 13, suggest that there
are greater levels of complexity involved. The quality
of interlock is important as is the reinforcement
mechanism, (confinement or membrane), that the
geogrid is capable of generating.
Geogrid performance
It is evident, as new geogrid forms are developed
and introduced, that the geogrid industry continues
to move ahead but not at the pace it once did.
International harmonised norms, national and
institutional specifications have tended to ossify the
way that geogrids are perceived and are expected to
conform. Geogrids are commonly expected to be
biaxial in nature with ribs aligned to a machine
direction and a cross machine direction.
Furthermore, it is erroneous to consider that the
performance, fitness for purpose and the satisfying
of the requirement of a design are embodied in
production managers quality control strengths. In
that the strain at the ultimate strength of a polymer
geogrid may vary from 12 to 16%, typically, then quality
control strength is an extremely unreliable indicator of
performance under static or dynamic load. Performancerelated properties need to be adopted and more latitude
is needed to devise new forms of geogrid in order to
move beyond the extraordinary benefits that geogrids
have already brought to civil engineering as
exemplifies by the initial hexagonal polymer geogrids,
biaxial geogrids and now a triaxial geogrid.
CONCLUSION
Radial stiffness of a geogrid is an indicator of
performance of a mechanically stabilised layer under
traffic loading. This work develops further the
relevance of directionality of traffic loading with the
correspondence of both the stiffness polar diagram
and the performance polar diagram.
In practical terms, the relevance of radial
considerations is that for areas of stabilisation where
941
the traffic loading pattern is other that wholly

channelized, (for example, a haul road where the traffic
direction is aligned with the geogrids principal
orthogonal), then any design needs to be include
the minimum radial stiffness provided by the geogrid
as too does the specification that protects the
integrity of the design.
Specifications that are based on quality control-type
parameters such as ultimate strength and associated
strain are of less use than performance-related
parameters such as a radial stiffness at small strain.
REFERENCES
Cuelo, E. & Perkins, S. (2009) Field

Investigation of Geosynthetics Used in
Subgrade Stabilization. FHWA/MT-09-003/
8193. July 2009
Hall C.D. (2008) The Performance of Biaxial

Geogrids Under a Rolling Wheel and the
Influence of Directionality, Proc 4 th
European Geosynthetics Conf. Edinburgh
2008
Konietzky, H., L. te Kamp, and M. A.

Keip. Neue
Erkenntnisse
zur
Wirkungsweise von Geogittern, in
Proceedings of the Symposium Bauen in
Boden und Fels, TAE Esslingen, January
2006.
Walsh, A. & Jenner, C. G. (2008) The Use of

a Small Scale Trafficking Facility to Assess
the Performance of Geogrids as Sub-base
Reinforcement , Proc 4 th European
Geosynthetics Conf. Edinburgh 2008
Watts K. & Jenner C. G. (2008) Large-scale

Laboratory Assessment of Geogrids to
Reinforce Granular Working Platforms, Proc
4 th European Geosynthetics Conf.
Edinburgh 2008.
Experimental and Numerical Investigations on the Behaviour of

Geosynthetic Encased Stone Columns
S. Murugesan
Geosynthetics Division, Garware-Wall Ropes Ltd, Pune-411019 (smgsoil@yahoo.com)
K Rajagopal
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India (gopalkr@iitm.ac.in)
ABSTRACT Stone columns are being widely used as ground reinforcing elements for the construction of
flexible structures on soft soils. When they are installed in extreme soft soils, the possible squeezing of the
stones in to the surrounding soil and intrusion of the clay in to the stone aggregate will result in poor
performance of the stone column. In such situations confining the individual stone columns within a
geosynthetic encasement would help in preserving the functions of the stone column as well as improving its
strength and stiffness by many folds. In this paper the performance of the encased stone column has been
evaluated through experimental studies and numerical simulations. The results have brought out the benefits
of encasing the stone columns with geosynthetic, particularly in terms of enhanced load capacity. The
influence of the geometry of the stone column, material properties like stiffness of the geosynthetic used for
the encasement has been investigated. The numerical simulations generally agreed reasonably well with the
experimental results.
INTRODUCTION
spacing for stone columns in case of very heavy

loads.
Among different ground reinforcement techniques,

insertion of stone columns (otherwise called as
granular pile) is being widely used for the
construction of flexible structures over soft soils.
When such columns are installed in very soft clays,
we may encounter the following problems. (i)
Loss of Stones: The stones charged in to the
column may squeeze out of the column due to low
lateral confinement from the surrounding soft clay.
Due to this squeezing, the quantity of stone
required to form the stone column may be much
higher than anticipated. (ii) Contamination of
Stone Aggregate: The surrounding soft clay soil
may intrude or penetrate into the stone aggregate
leading it to the reduction in frictional strength of
the aggregate besides impeding the drainage
function of the stone column. (iii) Limited Bearing
Capacity: As the stone columns largely depend on
the lateral passive support from the surrounding
soil, the load carrying capacity of the stone
column can not be improved more than 25 times
the strength of the soft clay and the control over
settlement is also limited (Chummar 2000). Hence,
it may not be possible to design economical
Nevertheless the performance of the stone

columns can be considerably improved by
encasing the individual stone columns with
suitable geosynthetics. Among various methods of
enhancing the load capacity of the stone columns
such as introducing horizontal layers of
reinforcements, vertical reinforcing rods, grouting
the column, skirting the stone column treated area
etc., encasing the column with geosynthetic would
be an ideal form since it also offers other benefits
as follows (Raithel et al. 2002, Alexiew et al. 2005)
i) Additional lateral confinement (ii) Making the
stone column to act as a semi-rigid element
enabling the load transfer to deeper depths. (iii)
Preventing the lateral squeezing of stones in to
surrounding soft clays thereby minimising the loss
of stones. (iv) Enabling higher degree of
compaction compared to the conventional stone
columns. (v) Promoting the vertical drainage
function of the column by acting as a good filter
(if encased by geotextile) (vi) Preserving the
frictional properties of the aggregates (vii)
Increasing the shear resistance of the stone column
(Murugesan and Rajagopal 2009). In spite having
Murugesan and Rajagopal
all these benefits of there has not been enough

application of this technique in the field. There is
good amount of research being carried out on this
technique both by model experiments (Ayadat and
Hanna 2005, Murugesan and Rajagopal 2007,
Malarvizhi and Ilamparuthi 2007, Gniel and
Bouazza 2008) as well as analytical investigations
(Murugesan and Rajagopal 2006, Wu et al. 2009).
This paper explains about the laboratory model
tests performed on the stone columns with and
without
geosynthetic
encasement
and
subsequently the numerical simulation of the
results using Finite Element Method.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
In the present study the load tests were conducted
on the stone columns installed in unit cell tank
which would represent a typical stone column and
contributory in a grid of columns. The cylindrical
unit cell tank used in this study was of 210 mm
diameter and 500 mm height. The plan area of the
tank is equivalent to a typical unit cell area of
stone columns installed at a centre to centre
spacing of 200 mm in square pattern and 186 mm
spacing in triangular pattern. The clay bed in the
unit cell tank for the installation of stone columns
was prepared by consolidating the slurry clay in a
laboratory controlled condition. The stone column
of the required diameter was installed at the centre
of the tank with displacement method. The readers
can refer Murugesan (2007) for further details.
Material Properties
The properties of clay bed formed in the unit cell
tank are listed in Table 1. For every test, fresh clay
bed was prepared with consistent properties to
have proper comparison between tests. The stone
aggregates used to form the stone columns were
granite chips of size 2 to 10 mm and having
uniform gradation. The peak angle of internal
friction of stone aggregates determined from the
direct shear test data is 41.5 within a normal
pressure range up to 300 kPa. The density of the
stone aggregate in all the tests was maintained
close to 1.6 g/cc. In the present study woven and
nonwoven geotextiles were used as encasement
for the stone column. As the geosynthetics were
stitched to form the tube for encasing the stone
943
column, the seam strength of the geosynthetic was

also determined with geosynthetic specimens
having a horizontal seam at mid length. The
tensile strength properties are listed in the Table 2.
TABLE-1. Properties of Clay bed
Properties
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Specific Gravity
In-situ Moisture
In-situ vane shear strength
Consistency Index
Dry unit weight
IS Soil Classification Symbol
Value
49%
17%
2.59
471%
2.5 kPa
0.06
11.56 kN/m3
CH
TABLE 2. Properties of geosynthetics used for the

encasement
Strength properties
Woven Nonwoven
(kN/m)
geotextile geotextile
Ultimate tensile strength
20
6.8
Ultimate seam strength
4.7
5.1
Initial modulus (based on
17.5
12
seam strength)
Load Tests on the Stone Columns
Strain Controlled
Loading
Geosynthetic
Encasement
500 mm
Soft
Clay
Stones
Unit cell tank
210 mm
Fig 1. Schematic of the Load test on stone

columns in a unit cell.
944
6th
The stone columns thus formed were subjected to

vertical loading at a constant strain rate of 1.2 mm
per minute through a loading plate of diameter
equal to that of the stone column. The loading
plate was placed concentrically over the stone
column. All the load tests were performed by
loading only the stone column, in order to directly
compare the improvement in the load capacity due
to encasement. The loads corresponding to
different displacements (in the stone column) were
measured using a proving ring (having accuracy of
0.01 kN). Figure 1 shows the schematic of the
load test set up. Three series of tests were
conducted by varying the diameter of the stone
column, viz. 50 mm, 75 mm and 100 mm. The
first series of tests were performed on the virgin
clay bed without any stone columns. A second
series of tests were performed on ordinary stone
columns of different diameter without any
encasement (referred to as OSC). The third series
of tests were performed on geosynthetic encased
stone columns (referred to as ESC) with woven
and nonwoven geotextiles and different diameters.
The results from the laboratory tests of the present

work were back-predicted through numerical
simulations with relevant material properties used
in the experiments. All the analyses in this
investigation were performed using the finite
element program 'GEOFEM' which was originally
developed at the Royal Military College of
Canada (Rajagopal and Bathurst, 1993) and
subsequently modified at IIT Madras. In finite
element models, the cylindrical unit cell was
idealised as axisymmetric case with radial
symmetry around a vertical axis passing through
the centre of the stone column. As the problem
can be modelled as axisymmetric case, one half of
a typical vertical section passing through the
central vertical axis is considered for the analysis.
This area is discretised using 8-node quadrilateral
elements for all the components in the system as
shown in Figure 2. In the current investigations
the stone columns and the soft soil are modelled
using hyperbolic non-linear elastic equation given
by Duncan and Chang (1970), Equation 1.
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Et
Applied load
Stone
column
Clay
Depth
=0.5 m
Encasement
Radius of Unit cell

=105mm
Fig 2. Typical Finite Element Mesh used in the

analyses.
R f 1 sin I V 1 V 3
V3
1
Kp a
2c cos I 2V 3 sin I
pa
(1)
In which K, m, K, Rf, c, I, J are Youngs modulus

number, Youngs modulus exponent, Poissons
ratio, Failure ratio, cohesion, angle of internal
friction and unit weight respectively. The
geosynthetic used for encasement of stone
columns are assumed as linear elastic and
modelled as a continuum element whose Youngs
modulus (E) was derived from the relation J=Eut.
Where J is the secant modulus of the geosynthetic
and t is the thickness of the geosynthetic. The
shear strength parameters were considered as that
of clay soil and aggregates as reported in the
details of laboratory experiments in section 2. The
hyperbolic parameters considered are listed in
Table 3. In order to reduce the number of
parameters in the investigation, it is assumed that
the contact between the different materials is
perfect thus avoiding the need for interface
elements. However, the elements immediately
adjacent to the geosynthetic encasement are given
lower shear strength values equal to 2/3rd of the
TABLE 3. Hyperbolic Material Properties used in

the Numerical Simulation of the experiments
Materials
Hyperbolic model parameters

cc
J
m
Q Rf
Ic
(kN/m3)
(kPa)
Stone
250 0.7 0.3 0.7 0 41.5q
16
column
Foundation
15 0.5 0.45 0.7 2.5
17
0q
soil
Geosynthetic
Linear Elastic with Poissons ratio,Q = 0.3
encasement
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 4 shows the pressure settlement curve
obtained from laboratory tests for the case of
virgin clay bed, OSCs and ESCs encased with non
woven geotextile, of three diameters, 50, 75 and
100 mm. The loading on clay bed and OSCs
shows clear catastrophic failure.
100
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
400
Settlement (mm)..
10
20
ESC - 50 mm
ESC - 75 mm
ESC - 100 mm
OSC - 50mm
OSC - 75 mm
OSC - 100 mm
Clay
30
40
50
Fig 4. Pressure settlement response of the OSCs and

ESCs with the nonwoven geotextile.
Whereas the ESCs have shown elastic behaviour,

and there is no remarkable failure. The load
carrying capacity of individual stone column for a

settlement of 10 mm is increased by 3 to 5 folds
because of encasement. The ESCs behaved like
elastic semi-rigid flexible piles. In the case of
ESCs the compression of the stone column was
mainly due to the readjustment of the particle
within the stone column and the elongation of the
geosynthetic encasement. In the present study the
failure was not observed even for the settlement of
50 mm (i.e. 10% of the column length). Figure 5
shows the load settlement response of the stone
columns encased with woven geotextile for the
three diameters (50 mm, 75 mm and 100 mm) of
the column. ESCs with woven geotextile show
stiffer response than that of ESCs with nonwoven
geotextile. This is because of higher modulus of
the geotextile. In both the cases, it is observed that
the load capacities of OSCs are almost same for
all the diameters. Where as for the ESCs it could
be observed that as the diameter increases the load
capacity of encased stone column decreases. The
load capacity is found to depend very much on the
diameter of the stone column.
100
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
400
500
Settlement (mm) ..
strength of the parent material in order to allow

the relative deformation between the encasement
and adjacent materials. Further, the effects of
stone column installation on the development and
dissipation of the pore pressures are not
considered in the analysis.
945
10
20
30
40
50
ESC - 50 mm
ESC - 75 mm
ESC - 100 mm
OSC - 50 mm
OSC - 75 mm
OSC - 100 mm
Clay
Fig 5. Pressure settlement response of the OSCs and

ESCs with the woven geotextile.
The load settlement responses obtained from

experiments and numerical analysis are compared
for different cases in Figures through 6 to 8. In
general there has been a reasonably good
agreement between the responses from model tests
and that from the numerical analyses. From Figure
6 it is observed that the hyperbolic model is
946
6th
predicting well the load settlement responses of

the stone column and virgin clay bed. The
discrepancy in comparison could be due to the
total stress analysis assuming fully undrained
response while in reality the drainage may take
place due to small size of the test set up. Hence a
part of the measured settlements could be due to
consolidation of soil which was not simulated in
the numerical investigations. The load settlement
responses obtained from experiments and
numerical analysis are compared for different
cases in Figures through 6 to 8.
In general there has been a reasonably good

agreement between the responses from model tests
and that from the numerical analyses. From Figure
6 it is observed that the hyperbolic model is
predicting well the load settlement responses of the
stone column and virgin clay bed. The discrepancy
in comparison could be due to the total stress
analysis assuming fully undrained response while
in reality the drainage may take place due to small
size of the test set up. Hence a part of the measured
settlements could be due to consolidation of soil
which was not simulated in the numerical
investigations.
Pressure (kPa)
0
20
40
60
20
Diameter of Columns
Clay
50 mm
75 mm
100 mm
30
40
500
20
30
40
50
400
Experiment
Numerical
10
Settlement (mm)..
Settlement (mm)..
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
Experiment
Numerical
10
100
50 mm
75 mm
100 mm
Diameter of Columns
50
Fig 6. Comparison of experimental and numerical

results of OSCs and the loading on clay alone.
100
Pressure (kPa)
200
300
Fig 8. Comparison of experimental and numerical

results of escs with woven geotextile.
400
CONCLUSIONS
Experiment
Numerical
Settlement (mm)..
10
20
30
40
Diameter of Columns
50 mm
75 mm
100 mm
50
Fig 7. Comparison of experimental and numerical results

of ESCs with Nonwoven geotextile.
Encasing the stone column with suitable

geosynthetic has emerged as one of the attractive
techniques to improve the performance of stone
columns, especially which are installed in very
soft soils. In this paper the individual load
capacity of this type of the stone columns were
investigated
through
laboratory
model
experiments and the same has been simulated
through numerical modeling. The behaviour of the
geosynthetic encased stone columns was
compared with the ordinary stone columns and
clear improvement is observed because of
encasement. The major conclusions drawn from
this study are as follows.
1. Pressure settlement response of geosynthetic

encased stone columns generally shows linear
behaviour not indicating any catastrophic failure
unlike the conventional stone columns.
2. The improvement in the load capacity due to
encasement depends upon the diameter of the
stone column. Lesser the diameter more would be
the improvement. This is in line with the findings
from earlier published literature.
3. The numerical simulation with hyperbolic mode
for the soil and stone columns has predicted
reasonably well, the laboratory responses. In
general the numerical modeling of the ESCs
compared well with that of the model experiments
to a reasonable degree.
REFERENCES
Alexiew, D., Brokemper D. and Lothspeich S.
(2005) Geotextile Encased Columns (GEC):
Load capacity, geotextile selection and predesign
graphs.
Geotechnical
Special
Publication, No. 130-142, Geo-Frontiers, pp
497-510.
947
Murugesan S. and Rajagopal K. (2006)

Geosynthetic-encased
stone
columns:
Numerical evaluation. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 24 (6), 349358.
Murugesan, S. (2007) Geosynthetic encased
stone columns as ground reinforcement of
soft soils. A Ph.D. thesis submitted to Indian
Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai,
India.
Murugesan, S. and Rajagopal, K. (2007) Model
tests on geosynthetic encased stone columns.
Geosynthetic International, 24 (6), 349-358.
Murugesan, S. and Rajagopal, K. (2009) Shear
Load Tests on Stone Columns With and
Without Geosynthetic Encasement. ASTM
Geotechnical Testing Journal, 32(1), 35-44.
Raithel M., Kempfert H. G. and Kirchner A.
(2002) Geotextile-encased columns (GEC) for
foundation of a dike on very soft soils.
Proceedings of the Seventh International
Conference on Geosynthetics, Nice, France,
1025-1028.
Ayadat, T. and Hanna, A.M. (2005) Encapsulated

stone columns as a soil improvement
technique for collapsible soil. Ground
Improvement, 9(4), 137 - 147.
Rajagopal, K. and Bathurst, R.J. (1993) Users

Manual for Geotechnical Finite Element
Modelling (GEOFEM). Department of Civil
Engineering, Royal Military College,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Vol. 1-3.
Chummar, A.V. (2000) Ground improvement

using stone columns: problems encountered.
International Conference on Geotechnical and
Geological
Engineering,
GeoEng2000,
Melbourne, Australia.
Wu, C.S. and Hong, Y.S. and Lin, H.C. (2009)

Axial stressstrain relation of encapsulated
granular column, Computers and Geotechnics
(36) 226240
Duncan,J.M. and Chang,C.Y. (1970) Non linear

analysis of stress and strain in soils. Journal
of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Divisions,
96(5), 1629-1652.
Gniel, J. and Bouazza, A. (2008) Improvement of
soft soils using geogrid encased stone
columns, Geotextiles and Geomembranes (27)
167175
Malarvizhi, S.N. and Ilamparuthi, K. (2007)
Comparative study on the behavior of encased
stone column and conventional stone column.
Soils and Foundations, 47 (5), 873-886.
Shear Strength Behaviour of Geosynthetics

B. M. Bacas
Terrasolum S.L., Santander, Spain. (bacasb@terrasolum.es)
J. Caizal
University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain (canizalj@unican.es)
H. Konietzky
Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany (heinz.konietzky@ifgt.tufreiberg.de)
ABSTRACT The interaction between geosynthetics used for municipal solid waste landfills, both for basalliner and capping systems, is a very important issue. 230 direct shear tests including various types of
interfaces have been carried out to obtain strength parameters (geomembrane/geotextile,
geomembrane/geocomposite,
soil/geogrid/geocomposite,
geomembrane/soil,
geotextile/soil,
geomemembrane/Geosynthetic Clay Liner, geocomposite/GCL). These interfaces show particular features
concerning non-linearity of failure envelope and different failure and interaction mechanisms. The analysis of
the shear strength behaviour of the interfaces is based on different interaction mechanisms for each type of
contact, assessing the aspects that have a greater influence on the shear strength.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important environmental issues
is the solid waste production management. The
municipal solid waste landfills are located near
the cities and villages, where the majority of
waste is produced. This involves different risks
as slope instabilities through the waste mass or
through the different interfaces (basal liner or
capping systems). In this last case, the
knowledge of the shear strength behaviour
between geosynthetics, used in landfills, is a
very important topic.
This paper presents an experimental research on
the
shear
strength
between
different
geosynthetics. A series of direct shear tests was
conducted on different geosynthetic interfaces
and also between a geosynthetic and soil.
LARGE DIRECT SHEAR TESTS

All the tests were carried out using a large direct
shear apparatus (Fig. 1), controlling the normal
stress, shear stress and horizontal and vertical
displacements. The dimensions of shear box are
300 x 300 mm. This size is large enough to
minimize boundary effects and to guarantee a
representative elementary volume even for
inhomogeneous samples. The direct shear
apparatus has a moving container, lower shear
box, and another stationary, upper box. The
travelling container only moves parallel to the
direction of the shear force.
To fix the geosynthetics a plate, 299 x 284 x 10
mm, was designed (Fig. 2). This plate has 1680
teeth, 1 mm height, with pyramidal shape. 210
drainage holes and 16 drains on the bottom face
allow water flow (Bacas, 2009).
Bacas, Caizal and Konietzky 949
Fig.1 Large direct shear apparatus
dynamometric ring. Two linear variable

differential transducers (LVDT) are used to
measure horizontal and vertical displacements of
the specimen during the consolidation and shear
phases. All the readings were taken
automatically by a computerized data logging
system.
Once the normal stress is applied, a constant rate
of horizontal displacement is imposed to the
moving container, and shear stresses between
either the geosynthetic and the soil or the two
geosynthetics are developed. The shearing phase
was carried out up to 50 mm of horizontal
displacement.
The general test procedure is based on the
ASTM D5321-02.
The test conditions are shown in Table 1. These
conditions are based on own experience and on
the results obtained by different authors (e.g.
Gilbert et al., 1997; Nye and Fox, 2007;
Pasqualini et al., 2002; Stark et al.,1996; Sharma
et al.,2007 and Zornberg et al., 2005).
Top surface
Bottom surface
Fig.3 Geomembrane/geotextile direct shear test sketch
Fig.2 Texture plate to grip geosynthetics
As shown in Fig. 3, one geosynthetic is fixed to

one half of the test device mean while soil or
other geosynthetic is placed on the other half.
A rigid load plate is used to apply the normal
stress. The shear force is measured using a
MATERIAL TESTED
Although a lot different types of interfaces were
studied by Bacas (2009), only three types of
interfaces are presented in this paper:
geotextile/geomembrane
(GT/GM),
Geosynthetic
Clay
Liner/geomembrane
(GCL/GM) and soil/geomembrane (Soil/GM).
The geosynthetics tested are the following:
950
6th
GT: nonwoven needle punched multifilament

geotextile (mass/area=500g/m2; Max. tensile
strength md=34 kN/m).
GMr1: HDPE roughness geomembrane,
thickness 1.5 mm. Manufacturing method
impingement.
GMl: HDPE smooth geomembrane, thickness
1.5 mm.
GMr2: HDPE texture geomembrane, thickness
1.5 mm. Manufacturing method lamination.
Soil: sandy clay, LL=45%, IP=21.3%, Modified
Proctor (Jmax=19 kN/m3, Wopt=12%).
GCL: Geosynthetic Clay Liner (mass/area
5000g/m2) with reinforce fibres and granular
bentonite is held between a woven and a
nonwoven geotextiles. Testing nonwoven face.
In all the tests the geosynthetics were placed
with the machine direction parallel to the shear
direction.
TABLE 1
Inter
face
Vn
Summary of test conditions
Condi
tionb
thydc
(h.)
tconsold
(min.)
v.e
(mm/
min.)
5
range
(kPa)
GT/
14wet
24/0
10
GM
450
GCL
50wet
48/0
1440
0.055
/GM
500
dry
0/0
10
5
Soil/
100dry
0/0
10
1
GM
500
a
Normal stress range applied (kPa),
b
Wet conditions using tap water,
c
Hydration time inside humid chamber (hours),
d
Consolidation time inside machine (minutes),
e
Rate of shear displacement (mm/min)
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Each of the studied interfaces was analyzed for
at least three different values of the normal stress
The results of the tests were used to obtain the
strength parameter using the Coulomb failure
criterion, W=ca+VntanIwhere W is the shear
strength, ca is the adhesion, Vn is the applied
normal stress and I is the friction angle.
The majority of interfaces tested showed nonlinear failure envelopes, depending on the shear
behaviour of each type of contact, the normal
stress applied and the interaction mechanisms

mobilized. Consequently, if a Coulomb criterion
is applied, different parameters ca and I could be
obtained for different normal stress range.
Geotextile/geomembrane interface
This interface can be found in either lining or
cover systems of the landfills. The
geomembrane has waterproof function and it is
protected by the geotextile.
Results of the shear stress versus the horizontal
displacement are shown in Fig.4. The maximum
shear stress is reached at about 2 mm
displacement at lower normal stress than 50 kPa,
and between 7 mm and 12 mm at normal
stresses between 50 and 450 kPa. Shear stresses
in tests carried out with low normal stress
increases until a value which remains constant
with ongoing shear displacements. (no
softening). For normal stresses higher than about
50 kPa, the curves show pronounced softening
after reaching the peak value.
This different behaviour between low and high
normal stresses is associated to different
interaction mechanisms of the geosynthetic
contacts. This interface type shows two different
interaction mechanisms: hook and loop and
frictional (Hebeler et al., 2005).
At low normal stress the hook and loop and
friction mechanisms develop at a superficial
level and at special contacts (Fig. 5a). However,
at high normal stress the geotextile becomes
compressed and increasingly interbedded
between
the
macro-roughness
of
the
geomembrane, resulting in matrix level frictional
and hook and loop interaction (Fig. 5b).
Looking at the samples after testing, it was
observed that geotextile fibres were separated,
stretched and oriented in shear direction. This
behaviour was more marked for high normal
stresses. This damage produces the observed
strain-softening behaviour. Furthermore, at 450
kPa normal stress, some asperities of the
geomembrane were damaged.

300
Shear stress (kPa)
250
200
150
Vn (kPa)
450
100
300
50
100
25 50
14
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Horizontal displacement (mm)
Fig. 4 Shear stressshear displacement curves

(GT/GMr2)
Geotextile
Geomembrane
(a)
(b)
Fig.5 Interaction mechanisms: (a) at low normal stress
(b) at high normal stress (after Hebeler et al., 2005)
geotextile/geomembrane interface. So that, hook

and loop and frictional mechanisms are
developed. The peak shear stress is mobilized at
about 10 mm of displacement. The failure plane
occurs always between the geomembrane and
non woven geotextile of the GCL. The bentonite
of the GCL becomes more compacted with the
increment of the normal stress, that means an
increase in the GCL stiffness and also in the
internal GCL shear resistance.
Tests carried out in wet conditions (Fig. 7) show
that the peak shear stress is mobilized at about 67 mm of displacement, for high normal stresses.
In this situation, the majority of the reinforced
fibres of the GCL are pulled out and torn from
the woven geotextile and the curve falls quickly
to reach the residual value, concerning the
friction between woven geotextile and bentonite
of the GCL. The failure plane is inside the GCL
(woven geotextile/bentonite), because of the
GCL becomes compressed and interbedding
between
geomembrane
textures
causes
geomembrane/GCL interface friction higher than
internal GCL friction.
At a low normal stress of 50 kPa shear stress
curve reaches the peak value, and decreases
smoothly to residual value. In this case, the
failure plane occurs between the GCL and the
geomembrane.
GCL/geomembrane interface
A GCL together with a geomembrane act as a
barrier against seepage in basal-liner system of
the landfills. The geomembrane is waterproof
and the GCL absorbs liquids, increasing its
volume and decreasing its coefficient of
permeability.
The humidity conditions affect the shear
behaviour of GCL/GM interfaces, decreasing its
value with the water content. The shear strength
under dry conditions presents a strain-softening
behaviour (Fig. 6) in the same way as
Shear stress (kPa)
500
400
300
Vn(kPa)
200
500
300
100
50
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig.6 Shear stress-displacement curves (GCL/GMr2),

in dry conditions.
75
50
Vn(kPa)
50
100
500
300
25
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig.7 Shear stress-displacement curves (GCL/GMr2),

in wet conditions
Soil/geomembrane interface
A geomembrane together with soil act as a
barrier against seepage in basal-liner system of
the landfills.
Figure 8 shows shear stress versus horizontal
displacement
curves
for
soil/smooth
geomembrane
(GMl)
and
soil/textured
geomembrane (GMr2) interfaces. It can be
observed that the roughness of the geomembrane
has a great influence on the direct shear strength
behaviour, with values about 200% higher for
the texture geomembranes than for smooth
geomembranes. Both interfaces show strain
softening behaviour for normal stresses higher
than 100 kPa. The textured geomembrane shows
a higher residual strength loss than the smooth
one.
The interaction mechanisms developed in the
soil/textured geomembrane interfaces are soilgeomembrane contact friction and internal soil
friction. So that, the method used to produce
textured surface on geomembranes has influence
on the shear resistance. Figure 9 shows the
failure envelopes, peak and residual, of different
types of interfaces: soil/GMl, soil/GMr1,
soil/GMr2 and single soil. It can be observed
that the shear strength for the tests carried out
only with soil is higher than those carried out
between soil and any of the tested
geomembranes.
The geomembrane GMr1, shows higher failure
envelopes than the GMr2. The manufacturing
method of the geomembrane GMr1 was

impingement of particles, producing irregular
textured surface and greater accumulated soil
between roughnesses. Therefore, internal soil
friction has higher influence than soilgeomembrane friction. The manufacturing
method for the geomembrane GMr2 was
lamination, producing regular and uniform
textured surface. Therefore, the accumulation of
soil between roughnesses is lower and the
influence of soil internal friction is lower too.
The failure plane occurs between the soil and the
geomembrane in all tested interfaces.
After testing, the samples were checked (Fig.
10). It can be observed that the quantity of soil
accumulated between the roughness of GMr1 is
higher than in the asperities of GMr2.
GMr2
GMl
300
Shear stress (kPa)
6th
Vn (kPa)
500
200
300
500
300
100
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60

Fig.8 Shear stress curves (Soil/GMr2 and Soil/GMl)
600
Shear stress (kPa)
Shear stress (kPa)
952
500
a)
b)
400
300
200
100
0
GMr1
Soil
Soil
GMr2
GMl
GMr1
GMr2
GMl
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Normal stress (kPa)
Fig.9
Shear
failure
envelopes
(soil
and
soil/geomembranes interfaces): (a) peak (b) residual

a)asperity
soil
b)
Shear direction
Fig.10 Soil-geomembrane interaction (a) height of

asperity > 1 mm; b) height of roughness < 1 mm)
CONCLUSIONS
The study of the shear behaviour of the
interfaces: GT/GM, GCL/GM and soil/GM
presented in this paper led to the following
conclusions:
The designed steel texture plate properly grips
GCL and geomembranes, up to 500 kPa of
normal stress.
The sample size of 300 x 300 mm is good to
represent even non-uniform materials.
The
interaction
mechanisms
of
the
geotextile/geomembrane interface are hook and
loop and frictional, depending on the applied
normal stress.
The shear strength behaviour of the
GCL/geomembrane interface depends on the
humidity
conditions.
The
interaction
mechanisms, for dry conditions, are similar to
geotextile/geomembrane interface. However, for
wet conditions, the shear resistance is provided
by reinforced fibers of the GCL.
The
interaction
mechanisms
of
the
soil/geomembrane
interfaces
are
soilgeomembrane contact friction and internal soil
friction.
The shear strength behaviour of the
soil/geomembrane interfaces depends on the
method used to produce textured surface on
geomembranes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support for this research was provided
by CESPA of Ferrovial Group and by a research
grant received from Deutscher Akademischer
Austausch Dienst (DAAD, Germany).
REFERENCES
ASTM, Standard D532102 (2004). Standard
test method for determining the coefficient of
soil and geosynthetic or geosynthetic and
geosynthetic friction by the direct shear
method.
Bacas B. M., (2009). Shear strength behaviour of
geosynthetics. Ph.D. thesis. Geotechnical
Group. University of Cantabria, Spain.
https://www.educacion.es/teseo/mostrarRef.do
?ref=837441
Gilbert, R. B., Scranton, H. B., Daniel, D. E.
(1997). Shear strength testing for geosynthetic
clay liners. Testing and acceptance criteria for
geosynthetic clay liners, ASTM STP 1308, L.
W. Well, ed., ASTM, Pa., 121-138
Hebeler G.L., Frost J. D., Myers A. T. (2005).
Quantifying hook and loop interaction in
textured geomembrane-geotextile systems.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes , 23, 77-105.
Nye, C. J. & Fox, P. J. (2007). Dynamic shear
behaviour of a needle-punched geosynthetic
clay liner. J. Geotech. and Geoenvir.Engrg.,
133(8), pp. 973 983.
Pasqualini E., Fratalocchi E., Stella M. (2002).
Stability of liners: some particular issues.
Proceedings 4th ICEG / Rio de Janeiro /
Brazil.
Sharma, J. S., Fleming I. R., Jogi M. B. 2007.
Measurement
of
unsaturated
soilgeomembrane
interface
shear-strength
parameters. Canadian Geotech. J. 44, 78-88.
Stark, T. D., Williamson, T. A., Eid, H. T., 1996.
HDPE geomembrane/geotextile interface
shear strength. J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE,
122(3), 197-203.
Zornberg J. G., McCartney J. S., Swan R. H.
2005. Analysis of a large database of GCL
internal shear strength results. J. Geotech. and
Geoenvir. Engrg., ASCE, 131(3), pp. 367
380.
Geotextile Tube Dewatering: A Sustainable Solution for Sediment and

Waste Dewatering
S.K. Bhatia, Ph.D.
Syracuse University, Syracuse NY, USA (skbhatia@syr.edu)
B.W. Maurer, B.S.
Syracuse University, Syracuse NY, USA (bwmaurer@syr.edu)
ABSTRACT In the past decade, geotextile tubes have emerged as a new technology for dewatering high
water-content sediments, by-products, and wastes. These slurry materials are often contaminated and
threaten environmental resources if improperly managed. Geotextile tubes present a means to manage these
materials in an environmentally responsible and sustainable manner for industrialized and developing
countries alike. The tubes are simple to transport and use and are significantly more economical than other
dewatering methods. This paper provides an overview of the use of geotextile tubes for dewatering waste
INTRODUCTION
The need to dewater sediments, slurries, byproducts, or wastes is one shared by numerous
industries today. Such materials include mine
tailings and mineral fines, municipal sewage
sludge, dredged sediments, and wastes from
agriculture, food processing, power generation,
and a variety of manufacturing processes.
Dewatering serves as a precursor to disposal or
further treatment by reducing the volume and
weight of slurry materials, rendering them more
easily transportable and disposable. As a result of
disposal fees and/or environmental regulations,
direct disposal of slurry materials is not often
economical or logistically feasible. A decade ago,
dewatering was performed almost exclusively with
settling ponds, mechanical presses, and centrifuges.
Settling ponds, driven by gravity, are relatively
simple to operate once constructed. However, a
very large surface area is required to create an
adequately long retention time and the pond will
require cyclic dredging to maintain its capacity
(e.g., Moo-Young et al., 2002). Mechanical
dewatering systems such as centrifuges, belt filter
presses, and screw-presses are especially common
t Th
t h l i
in waste water treatment. These technologies are

capable of dewatering large volumes of slurries
and sludges but have both large upfront equipment
costs and long-term maintenance costs (e.g.,
Newman et al., 2004). These systems are
especially impractical for applications that are
nomadic in nature or those that do not require
around the clock, year round dewatering. The
undesirable auxiliary drawbacks of existing
dewatering methods created an opportunity for the
development of new low-cost, low-maintenance
dewatering technologies.
In the late 1990s geotextile tubes were first used
to dewater municipal sewage sludge (e.g., Fowler
et al., 1996). Geotextile tubes, typically 1-5 meters
in diameter, are made from high strength
polymeric woven geotextiles and provide an ideal
medium for dewatering slurries, wastes, and
sediments. Geotextile tube dewatering is a process
in which a liquid slurry material is pumped into a
tube or series of tubes to facilitate a decrease in the
water content. Geotextile tubes utilize the
hydraulic properties of geotextiles to dewater
slurries
while
retaining
sediments
and
contaminants. The tubes also provide a large 3dimensional surface area over which dewatering
Bhatia and Maurer
955
can take place. Unlike other technologies,

geotextile tubes can be fabricated in site specific
sizes and are designed to accommodate the needs
of a particular dewatering operation. The tubes are
also simple to transport and use, and are
significantly more economical than confined
disposal facilities and mechanical systems (e.g.,
Lawson, 2008). Dewatering with geotextile tubes
has grown exponentially in recent years, driven by
strict environmental protection legislation and the
resulting widespread need for efficient and
inexpensive dewatering methods. Geotextile tubes
are currently manufactured in sizes as long as 200
meters in length and as large as 10 meters in
diameter, making them suitable for applications of
essentially any scale (e.g., Lawson, 2008).
Geotextile tube technology is currently used to
dewater materials ranging from sewage sludge at
small-town treatment facilities, to 1.9 Million m3
of contaminated dredged sediments from
Onondaga Lake in Syracuse, NY, U.S.A.
three phases: filling, dewatering, and consolidation.

During the filling phase, slurry is pumped into the
geotextile tube. It is important that the geotextile
tube has adequate tensile strength to resist rupture
in the seams or in the fabric itself. Because the
stresses developed during filling are closely related
to filling height, it is critical that pumping rates are
closely monitored so as to not overstress the
geotextile tube (e.g., Gaffney, 2001). During the
dewatering phase, free water drains through the
pores of the geotextile, resulting in a large
reduction in volume. There are typically between 4
and 6 filling and dewatering cycles before the
process enters the consolidation phase. Cyclic
refilling of the tube is done to maximize the
amount of slurry material that can be dewatered
with a single tube (e.g., Koerner & Koerner, 2006).
During the consolidation phase, pore water within
the contained material slowly dissipates and the
tubes contents consolidate into a form suitable for
disposal or transport.
GEOTEXTILE TUBE DEWATERING

Prior to tube installation, a dewatering platform is
constructed consisting of an impermeable barrier
(compacted earth, concrete, or geomembrane liner)
situated beneath a granular or geocomposite
drainage layer. This platform ensures that
circumferential filtrate is transferred away from the
geotextile tube and that the drainage water is
properly contained. The collected water is pumped
out of the platform and transported for disposal or
further treatment (Fig. 1). Dewatering platforms
vary in size and material makeup based on the
specific dewatering operation. Applications range
from a single geotextile tube or small-scale
geotextile bag, to very large multiple tube
operations that require very large dewatering
platforms.
Material, Mech., and Hydraulic Properties

Geotextile tubes are typically constructed using
woven fabrics made from polymeric fibers. While
there are several polymers commonly used in
geotextile manufacturing, such as polyethylene,
polyester, and nylon, polypropylene accounts for
over 90% of polymer use (Koerner, 2005). The
two most critical mechanical properties in
geotextile tube applications are seam strength and
tensile strength. Once a tube is filled with slurry
material, tensile stresses, both circumferential and
longitudinal, develop in its geotextile shell.
Modeling these stresses is difficult, however, due
to the dynamic processes involved and the fact
that geotextile tubes are not perfect cylinders but
irregular shapes. Membrane theory and continuum
mechanics have both been used to model
geotextile tube behavior. Because it is essentially
impossible to model the filling process using a
finite element approach, membrane theory is
generally a more appropriate method of analysis,
though it too has limitations. Using the framework
developed by Palmerton (2002), the maximum
circumferential tensions developed in geotextile
tubes having theoretical diameters of 3,4, and 5
meters are 18 kN/m, 32 kN/m, and 50 kN/m,
Dewatering with geotextile tubes encompasses
Fig.1 Geotextile tube dewatering schematic
956
6th
respectively. The highest tension coincides with

the location of the greatest curvature. This occurs
on the sides of the geotextile tubes, whereas the
flat tube bottoms have much lower circumferential
stresses. Palmerton (2002) also found that the
maximum longitudinal stresses may be estimated
as 0.63 times the maximum circumferential
stresses. Due to site limitations, tubes may also be
stacked during dewatering. This introduces
additional tensile forces in the lower tubes
resulting from the added weight of the upper tubes.
Local tensions may also develop where a
geotextile tube bridges the joint of two other tubes.
Plaut & Filz (2008) have developed methods to
analyze the effects of tube stacking on stress.
While geotextile strength is an important design
consideration in geotextile tube dewatering,
hydraulic specifications are of equal, if not greater
importance. Common hydraulic properties include
pore size, permittivity, percent open area, and
porosity.
Filtration and Dewatering Fundamentals
Materials having a wide range of water contents,
particle distributions, plasticity ranges, organic
contents, and contaminants have been successfully
dewatered using geotextile tubes. Figure 2
graphically
presents
materials
commonly
dewatered, based on several material indices. The
percent solids concentration of materials
dewatered in a geotextile tube may range from 1%
in sewage sludge and a variety of agricultural and
processing wastes to 35% in dredged sediment. For
any material, the same fundamental design
concerns apply: soil retention, permittivity, and
clogging. These fundamental concerns are centric
to numerous filtration criterions that have been
developed for geotextiles during the last 25 years
(e.g., Giroud, 1982; Bhatia et al., 1996). There is,
however, a fundamental distinction between design
theories regarding geotextile use in filter
applications and geotextile use in tubes for
dewatering. In geotextile tube design, permeability
is the dominant design criteria. The economic
feasibility of a dewatering project is dependent
upon obtaining a sufficient dewatering speed.
Retention,
therefore,
may
be
partially
compromised so long as soil piping does not
Fig.2 Graphical representation of slurry materials

(Drawn after Gaffney, 2001)
exceed an environmental or quality control

threshold. In filter design, soil retention is the
dominant design criteria and permeability may be
partially compromised, so long as excessive pore
pressure does not develop behind the geotextile
filter. Due to this design distinction and differences
in the filtration environment, conventional
filtration criteria have limited applicability in
geotextile tubes (Liao & Bhatia, 2005).
Dewatering Accelerants
The desire to maximize both the retention of
suspended matter and the speed of dewatering has
led to the commonplace use of chemical
dewatering accelerants. Synthetic cationic or
anionic acrylamide-derived polymers are typically
used as a liquid conditioner in geotextile tube
applications. These conditioners act as flocculants,
binding fine sediments through charge
neutralization and particle bridging. The resulting
conditioned slurry yields faster dewatering rates
and better retention of fines and contaminants.
The ideal polymer flocculating agent and its dose
are highly specific to the material requiring
treatment and small scale tests must therefore be
performed to select a suitable polymer and dosing
rate. Worley et al. (2008) dewatered dairy lagoon
solids using geotextile tubes both with and without
polymer, and found that the chemical amendment
improved the removal rate of phosphorous from
79% to 99%. Satyamurthy & Bhatia (2009)
Bhatia and Maurer
studied the effect of polyacrylamide conditioning

on the dewatering characteristics of fine sediments
using small-scale tests. The use of chemical
conditioner limited piping and reduced the
dewatering time by as much as 85%. Koerner &
Koerner (2010) dewatered silty clay using the
mid-scale pillow test and a cationic polymer. At
its optimum dose, the flocculent decreased the
dewatering time by 60%.
Evaluating Dewatering Performance
Researchers have proposed several indices for
evaluating dewatering performance, the two most
common being filtration efficiency and dewatering
efficiency. Filtration efficiency (FE) is an index
which measures retention of solids. Both MooYoung et al. (2002) and Muthukumaran &
Ilamparuthi (2006) have proposed variations of
filtration efficiency. Dewatering efficiency (DE) is
an index which measures how effectively fluid is
drained from the slurry material. Numerous
researchers have used dewatering efficiency as a
performance index (e.g., Kutay & Aydilek, 2004;
Satyamurthy & Bhatia, 2009). While dewatering
rate is an important factor in regards to the
economic viability of a dewatering project, little
work has been done in developing a rate-based
performance index.
Several testing methods have been used by
researchers as a means of quantifying performance
parameters. These tests, although non-standardized,
are now commonly used by researchers and
professionals alike for assessing dewatering
performance of geotextile tubes. Available test
methods include small-scale laboratory bench tests,
large-scale field tests, and mid-scale tests that may
be performed in either the lab or field. Small-scale
laboratory tests typically include the falling head
test (FHT) and pressure filtration test (PFT).
Because these tests are non-standardized,
variations commonly exist. Numerous researchers
have used small-scale tests to assess dewatering
performance based on the parameters named above
(e.g., Moo-Young et al., 2002; Kutay & Aydilek,
2004; Liao & Bhatia, 2005; Muthukumaran &
Ilamparuthi, 2006; Satyamurthy and Bhatia, 2009).
957
Medium-scale tests, such as the hanging bag test

(HBT) and Geotextile tube dewatering test (GDT),
are more representative of full-scale geotextile
tube dewatering. However, these tests are time
consuming and require large quantities of
geotextile and slurry material (e.g., Koerner &
Koerner, 2006). Large scale tests are sometimes
performed in practice prior to large dewatering
projects. Research using large-scale tests, however,
is limited (e.g., Mori et al., 2002; Shin & Oh,
2003).
Selected Geotextile Tube Applications
Tailings Pond Dewatering, Restigouche Mine,
New Brunswick, Canada
The Restigouche Mine, located in New Brunswick,
Canada had been using an open pit mine as a
tailings pond since 1997 (Douheret et al., 2009).
Ten years later it was decided to reopen the pit to
extract zinc. First, 300,000 m3 of zinccontaminated water (2100 ppb) and 32,000 m3 of
sludge needed to be removed and dewatered.
Because discharge water from the tailings pond
would be pumped into a salmon river,
environmental regulations limited the allowable
zinc concentration to 250 ppb. The mine decided
against the use of mechanical dewatering or offsite transport and elected to use geotextile tubes
following an on-site test. To complete the project,
17 geotextile tubes 18.3 m circumference by 30 m
length were filled with polymer-conditioned slurry
pumped 24 hours a day for 18 days. The geotextile
tubes removed 92% of zinc and met the
environmental restrictions 17 of 18 days.
Considering the efficiency and cost-effectiveness
of dewatering the zinc sludge, the mine decided to
replace all settling ponds with geotextile tubes as
part of their waste water treatment process.
Dewatering Dairy Waste, North Bosque River
Watershed, Texas, USA
Two Bosque River segments were designated as
impaired in 1998 due to point source and nonpoint
source pollution of phosphorous (Mukhtar et al.,
2009). As a result, maximum daily loading
restrictions were applied, calling for the reduction
of phosphorous loading by 50%. This study was
958
6th
performed to evaluate the efficiency of geotextile

tubes in reducing phosphorous from dairy lagoon
effluents to be applied to waste application fields.
368,000 gallons of dairy lagoon effluent were
pumped at 5% solids content into two geotextile
tubes after mixing with a polymer conditioner.
Results showed that the geotextile tube performed
well, retaining 94% of solids while reducing the
soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and total
phosphorus (TP) by 85% and 97%, respectively. In
addition, the geotextile tube functioned as an
effective filter for most metals.
Municipal
Lagoon
Cleanout,
Newport
Wastewater Treatment Plant, New Hampshire,
USA
Newport, New Hampshire is a small community of
6,000 residents. Its 1.3 MGD municipal treatment
plant was upgraded in 1988 with the addition of
two aerated lagoons totaling 21 MG in capacity
(Miratech, 2004). The lagoons had not been
cleaned in 15 years, however, and had become
overloaded with sludge. The overload was
negatively affecting the effluent quality by raising
the phosphorous levels and causing algae blooms
and odor problems. Two geotextile tubes, 10 m in
circumference and 30 m. in length, were filled with
6% solids sludge mixed with chemical conditioner.
Filling lasted 5 months and resulted in the removal
of 99% of the phosphorous in the effluent water.
The final solids content was 54%, qualifying it as a
class A bio-solid. A second layer of geotextile
tubes was then placed on top of the existing two,
and dewatering continued the following spring.
Compared to other proposals received by the city,
geotextile tube dewatering delivered a 95%
reduction in cost.
Dewatering Contaminated Sediments, Onondaga
Lake, Syracuse NY, USA
Located in Syracuse NY, Onondaga Lake has been
described by many as one of the most polluted
lakes in the United States. Years of industrial
dumping, including mass deposition of mercury
and salt by Allied Chemical (now Honeywell), led
the EPA to declare the lake a hazardous waste site
and forced the New York State Dept. of Health to
issue advisories against consumption of fish. In all,
the clean-up effort is budgeted at $951 Million

USD. Part of the lake remediation plan calls for
dredging 1.9 million cubic meters of contaminated
soil. Sediments will be transported via pipeline to a
sediment consolidation area (SCA) fitted with a
geomembrane liner, and then dewatered using
geotextile tubes. Construction of the dewatering
site will begin in 2011, while dredging is planned
to begin in 2012.
CONCLUSIONS
Geotextile tubes are economical, simple to use,
environmentally friendly, and provide an ideal
medium for dewatering a variety of high watercontent materials. The tubes have successfully
been used to dewater a variety of materials around
the world, including dredged sediments, municipal
sewage sludge, mine tailings and mineral fines,
and a variety of agricultural, manufacturing, and
industrial wastes. Material properties, design
fundamentals, and performance indices were
discussed. In addition, selected case histories were
presented which demonstrate the versatility of
geotextile tube technology and its potential for
future growth in the dewatering industry. There are
currently several areas of study in geotextile tube
dewatering that require further research. The bench
and field tests commonly used prior to geotextile
tube deployment are not currently standardized and
there is debate as to which tests most accurately
predict dewatering performance. In addition, there
are concerns regarding the use of synthetic
polyacrylamide polymers due to toxicity and nonbiodegradability. This possible negative impact
necessitates the assessment of eco-friendly
polymers for flocculation. Lastly, the use of
natural materials in tube construction should be
explored as a possible alternative to polymeric
textiles.
REFERENCES
Bhatia, S.K., Smith, J.L., and Christopher, B.R.
(1996). Geotextile characterization and poresize distribution: Part III. Comparison of
methods
and
application
to
design.
Geosynthetics International, 3, No. 3, 301-328.
Bhatia and Maurer
Douheret, J., Trainer, E., Lister, A., Hauthier, S.

(2009). The use of geotextile tube containers
for dewatering the Restigouche open pit zinc
mine and settling pond basin in New
Brunswick, Canada. Geosynthetics 2009, Salt
Lake City, Utah, IFAI. 449-454.
Fowler, J., Bagby, R. M. and Trainer, E. (1996).
Dewatering sewage sludge with geotextile tubes.
Proceedings of the 49th Canadian Geotechnical
Conference, St Johns, Canada.
Gaffney, D.A. (2001). Geotextile tube dewatering:
Part 1 design parameters. GFR Magazine, 19,
No. 7, 1-5.
Giroud, J.P. (1982). Filter criteria for geotextiles.
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference
on Geotextiles, Las Vegas, NV, 1, 103-108.
Koerner, R.M. (2005). Designing with Geosynthetics.
5th Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ.
Koerner, G.R. and Koerner, R.M. (2006). Geotextile
tube assessment using a hanging bag test.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 24, 129-137
Koerner, R.M., and Koerner, G.R. (2010)

Performance tests for the selection of fabrics
and additives when used as geotextile bags,
containers, and tubes, Geotechnical Testing
Journal, Vol. 33, No. 3.
Kutay, M.E. and Aydilek, A.H. (2004). Retention
performance of geotextile containers confining
geomaterials. Geosynthetics International, 11, No.
2, 100-113.
Lawson, C.R. (2008). Geotextile containment for
hydraulic and environmental engineering.
Liao, K. & Bhatia, S.K., (2005). Geotextile tube:

Filtration performance of woven geotextiles
under pressure. Proceedings of NAGS
2005/GRI 19 Cooperative Conference, Las
Vegas, NV, USA.
Miratech (2004) Wastewater treatment plant case
study. TenCate Geosynthetics North America,
Commerce, GA.
Moo-Young, H.K., Gaffney, D.A., and Mo, X. (2002).
Testing procedures to assess the viability of
959
dewatering with geotextile tubes. Geotextiles and

Geomembranes, 20, No. 5, 289-303.
Mukhtar, S., Wagner, K., & Gregory, L. (2009). Field
demonstration of the performance of a geotube
dewatering system to reduce phosphorous and
other substances from dairy lagoon effluent.
Texas Water Resources Institute Technical Report.
Muthukumaran, A.E. and Ilamparuthi, K. (2006).
Laboratory studies on geotextile filters as used in
geotextile tube dewatering. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 24, No. 4, 210-219.
Newman, P., Hodgson, M., and Rosselot, E. (2004).
The disposal of tailings and minewater sludge
using geotextile dewatering techniques. Minerals
Engineering, 17, 115-121.
Palmerton, J.B. (2002). Distinct element modeling of
geosynthetic fabric containers. Proceedings of the
7th International Conference on Geosynthetics,
Vol. 3, Nice, France: 1021-1024.
Plaunt, R.H. and Filz, G.M. (2008). Deformations
and tensions in single-layer and stacked
geosynthetic tubes. Proceedings of the 1st Pan
American Geosynthetics Conference, Cancun,
Mexico, IFAI, pp. 382-389.
Satyamurthy, R. and Bhatia, S.K. (2009). Effect of
polymer conditioning on dewatering characteristic
of fine sediment slurry using geotextiles.
Worley, J.W., Bass, T.M, and Vendrell, P.F. (2008)

Use of geotextile tubes with chemical
amendments to dewater dairy lagoon solids.
Bioresource Technology 99, 4451-4459.
Migration of Heavy Metals Through Conventional and Factory-Prehydrated

GCL Materials
F. Mazzieri
Department FIMET, Marche Technical University, Ancona,, Italy(f.mazzieri@univpm.it)
E. Pasqualini
Department FIMET, Marche Technical University,Ancona,Italy(e.pasqualini@univpm.it)
G. Di Emidio
Laboratory of Geotechnics, Ghent University, Belgium(gemmina.diemidio@ugent.be)
ABSTRACT. A conventional (C-GCL) and a dense prehydrated (DPH) GCL were permeated with an acidic
solution (pH=2) containing relatively high concentrations (0.025 M) of Pb, Zn, and Cu. Both GCLs were
permeated with distilled water prior to exposure to the metal solution. The DPH-GCL preserved hydraulic
conductivity about one order of magnitude lower than C-GCL. Breakthrough of metals occurred within some
months of permeation for the C-GCL whereas it was not complete after more than one year of permeation for
the DPH material. Cation exchange and precipitation of metals were the main retention mechanisms.
INTRODUCTION
Heavy metals such as Pb, Cu and Zn are
commonly found in leachate from landfills.
Geosynthetic Clay Liners, (GCLs), consisting of a
thin layer of bentonite sandwiched between two
geotextiles or glued to a geomembrane are
increasingly used as hydraulic barriers. The
hydraulic performance and the retention capacity
of metals by GCLs is thus of interest in barrier
applications.
GCLs in the presence of various chemicals

(Kolstad et al. 2004; Katsumi et al. 2008).
The amount of heavy metals retained in clays (e.g.;

bentonite) depends on the pH of soil-porewater
system. The primary mechanism for Pb, Cu and
Zn in clays is through precipitation of the metal
ions with carbonate and amorphous oxide and
hydroxides (Griffin et al., 1976). In general, the
higher the buffering capacity of the clay, the
higher the metal retention (Roque et al., 2003).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Dense factory-prehydrated (DPH) GCLs have

been recently introduced. Previous studies have
demonstrated that DPH GCLs preserve
significantly lower permeability than conventional
In this study, a DPH GCL and a conventional

GCL were permeated with a synthetic metal-rich
acidic solution in order to compare the hydraulic,
buffering and contaminant retention properties of
the GCL materials in view of containment
applications.
GCLs
The conventional GCL (C-CGL) used in this study
is of needle-punched type. It consists of an upper
nonwoven polypropylene geotextile (300 g/m2)
and a carrier woven geoteotextile (200 g/m2),
encapsulating 4200 g/m2 of powdered natural
sodium bentonite. The upper geotextile is
impregnated with powdered bentonite (800 g/m2).
The CEC of bentonite is 98 meq/100g (methylene
blue method) and major exchangeable bases are
Na (77 meq/100 g) and Ca (18 meq/100g).
Mazzieri, Pasqualini and Emidio
Major soluble ions are Na (3.9 mg/g) and SO4

(5.5 mg/g).
The DPH-GCL consists of a layer of sodium
bentonite (500010% g/m2) prehydrated with a
polymer/dispersant solution and then calendered
under vacuum. The bentonite sheet is sandwiched
between a high strength woven polypropylene
geotextile (100 g/m2) and a perforated polyester
scrim geotextile (17 g/m2). The hydrating solution
was reported to contain the polymer sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and methanol
(Kolstad et al. 2004). Additional amendments
include sodium polyacrylate (PAAS) and sodium
hexametaphosphate (Flynn & Carter 1998). The
main physical and chemical properties of the
DPH-GCL used in this study are described in
Mazzieri & Pasqualini (2008).
Permeant liquids
Distilled water (DW) with EC=0.014 mS/cm and
pH=6.2 was first used as permeant, followed by
the synthetic acidic metal-rich solution. The
synthetic solution was prepared by dissolving
analytical grade Cu(NO3)2, Zn(NO3)2 and
Pb(NO3)2 hydrate salts in DW in order to obtain
for each metal a total concentration of 0.025 M,
and adjusting with HNO3 to pH=2 The solution
had electrical conductivity EC=15.85 mS/cm and
redox potential Eh=320 mV. The concentrations
of metals and pH level were selected in order to
simulate particularly aggressive conditions and in
the attempt to accelerate the interaction with the
GCLs.
Hydraulic conductivity/column tests
The test specimens were cut by a sharp cutter from
GCL rolls. Attention was paid to prevent bentonite
loss in specimen preparation. Permeability tests
were conducted in flexible wall permeameters.
The average applied effective stress was of 27.1
kPa and 24.1 kPa during permeation with DW and
with the metal solution respectively. The average
applied head was 140 cm and 210 cm during
permeation with DW and the metal solution
respectively. The GCLs specimens were
permeated for about 4 months with DW to
establish the baseline hydraulic conductivity. In so
961
doing, a condition was simulated whereby the

GCL is prehydrated or absorbs moisture from
adjacent soil before exposure to the permeant.
Although prehydration with DW should have a
minor impact on the DPH-GCL behaviour;
different results could be obtained by direct
exposure of the C-GCL (i.e., non-prehydrated
bentonite). After permeation with DW, the
permeant was switched to the metal solution. The
pH and EC of the inflow and outflow solutions
were monitored with time. The concentrations of
nitrate and metals in the effluent solution were
measured at selected intervals. Termination
criteria outlined in ASTM D-6676 were generally
followed.
The hydraulic conductivity, k, versus the net
number of pore volumes of flow (NT) for the two
GCLs is plotted in Fig. 1. The net number of pore
volumes of flow, NT, is defined as (Shackelford &
Redmond, 1995):
NT = T-Tf
(1)
where T= total number of pore volumes from the

beginning of the test; Tf= pore volumes of flow
with DW. Hence, NT is positive only during
permeation with the metal solution. The volume of
pores was estimated from the current thickness of
the specimen. Due to different k values, Tf=3.55
and Tf=0.94 during the four months permeation
with DW, for C-GCL and DPH-GCL respectively.
The average k of C-GCL and DPH GCLs was
1.5u10-9 cm/s and 3.7u10-10 cm/s respectively.
Since the mass of bentonite per unit area and the
bulk void ratios, eb, during DW permeation for the
two GCLs were similar (Fig.1), the lower k of
DPH-GCL is to be ascribed mainly to the tight
alignment of particles conferred by vacuum
extrusion and calendering during production as
well as chemical amendment. Both GCLs were
permeated with the metal solution to achieve
NTa21.5. The permeation time was however 100 d
and 400 d for the C-GCL and the DPG-GCL
respectively. For the C-GCL, termination criteria
stated in ASTM D6676 were generally met except
962
6th
for pH, which remained higher than the influent

pH (Figure 2). The test with the DPH-GCL test
was interrupted at NT=7.7 due the formation of a
metallic Cu clog in the inlet drainage line. The
clog was removed and the test resumed. The k at
NT a21.5 of the DPH-GCL (3u10-9 cm/s) was
lower than the C-GCL (1.8u10-8 cm/s). However,
unlike C-GCL, chemical equilibrium between
influent and effluent solutions was not reached for
the DPH-GCL in terms of metal concentrations
(Fig. 3b).
The increase in k for both GCL was associated
with replacement of Na+ in the exchange complex
for metal cations as well as H+, as confirmed by
post-test essays. Final eb values were very close
(Fig.1) and, for both GCLs, lower than during
permeation with DW. Contraction of the GCLs
thickness (i.e., lower eb) is consistent with a
decrease in water retention capacity, a more
flocculated clay fabric and increase in k upon
permeation with the metal solution.
The pH of the effluent solutions is illustrated in
Fig.2. During permeation with DW, the effluent
was alkaline (8<pH<9) for C-GCL whereas it was
nearly neutral (pHa6.5) for DPH-GCL. Upon
permeation with the acidic solution, a temporary
increase in pH was observed particularly for the
DPH GCL, probably as a result of release of
exchanged base cations such as Na and Ca (Lange
et al., 2007). A gradual decrease then occurred for
both GCLs to pHa4, which was higher than the
influent pH; hence, the buffering capacity was not
exhausted.
C/Co<0.2 at NT=21.5 in the DPH-GCL. As

already mentioned, part of Cu formed a clog.
Furthermore, a reddish film was present on the
stainless steel base plate of the permeameter at the
end the test, suggesting that additional
mechanisms besides retention by the DPH-GCL
may have involved Cu in the testing system. Pb
was the least mobile metal in the C-GCL, reaching
breakthrough at NT=21.5 whereas C/Coa0.5 for
the DPH-GCL. Post-test inspection revealed
whitish stains on the clay surface of DPH-GCL
that could be ascribed to Pb precipitates.
1.E-07
DW Metal solution
C-GCL
1.E-08
k (cm/s) eb=2.77
1.E-09
1.E-10
eb=2.05
DPH-GCL
eb=2.70
-5
5
10
15
Net pore volumes, NT (-)
20
25
Fig.1 Hydraulic conductivity versus NT for C-GCL and

DPH-GCL
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
pH
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
DW Metal solution
C-GCL
influent
pH=6.2
-5
The breakthrough of the solutes is represented

(Fig.3) as relative concentration (C/Co) versus NT,
where C and Co are the effluent and influent
concentrations respectively. The breakthrough
curves of NO3 were similar for both GCLs.
Significant attenuation was observed for all metals.
Zn was the most mobile metal through both GCLs.
Breakthrough was reached at NT=12.7 (65 d of
permeation) and NT=14.35 (339 d) for C-GCL and
DPH-GCL respectively. Cu essentially reached
breakthrough at NT= 12.5 in the C-GCL whereas
eb=2.12
DPH-GCL
influent pH=2
5
10
15
20
25
Fig.2 Effluent pH versus NT for C- GCL and DPH-GCL
The buffering effect by the GCLs on metal

speciation was modelled by the code MINEQL+.
An increase in pH from pH=2 to pH=8 was
simulated. Results predict that Zn will precipitate
for 6.6<pH<8.2, Pb for 5.2<pH<6.8 and Cu for
4.8<pH<6.4. Although the code actually simulates
only equilibrium conditions, the highest mobility
of Zn observed in this study appears in accordance
Mazzieri, Pasqualini and Emidio
with geochemical predictions. Moreover, if SO4 is

added to the modelled system, the solubility of Pb
is drastically reduced due to precipitation of
PbSO4 (lead sulphate). Since SO4 was present in
the porewater of both GCLs, precipitation may
have been responsible for the high retention of Pb,
in addition to cation exchange.
Nitrate
1.2
Zn
Cu
0.8
C/Co
0.6
REFERENCES
Griffin R.A., Shimp, J.D., Steele, J.D., Ruch, R.R.

White, W.A., Hughes, G.M. (1976) Attenuation
of pollutants in municipal landfill leachate by
passage through clay. Environ. Sci. Technolo..
10, 1262-1268.
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
10
15
20
Nitrate
1.2
Zn
Cu
25
Pb
1.0
0.8
C/Co
breakthrough of metals occurred much earlier in

the C-GCL than in the DHP-GCL, which was able
to contain metals more effectively. However, the
results described in this paper pertain to the
C-GCL and DPH-GCL used in this study and may
not necessarily be relevant to different versions.
Flynn, B.N. & Carter, G.C. (1998). Waterproofing
Material and Method of Fabrication Thereof.
United States Patent, Patent Number: 6,537,676
B1.
Pb
1.0
a)
963
Katsumi, T., Ishimori, H., Onikata, M. &

Fukagawa, R. 2008. Long-term barrier
performance of modified bentonite materials
against sodium and calcium permeant solutions.
Geotex. Geomembranes, 26 (1), 14-30.
Kolstad, D.C., Benson , C.H., Edil, T.B.,& Jo,
H.Y. 2004. Hydraulic conductivity of a dense
prehydrated GCL permeated with aggressive
inorganic solutions, Geosynth. Intl. 11(3), 233241.
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
b)
10
15
20
25
Fig.3 Breakthrough curves: a) C-GCL; b) DPH GCL
CONCLUSIONS
The permeability and retention properties of a
C-GCL and a DPH-GCL in the presence of a
metal-rich acidic solution were investigated.
Baseline k with DW was 1.5u10-9 cm/s and
3.7u10-10 cm/s for the C-GCL and the DPH GCL
respectively. At NTa21.5 with the metal solution,
k increased of about one order of magnitude for
both GCLs. Zn was the most mobile metal. Pb was
considerably retarded. Further insight is required
to fully explain the fate of Cu in DPH-GCL test.
From a practical standpoint, it is possible to
conclude that under the adopted conditions
Lange K., Rowe R.K: and H. Jamieson (2007)

Metal retention in geosynthetic clay liners
following permeation by different mining
solutions Geosynth. Intl.,14(3), 178-187.
Mazzieri, F. & E Pasqualini (2008) Effect of
dry/wet cycles and cation exchange on the
permeability of a dense prehydrated GCL Proc.
Eurogeo4 Fourth Int. Conf. on Geosynthetics
(ed. By N. Dixon).
Roque A., Gomes Coelho A., and G. Didier
(2003) The role of pH in advective transport of
Cu, Cd and Zn through compacted fine-grained
soils Proc. XIIIth Europ. Confer. ISSMGE,
Prague, 467-474.
Shackelford, C.D &. Redmond P.L. (1995). Solute
breakthrough curves for processed kaolin at low
flow rates. J. of Geotech. Eng. ASCE, Vol.
121(1) 17-32.
A Polymer Enhanced Clay for Impermeable Geosynthetic Clay Liners

G. Di Emidio
Laboratory of Geotechnics, Ghent University, Belgium (Gemmina.DiEmidio@UGent.be)
W. F. Van Impe
Laboratory of Geotechnics, Ghent University, Belgium (William.VanImpe@ugent.be)
F. Mazzieri
Department FIMET, Marche Technical University, Italy (f.mazzieri@univpm.it)
ABSTRACT Chemical attack can destroy the hydraulic performance and the self-sealing capacity of
Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs), used as hydraulic barriers for waste disposals. For this reason, chemicallyresistant clays are studied here. In this research, a bentonite clay has been modified with different
concentrations of an anionic polymer, Sodium-CarboxyMethylCellulose (Na-CMC). The addition of NaCMC to the clay analyzed improved its swelling ability in presence of deionised water, sea water, KCl and
CaCl2 solutions, suggesting that the addition of this polymer enhances its swelling capacity. The addition of
Na-CMC improved also the hydraulic performance of the bentonite in presence of sea water and CaCl2.
INTRODUCTION
High concentrations of electrolytes and organic
molecules can increase the hydraulic conductivity
of GCLs, used as hydraulic barriers. This
behaviour is due to a reduction in the thickness of
the diffuse double layer of the clay. The diffuse
double layer thickness is compressed by permeant
solutions with high concentrations, high valence
of the ions and low dielectric constants (Mitchell
1993).
POLYMER TREATED CLAYS
To improve the chemical compatibility of clays to
aggressive permeants, several types of chemicallyresistant clays have been recently developed
(Lorenzetti et al. 2005, Kondo 1996, Simon &
Mller 2004, Flynn & Carter 1998).
Clays treated with anionic polymers
A product in this category introduced by Flynn &
Carter (1998) is the Dense PreHydrated GCL
(DPH GCL), densified by calendaring after
prehydration with a polymeric solution containing
Na-CMC, sodium polyacrylate and methanol. This
DPH GCL showed excellent performance in
various aggressive solutions (Schroeder et al. 2001,

Kolstad et al. 2004, Di Emidio 2010). Polyacrylate
compounds in this GCL can replace the sodium
cations of the clay to avoid ion exchange,
enhancing the impermeable behaviour under
aggressive conditions. Adsorption of anionic
polymers is promoted by the presence of
polyvalent cations which act as bridges between
the anionic groups on the polymer and the
negatively charged sites on the clay (Mortensen
1962, Theng 1982). Qiu & Yu (2007) modified a
bentonite with CMC. They demonstrated that
treating clay with CMC can increase its water
retention ability.
This paper focuses on a bentonite clay modified
with an anionic polymer, Na-CMC, to protect the
clay from chemical attack.
For a detailed description of material preparation
please refer to Di Emidio (2010). A bentonite clay
was treated with an anionic polymer SodiumCarboxyMethyl Cellulose (Na-CMC), with dosage
2% and 4% by dry weight. The clay was poured in
Emidio, Impe and Mazzieri
the polymeric solutions using a mechanical stirrer

for 30 minutes. The slurries obtained were then
oven dried at 105C. After drying, the bentonites
were ground using a mortar grinder.
X-Ray diffraction analyses were performed on
oriented samples of the treated clays. The
diffraction spectra (Fig. 1) shows the increase of
the basal spacing of the particles with increasing
polymer dosage. This result reflects that the
presence of Na-CMC in the interlayer region
maintains the interlayer open, increasing the
double layer thickness upon hydration. Some other
physical and chemical properties of the materials
are described in the Results Section.
1500
Clay +2% polymer
counts
1000
Clay +16% polymer
500
0
0
10
2 theta
Fig.1 Decrease of 2 theta indicates an increase of the

basal spacing with increasing polymer dosage.
Electrolyte solutions
The solutions used in this study are deionised
water, natural sea water and a series of KCl and
CaCl2 solutions with concentration varying from
0.001 M to 0.5 M. The deionised water, used as
reference solution, was produced using a water
purification system PURELAB Option-R. The
electrolyte solutions were prepared by dissolving
salts in deionised water, CaCl22H2O and KCl
(>99.7%). Natural sea water was collected in the
Adriatic Sea (Ancona, Italy). The chemical
composition of the sea water is shown in Table 1.
Swell Index Test (ASTM D5890)
Swell Index Tests were performed to study the
effect of polymer treatment on the sealing
performance of clays. These tests were carried out
965
TABLE 1. Chemical composition of the sea water.

Ions
Na+
K+
Ca2+
Mg2+
conc.[M] 0.501 0.012 0.011 0.049

salinity [-] 35.5
pH [-]
7.89
EC [mS/cm] 55
Eh [mV]
201
Cl-
SO42-
0.547
0.027
with deionised water, sea water, KCl and CaCl2

solutions with concentrations varying from
0.001 M to 0.5 M, to study the effect of
concentration and valence on the sealing capacity
of the untreated and treated Clay. Following the
ASTM D5890, the clays were oven dried at 105C.
After drying the bentonites were ground until
100% passed the 200 mesh U.S. standard sieve.
Two grams of dry bentonite were poured in the
aqueous solutions into a 100 ml cylinder in 0.1 g
increments. After the last increment and 16 hours
of hydration period, the final temperature and the
volume of swollen bentonite were measured.
Hydraulic Conductivity Test (ASTM D5084)
Falling-head hydraulic conductivity tests were
conducted in flexible wall permeameters, in order
to investigate the impact of 2% polymer addition
on the hydraulic performance of the Clay to
aggressive solutions. The permeant solutions used
for the tests were: deionised water, sea water, a
CaCl2 solution (5 mM). The hydraulic
conductivity tests were performed with an average
effective stress of 14 kPa on 7.1 cm diameter
samples, with initial porosity n=0.717. To prepare
these samples 17.84 g of dry soil were poured in a
stainless steel ring between two porous stones.
Then the ring was inundated with the permeating
solution. The aim of this procedure was to obtain
samples that represent a standard GCL with dry
soil per unit area of 0.45 g/cm2.
Material properties
Some physical and chemical properties of the
materials are summarized in Table 2, where Clay
TABLE 2 Material properties (Di Emidio 2010)

-------------------------------------------------------------------Clay
Clay
Clay
+ 2% polymer +4%polymer
-------------------------------------------------------------------Specific gravity
(ASTM D854)
2.66
2.53
2.47
Liquid Limit (%)
(ASTM D4318)
654.63
650.45
659.18
CEC
meq/100g
44.51
47.29
44.26
Swell index
to water (ml/2g)
26
37
55
to sea water (ml/2)
9
9
9
Hydraulic conductivity a
to water (m/s)
6.4E-12
6.5E-12
-------------------------------------------------------------------a
Rigid wall permeameter (Di Emidio 2010)
refers to the base bentonite, Clay+2%polymer

and Clay+4%polymer refer to the base Clay
treated with 2% and 4% by dry weight of the NaCMC polymer. The specific gravity of the material
decreased with increasing polymer dosage, as
shown in Table 2. These results may depend on
the lighter specific gravity of the polymer alone
(1.59). Moreover, the liquid limit of the material
tends to increase with increasing polymer dosage
(Table 2). This demonstrates that the polymer
addition may improve the water adsorption
capacity of the Clay, indicating a possible
improved barrier performance.
Swelling ability of Polymer Treated Clays
The sealing potential of sodium bentonite in water
is very high, owing to its excellent swelling ability
when hydrated with water. On the other hand,
electrolyte solutions, causing a reduction of
swelling properties, drastically reduce the selfsealing capacity of bentonites.
Swell index tests showed that the swelling of the
materials to water increased with increasing
polymer dosage (Table 2). The same trend was
observed for electrolyte solutions up to 0.1 M KCl
and up to 0.01 M CaCl2 (Fig. 2). These results
suggest the polymer improves the sealing capacity
of the Clay even under aggressive conditions.
(a) KCl solutions
swelling [ml/2g]
6th
80
60
Clay
Clay + 2% polymer
Clay + 4% polymer
40
20
0
0
0.01
0.5
Concentration [M]
(b) CaCl2 solutions
swelling [ml/2g]
966
80
60
Clay
Clay + 2% polymer
Clay + 4% polymer
40
20
0
0 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.5
Concentration [M]
Fig.2 Increase of swell index with polymer addition

(a) in KCl solutions and (b) in CaCl2 solutions
Hydraulic Performance
The impact of polymer addition on the hydraulic
performance of the Clay was investigated. The
hydraulic conductivity to sea water and CaCl2
(5 mM) of the Clay decreased by adding a small
dosage of polymer (2% by dry weight), as shown
in Fig. 3. This improvement occurred even under a
low effective stress (14 kPa) and with direct
permeation with the contaminant solutions.
Although the swell index to sea water was similar
for the three clays (Table 2), the Clay+2%polymer
showed permeability to sea water one order of
magnitude lower than the untreated Clay. These
results suggest that the lower hydraulic
conductivity in presence of the polymer is
probably due also to other factors as well (for
example the higher water retention capacity not
revealed by the swell test).
Hydraulic conductivity
[m/s]
Emidio, Impe and Mazzieri
1.E-08
REFERENCES
(a) Sea Water as permeant
Di Emidio, G. (2010). Hydraulic and ChemicoOsmotic Performance of Polymer Enhanced

Clays. PhD dissertation. Ghent Univ., Belgium
1.E-09
1.E-10
1.E-11
Flynn, B.N., Carter, G.C. (1998). Waterproofing

Material and Method of Fabrication Thereof.
Patent Number: 6,537,676 B1.
Clay
Clay + 2% polymer
1.E-12
0
100
200 300 400

Time [days]
500
(b) CaCl2 5 mM as permeant
1.E-08
[m/s]
967
Kondo M. (1996). Method of Activation of Clay

and Activated Clay. Patent Number: 5,573,583.
Clay
1.E-09
Kolstad, D.C., Benson, C.H., Edil, T.B., Jo, H.Y.,

(2004). Hydraulic conductivity of a DPH GCL
permeated with aggressive inorganic solutions.
Geosynthetics International 11 (3), 233241.
Clay + 2% polymer
Lorenzetti, R. J., Bartelt-Hunt, S. L., Burns, S.,

Smith, J. A. (2005). Hydraulic Conductivities
and Effective Diffusion Coefficients of GCLs
with Organobentonite Amendments. GeoFrontiers 2005, ASCE, GSP 142.
1.E-10
1.E-11
1.E-12
0
20
40 60 80
Time [days]
100
Fig.3 Decrease with polymer addition of the hydraulic

conductivity to (a) Sea Water and (b) CaCl2 solution
As shown in Table 2, the hydraulic conductivity to

water (n=0.717), was comparable with and
without 2% of polymer. The hydraulic
conductivity to water was not influenced by the
presence of the polymer, probably because the
interlayer of the untreated clay hydrated with
water was already sufficiently open.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This paper focuses on a bentonite clay modified
with different dosages of an anionic polymer, NaCMC, to improve the sealing ability in presence of
electrolyte solutions. Test results showed that the
addition of this polymer to the clay increased its
swelling ability and decreased its hydraulic
conductivity. This result occurred even under a
low effective stress and with no prehydration. Due
to concerns of Na-CMC biodegradability, more
research is warranted to extend this conclusion to
the long term.
Mitchell, J.K. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil

Behaviour. John Wiley & Sons.
Mortensen, J. L. (1962) Adsorption of hydrolysed
polyacrylonitrile on kaolinite, Proc. 9th Natl.
Conf., West Lafayette, Indiana, 1960, 530-545.
Qiu, H., Yu, J. (2007). Polyacrylate/(CMC MMT)
Superabsorbent Nanocomposite: Preparation
and Water Absorbency, J. of Applied Polymer
Science, 107, 118123
Schroeder, C., Monjoie, A., Illing, P. Dosquet, D.
and Thorez, J. (2001). Testing a FactoryPrehydrated GCL under Several Conditions.
Proceedings Sardinia 2001, 1: 188-196.
Simon, F.-G., Mller, W.W. (2005). Standard and
alternative landfill capping design in Germany.
Environmental Science and Policy, 7, 277-290.
Theng, B. K. G. (1982). Clay-Polymer
Interactions: Summary and Perspectives, Clays
and Clay Minerals, 30, 1-10.
Effect of Microorganism on Reduction in Permeability of Bentonite for

Application in Geosynthetic Clay Liner
Y. E. Sheela
Department of Civil Engineering,College of Engineering, Trivandrum. (sheelabala2000@yahoo.com)
K. S. Lekshmi
Department of Civil Engineering,College of Engineering,
Trivandrum.(lexmy2000@yahoo.co.in)
L. Mathew
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Trivandrum.)
ABSTRACT An innovative approach for reduction in permeability of calcium bentonite lies in the
combined use of microorganisms, nutrients and biological process. The required maximum
permeability of bentonite to be used in geosynthetic clay liner is 10-9 cm/sec. There are about 10 9 to
10 12 organisms in a kilogram of soil near the ground surface. By temporarily regulating the
concentration of microorganisms and nutrients in bentonite, the hydraulic conductivity can be
reduced using the technique, bioclogging. Bioclogging is nothing but, the production of pore-filling
materials through microbial means so that the porosity and hydraulic conductivity of soil can be
reduced. The most suitable microorganisms for soil bioclogging are aerobic natural soil bacterium,
Bacillus pasteurii. This paper, presents an attempt made to reduce the permeability of bentonite
using the technique bioclogging for application as barrier layer in liner/cover systems. The microbes,
Bacillus pasteurii were introduced to the bentonite specimens in a liquid growth medium amended
with nutrients and dissolved calcium source for bioclogging. Bioclogged bentonite thus produced
has a reduction in permeability of the order of three.
INTRODUCTION
Bentonite is an industrial mineral, rich in clay
mineral called montmorillonite. Due to its unique
cation chemistry, high swelling, adsorption
capability and low permeability, bentonite is used
for the construction of liner in landfills. In a
landfill, waste is encapsulated by the liner and
cover system. Liner and cover system consists of
different layers such as gas collection layer,
barrier layer, leachate collection layer etc. Barrier
layers are traditionally constructed using local
clay soil or if clay soil is not available locally, a
mixture of local clay and imported low permeable
clay is used. Since 1980s clay barrier layers are
replaced fully or partially by Geosynthetic clay
liners (GCL). GCL is a prefabricated liner consists
of a layer of bentonite sandwiched between two
layers of geosynthetcs. The required permeability
of bentonite in a liner is of the range 10-9cm/sec to

10-12cm/sec. Abundantly available bentonite in
India is calcium bentonite with a permeability
range of 10-5 to 10-7cm/s. Therefore its
permeability has to be reduced to the range of 10-9
cm/sec 10-12 cm/sec to be used in GCL. The
properties of calcium bentonite can be modified to
some extent by processing, e.g. by removing the
impurities, incorporate additives, or by
activating the bentonite. In the recent years a
new method for improving the soil properties
has been introduced, which is based on the use
of microorganisms and the related biological
process what is called biological treating of
bentonite. In this paper, an experimental
investigation of bioclogging on calcium
bentonite using the microbes, Bacillus
pasteurii is detailed.
Sheela, Lekshmi and Mathew
BACKGROUND
There are 10 9 to 10 12 organisms in a kilogram
of soil near the ground surface. Single cell
microorganisms include all types of bacteria,
archea and eukarya. Some bacteria can make
spores to endure adverse environmental
changes. They vary in shape and may nearly
round to, rode like or spiral. The cell diameter
usually in the range of 0.5 to 3m and spores
can be as small as 0.2m. The size of bacteria
may decrease under stressed condition. They
can survive pH ranging from 2 to 10 and in
salinities much greater than that of sea water.
The growth of microorganisms is exponential.
Most bacterial cells have a negative surface
charge for ground water pH between 5 and 7,
which is typical for near surface soils. The
negative surface charge decreases with
increasing concentration and volume of ion in
the pore fluid. Thus there are some similarities
between bacteria cells and charged clay particle.
Although microorganisms are free to move in
the pore space between large soil grains and
aggregations, narrow pore throats formed by
small soil grains prevent their entry. Therefore
bacteria are not expected to enter through pore
throats smaller than ~0.4m (Mitchell et al
2005). There is growing evidence that
microbial activity plays an important role in
calcite precipitation. The microbial calcium
carbonate formation has been found in the
studies of Braissant et al (2003) and Baskar et
al (2006). Bacillus pasteurii is a common
alkalophilic soil bacterium with a highly active
urease enzyme (Ferris et al 1996). It uses urea
as an energy source and produces ammonia,
which increases pH in the proximal
environment, causing Ca2+ and CO3 2 to
precipitate as CaCO3 (Erole 2000). The local
rise in pH often causes the microbes
themselves to serve as nucleation sites for
crystallization. In calcite precipitation, the
overall equilibrium reaction is
Ca 2 CO32 l CaCO3 p
Microbiologically induced calcite precipitation
occurs according to the reactions
969
Ca 2 HCO3 OH o CaCO3 p H 2O
Ca 2 2HCO3 l CaCO3 p CO 2 H 2O
The high pH environment is provided by the
decomposition of urea according to the reaction
NH2 CO NH2 3H2O o 2NH4 2OH CO2

Laboratory experiments involving calcium
carbonate precipitation by bacteria isolated from
stalactites sampled from three caves in
Sahastradhara, Dehradun, India were conducted by
Baskar et al (2006) to determine whether
geomicrobiological processes might be involved in
stalactite formation. The culture experiments
demonstrate that B. thuringiensis and B. pumilis
mediate the precipitation of calcite under welldefined conditions. The optimum temperature for
calcite precipitation was 25C. Galinat et al (2001)
and Day et al (2003) reports the results of the
scanning electron micrography (SEM) analysis of
concrete crack remediation by polyurethane
immobilized Bacillus pasteurii whole cells. Also
showed increased compressive strengths of
concrete cubes whose cracks were remediated with
the cells. A common soil bacterium, Bacillus
pasteurii, was used to induce CaCO3
precipitation. An investigation conducted by
Villiraga and coworkers as reported by
Mitchell et al (2005) showed an increase in
undrained strength of 20-100%, an increase in
undrained stiffness of 50-100%, an increase in
drained strength ranging from 10-50kpa and a
decrease in permeability of one to two orders
of magnitude.
MATERIALS
Commercially available calcium bentonite was
used for the study. Index and engineering
properties, chemical constituents are presented in
table 1. X-Ray diffraction test conducted on
bentonite revealed that the prominent mineral as
montmorillonite. For mineralization to take place
in soil by microbes the major constituents required
and availability of constituents in bentonite are
presented in table 2.
970
6th
TABLE 1.
Properties of Bentonite
Specific gravity
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Coefficient of permeability
(cm/s)
Clay (%)
Silt (%)
Free Swell in ml/2g
pH
PREPARATION OF NUTRIENT SOLUTION

2.55
281
60
221
5 x10-6
84
16
16
8
TABLE 2 Major Chemical Constituents in Bentonite

for Microbial Growth
Element
Range of value (kg/ha)
Bentonite
Low Mediu high
Quantit Rema
rks
m
y
(kg/ha)
Organic
<0.5
0.5%- >0.75
Low
%
carbon
0.75%
Nitrogen
<280
280>560 89.38
Low
560
Phosphor
<10
10-25
>25 6.27
Low
ous
Potassium
<220
220>520 497
High
520
Calcium
>600 13330
High
From the table 2 it is seen that enough carbon is

not present in the soil, and the availability of
nitrogen and phosphorous are very low. Hence
nutrient urea was added to the soil. As the soil
bioclogging and cementation is by the ureas
activity of the microbial type, the calcium should
be present in the soil. In the soil availability of
calcium is high.
The specific microbes, Bacillus pasteurii needed
for the study was bought from Institute of
Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, India. The
microbes were obtained in lyophilized culture form.
The microbial cells were initially grown on

nutrient broth medium and then stored in nutrient
agar medium for future use. The cells required for
a treatment were transferred to fresh liquid
medium. After 19h at 370 C under agitation, the
cells were spun down in a centrifuge at 1000g and
40C for 10 minutes. At the conclusion of the
centrifuging, the supernatant was removed. The
cells were resuspended in 20ml fresh urea growth
medium. The urea medium prepared was sterilized
and cooled. The microbial injection solution and
precooled urea growth medium were prepared
simultaneously. The constituents needed for the
treatment solution is listed in the table 3. The pH
of the medium was adjusted with 5N hydrochloric
acid.
TABLE 3 Constituents of Treatment Solution
Solution
Constituent
Quantity
Urea medium
Bacto
nutrient 3g/1L
of
broth
distilled water
Urea
20g/1L
of
(NH2CONH2 )
distilled water
10g/1L
of
NH4Cl
distilled water
2.12g/1L
of
NaH CO3
distilled water
Microbial
Bascillus
treatment
pasteurii
20ml
solution
containing urea
medium
Urea medium
500ml
CaCl2
stock 8ml of (140g/
solution
1L of water)
MICROBIAL TREATMENT
Oven drying may modify the chemical properties
which in turn affect the microbial growth, hence
the soil sample was air dried, powdered and filled
it a the specially fabricated acrylic container of
size 20 x 20 x 20 cm3. The introduction of the
microbial treatment solution was done through a
tube from the base at the rate of 4ml/min. The test
set-up is shown in Fig.1. The microbial treatment
solution was aerated while passing through the soil,
for proper mixing and for microbial process. The
aeration was provided to the soil, using electronic
aerators, throughout the treatment period and pH

was also monitored. The solution was kept in the
soil for the required time of 48 hrs. and the soil
was tested for various properties including
permeability.
Microbial
treatment
solution
Soil
Aerator
Drain
Fig. 1 Microbial treatment set up

Initially the treatments were done only for 24hr. as
the time for metabolism bacteria are generally less
than 24hr. To confirm that the microbial activity is
the reason for the reduction in permeability of the
soil, the soil samples were treated only with the
treatment solution without microbes. That is the
solution consisting of calcium chloride and urea
medium. Treatments were done at three
concentration of microbial treatment solution. (i.e.
at 1ml, 2ml and 3ml per gram of soil).
TESTS ON SOIL
Microbially treated soil was tested for liquid limit,
plastic limit, free swell and permeability. Free
swell was conducted as per ASTM D 5890-95
standards and other tests were done based on BIS
2720 part 5 and 6.
The results of tests conducted on the
microbially treated soil are explained below.
Variation in liquid limit, plastic limit and
plasticity index
Liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index
of microbially treated bentonite at three
different concentrations presented in table 4.
The tests were done after air drying the
microbially treated bentonite.
971
The liquid limit of bentonite after treatment

increases by 12.1%, 33.1% and 39.9% due to
bioclogging at a concentration of microbial
solution 1ml/g, 2ml/g and 3ml/g respectively.
Due to microbial treatment, liquid limit and
plasticity index of bentonite increases but there
is no large variation in plastic limit.
TABLE 4 Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Plasticity Index
and Free Swell of Bentonite Before and after Treatment
Concentration of
Properties
Untreated
Treatment solution
1ml/g 2ml/g
3ml/g
Liquid
281
315
374
393
limit (%)
Plastic
60
55
55
55
limit (%)
Plasticity
221
260
319
338
index (%)
Free swell 16
20
21
23
Variation in free swell

Free swell of bentonite in water is 16ml/2gm
and is 20ml/2gm, 21ml/2gm and 23ml/2gm
with the microbial solution of concentration
1ml/g, 2ml/g and 3ml/g respectively. With
increase in concentration of microbial solution
the free swell of bentonite increases. It requires
further study to find the optimum concentration
of microbial solution for maximum free swell.
Variation in permeability
The permeability of bentonite before and after
treatment with three different concentrations of
microbial solutions was found out and the
results are presented in fig.2. Permeability of
bentonite reduced from 5x10 -6 cm/s to 6.05x10 9
cm/s under a pressure of 0.05kg/cm2 due to
microbial treatment which is of the order three.
With increase in overburden pressure the
coefficient of permeability reduces further.
With increase in concentration of microbial
solution also, the coefficient of permeability of
bentonite reduces
Effect of treating with Nutrient Solution
In order to find the effect of nutrient medium
(without microbes) on the bioclogging of soil,
972
6th
treatment was done with nutrient solution alone.

The results of tests are in table 5.
Permeability (m/sec)
Untreated
@conc.of 2ml/g
@conc.of 1ml/g
@conc.of 3ml/g
1.E-12
1.E-11
1.E-10
1.E-09
1.E-08
1.E-07
0
200
400
2
Pressure (kN/m )
600
Fig.2 : Variation of Permeability for varying

overburden pressure before and after microbial
treatment
TABLE 5.Liquidlimit, Plastic Limit, Plasticity Index,
Free Swell and Permeability of Soil Samples Treated
with Nutrient Solution alone (With out Microbes)
Property Untreated
Bentonite treated with
bentonite
nutrient alone
1ml/g
2ml/g
3ml/g
Liquid
limit (%)
281
155
154
155
Plastic
limit (%)
60
65
64
65
Plasticity
Index(%)
221
90
90
90
Free
Swell
16
16
16
16

The following conclusions can be made from
the above study.
1. Due to microbial treatment, the liquid limit
and plasticity index of the bentonite
increases. The liquid limit of bentonite
after treatment increases by 12.1%, 33.1%
and 39.9% at a concentration of microbial
solution
1ml/g,
2ml/g
and
3ml/g
respectively.
2. Due to microbial treatment, the free swell
of the soil increases. Free swell of
bentonite in water is 16ml/2gm and is
20ml/2g, 21ml/2g and 23ml/2g with the
microbial solution of concentration 1ml/g,
2ml/g and 3ml/g respectively
3 The coefficient of permeability of
bentonite reduces by about 3 orders due to
microbial treatment. Permeability of
bentonite reduced from 5 x 10 -6cm/s to
6.05x10 -9 cm/s under a pressure of
0.05kg/cm2 due to microbial treatment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENt
Financial support by National Coir Research and
Management Institute of the state of Kerala for this
research work is greatly acknowledged.
REFERENCES
x
The result of tests conducted with nutrient

solution with out microbes indicates that the
nutrient solution reduced liquid limit, plastic
limit, plasticity index and free swell. Hence we
can conclude that nutrient solution has adverse
effect on the requirement of properties and the
permeability reduction is only due to microbes.
Baskar S., Baskar R., Mauclaire L. and

McKenzie J. A.(2006), Microbially induced
calcite precipitation in culture experiments:
Possible origin for stalactites in Sahastradhara
caves, Current science, Vol. 90, No.1,
pp.58-64.
x Day J. L., Ramakrishnan V. and Bang S.S.
(2003). Microbially induced sealant for
concrete
crack
remediation
http://www.ce.washington.edu/em03/proce
edings/papers/352.pdf.
x www.basillus.html
x Ercole C., Cacchio P., Botta A.L., Cent V.
and Lepidi A. (2007). Bacterially induced
mineralization of calcium carbonate: The
role of exopolysaccharides and capsular
polysaccharides,
Mmicroscopy
and
Microanalysis, 13, 42-50
y
x Ferris, F. G., Stehmeier, L. G., Kantzas, A.,
and Mourits, F. M. (1996). Bacteriogenic
Mineral Plugging J. Can. Pet. Technol.,
35(8), 5661
x Galinat J.K., Ramakrishnan V. and Bang
S.S. (2001). Concrete crack remediation
by polyurethane-immobilized Bacillus
pasteurii, South Dakota School of Mines
and Technology, Rapid City, SD
x Mitchell J.K. and Santamarina J.C.(2005),
Biological Considerations in Geotechnical
973
g
Engineering, Journal of geotechnical and
geoenvironmental engineering, Vol. 131,
No.10, pp. 1222-1233.
x Braissant O.,Cailleau G.,Dupraz C. and
Verrecchia
E.P.(2003).
Bacterially
induced
mineralization
of
calcium
carbonate in terrestrial environments: The
role of exopolysaccharides and amino
acids, Journal of Sedimentary Research,
73(3), 485-490
Use of Waste Tire-Chip for Improvement of Bearing Capacity as a

Replacement of Sand
Ravi Kant Mittal
Civil Engineering Group,
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, 333 031, INDIA.
(ravi.mittal@rediffmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Present paper presents results of model footing tests conducted on a model strip footing of 75 mm width (B), in
test box of size 800 mm long, 77 mm wide and 400 mm deep on sand alone and sand reinforced with tire-chip.
Tests were conducted on sand alone at 30% relative density and sand reinforced with tire-chip at same density by
replacing sand with equal percentage of tire-chips by weight. Tire-chips were mixed randomly with sand in top
1B depth. Tire-chip content was varied from 5% to 50% by weight. By replacing 5%, 10%, 20%, 40% and 50%
sand with equal weight of tire-chip up to 1B depth below footing BCR (ultimate bearing capacity of tire-chip
reinforced soil to ultimate bearing capacity of sand alone) increased to 2.0, 2.8, 3.6, 5.7 and 2.4 respectively.
Therefore, a maximum of 40% tire-chip content as a replacement of sand is suggested. At all strains pressuresettlement curve of 20% tire-chip reinforced soil is much above compare to unreinforced soil and tire-chip
reinforced soil i.e. bearing pressure increases and settlement reduces. Considering settlement reduction also, a
maximum of 20% tire-chip content is recommended.
INTRODUCTION
For industrial structures, high rise
buildings, bridge pier etc. normally deep
foundations or rafts or rafts resting on piles
are adopted due to low bearing capacity of
soil in comparison to heavy loads imposed by
these structures. Such alternatives are very
costly in comparison to shallow foundations
such as isolated and combined footings.
Attempts were made to meet demand of
heavy loads by increasing bearing capacity of
soil by geogrid reinforcement. This technique
is very well established based on last thirty
years research (Binquet & Lee, 1975;
Akinmusuru et al.1981; Fragaszy & Lawton,
1984; Sridharan et al., 1988; Dixit & Mandal,
1993; Khing et al., 1993; Adams & Collin,
1997, Huang & Menq, 1997; Kurian et al.
1997; Dash et al., 2001;Kumar & Saran,
2003, Dash et al., 2004, Michalowski, 2004;
Deb et al., 2005; Basudhar et al., 2007; Dash
et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2009.) on it.
Analytical as well as experimental, and field

studies carried out using a wide variety of
synthetic materials and products (e.g.
geotextiles, geogrids etc.) have resulted in this
type of material dominating the market. These
synthetic materials and products generally
have a long life, but are costly and may create
environmental problems in the future (Vinod,
P., et al. 2009). Using geogrid reinforcement
maximum increase in bearing capacity is
found to be 3 to 4 times of virgin soil
depending upon size, position and number of
layer etc. of reinforcement.
In India total waste tires will be in
the order of 112 million per year. Such a huge
growth may cause environmental hazard and
used tire disposal is one of the greatest
challenges that waste management experts
face today. Tire shreds are used tires that have
been cut into pieces by a shredder cutter. The
cut pieces so obtained are usually irregular
shaped with the larger dimensions of 24
times larger than the smaller. The product of
Mittal
shredding is referred as to tire chips when

they are generally between 10 and 50 mm in
size. The term tire shreds is used when
particles are larger (Lee et al., 1999). The
specific gravity of the tyre shreds/chips varies
from 1.02 to 1.26 (Edil & Bosscher, 1994;
Foose et al., 1996) depending upon the
quantity of steel belting present. The average
value is approximately 1.22 with metal
contents and without metal this value is
approximately 1.15.
Past research has demonstrated that
random inclusion of discrete tire-chips
significantly improves the engineering
properties of soils(Humphrey & Manion,
1992; Edil and Bosscher, 1994; Foose et al.
1996). Bosscher et al. (1993) reported that an
embankment constructed with sandtire
shreds satisfactorily operated even when
subjected to heavy loads. Tire shreds have
been successfully used in road embankment,
and has been reported by Hoppe (1994) and
summarized by Rao & Dutta (2001). Waste
tires are used for reinforcing soil in road
construction, pavement, to control ground
erosion, for stabilizing slopes, in retaining
structures, as lightweight fill material
(Humphrey & Manion 1992; Humphrey et al.
1993; Edil & Bosscher 1992, 1994; Bernal et
al. 1996; Cecich et al. 1996; Foose et al. 1996;
Masad et al. 1996, Bregado et al. 2005; Rao &
Dutta 2006).
Past research has demonstrated that
random inclusion of discrete fibres or mesh
elements/
significantly
improves
the
engineering properties of soils. Model footing
tests and field plate load tests (McGown et
al.1985; Lawton et al. 1993, Consoli et al.
2003; Dash et al. 2004; Gupta et al. 2006,
Consoli et al. 2009) have been conducted on
sandy soil improved by randomly mixing
mesh elements or fibres to it. All have
reported increase in bearing capacity due to
random reinforcement. Mittal, 2010, reported
tire-chip have good potential to be used as
random reinforcement to improve bearing
capacity.
975
Quality sand is known as good material for

foundation however availability is limited and
involves cost and environmental aspects.
Review of literature revealed that there is no
information is available on the behaviour of
strip footings, resting on sand reinforced with
tire chip as a replacement of sand. Therefore,
in present work model strip footing tests were
planned on sand reinforced with waste tirechip as a replacement of sand to study its
behaviour.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Laboratory model footing test were conducted
on strip footing of 75 mm size resting on
randomly distributed tire-chip reinforced
sand. Material properties and test procedure is
given below.
Test Material
Sand was obtained from Solani river bed
passing nearby Roorkee town. This sand is
characterized as poorly graded sand (SP). Its
various properties; specific gravity of solids
(Gs), average grain size (D50), coefficient of
uniformity (Cu), maximum void ratio (emax)
and minimum void ratio (emin) are 2.63, 0.27
mm, 1.8, 0.84 and 0.48 respectively
Tier-chips of size 10mm x 20mm are obtained
by manually cutting tiers.
Model Footing Test
Model footing tests were conducted
to investigate the pressure settlement
behaviour of Unreinforced and reinforced
sand with randomly distributed Tire-chips. All
tests were conducted on the footing of size 75
mm x 75 mm in a tank of size 800 mm x 77
mm x 400 mm (deep). The base of the footing
was made rough, to simulate the roughness of
actual footings. Tire-chip reinforced sand was
placed in the tank in layers in top 1B depth
below footing and each layer was compacted
using hand rammer to achieve the desired
relative density.
The footing was placed in the middle
of the tank. The level of the footing was
checked by sprit level. Load was applied
through hand operated jack of 10kN capacity.
Model footing tests were performed under
central-vertical load to study the pressure
976
6th
settlement curves of the tire-chip reinforced

sand. In all tests a relative density of 30% was
maintained.
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ultimate bearing capacity can be
determined by double tangent method for
most of cases. In cases where a peak load
cannot be established with certainty, the
conventional ultimate bearing capacity is
defined as the load causing a relative
settlement 10% of the footing width (B)
(Vesic, 1973). In present study for
comparison, ultimate bearing capacity is taken
as pressure corresponding to 10% settlement
ratio. Figure 1 shows the pressure settlement
curves of the unreinforced sand and
reinforced sand.
Pressure (kN/m2)
0
200
400
600
Table 1 Bearing Capacity for Sand Reinforced by

Randomly Distributed Tire-chip
Reinforcement details
0
5
10
(s/B) %
replacing sand with 5% tire-chip up to 1B

depth below footing BCR (ultimate bearing
capacity of reinforced soil to ultimate bearing
capacity of sand alone) increased to 2. At all
strains pressure-settlement curve of 5% tirechip reinforced soil is much above
unreinforced soil i.e. bearing pressure
increases and settlement reduces. Similarly by
replacing sand with 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%,
and 50% tire-chip up to 1B depth below
footing BCR increased to 2.8, 3.6, 4.9, 5.7
and 2.4 respectively. BCR keeps on
increasing till 40% replacement of sand after
that a sudden decrease is observed. Therefore,
a maximum of 40% tire chip as a replacement
of sand is suggested.
The bearing capacity and BCR of the
unreinforced sand, tire-chip reinforced sand is
shown in the Table 1.
15
20
25
30
Unreinforced sand
Tire-chip 5% as replacement of sand
Figure 1 Pressure Settlement Curves of Sand

Reinforced by Randomly Distributed Tier-Chip
Figure 1 indicates that by inclusion

of tire-chip as a replacement of sand overall
pressure-settlement
curve
improves
significantly. It was found that with increase
in tire-chip content up to 40% bearing
capacity increases. However, at 50% tire-chip
content bearing capacity decreased. By
Unreinforced sand
5% tire-chips as a
replacement of sand
10% tire-chips as
a replacement of sand
20% tire-chips as
a replacement of
30% tire-chips as
40% tire-chips as
a replacement of
50% tire-chips as
Bearing
Capacity
(kPa)
50.0
100.0
BCR
141.8
2.8
179.9
3.6
245.4
4.9
286.4
5.7
121.3
2.4
1.0
2.0
At all strains pressure-settlement

curve of 20% tire-chip reinforced soil is much
above 10% tire-chip reinforced soil i.e.
bearing pressure increases and settlement
reduces.
However, at lower settlement ratio upto 4%
performance of 20% tire-chip reinforced soil
is superior compare to 30%, 40% and 50%
tire-chip reinforced soil (Figure 2). At all
strains pressure-settlement curve of 20% tirechip reinforced soil is much above compare to
unreinforced soil and other percentage of tirechip reinforced soil i.e. bearing pressure
Mittal
increases and settlement reduces. During

working loads settlement ratios may be order
of 2-4% only. If settlement is restricted, a
maximum of 20% tire-chip content is
recommended.
Pressure (kN/m2)
0
0
1
2
(s/B) %
100
200
300
Unreinforced sand
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Figure 2 Pressure Settlement Curves of Sand

Reinforced with Tier-Chip at low strains
CONCLUSIONS
An innovative approach using randomly
distributed tire-chip with sand is proposed as
an economical solution for shallow
foundations. By replacing sand with 5%,
10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% tire-chip up to
1B depth below footing BCR increased to 2.8,
3.6, 4.9, 5.7 and 2.4 respectively. A maximum
of 40% tire chip as a replacement of sand is
suggested. However, keeping in view of
practical aspects and working loads a
maximum of 20% tire-chip content as a
replacement of sand is suggested. Use of
randomly distributed tire-chips may prove to
be an economical solution for heavy loads by
enabling shallow foundations in place of other
costly alternatives. Further, huge growth of
used tyres may cause environmental hazard
and its disposal is one of the greatest
challenges today. Therefore, it will serve the
purpose of disposal of waste tire-chip in a
beneficial way as well as save sand by
partially replacing it with tire-chip.
977
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model spread footing load tests on
geosynthetic reinforced soil foundations,
Journal
of
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(1981). Stability of loaded footings on
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Bernal, A., Lovell, C.W., and Salgado, R.,
(1996), Laboratory Study on the Use of
Tire Shreds and Rubber-Sand in Backfills
and Reinforced Soil Applications.,
FHWA/IN/JHRP-96/12, Purdue University,
West Lafayette. Indiana.
Binquet, J. and Lee, K.L. (1975), Bearing
capacity tests on reinforced earth slabs,
Journal of Geotechnical Engg. Division,
ASCE, 101(12), 1241-1255.
Bosscher, P. J., Edil, T. B. and Eldin, N.
(1993) Construction and performance of
shredded waste tire test embankment.
Transportation Research Record No. 1345,
Transportation
Research
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Washington, D.C., pp. 4452.
Bosscher, P.J., Edil, T.B., and Kurauka, S.
(1997). Design of highway embankments
using tire chips. Journal of Geotechnical
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 123(4),
295-304.
Cecich, V., Gonzales, L., Hoisaeter, A.,
Williams, J., and Reddy, K.(1996). Use of
shredded tires as lightweight backfill
material for retaining structures. Waste
Manage. Res., 14, 433451.
Consoli, N. C., Casagrande, M. D. T., Thom
A., Rosa, F. D. and
Fahey, M. (2009)
Effect of relative density on plate loading
tests
on
fibre-reinforced
sand.
Geotechnique, 59(5), 471476.
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P.D.M., and Thome, A., (2003). Plate load
test on fiber-reinforced soil. Journal of
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and
Geoenvironmental
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Dash, S. K., Rajagopal, K. & Krishnaswamy,
N. R. (2004). Performance of different
geosynthetic reinforcement materials in
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foundations,
Geosynthetics
International, 11(1), 3542.
Dash,
S.K.,
Rajagopal,
K.,
and
Krishnaswamy, N.R., (2007). Behaviour of
geocell reinforced sand beds under strip
loading. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
44 (7), 905916.
Deb, K., Chandra, S., and Basudhar, P.K.,
(2005). Settlement response of a multi
layer geosynthetic-reinforced granular fillsoft
soil
system.
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International 12 (6), 288298.
Dixit, R.K. and Mandal, J.N. (1993), Bearing
capacity of geosynthetic reinforced soil
using variational method, Journal of
Geotextile and Geomembranes, 12, pp.
543-566.
Edil, T.B. and Bosscher, P.J. (1994).
Engineering properties of tire chips and
soil mixtures. Geotechnical Testing
Journal, 17(4), 453-464.
Fragaszy, J.R., and Lawton, E., (1984).
Bearing capacity of reinforced sand
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Foose, G.J., Benson, C.H. and Bosscher, P.J.
(1996). Sand reinforced with shredded
waste tires. Journal of Geotechnical
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Gupta, P.K., Saran, S. and Mittal, R.K.,
(2006), Behaviour of fibre reinforced sand
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Humphery, D.N., Sandford, T.C., Cribbs,
M.M., and Manion, W.P. (1993), Shear
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E.E. and Yen, S.C. (1993), The bearing
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Papagiannakis, T. (1996). Engineering
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Mercer, F.B., (1985). Soil strengthening
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Rao G. V. and Dutta R. K (2006),
Compressibility and strength behaviour of
sandtyre chip mixtures, Geotechnical and
Geological Engineering, 24, 711724.
Rao, G. V. and Dutta, R. K. (2001) Utilization
of
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Application of Tyre Shreds A State of Art

S.P.Guleria
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Hamirpur(H.P.) India
spguleria@yahoo.com
R.K.Dutta
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Hamirpur(H.P.) India
rkd@nitham.ac.in
ABSTRACT With the alarming growth in vehicle population in world, scrap tyres are
beginning to pile up. The paper presents an engineering overview of use of shredded scrap
tyres. The properties of tyre shreds open up new possibilities in geotechnical engineering
applications. Tyre shreds possess interesting technical properties that could be beneficially
used in civil engineering applications. Some characteristic properties of tyre shred materials
are the low density, high elasticity, low stiffness, high drainage capacity, high thermal
insulation capacity and frost resisting properties.
INTRODUCTION
Plant roots stabilize soils, through reinforcement of
soil in nature, against erosion and failure of deep
slopes. Presently, reinforcement is an effective and
reliable technique for increasing strength and
stability of soils. The technique used today varies
in the applications ranging from retaining
structures and embankments to surged stabilization
and surface drainage systems. With globalization
of Indian economy and consequent development
process of infrastructure, the number of vehicles
on road is on the increase. Among 87, 22, 821
registered Non Transport vehicles contains
1,73,434 number of buses, 72, 67,174 cars and 12,
82,113 jeeps. Compared to this transport vehicles
are lesser in number and contains 74, 11,756
number of total vehicles. With an annual
cumulative growth rate of 8%, these figures were
estimated to rise 32 million. The earlier use of
waste tyres as fuel is now prohibited by
Indian Government due to its environmental
impact. Such an alarming growth in number of
vehicles apart from causing noise and air pollution

will begin to cause pollution in terms of stock piles
of discarded tyres. Considering the average life of
the tyres used in these vehicles as 10 years after
retreading twice, the total number of waste tyres
will be of the order of 128 million years. Reuse
and recycling of scraped tyres is essential to avoid
growing stockpiles of discarded tyres around the
world. Civil engineering applications are one
alternative use area that might be favorable
because most of the engineering applications do
not need much processing and consumes large
volumes of tyres. Re-use of end-of-life tyres has
been utilized ever since rubber tyres were invented,
e.g. as bumpers in harbours, shoe soles in under
developed countries and as swings on playgrounds
for children. The use of tyres in civil engineering
applications is not new The use of tyre shreds in
construction work has been tested since the 1980s,
for erosion control, slope stabilization, road
insulation material, lightweight fill material and as
drainage layers in landfills. The experiences have
Guleria and Dutta
shown that the use of tyre shreds were beneficial

from engineering and economical point of view.
2. TYRE SHREDS
Tyre shreds are fragmented from the tyres those
who have completed their life span. They are
mainly derived from the passenger cars, however
for certain engineering application the shredded
tyres from heavy vehicles can also be used. The
fragmentation is performed by a shredder. The
shredded tyres are designated in various sizes in
Europe and U.S.A as per EN 14243:2004 and
ASTM D 6270-98.
2.1 Properties of Tyre Shreds
2.1.1 Density
The Density of the tyre shred was found to vary
between 440-990 kg/m3 (Humphrey et al.1997;
Wu et al.1997). The difference in results has been
observed due to the use of different tyre
compositions and origin of the tyre shred e.g. tread
or carcass. Tyre shreds containing high content of
steel cord were found to form higher compact
density as compared to the of rubber and textile
fabrics. The results of the compacted density were
also found to be affected due to the use of different
thickness of steel cord used in different types of
tyres e.g. heavy vehicles. Further, as the tyre
shreds are highly compressible hence the bulk
density of tyre shreds depends upon the applied
load and compaction efforts The compact density
of tyre shred tyres has been found slightly higher
than that of the density of water and due to this
reason tyre shreds if placed in water gets sinks. It
has been observed that the water content has a
minor effect on the bulk density (Young, et al
2003). The maximum water content in tyre shreds
after been submerged in the water was found to
vary between 1.9-5.3 %.( Humphrey et al. 1992).
Young, et al (2003) conducted water adsorption
and specific gravity tests on random samples of
tyre shreds and found that the specific gravity of
tyre shreds varies with the type of belts
(reinforcement) used in the tyre shreds .The results
as found by Young, et al 2003 were found to be
similar to the results as reported by Humphrey &
Manion (1992).
981
From the studies it can be concluded that the

Density of Tyre shred depends upon the amount
and type of reinforcement, surcharge and size of
individual tyre shred.
2.1.2 Porosity and void ratio
Identified major factors that affect the porosity and
void ratio of tyre shreds are applied stresses, initial
conditions (compaction energy level) and tyre
shred size. Drescher & Newcomb (1994)
concluded from their studies that porosity and void
ratio of tyre shreds dependents on the size of the
tyre shreds. They found that large sized tyre shreds
having mean area of 0.093 m yield a porosity of
80 % where as smaller shreds lesser than 30mm
have yielded porosity of 60%.
2.1.3 Permeability
Young et al. (2003) conducted hydraulic
conductivity tests on tyre shreds to determine the
hydraulic conductivity of tyre shreds. It was
observed that with the increase in the tyre shred
size, the hydraulic conductivity also increases.
Similar results were observed by Edil & Bosscher
(1994).
2.1.4 Poissonss ratio
The Poissons ratio of tyre shreds had been
investigated in several studies by Humphrey &
Manion 1992; Drescher & Newcomb 1994. In the
above studies Poissons ratio of tyre shred has
been found to vary between 0.17-0.45. Yang et al.
(2002) concluded from the studies that
no
correlation do exist between Poissons ratio and
stress within the stress interval 0-60 kPa and the
difference in results might have resulted to
different laboratory methodologies and creep.
2.1.5 Shear strength
Shear strength of tyre shreds had been determined
by various researchers (Wu et al. 1997; Lee et al.
1999; Yang et al. 2002). The above studies have
shown that the stress displacement curve of tyre
shred follows a non-linear pattern having no well
defined peak. Young et al. (2003) in his study
highlighted that large shear box (having size 76
mm diameter and 51 mm length and width) has to
be used for the testing Direct Shear of tyre shreds
982
6th
due to the reason as minimum aspect ratio of the

apparatus to the maximum particle size has to be
2:1.They further reported that shear strength
increased with the increase in shred size and
density. Lee et al.1999 conducted triaxial test on
the tyre chips having size 75-305 mm. It was
observed that the tyre shreds did not reach a peak
deviatoric stress under the different confining
pressures .A reduction in the voids within the tyrechip was also observed with the increase in the
axial strain. Mazda et al.1996 also conducted
experimental studies on 6-mm granulated rubber.
Similar trends relating to variation of deviatoric
stress versus axial strain and volume change versus
axial strain as obtained by Lee et al.1999 were
observed.
2.1.6 Compaction properties
The compressibility of tyre shreds has been
evaluated in several studies in confined
compression tests by Humphrey & Manion 1992;
Edil & Boscher 1992; Humphrey et al. 1992;
Humphrey & Sandford 1993; Cecich et al.
1996;Bosscher et al 1997; Young et al. 2003. The
above studies have concluded that tyre shreds
induce a stiffer initial stress-strain response.
Proctor compaction on tyre shred in the laboratory
studies was found to increase the initial stiffness
for all sizes of tyre shred (Humphrey et al 1992;
Young et al. 2003). From the literature review it
can be concluded that the major factors that affects
the compaction properties of tyre shreds are tyre
shred size and compaction energy.
2.1.7.Compressibility of Tyre chips.
Edil & Bosscher (1994), Humphrey& Manion
(1992) have shown that tyre shreds /chips are
highly compressible at low normal pressure. It was
reported in their studies that presence of high
elasticity and rubber content in the Tyre shreds
makes them highly compressible compared to
gravel and other soils. Edil & Bosscher (1994)
highlighted that the increase in the compressibility
of tyre shreds is due to bending and reorientation
of shreds into a more compact arrangement.
Ahmed (1993) has described the compression
behaviour of tyre shreds in the following three
compression states:-
1. Minor compression from rearrangement and

sliding of shreds, occurring mainly during the first
loading cycle, and is mostly irrecoverable.
2. Major compression caused by bending and
flattering of tyre shreds which is mostly
recoverable upon loading.
3. Elastic deformation of the individual shreds,
which is very small, generally occurs at 140KPa
stress level and is found recoverable.
Handling tyre shreds at construction sites does not
require any special equipment or working
operations. However, it is beneficial to use
machines equipped with caterpillar treads instead
of wheels while overdriving the tyre shreds as it
reduces the risk of puncturing of tyres. In order to
prevent the occurrence of later creep it is important
that the tyre shreds should be compacted properly.
Conventional static compaction is recommended
as no gain has been observed by using vibratory
compaction. The conclusions from laboratory tests
has stated that most of the compaction effects has
been achieved by applying low compaction work
by four passes of compaction equipment regardless
construction and load of equipment(Hoppe
1994;Humphrey & Eaton 1993; Upton &
Machan1993).
3. TYRE SHREDS SOIL MIXTURE
3.1.1 Shear Strength of Tyre Shred-Sand
Mixture
Edil & Bosscher( 1994) reveals that addition of
25% chips having size 20 to 80 mm when added to
sand results increase in shear strength slightly
greater than that of the dense sand at low normal
stresses. Foose et al. (1996) in their studies found
an influence of shred contents, normal stress and
sand matrix unit weight on the shear strength.
Tatlisoz et al. (1998) concluded that soil - tyre
mixture posses significantly higher shear strength
than soil. In addition to this it was found that soiltyre chip mixtures do not exhibit peak shear
strength, but rather the shear strength continues to
increase with increasing displacement. Lee et al.
(1999), in assessing the stress-strain volume
change response in triaxial tests on tyre chips (with
a 30 mm minus size) and sand-tyre chip mixtures
indicated that the response of sand-chip mixtures is
Guleria and Dutta
intermediate between those of sand and pure tyre

chips.Youwai & Bergado (2003) assessed the
stress-strain volume change response in triaxial
compression test on sand- tyre chip mixture. The
studies have indicated that with the increase in the
proportion of sand in the mixture, the density, unit
weight and shear strength of the sand-tyre mixture
increases, however a decrease in the
compressibility was observed. Rao & Dutta
(2006), based upon the triaxial studies conducted
on tyre chips- sand mix concluded that both initial
tangent modulus and the secant modulus increases
linearly with conning pressure. The modulus was
found to decrease with the increase in the chip
content. However decrease was found marginal at
low conning pressure but signicant at the
highest conning pressure.Ghazavi et al (2005)
found that the shear resistance of the mixture
increases with increase in the tyre shreds contents.
Further an increase in the cohesion was also
observed in the sample containing a greater
quantity of shreds.Dutta & Rao (2009) based upon
the drained triaxial compression tests on sand-tyre
chip concluded that the energy absorption capacity
and deviator stress of sand mixed with tyre chips is
influenced by aspect ratio, chip content and
confining pressure. It was found to increase with
the increase in the increases in the aspect ratio,
chip content and confining pressure. An increase in
the friction angle was also observed with the
increase in the aspect ratio and chip content of tyre
shreds.
3.1.2 Shear Strength of Tyre Chip - Clayey
Mixtures.
Cetin et al (2006) conducted studies on the tyre
clayey soil mixture. An increase in the shear
strength of 30% for fine and 20% coarse tyre chip
mixtures was observed. Up to 40% addition of tyre
shreds an increase in the cohesion was observed.
4. BONDING OF TYRE SHREDS IN THE
MATRIX
Lee et al.( 1993) concluded that due to the weak
bond between rubber particles and the cement
paste, there is reduction in the compressive
strength of matrix, which can be increased by
treating rubber with Styrenebutadiene . An
983
enhancement in mechanical and durability aspect

was observed. Segre (2000) also conducted the
electronic microscopic analysis and reported that
NaOH treatment of tyre rubber (when dipped for
20 minutes) with cement matrix can enhance the
adhesion of tyre rubber particles with cement paste.
It was concluded that NaOH hydrolyzes the acidic
and carboxyl groups present on the tyre rubber
surface, which further increases its bonding with
the cement particles. Biel and Lee (1996) reported
that the treatment with magnesium oxychloride can
noticeably enhance the mechanical properties of
rubber concrete. Eldin (1993) soaked and
thoroughly washed the rubber with water in an
attempt to remove any contaminates. An increase
of 16% was observed in the compressive strength
with the use of soaked and washed rubber.
Rostami et al (1993) cleaned the rubber with
Carbon Tetrachloride. A much larger improvement
of compressive strength in the order of 57% was
obtained by using the treated rubber with carbon
Tetrachloride.
5. CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded from the various studies that
the most important factors that affects the technical
properties relating to the tyre shred are stress, size
and compaction energy. However, while
considering their use in the various construction
practices it is important that the compressibility
and friction angle of tyre shreds must be properly
investigated. As tyre shreds are highly
compressible hence its bulk density is likely to be
affected by the surcharge. The size of the
individual tyre shred and the amount of protruding
steel cord also affect the compressibility. Further,
the porosity and void ratio of tyre shreds is
affected by the applied stresses, initial conditions
(compaction energy level) and tyre shred size. The
Literature review had also reported that the
inclusion of tyre shreds had increased the initial
frictional angle in the soil mix. Smaller tyre shreds
were found to induce a stiffer initial stress-strain
response as compared to larger one. No difference
in compaction in between using smooth drum,
tamping foot vibratory rollers or static load has
been observed. It was also observed from the
various studies that as tyre shred fills can undergo
creep, hence in order to limit creep it is important
984
6th
that the tyre shred must be properly compacted. It

has been observed from the literature that most of
the studies relating to tyre shreds have been carried
out to study its geotechnical and environmental
behaviour when added with sand/clay mix or
alone. Thus further more studies can be carried to
study its geotechnical behaviour when added with
the waste material.
REFERENCES
ASTM. (1998). ASTM Standard practice for use of
scrap tyres in civil Engineering applications, D
6270-98, American Society for testing and
materials, West Conshohocken
Ahmed, I. (1993). Laboratory study on properties
of rubber soils, Joint highway research project,
Purdue University, Indiana Department of
Transportation
Biel, T. D., and Lee, H.(1996). Magnesium
oxychloride cement concrete with recycled tire
rubber.
Transportation
Research
Record.1561, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., 612.
Bosscher, P. J., Edil, T. B., and Kuraoka, S.
(1997), Design of highway Embankments
using tyrechips.Journal Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 123(4), 295304.
Cecich,V.,Gonzales, L., Hoisaeter, A.,Williams,
J. and Reddy, K. (1996) Use of Tyres as
Lightweight Backfill Material for Retaining
Structures, Journal Waste Management &
Research, Vol.14, pp. 433-451.
Drescher, D., Newcomb, D. 1994. Development of
design guidelines for use of shreddedtyres as a
lightweight fill in road subgrade and retaining
walls,
Final
report
No.MN/RC-94/04,
Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering,
University of Minnesota, Minneappolis, 137
pp.
Dutta R.K and Venkatappa Rao G(2009)
Regression models fot predicting the
behaviour of sand mixed with tire chips
International journal of Geotechnical Engg

(2009),3,51-63
Eldin, N.. and Senouci, A.B. (1992). Use of Scrap
Tyres in Road Construction. Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management,
Vol. 118, No. 3, pp. 561-576.E
Eldin.N.and, Senouci A.B. (1993), Rubber-tyre
particles as concrete aggregate,Journal
Material Civil Engg 5(4) (1993) 478- 496.
Edil,T.B.,andBosscher,P.J.(1994).Engineering
properties of waste tire chips and soil
mixtures. J. Geotech. Test.17(4),453-464
Foose, Benson, Bosscher ( 1996) Sand reinforced
with shredded waste tyres, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering , Vol 122,No 9,760768.
Hataf,Rahimi(2005)Experimental Investigation of
bearing capacity of sand reinforced with
randomly distributed tyre shreds Journal
Construction and building material , Vol
20,910-916
Heimdahl, T.C. and Drescher, A. (1999). Elastic
Anisotropy of Tyre Shreds. Journal of
Geotechnical Engg 125(5), 383-389
Humphrey.D.N.,and
Manion,
W.
(1992)
Propertries of tire chips for lightweight fill.
Journal
Grouting,
soil
Improvement,
Geosynth.,2,1344-1355.
Humphrey, D. N., Chen, L. H., and Eaton, R., (1997).
Laboratory and field
measurements of tire
chips for use as subgrade insulation,
Transportation ResearchBoard, 76th Annual
Meeting, Washington D.C.
Lee B.I., L. Burnett, T. Miller, B. Postage, J.

Cune(1993), Tyre rubber/cement matrix
composites, Journal of Material Science 12
(13) 967-968.
Guleria and Dutta
Lee, Salgado, Bernal ( 1999) Shredded tyres and

Rubber sand as light weight backfill Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironment Engg.,
Vol 125,No 2,132-142
Masad, E., Taha, R., Ho, C., Papagiannakis, T.
(1996). Engineering properties of tyre/soil
mixtures as a ligthweigth fill material. Journal
Geotechnical testing, 19(3), 297-304.
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addition to cement paste journal cement and
concrete
research
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1421-1425.
Upton, R. J., and Machan, G. (1993). Use of tire
shreds for lightweight fill.Transportation
research record 1422, TRB, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., (36-45).
Neil N.Eldin, Ahmed (1992)Use of Scrap tyres in

Road construction Journal of Construction
Engg and management Vol 118, No 3,561-577.
Venkatappa
Rao
G,
.Dutta
R.K.(2006)
Compressibility and strength behaviour of
sand type chip mixture Journal Getechnical
and Geological Engg.24,711-7
Newcomb, D. and Drescher, A. (1994).

Engineering Properties of Shredded Tyres in
Lightweight Fill Applications. Transportation
Research Record 1437, Transporation Research
Board, pp. 1-7.
Wu, W. Y., Benda, C. C., and Cauley, R. F.

(1997).Triaxial determination of shear
strength of tyrechips,Journal Geotechnical
and eoenvironmental
engineering, 123
(5),479-482.
Rostami, H.. Lepore. J Silverstraim. T. and

Zandi.(1993) I Use of recycled rubber tyres in
concrete. In Proc. I/II. Con/. the International
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Vol.
2,University of Dundee, Scotland, UK,
1993,391-399.
Yang, S., Lohnes, R. A., Kjartanson, B. H. (2002)

Mechanical Properties of
Shredded Tires.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, 25(1), 44-52.
Young-Horace Moo, H., Sellasie, K., Zeroka, D.,
and Sabnis, G. (2003). Physical and Chemical
properties of recycled tyre shreds for use in
construction.J.Environmental
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129(10), 921-929.
Geotechnical and Environmental Properties of Tire-used Shreds for

Use in Civil Construction
Rodrguez-Abad R.
Laboratorio de Geotecnia, CEDEX, Alfonso XII, 3-5, 28014 Madrid, Spain (rafael.rodriguez@cedex.es)
Estaire, J.
Laboratorio de Geotecnia, CEDEX, Alfonso XII, 3-5, 28014 Madrid, Spain (jose.estaire@cedex.es)
ABSTRACT Tire derived aggregate (TDA) with three different nominal sizes (25, 50 and 100 mm)
were tested to determine the main mechanical properties that can be used in the design of road fills such
as size gradation, exposed wires, water absorption, density, specific gravity, permeability, shear strength
(in 1x1 m and 30x30 cm boxes) and deformability (oedometric test in a 1m3 box). Accessibility of TDA
potentially toxic components to the surrounding environment was determined by analysing a leachate
from the shredded tire samples, and comparing the obtained concentrations to the maximum values
required by the Spanish and European legislations.
INTRODUCTION
Tire disposal has become an environmental
problem of growing importance in the
developed countries. The European Council
Directive 99/31/CE on the Landfill of Waste
stipulated that whole tires can no longer be
deposited in landfills since 2003, and shredded
tires since 2006. The Spanish Second National
Plan on Waste Tire (2007) set a minimum
recycling objective of 50% of the waste tire total
weight: 40% as rubber in asphaltic pavements
and 10% in other industrial applications.
In the last two decades, tires have often been
used in civil engineering applications after being
shredded to small pieces between 50 and 300
mm in size. Shredded tires were used as
lightweight fill material in many embankments
(Bosscher et al, 1997; Edil et al, 2004; Yoon et
al, 2006; Botello et al, 2008), and various
retaining
structures
(Humphrey,
1999).
However, tire derived aggregate (TDA) with
sizes under 25 mm are not recommended,
because of their high dilatancy (Wu et al, 1997).

Physical and mechanical properties of TDA
have been reported in previous works (Wu et al,
1997; Yang et al, 2002; Arroyo et al, 2007;
Humphrey, 2007). However, there are
comparatively few data on the best procedure to
test this large-sized material with conventional
soils laboratory equipment and how significant
is the size effect on the shredded tire mechanical
behaviour.
The first aim of this study was to determine the
physical and mechanical properties of TDA,
with different nominal sizes, such as size
gradation, exposed wires, water absorption,
relative density, specific gravity, permeability,
shear strength and deformability. Results from
these geotechnical tests let to determine the
main mechanical parameters (shear resistance
and deformability modules) that may be used in
the design of road fills.
Rodrguez-Abad and Estaire
The second aim of this work is to study the

environmental behaviour of TDA fills. Leaching
is the more common method used to simulate
the release of hazardous compounds by rain
percolation through a TDA-filled embankment
(Ronchack, 1990; Garga et al, 2000; MooYoung et al, 2003). This procedure may allow
the determination of TDA potentially toxic
compound accessibility (heavy metals and ions)
to the surrounding environment.
Samples
Three samples of TDA with nominal sizes of 25,
50 and 100 mm, sent by two Spanish Companies
Acciona Infraestructuras and SIGNUS,
were used in this study.
Physical properties
The procedures used to test the physical TDA
properties were the following: ASTM D422-63
for size gradation, ASTM D6270-98 for exposed
wires, ASTM C127-04 for water absorption and
ASTM C127-07 for specific gravity.
A 215-mm-diameter cell was used to test
properly the permeability of the 100x100-mm
sample. This material was compacted at normal
Proctor energy. Low hydraulic gradients (i =
0.07 and 0.13) were used to ensure a constant
flow.
Mechanical parameters
A large-scale direct shear box with a length and
width of 1x1 m, initially designed for rock
testing (Estaire & Olalla, 2006), was used to
perform four direct shear tests with the different
size samples. Normal forces between 24.5 and
98.1 kPa were applied using a 1 m2 load plate.
The smallest size sample (25x25 mm) was also
tested in a 30x30 cm shear box under the same
normal loads, in order to study the influence of
the box size in the results. The horizontal
displacement rate used in all the direct shear
tests was constant at 1.5 mm/min. Samples were
prepared by dropping the TDA materials in the
987
box without any further additional compaction.

Two large-scale compression tests were
conducted using the 1x1 m direct shear box
mentioned above, in order to determine the
vertical strain and oedometric modulus of the
100x100 mm and 25x25 mm TDA materials.
The studied TDA samples were pre-compacted
with a 0.4-ton-weight distribution plate.
Compression test of sample 100x100 mm was
performed on the first day with four noval
branches of 60 minutes each (10, 20, 40 and 80
kPa), and five others on the second day (40, 80,
100, 200 and 400 kPa). Six loading-unloading
cycles of 10, 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 kPa were
used to perform the oedometric test of sample
25x25 mm.
The inside of the boxes was coated, in all the
tests, with lithium grease to reduce friction
between the tire shreds and the box walls.
Analysis of leachates from TDA
Aqueous extracts were obtained with a
liquid:solid ratio (L/S) of 4.6 L/kg from 3 kg of
TDA. Water was acidized with acetic acid to pH
4.5 to simulate the extraction of elements caused
by acid rain, and the suspension was left for one
month. Two 25-cm3 samples of the supernatant
were taken at 7 and 30 days. Leachate samples
were filtered through a 0.20 m membrane filter
adapted to the mouth of a syringe. Heavy metal
concentrations were determined by ICP-AES,
and extracted anions were measured by ion
chromatography (IC).
Physical testing
All the studied TDA samples had a D50 value of
approximately 65% of their corresponding
nominal size. Samples with a nominal size
greater than 25 mm exceeded the contents and
weights of exposed wire specified in ASTM
D6270-98.
The
initial
moisture
content
and
water
988
6th
absorption capacity of samples with lower

nominal size increased from 0.55 to 1.45%, a
fact that could be due to their larger specific
surface. The TDA specific gravity values were
between 1.16 and 1.44 t/m3.
The permeability coefficients of the 100x100
mm sample were 6.410-4 m/s for i = 0.07 and
4.110-4 m/s for i =0.13, values that are similar to
those of fine sands. Flow remained constant
throughout the permeability tests. These values
are in substantial agreement with those of Wu et
al. (1997), Yang (2002) and Humphrey (2007).
Large-scale direct shear testing
As previously mentioned, the samples were
prepared by simple dropping. The density of the
TDA samples was, at the beginning of the tests,
between 0.42 and 0.63 t/m3, before applying any
normal stress.
The density of the TDA samples tested in 1x1 m

direct shear box increased from 20% to 45%,
with values in the range of 0.60 to 0.84 t/m3
once the vertical stress was applied. Final
densities were approximately 20-45% higher
than those obtained in the 30x30 cm box
(between 0.57 and 0.71 t/m3). It seems that the
density of samples compacted with normal
stresses between 25 and 100 kPa is not affected
by the TDA nominal size, provided that it is
between 25 and 100 mm.
The test results are curves like the ones shown
in Figure 2 that correspond to the direct shear
test of sample 100x100 mm (A) in 1x1 m box.
These curves are representative of results
obtained in this kind of tests.
Figure 1 shows the variation of TDA sample

density due to the normal stress applied at the
beginning of the direct shear tests, and how
these values are included in a hypothetical
parabolic band.
Fig. 2. Direct shear curves from test of the 100x100

mm sample, performed in 1x1m box
Fig. 1. Variation of TDA sample density with normal

stress applied (For colour figure, refer to CD)
The maximum horizontal deformations got in

the tests were 13% and 25%, for the tests
performed in the 30x30 cm and 1x1 box,
respectively. Shear strength did not show a peak
in any case, but most tests reached a clearly
defined shear stress plateau at large horizontal
displacements. Values of vertical displacements
at the end of the tests were between 14 and 25
mm in the 1x1 m box, and between 3.5 and 5.3
mm in the 30x30 cm device.
Table 1 shows the Mohr-Coulomb shear

parameters (cohesion and direct shear friction
angle) for the various particle sizes studied.
TABLE 1. Mohr-Coulomb parameters obtained in
the direct shear tests
Box
Sample
W c + VI(kPa)
c (kPa) I q
1x1 m
30x30 cm
r2
25x25 mm
15
26.5 0.9160
50x50 mm
34
0.9999
100x100 mm
10
29
0.9890
25x25 mm
26.5 0.9850
989
Trend lines showed in Figure 3 had a similar

exponent (0.75 and 0.76), but they were
separated more from each other as the normal
stress increased. Results obtained in previous
studies with TDA in a 30x30 cm box can be also
seen in Figure 3, which are similar to those
obtained in this work. However, the results
obtained in the 1x1 m box were greater than
those obtained in the 30x30 cm.
Large-scale oedometric testing
The oedometric curves of the 25x25 mm and
100x100 mm samples can be seen in Figure 4
with all the stages of loading, downloading and
recharging.
Figure 3 shows the pairsWV obtained in the 1x1

m and 30x30 cm boxes, and the mathematical
fittings of those results using a parabolic
equation with the following expression
(W aVb).
Fig. 4. Oedometric curves from compression

tests of TDA samples in the 1m3 box
Fig. 3. Comparison between results from performed

direct shear tests and bibliographic data
The use of a parabolic criterion improved the

regression coefficients (r2) of pairsWVfactthat
indicated a non linear shear behaviour at failure
of the TDA material.
The shape of the 25x25 mm sample oedometric

curve was very similar to those obtained after
experimentation with soil-type materials. The
unloading-reloading branches were almost
parallel to each other regardless of the noval load
of origin. The vertical deformations were close
to 45% under a normal stress of 400 kPa. These
values are very similar to those deduced in
previous studies of TDA samples (Hudson et al,
2003). However, these deformations are very
large compared with those usually obtained in
studies of soil compressibility.
990
6th
Figure 4 also shows that the noval load branches

obtained in the compressibility test of sample
100x100 mm are also parallel, and they have
similar shape and vertical distortions to those
obtained in the test sample of 25x25 mm.
TABLE 2. Results from chemical testing

Analyte
Fe
Leachate
(mg/L)
Day Day
7
30
9.30 10.9
0.03 31.2
1.40
Vertical strains of the 25x25 mm sample under

loads between 10 and 50 kPa were produced in
less than a minute. However, these strains were
not completely stabilized after 120 minutes under
the larger loads (100, 200 and 400 kPa).
Ca
The deformability secant modules were ranged

between 205 and 1420 kPa for normal stresses
between 10 and 400 kPa. Unloading secant
modules had the same behaviour for this range
of pressures, with values between 254 and 1814
kPa. The deformability tangent modules were
between 109 and 2792 kPa, and 37 to 438 kPa in
the unloading branches.
All the experimental oedometric modules
increased with the applied load, but much less
than what would be expected of a deformable
material such as TDA.
Chemical analysis of leachates
Table 2 shows the concentrations of compounds
in the TDA leachates obtained at 7 and at 30
days. Elements such as Al, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo,
Ni, Pb, Sb, Se and F- were not detected.
Table 2 also lets to compare the values obtained
in the tests with the maximum values required
by the European and Spanish legislations
concerning the quality of water for human
consumption (R.D. 140/2003), and toxicity of
solid wastes in landfills (Council Decision
33/CE).
An increase in the extracted amount of Fe, Zn
and Mn was detected after one month. This fact
may be due to the oxidation of exposed wires
caused by the slightly acidic pH (4.5) used to
simulate the rain percolation through a TDA fill.
Maximum values
(mg/L)
R.D.
Decision
140/2003
33/CE**
*
0.2
-
Mn
0.93
0.26 0.47
0.14 1.21
0.05
Na
2.00
1.40
200*
Zn
0.27
0.77
Mg
Cl
1.90
1.70
250
275
NO3-
0.89
1.40
50
SO42*
5.30
4.60
250
280
: Recommended values
: Required for leachates obtained from inert wastes
using a L/S ratio of 2 L/kg
**
The leachate obtained on the 30th day had a

content of iron and manganese higher than
recommended by the Spanish Royal Decree. If
dilution effects are not considered, the
surrounding waters to the TDA site should be
treated wherever used for human consumption.
The leached concentrations of toxic compounds
let to classify this material as inert waste,
according to the European Council Decision
33/CE.
The representative values of the geotechnical
parameters obtained in the tests performed with
TDA material in this work are shown in Table 3
Experimental results showed no evidence of size
effect on geotechnical parameters of tire shreds
with nominal sizes ranged between 25 and 100
mm.
Finally, results from chemical testing suggest
that TDA leachates do not cause any relevant
environmental impact.
TABLE 3. Representative values of the TDA
geotechnical parameters
Parameter
Initial moisture content (%)
Water absorption (%)
Permeability (m/s)
Specific gravity
Initial density (t/m3)
Cohesion (kPa)
Friction angle ()
Deformability modulus for
a normal stress (kPa)
Value
0.9
3.9
510-4
1.25
0.50
10
27.5
200 ( = 10)
1400 ( = 400)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Spanish
Ministry of Public Works for funding this
research work, as well as Acciona and Signus
for providing the TDA material, and to Marcos
Arroyo (UPC) for having introduced us in the
study of TDA materials and for his helpful
comments and ideas.
REFERENCES
Arroyo, M., Estaire, J., Sanmartn, I. & Lloret,
A. (2006). Size effect on TDA mechanical
properties. International Workshop on Scrap
Derived Geomaterials, Yokosuka, Japan.
Bosscher, P.J., Edil, T.B. & Kuraoka, S. (1997).
Design of highway embankments using tire
chips. Jl. of Geotech. and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, April, 295-304.
Botello, F., Guedella, E., Domingo, A. & Del
Amo, E. (2008). Empleo de NFU triturados
como relleno de terrapln. Rutas, 127, 42-47.
Council
Decision
2003/33/CE
(2002).
Establishing criteria and procedures for the
acceptance of waste at landfills. Official Jl. of
the European Communities. L 11/27.
Edil, T.B., Park, J.K. & Kim, J.Y. (2004).
Effectiveness of scrap tire chips as sorptive
drainage material. Jl. of Environmental
Engineering, July, 824-831.
991
Estaire, J. & Olalla, C. (2006). Analysis of the

strength of rockfills based on direct shear tests
made in 1 m3 shear box. 22nd ICOLD,
Barcelona. Q.86-R.36, 529-540.
Garga, V.K. & OShaughnessy, V. (2000). Tirereinforced earthfill. Part 3: Environmental
assessment. Canad. Geotech. Jl., 37, 117-131.
Hudson, A.P., Beaven, R.P. & Powrie, W.
(2003). Bulk compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity of used tires for landfill drainage
applications. 9th IWMLS, Sardina, Italy, 9 p.
Humphrey, N.D. (2007). Tire shreds as
lightweight fill for embankments and
retaining walls. IW-TDGM, Fukuoka, Japan,
Preprint Proceedings, 56-79.
Humphrey, N.D. (1999). Civil engineering
application of scrap tires. The Tire Industry
Conference.
Moo-Young, H., Sellasie, K., Zeroka & Sabnis,
G. (2003). Physical and chemical properties
of recycled tire shreds for use in construction.
Jl. of Environm. Engineering, Oct., 921-929.
Ronchack, A. (1990). A report on the
environmental study of the use of shredded
waste tires form railway sub-grade support.
Groundwater and Solid Waste Division,
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency.
Royal Decree 140/2003. Establishing health
criteria for the quality of water intended for
human consumption. Spanish Ministry of
Sanidad y Consumo.
Wu, W.Y., Benda, C.C. & Cauley, R.F. (1997).
Triaxial determination of shear strength of tire
chips. Jl. of Geotech. and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, May, 479-482.
Yang, S., Kjartanson, B.H. & Lohmes, R.A.
(2001). Structural performance of scrap tire
culverts. Canadian Jl. of Civil Engineering,
28, 179-189.
Yoon, S., Prezzi, M., Zia, N. & Kim, B. (2006).
Construction of a test embankment using a
sand-tire shred mixture as fill material. Waste
Management, 26, 1033-1044.
Shear Strength Parameters of Dense Mixtures of Scrap Tire Crumbs

Reinforced with Scrap Tire Chips
Mahmoud Ghazavi
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, K. N. Toosi. University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran, ghazavi_ma@kntu.ac.ir
Mohammadreza Mahmoudipour
Former Graduate Student, Civil Engineering Department. Tehran Islamic Azad University,
Tehran, Iran, E-mail mahmoudipour@gmail.com

ABSTRACT In this paper, the main purpose is to assess the stress-strain behavior and shear strength parameters
of dense mixtures of scrap tire crumbs, having diameters between 5 and 0.07 mm and reinforced with scrap tire
chips in 13 different sizes. Large direct shear test apparatus with dimensions of 3030 cm has been used to
evaluate shear strength parameters of the mixtures having various percents of chips. It has been found that the
failure envelopes are non-linear and concaved up. In addition, by adding the scrap tire chips to scrap tire crumbs,
the shear strength parameters increase.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development needs all the governors,
organization and scientist to act as one unit.
Management of waste including recycling, reusing
or safely discarding is a key for sustainability.
Scrap tires as one of the hazardous solid waste can
be a threat to green environment. A lot of disaster
can be listed as scrap tire dangers including huge
fire, harboring disease carrying insect and pests,
instability of landfills and many others. This waste
material can be reused in civil engineering
application according to ASTMD6270-98
(Reapproved 2004). One of the defects of scrap
tire derived aggregates is low shear strength.
Much research work has been done to investigate
how to improve this deficiency and reinforcing
these materials.
In the present paper, some tests have been done to
check the reinforcement effect of scrap tire chips
in the scrap tire crumbs. The mixtures were tested
under a dense situation to evaluate the stress strain
behavior of dense mixture.
MATERIALS
Scrap tire was used in two different forms in this
study including scrap tire crumbs and scrap tire
chips. Scrap tire crumbs are rounded and relatively
uniform without any metal (Fig.1).
Grain size distribution of crumbs determined

according to ASTM D422 (Reapproved, 2002). In
the Unified Soil Classification System, ASTM
D2487 (2000), these crumbs classified as poorly
graded sand (Fig. 2).
Fig.1 Scrap tire crumbs
Fig.2 Particle size distribution of tire crumbs
The chips were made of the most popular waste

tire in Iran that are used for a national vehicle,
called Paykan, as reported by Ghazavi & Amel
Sakhi (2005) and Ghazzavi & Mahmoudipour
(2009). A special cutter was used to prepare the
chips from tires with roughly smooth surface,
which are representative of most tires deposited.
Scrap tire chips were divided into 13 classes
according to their sizes, which were 22, 24,
26, 28, 210, 212, 36, 39, 315, 44, 48,
412, and 416cm. Samples of tire chips can be
seen in fig 3.
Ghazavi and Mahmoudipour
993
specimen to keep it compressed and to keep the

specified density. Thus in further calculations, this
normal stress is not included because it was used
beforehand to keep the density. After placing the
material and setting the cap, the test can be
conducted.
Fig.3 Scrap tire chips
The specific gravities of the crumbs and chips,

according to ASTM C0127-04 were 0.93gr/cm3
and 1.1gr/cm3, respectively. It should be noted that
due to low density of crumbs compared to water, a
wiry cage was used to immerse crumbs in water.
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
To make the results comparable, a unique method
should be used to prepare the specimens. The
method that used in this paper is the same method
that used by Fooze et al. (1996), Ghazavi & Amel
Sakhi (2005) and Ghazavi & Mahmoudipour
(2009). In this method, according to difference in
specific gravity of the materials to be mixed, the
matrix unit weight for the tire crumbs was used
which define as the weight of the tire crumbs
divided by volume of the tire crumbs matrix.
Difference in specific gravity of the components of
the mixture can cause some errors when
proportioning is based on weight. By using this
method the related errors can be prevented. In the
present study, Jm =7.6 kN/m3 was used. Three tire
chips content of 15, 30 and 40% by weight were
used. The proportion of the components was
selected prior to mixing and they mixed before
they poured into the shear box. Despite prior
mixing, tire chips were adjusted by hand to fill all
over the tire crumbs. To reach the desired density,
the mixture was poured in 5 layers; each layer was
compressed by 25 circular movement of a 2 kg
tamper. After placing the last layer, normal stress
of 88.3 kN/m2 was applied to the specimen and
remained until no further vertical displacement can
be observed. Sometime it is necessary to remove
the cap after this stage and pour the remained
materials and repeats the last stage again. The cap
of the box should be in its right position. The
normal stress of 88.3 kN/m2 should remain on the
PROCEDURE
Large shear box with dimension of 303015 cm
was used. The tests were done according to ASTM
D 3080-03. Three normal stresses of 24.0, 43.7
and 63.5 kN/m2 were chosen. These normal
stresses were added to the previous normal stress
that was used to keep the density. The samples
were assumed to be dry because water absorption
of the tire chips and crumbs is negligible. Since
the samples were dry and on the other hand the
hydraulic conductivity of these materials is high,
there was no excess pore water pressure occurred
during the tests. Thus the shear speed can be high
and was set to 1.72 mm/min. this is the same
speed that used by Ghazavi & Mahmoudipour
(2009).
These materials have no apparent failure under
shearing, thus a maximum shear deformation of
30mm is set to be the limit to calculate shear
strength. To check the accuracy and repeatability
of the tests, 10% of the tests were repeated and
results were compared to ensure that the results
are indicative.
RESULTS
More than 130 tests were done on specimens
having different percentage of tire chips with
different sizes and with three different normal
stresses. Aspect ratios of tire chips were used as a
basis to evaluate the results.
Some charts were selected to present the overall
results. Figures 4 to 6 shows the relation between
the aspect ratio and internal friction of the dense
mixture for tire chips with width of 2, 3 and 4
respectively. According to these figures, it can be
said that:
In fig 4, in dense mixture of tire chips with width
of 2cm, the peak internal friction angle can be
seen at the point where tire chips aspect ratio is
994
6th
two. In addition, it can be seen that by increasing

the percent of tire chips, the internal friction angle
increased. The maximum angle of friction
achieved is about 31.
soil paricles are found in the soil after testing, a

particle size analysis should be performed in
accordance with method D422 to confirm the
visual observations, and the result should be
provided with test report. However errors with
larger particles are undeniable, it should be noted
that educational or experimental result of this
study should be used with care and more test on
this part should be performed.
Maximum internal friction of 33 was achived in
this aspect ratio.
Fig.4 Variation of internal friction angle of dense

mixture vs. tire chips aspect ratio having withd of 2cm
It can be seen in fig 5 that in dense mixture

containing tire chips with width of 3cm, the peak
internal friction angle is reached at aspect ratio of
3. Also by increasing the percentage of tire chips,
the internal friction angle increased. The
maximum internal friction angle achieved is 36.
Fig.6 Variation of internal friction angle of dense

mixture vs. tire chips aspect ratio having with of 4cm
The optimum aspect ratio for each tire chips width

was ploted as shown in fig.7.
Fig.5 Variation of internal Friction angle of dense

mixture vs. tire chips aspect ratio for 3cm width tire
chips.
For dense mixture containig 4cm width tire chips,

the internal friction angle was increased by
increment in tire chips aspect ration (Fig.6). In this
study, a aspect ratio of 4 was set as one which
gives the maximum internal friction angle. Again
the friction angle is increased by increment in
percentage of tire chips in the dense mixture.
ASTM D3080 remarks in note-4 that if larger
Fig.7 Variation of optimum tire chips aspect ratio vs.

chips width
According to this figure, the following equation

may be derived:
L
(1)
B
B optimum
Where L=optimum length for tire chips having
width of B. Eq. (1) may be used for the tire chips
with different size with tire crumbs that used in
this study. The result is the same as for the loose
Ghazavi and Mahmoudipour
mixture that where presented by Ghazavi &

Mahmoudipour (2009).
REPEATABILITY
Approximately 10% of the testss were repeated to
evaluate the repeatability of the tests. These test
were done on dense mixture having 30% tire chips
of size 36cm and the results can be seen in fig.8.
The results shows that the average =25 and
standard deviation is 0.96. Thus these tests are
reliable.
FAILURE ENVELOPE CURVATURE
As it can bee seen in fig.8, as a representative of
many tests, the failure envelope is concaved up. It
was stated in ASTM D6270-98 that the failure
envelope is concaved down and results of this
paper shows results which is beyond what is stated
in ASTM. It seems that in dense mixture or under
high normal stress, these materials can behave
different. It is suggested that the thickness of the
chips or grains should be considered to assess this
curvature.
995
internal friction of the mixture was increased up to

140%. And the maximum value for was obtain
by using 40% chips having dimensions of 39cm.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors want to thank the director of SANO
Consulting Engineers Geotechnical Department
for providing facilities and manager of soil
Mechanics Laboratory of SANO C.E. for his
assistance in this study.
REFERENCES
Foose J., Benson H., and Bosscher J. (1996), Sand
reinforced with shredded waste tires. J.
Geotech. Eng., 122(9), pp. 760767
Ghazavi M. (2004), Shear strength characteristics
of sand-mixed with granular rubber,
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 22:
pp. 401416
Ghazavi M. and Amel Sakhi M. (2005) Influence
of Optimized Tire Shreds on Shear Strength
Parameters of Sand, International Journal of
Geomechanics, ASCE, Vol. 5, No. 1, March,
pp. 5865
Ghazavi M. and Amel Sakhi M. (2005)
Optimization of Aspect Ratio of Waste Tire
Shreds in Sand-Shred Mixtures Using CBR
Tests, Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 28,
No. 6 Paper ID GTJ12126
Fig.8 Repeatability results and failure envelope

curvature
CONCLUTIONS
In this study, reinforcing effect of the scrap tire
chips on scrap tire crumbs in dense mixture was
investigated. The mixtures of tire crumbs having 0,
15, 30 and 40% tire chips were tested. It has been
found that the main properties that have the main
role in shear strength parameters are tire chips
percentage in the mixture, tire chips width, aspect
ratio of tire chips and normal stress.
In almost all tests, the Mohr-Coulomb failure
envelope was non-linear and concaved up. The
Ghazavi M. and Mahmoudipour M. (2009), Shear

Strength Parameters of Scrap Tire Crumbs
Reinforced with Scrap Tire Chips, Proc.
Ground Improvement and Case Histories,
Singapore, pp. 791-799
Mahmoudipour M. (2008), Reinforcement of
shredded waste tire by mean of scrap tire chips
instead of sand and obtaining shear strength
parameters by using large direct shear
apparatus (30 30), MSc thesis, Islamic Azad
University, Central Tehran Branch, Tehran,
Iran
Experimental Study for Swelling Potential of

Water Swelling Material
S. Inazumi
Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan (inazumi@toshi.kuciv.kyoto-u.ac.jp)
T. Wakatsuki
Nihon Chemical Paints Co., Ltd., Kanagawa, Japan (wakatsuki@ncpaint.co.jp)
M. Kobayashi
Nihon Chemical Paints Co., Ltd., Kanagawa, Japan (kobayashi@ncpaint.co.jp)
ABSTRACT Water-swelling material is a fluid sealant obtained by blending high absorbency polymer, a
filler and a solvent by using a synthetic resin elastomer. In this research, we have studied the composition of
water-swelling material, the extent of swelling and strength of the water swelling-material used as jointed
water cut-off treatment material, by conducting various experiments. One of the examples of the results is that
the adjustment of the degree of etherification of high absorbency polymer which is a component of the
water-swelling material and the resin content of the synthetic elastomer contribute to the improvement of
swelling and strength of the swelling material.
INTRODUCTION
Water-swelling material is a fluid sealant obtained
by blending high absorbency polymer, a filler and
a solvent by using a synthetic resin elastomer as
the base material. In the field of civil engineering,
water-swelling materials are widely used as water
cut-off treatment material for increasing water
cut-off properties at the joint section of steel sheet
piles or steel pipe sheet piles (see Fig. 1) (Oki et
al., 2003). Further, the water-swelling material
coated or pasted to the joint section swells on
contact with ground water, blocks the water
passage gaps and allows water cut off at the joint
section.
Recently, the H-jointed steel pipe sheet piles
with an H-H joint, which is one of the newly
developed methods for high water cut off, is
being tried for application of water-swelling
material for water cut-off treatment of the joints
section. In a series of research projects, one can
see a number of reports regarding the
performance of water cut-off steel pipe sheet piles
making use of an H-H joint, using water-swelling

material for adhesion (Inazumi et al., 2005;
Inazumi & Kimura, 2009). For example in plain
water or artificial sea water (3% saline), low
hydraulic conductivity of the order of 110-8 cm/s
has been clearly confirmed. Peeling off or the
ability of water cut off of the water-swelling
material at the field has been studied and good
results have been reported in general.
: Coating or pasting of water-swelling material
swelling
(a) Joint section of steel sheet piles
swelling
(b) Joint section of steel pipe sheet piles
Fig. 1 Water cut-off treatment on joint section of steel

sheet piles or steel pipe sheet using water-swelling
materials
Inazumi, Wakatsuki and Kobayashi
In this paper, we have carried out studies on the

composition of water-swelling material and the
strength of the swelling membrane, which is used
for water cut-off treatment of the joint section of
steel sheet piles or steel pipe sheet piles, by
conducting various experiments for the purpose
of improving the swelling ability and making it
stronger.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The water extracted from a dried film of
water-swelling material fulfills the Food
Sanitation Law Standards and is not harmful to
the environment. At present, the composition of
frequently
used
water-swelling
materials
(hereafter referred to as current water-swelling
material) is such that when it is soaked in plain
water or sea water for 24 hours, it swells up to 15
- 30 times and 5 - 7 times, respectively, in terms
of weight ratio. Thus, the current water- swelling
material has extremely high swelling ability in
plain water, nevertheless, the swelling percentage
in sea water is 1/6 - 1/3 of that in plain water.
Further, there is a tendency for the strength of the
swelling material film (strength of water-swelling
material after swelling) to be lower in plain water
due to the effect of the water temperature.
Because of this type of swelling and the strength
properties of the swelling-type material,
water-swelling material has, thus far, been used
mainly as temporary water cut-off material. Here,
the improvement in the swelling properties of the
water-swelling material and the strength of the
swelling material are not restricted only to
increases in the water cut off at the joint section
of the steel pipe sheet pile or steel sheet pile, but
they may be contributing to several other
applications of water-swelling material.
Representative examples of the application of
water-swelling material includes vertical water
cut off wall (barrier) built from steel sheets pile or
steel pipe sheet pile in costal landfill sites. The
vertical water cut-off property of steel sheets pile
or steel pipe sheet piles is manifested by the
swelling effect of water swelling material
previously coated or pasted at the joints before
setting up (see Fig. 1) (Oki et al., 2003). While
997
employing the water swelling material for water

cut-off treatment of joints, it may be used in the
form of a sheet pasted inside the joint
(swelling-type sheet) or it may be used as a
coated sealant. Depending upon the situation, it is
possible to select the appropriate form of the
material. Further, it is possible to prevent peeling
off by synthesizing a swelling-type paint that
adheres strongly to the steel. On the other hand,
the water permeability factor of swelling-type
material itself and that of the steel or paint are not
different and both are of the order of 110-9 cm/s
(Inazumi et al., 2005).
SWELLING PROPERTIES
Swelling Test
Here, the swelling properties of the
water-swelling material were studied for various
compositions, with water of different properties,
different temperature and different pH, by
designing individual tests.
The procedure for swelling tests was as follows:
(i) A definite quantity of water-swelling material
was dried, it was converted into a 2 mm thick
sheet and a test piece sized 2 cm2 cm was
prepared.
(ii) The initial weight of the test piece was
measured and it was soaked in a water tank
having various qualities of water at various
temperatures.
(iii) After soaking for 48 hours, it was taken out
and the weight was measured.
(iv) Swelling ratio (= weight after soaking / initial
weight) was calculated.
The swelling ratio has been calculated by weight
due to difficult in measuring volume of the
water-swelling material after swelling. The
swelling ratio by volume almost equaled 70% of
it by weight, as a result of a preliminary test on
swelling ratio of water-swelling material.
Composition and Swelling Ratio
Swelling mechanism of the water-swelling
material depends mainly on the expansion of the
high absorbency polymer (polymeric material
designed to hold a large quantity of water). We
focused on the etherification (degree of

substitution; DS value) of the polymer that is
blended, and swelling experiments were
conducted in the case of water-swelling material
blended with polymers having different DS
values. The DS value is an index showing the
strength of bonds in the polymer structure. It is
the molar quantity (number of mols) of sodium
(Na) etherified (conversion into Na compound)
corresponding to 1 unit (6 carbon atoms) of
glucose (C6H12O6) from the high absorbency
polymer.
Figure 2 shows the swelling ratio of the
water-swelling material soaked in plain water and
artificial sea water (3% saline) and the DS value
(of the high absorbency polymer). Moreover, the
DS value of the high absorbency polymer used at
present in water-swelling material is 0.6 M/c6.
According to Fig. 2, when a polymer with a high
DS value is used for blending, the swelling ratio
in artificial sea water greatly increases. Especially
by reforming the DS value of the high absorbency
polymer to 0.9 M/c6, the swelling ratio increases
2 times of that of the current water-swelling
material (High absorbency polymer DS value =
0.6 M/c6). This is because the insolubility of the
high absorbency polymer is enhanced due to the
large number of ions present in the artificial sea
water. Nevertheless, the enhancement of
insolubility is moderated by the use of high
absorbency polymer with a high DS value, to a
certain extent. On the other hand, in plain water
(which does not enhance the insolubility of the
water-swelling material) it is possible to maintain
the swelling ratio of the same order (27 - 29
times) even if the DS value of high absorbency
polymer is increased.
Figure 3 shows the relation between the addition
ratio of the high absorbency polymer (having its
DS value reformed to 0.9 M/c6 in water-swelling
material) and its swelling ratio. From this it is
understood that the increase in the addition ratio
of high absorbency polymer contributes to the
increase in swelling of water-swelling material in
an environment comprising plain water and
artificial sea water. Further, in general, the
addition ratio of the high absorbency polymer
currently used for blending with water-swelling

material (high absorbency polymer with a DS
value = 0.6 M/c6) is 32.5% by weight.
Thus, for further improvement of the swelling
ratio of the water-swelling material, it is proposed
to ensure blending of high absorbency polymer
having a DS value in excess of DS = 0.6 M/c6
and with more than 32.5% by weight.
Salinity of Soaking Water, Its Temperature, pH
and the Swelling Ratio
The properties of the soaked water (salinity, plain
water or sea water), water temperature and pH are
supposed to greatly influence the swelling
property of the water-swelling material. For this,
swelling experiments were carried out by varying
the conditions like the quality of soaked water, its
temperature and pH.
Depending upon whether the soaking water is
35
Soak in plain water
30
Swelling ratio
6th
25
20
Soak in artificial sea water (3% saline)
15
10
5
Current value
Water temperature: 20 degrees

Addition ratio of
high absorbency polymer: 32.5%
0
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
DS value of high absorbency polymer (M/c6)
Fig. 2 Relationship between swelling ratio and DS

value of high absorbency polymer for water-swelling
material
35
Soak in plain water
30
Swelling ratio
998
25
20
15
10
5
0
20.0
Current value
25.0
30.0

DS value of
high absorbency polymer: 0.9 M/c6
35.0
40.0
45.0
Addition ratio of high absorbency polymer (%)
Fig. 3 Relationship between swelling ratio and

addition ration of high absorbency polymer for
water-swelling material
50.0
plain water or artificial sea water (3% saline)

there is a large difference in the swelling ratio of
the water-swelling material. On the other hand, in
the case of a high absorbency polymer with a
reformed DS value of around 0.9M/c6, the
swelling ratio increases a lot, especially in the
case of artificial sea water (3% saline) as stated in
above, and it is possible to get a swelling ratio
twice that of the value found in a case utilizing
the currently used high absorbency polymer with
a DS value = 0.6 M/c6. As a result, the difference
between the swelling ratio in an environment of
plain water and artificial sea water declines (see
Fig. 2).
As shown in Fig. 4, the temperature of the
soaking water influences the swelling ratio of the
water-swelling material and, especially in the case
of the plain water environment, the swelling ratio
shows a tendency to increase as the water
temperature increases. On the other hand,
increasing the temperature of artificial sea water
60
DS value of
Addition ratio of
Swelling ratio
50
40
Soak in plain water
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 5 shows the relation between pH of the

soaking water and of the swelling ratio of the
water-swelling material. From this, it is
understood that the water- swelling material has a
tendency to have a lower swelling ratio in a
strongly acidic or strongly alkaline area. However,
if the pH is in the area of 4 - 12, the influence of
pH on the swelling ratio is less and thus in the
actual use of water-swelling material, pH of
soaked water does not have a great influence.
Fig. 4 Relationship between swelling ratio and

temperature of soaking water for water-swelling
material
35
Swelling ratio
30
25
20
DS value of
Addition ratio of
10
5
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
0
0
does not improve the swelling ratio of the

water-swelling material. The high absorbency
polymer blended with water-swelling material is a
high polymer electrolyte and, when it is soaked in
an aqueous environment, water gets absorbed in
the mesh of the high absorbency polymer and it is
gelatinized (swollen condition). Further, the
gelatinized high absorbency polymer dissolves in
water, giving ride to a uniform polymer solution.
However, the high absorbency polymer has the
property of bonding with polyvalent metal ions
and if polyvalent metal ions exist in the water, it
forms insoluble metal salts. The formation of
insoluble metal salts restricts the free movement
of the molecules, and as a result, only gel
formation (swelling) unidirectional water
absorption into the high absorbency polymer
occurs. Moreover, increasing the water
temperature enhances the quantity of water
absorbed into the high absorbency polymer
(swelling is enhanced) more. On the other hand,
in an artificial sea water environment, as the ionic
concentration is high, the water content that the
high absorbency polymer can absorb may reduce
(insolubility is enhanced and swelling becomes
less). Thus, the insolubility of high absorbency
polymer is enhanced and, when the swelling ratio
of the water-swelling material itself is small
(under the artificial sea water environment), the
increase in the swelling ratio may also be
prevented as the temperature goes up.
35
Temperature of soaking water (degrees)
15
999
10
pH of soaking water
Fig. 5 Relationship between swelling ratio and pH of

soaking water for water-swelling material
15
Water-swelling Material Strength Test

Water-swelling material strength means the
strength of the material when the water
swelling-material is in a swollen condition.
1000
6th
Swelling material strength of the water-swelling

material greatly influences the resistance to water
(hydraulic) pressure and long-term endurance.
Thus, a study was conducted from various
viewpoints for improving the strength of swelling
material, and it was concluded that the
composition of water-swelling material is the
factor behind this. Here, the swelling strength of
the water-swelling material was measured by
using a small desk testing machine
(EZTEST-500N, SHIMADZU Corporation) and
penetrating elastic tool (diameter 3 mm) (see Fig.
6) and, the relation of the composition of the
water-swelling material with the swelling strength
was studied. The swelling material strength was
defined as the strength required (by the
penetration elastic tool with a 3 mm diameter),
for penetration and breaking of the water-swelling
material.
The procedure for the swelling film strength test
was as follows:
(i) A definite quantity by weight of
water-swelling material was dried, it was
converted into a 2 mm thick sheet and a test
piece sized 2 cm2 cm was prepared.
(ii) The test piece was submerged in a water tank
filled with plain water and artificial sea water
at a set temperature.
(iii) After submerging for 48 hours, the
penetration tool (3 mm diameter) was slowly
allowed to penetrate into the water-swelling
material as shown in Fig. 6 and the swelling
material strength (penetration elasticity
value) was measured.
Composition and Swelling Material Strength
Synthetic resin elastomer, which is the base
Water-swelling material
Fig. 6 Simple overview of water-swelling material

strength test (For colour figure, refer to CD)
material for the water-swelling material, is one of

the materials that influences the swelling film
strength. Here, attention was paid to the resin
content (vinyl acetate) of the synthetic resin
elastomer, and swelling material strength tests
were carried out in the case of water-swelling
material blended with elastomer B and elastomer
C (having a resin content 1.3 times and 1.5 times
that in the synthetic resin elastomer A, which is
used for blending with the current water-swelling
material).
Table 1 shows the swelling ratio and the swelling
material strength of the water-swelling material
soaked in plain water and artificial sea water at
20qC water temperature. Further, Fig. 7 shows
swelling material strength with the variation of
the temperature of the soaking plain water or
artificial sea water. Table 1 shows that the
swelling ratio of the water-swelling material
decreases according to the synthetic resin
elastomer content blended with it. However, when
blended with elastomers B or C, which have a
higher resin content, the swelling material
strength increases in plain water and artificial sea
water. Especially water-swelling material blended
with a higher quantity of synthetic resin elastomer
B can increase the swelling film strength to about
2 times and 1.5 times that of the currently used
water-swelling material in plain water and
artificial sea water, respectively. The increase in
the swelling material strength by blending with
elastomer B and C is manifested in the case of
both a plain water and artificial sea water
environment under a water temperature of 5 30qC (see Fig. 7). On the other hand, the swelling
material strength blending with each elastomer
shows the tendency to decrease with the increase
of water temperature in the case of both a plain
water and artificial sea water. Furthermore, the
decrease in the strength under the artificial sea
water environment may be confirmed to be larger
than that under the plain water environment.
However, it is thought that the strength decreasing
rate of the sea water environment and that under
the plain water environment are the almost the
same levels. Also, no much difference in the
decreasing tendency in both swelling ratio and
Table 1 Swelling ratio and the swelling material

strength of water-swelling material soaked in plain
water and artificial sea water at 20 qC water
temperature
Swelling ratio
Plain
Artificial
water
sea water
31
15
28
14
24
11
Elastomer
Elastomer A
Elastomer B
Elastomer C
Strength (N)
Plain
Artificial
water
sea water
0.3
1.0
0.6
1.3
1.0
1.8
Swelling material strength (N)
2.0
DS value of
Addition ratio of
1.5
1.0
Blending with elastomer C
Blending with elastomer B
0.5
Blending with elastomer A

(curent elastomer)
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
(a) Soaking in plain water
Swelling material strength (N)
2.0
Blending with elastomer C
Blending with elastomer B
1.5
Blending with elastomer A

(curent elastomer)
1.0
DS value of
Addition ratio of
0.5
10
15
swelling ratio that is 2 times the value of that

of the currently used water-swelling material
(with a DS value of the high absorbency
polymer = 0.6 M/c6) can be obtained in an
artificial sea water environment.
(2) An increase in the water temperature of plain
water influences the increase in the swelling
ratio of the water-swelling material. On the
other hand, the temperature of sea water does
not influence the swelling ratio of the
water-swelling
material.
Further,
water-swelling material shows a tendency of
lowering the swelling ratio in strongly acidic
or strongly alkaline areas, but the influence of
pH on the swelling ratio of the water-swelling
material is less in the area of pH 4 - 12.
(3) The quantity of synthetic resin elastomer,
which is a component of the water-swelling
material, contributes to the improvement of
the swelling film strength of the
water-swelling
material.
Especially
water-swelling material blended with a higher
quantity of synthetic resin elastomer B can
increase the swelling film strength to about 2
times and 1.5 times that of the currently used
water-swelling material in plain water and
artificial sea water, respectively.
REFERENCES
0.0
0
1001
20
25
30
35
(b) Soaking in artificial sea water
Fig. 7 Relationship between swelling material

strength and temperature of soaking water for
water-swelling material
swelling material strength was seen between two

cases of plain and artificial sea water (see Figs. 4
and 7).
CONCLUSIONS
(1) In case of water-swelling material blended
with high absorbency polymer with higher
etherification value (DS value), the swelling
ratio is very high in artificial sea water.
Especially, by reforming the DS value of the
high absorbency polymer to 0.9 M/c6,
Oki, T. et al. (2003): Evaluation of

impermeability performance of the vertical
impermeable walls by using steel sheet piles
and steel pipe sheet piles (in Japanese), Proc.
of the 5th Japan National Symposium on
Environmental Geotechnology, pp.53-58.
Inazumi, S. et al. (2005): Performance of
H-jointed steel pipe sheet piles with H-H joint
in vertical hydraulic cutoff walls, Proc. of the
16th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical
Engineering,
Vol.4,
pp.2269-2272.
Inazumi, S. and Kimura, M. (2009): On-site
verification for installation and permeability
of H-jointed SPSPs with H-H joints, Proc. of
the 17th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical
Engineering,
Vol.3,
pp.2540-2543.
Effect of Fiber Reinforcement on the Integrity of

Clay-based Waste Containment Systems
B.V.S. Viswanadham
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India (viswam@civil.iitb.ac.in)
S.S. Sengupta
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
B.K. Jha
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
ABSTRACT The objective of this paper is to examine the influence of discrete and randomly
distributed fibers on the integrity of clay-based waste containment systems at the onset of
artificially induced non-uniform settlements in a large beam centrifuge. Modeling considerations
pertaining to simulation of discretely mixed fibers in a centrifuge are discussed. A short series
of centrifuge tests were carried-out on a 1.2 m thick clay barrier with and without fiber
reinforcement subjected to differential settlements. moist-compacted at its standard Proctor
compaction. It was observed that the fiber reinforcement has a significant affect in restraining
cracks of a clay barrier subjected to continuous differential settlements.
INTRODUCTION
Compacted clayey soils are commonly used as
hydraulic barriers in waste containment systems
such as in liners and covers for landfills,
impoundments, hazardous liquid wastes, reservoirs,
and ponds. According to Daniel (1983), two
predominant causes of failures of clay-based waste
containments are: (i) Desiccation cracking due to
moisture fluctuations, and (ii) Cracking due to
excessive non-uniform settlements. A variety of
research efforts have been attempted to address the
problem of cracking of clay-based waste containment
systems due to non-uniform settlements and
desiccation. The problem of cracking of clay-based
waste containment is more pronounced in capping
systems than bottom lining systems. As per
guidelines of Municipal Solid Waste Management
in India (MSW Rules, 2000), the landfill cover shall
meet the following specifications, namely, the final
cover shall have: a) an impermeable soil layer
comprising of a 600 mm thick clay or amended soil
with a coefficient of permeability less than 1 x 10-9 m/
sec, b) on top of an impermeable soil layer there
shall be a drainage layer of 150 mm thickness, and c)

on top of the drainage layer there shall be a cover
soil of 450 mm
thick to support natural plant growth and to minimize
erosion. However, cracking of clay barriers lead to
drastic increase of their hydraulic conductivity and
thereby increases the rainfall infiltration through the
top capping system and resulting in alarmingly large
quantities of leachates as well as release of harmful
gases into the environment.
Although compacted clay barriers are most widely
used all over the world (wherever clays are
abundantly available), very few attempts have been
made to evolve at a viable solution to retain their
integrity at the onset of differential settlements
(Rajesh and Viswanadham, 2009). In the recent past,
the interest of using fibers has arisen to improve
compacted clay performance as hydraulic barriers
without changing physical properties of soil (Ziegler,
et al. 1998). Figure 1 presents a schematic
representation of a deformed geofiber-reinforced clay
barrier of landfill cover at the onset of different
Viswanadham, Sengupta and Jha
settlements (of the order of s1, s2,). Generally,

compacted clay barriers with thickness ranging from
0.6m 1.5 m are provided along with a cover soil
(including drainage layer of 0.3 m thickness) of 1.5 m
thickness in landfill covers. Use of Discrete and
Randomly Distributed Fiber (DRDF) reinforcement
technique to decrease a soils crack potential can be
explored as one of the viable techniques to address
the problem of cracking of a soil barrier at the onset
of differential settlements. This technique was
investigated earlier by Rodatz and Oltmanns (1997)
to develop as a new barrier construction material for
landfill covers, especially when high mechanical and
thermal loadings are anticipated. However, further
work in this direction is limited. Very recently, Miller
and Rifai (2004) and Viswanadham et al. 2009 have
explored to evaluate the affect of discrete and
randomly distributed fibers on the tensile strengthstrain characteristics of clayey soil and to restrain
desiccation cracking and cracking due to bending
in clay barriers of waste containment systems.
In the present study, the effect of fiber reinforcement
on the integrity of clay-based landfill covers
subjected to differential settlements was presented
through centrifuge model tests along with scaling
considerations for modeling fibers as an admixture
in the field. Application of centrifuge modeling
technique to the present study is relevant because
the loss of integrity of clay barriers is highly
influenced by the presence of prototype stress
conditions. The centrifuge tests reported herein were
performed at 40 gravities. The 4.5 m radius large
beam centrifuge at IIT Bombay having a capacity is
250g-ton with a maximum payload of 2.5t at 100g
was used. The detailed specifications are discussed
by Viswanadham et al. (2009).
Landfill cover
Modeling considerations for fibers

Several investigators have used fibers made of
polypropylene, polyester, polyaramid, glassfiber,
polyvinyl alcohol, etc, Fibers are available in two
different styles: (i) plain and (ii) fibrillated types. It
should be understood that the fibers with identical
material composition and properties should be able
to be used in the field. In order to do this,
Consideration must finally be given to fibers of finite
length and to deduce the effect of randomly oriented
discrete fibers. Consider a tape fiber of length l,
breadth b and thickness t, subject to a bond stress
b, which for simplicity, is assumed to be uniform,
along half of its length (Fig.2). The fiber is best utilized
if its length is sufficient to enable the bond force to
develop a stress equal to the tensile strength of the
fiber t. It can be written as:
t (bt ) = b (b + t )l
(1)
Equation [1] implies that if a fiber has a high fiber
tensile strength then either high bond strength
would be required to avoid pull-out well before b is
reached or fibers of high aspect ratios would be
required. Mobilization of b depends on fiber-soil
interface characteristics under confining stresses.
Based on equation [1], deduced scaling
considerations imply that fibers used in the
centrifuge model can be used in the field for
constructing moist-compacted soil barriers
strengthened with discrete and randomly distributed
fibers with an appropriate fiber content and aspect
ratios, if one considers the phase until initiation of
cracking. Once cracking progresses, discrete and
randomly distributed fibers try to bridge the gap
depending upon aspect ratio and soil-fiber interface
characteristics.
aspect ratio and soil fiber interface characteristics.
Soil matrix
l/2
Fig. 1 Schematic cross-section of geofiber-reinforced

clay barrier subjected to differential settlements.
1003
Wb
l/2
Fig. 2 Schematic of fiber embedded in a

soil matrix. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
1004
6th
MODELPREPARATION, EXPERIMENTAL
METHODOLOGYAND DISCUSSION
The model soil barrier material was found to have a
liquid limit of 38%, plastic limit of 16%, coefficient of
permeability of 0.410"9 m/s, maximum dry unit weight
of 15.9 kN/m3 and optimum moisture content of 22%
(standard Proctor compaction test). The selected
soil is classified as CL type according to Unified
soil Classification system and represents soil barrier
characteristics of landfill covers (Benson et al. 1999).
Polypropylene tape fibers 1.2 mm width, 0.021 mm
thickness, breaking load of 48.54 N, and 22 %
elongation at break were used. A fiber dosage of 0.5
% by dry weight of soil and aspect ratio of 45 was
used. This was fixed based on the results reported
by Viswanadham et al. (2009). Aspect ratio is defined
as ratio of length to breadth of the fiber. This implies
that the aspect ratio of 45 indicates 90 mm long fibers.
Detailed discussion of on model preparation and
test procedure are discussed in detail by
Viswanadham et al. 2009. Figure 3 shows front
elevation of the model before commencement of
centrifuge test. Centrifuge tests were performed at
40 g by subjecting the model to a constant angular
velocity of 93 revolutions per minute.
polymeric fibers) reinforcement subjected to nonuniform settlements. In this section, results of two
models, namely SSL4 and BFL2 were discussed. Both
the models were moist-compacted at their maximum
dry unit weight and optimum moisture content and
were tested without any cover soil. Though cover
soil imposes a confinement of the order of 20 kPa, in
order to observe the strain at crack initiation and
crack propagation in the clay barrier with and without
fiber reinforcement, presence cover soil was not
considered. In the case of model BFL2, the model
soil barrier was mixed randomly with fibers with a
dosage of 0.5 % and having length of 90 mm was
used. Long fibers were considered to prevent pullout failure (Viswanadham et al. 2009). Even after
subjecting to a central settlement equal to a = amax.
=25 mm (1.0 m in prototype dimensions), in the case
of geofiber-reinforced clay barrier, partial penetration
of cracks at the zone of maximum curvature can be
noted (Fig.4). In comparison, an un-reinforced soil
barrier experienced cracks extending up to full-depth
at the zone of maximum curvature.
Fig, 3 Front elevation of prepared centrifuge model

before centrifuge test (Mmodel: BFL2).
Controlled in-flight simulation of differential

settlements of landfill in a geotechnical centrifuge
was carried out using a trap-door arrangement.
Digital image analysis technique was found to be
very useful in arriving at strain at crack initiation
and in understanding the propagation of cracks in
clay barrier with and without geofiber (flexible
Fig. 4 Status of un-reinforced and geofiber reinforced

clay barriers at the end of centrifuge test.
Figure 5 presents variation of maximum outer fiber
strain with radius at the zone of maximum curvature
for models SSL4 and BFL2. As can be noted, the
geofiber reinforced clay barrier was observed to have
strain at crack initiation of 1.52 % and sustain large
Viswanadham, Sengupta and Jha
non-uniform settlements. In the case of un-reinforced

clay barrier, the strain at crack initiation was observed
to be only 0.65 % and observed to crack at radius of
170 m itself.
5
1005
1) By considering fibers as discrete elemental

inclusions within the soil, the scaling considerations
developed in this study implies that identical fibers
with more or less similar engineering properties shall
have to be used in the field.
SSL4
Strain (%)
BFL2
SSL4 (crack initiation)
BFL2 (crack initiation)
2
1
0
10
100
1000
Radius at the zone of maximum curvature (m)
Fig. 5 Variation of maximum outer fiber strain with

radius at the zone of maximum curvature.
This brings out the significant potential of fiber
reinforcement in not only restraining cracking of clay
barrier but also limiting the penetration of cracks
extending up to mid-depth only. The inclusion of
fibers as a reinforcing material affected the
deformation behaviour of compacted soil liner
compliance to non-uniform settlements. The
improved soil-fiber mix enhances the function of soil
liners and covers as hydraulic barriers for waste
containment systems of landfills by decreasing the
cracking potential. The deduced scaling
considerations imply that fibers used in the
centrifuge model can be used in the field for
constructing moist-compacted soil barriers
strengthened with discrete and randomly distributed
fibers with an appropriate fiber content and aspect
ratios, if one considers the phase until initiation of
cracking. Once cracking progresses, discrete and
randomly distributed fibers try to bridge the gap
depending upon aspect ratio and soil-fiber interface
characteristics. However, further work in this
direction with the inclusion of geomembrane of
landfill covers and overburden is warranted.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the analysis and interpretation of
centrifuge test results, the following conclusions
are drawn:
2) For an un-reinforced soil barrier, strain at crack

initiation c is 0.65 % at a radius at the zone of
maximum curvature at crack initiation Rc equal to
170 m. In case a soil barrier moist-compacted with
discrete fibers distributed randomly having 0.5 %
fiber content and an aspect ratio of 45, value of c is
1.52 % at a radius at the zone of maximum curvature
at crack initiation Rc equal to 70 m. This implies that
fiber reinforced soil barriers with an adequate fiber
content and aspect ratios can withstand large
deformations without loosing integrity.
REFERENCES
Benson C.H., Daniel D.E. and Boutwell G.P. (1999). Field
performance of compacted clay liners, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE, 125(5), 390-403.
MSW Rules (2000). Municipal Solid Waste (Management
and Handling) Rules, Government of India, New Delhi.
Miller, C.J., and Rifai, S. (2004). Fiber reinforcement
for waste containment soil liners, J. of
Envirornmental Engineering, ASCE, 130(8), 891-895.
Rodatz, W. and Oltmanns, W. (1997). Permeability and
stress-strain behaviour of fiber-reinforced soils for
landfill liner systems, Advanced landfill liner systems,
H. August, U. Holzlohner, and T. Meggyes (Eds.),
Thomas Telford (Pubs.), 321-332.
Rajesh S. and Viswanadham B.V.S. (2009). Evaluation of
geogrid as a reinforcement layer in clay based engineered
barriers, Applied Clay Science, 46(2), 153-165.
Viswanadham, B.V.S., Jha, B.K., and Sengupta, S.S. (2009)
Centrifuge Testing of Fiber Reinforced Soil Liners for
Waste Containment Systems. Journal of Practice
Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Management, ASCE, 13(1): 45-58.
Ziegler, S., Leshchinsky, D., Ling, H.I., and Perry, E.B.
(1998) Effect of Short Polymeric Fibers on Crack
Development in Clays. Soils and Foundations, 38(1):
247-253.
Thermal Conductivity of WFS-FA-EPS Mixture Subjected to Frost Action

A Deng
Key Laboratory of MOE for Geomechanics and Embankment Engineering, Geotechnical
Research Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, China (a_deng@hhu.edu.cn)
Y-T Yu
ditto (yuyongtang@126.com)
ABSTRACT Thermal conductivity is one of critical parameters with regards to an anti-frost fill. This study
presented the effects of mixing ratio and frost action on the thermal conductivity of a newly developed antifrost fill, which comprises mixture of waste foundry sand (WFS), fly ash (FA), expandable polystyrene
(EPS) beads, Portland cement and water. Test results show that the increase of EPS, FA or cement results in
the decrease of mixture thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity of the mixture is favorably less than that
of conventional geomaterial, which leads the mixture an attractive geomaterial if frost mitigation is desirable.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal conductivity is unanimously recognized
as one of critical parameters for geomaterials used
as anti-frost earth fills. The parameter relates to
the heat transport volume through the fills and the
thermal impairment, e.g., frost heave, imposed to
the infrastructures when subjected to frost action
(Radhakrishna et al. 1989, Yu & Deng 2008).
Typical infrastructures include embankment,
approach abutment, and backfills for trench and
retaining structures, which are located in seasonal
frost regions.
It is desirable to propose an earth fill taking the
advantage of thermal conductivity reduction
without comprising its structural behavior. In this
context, a cementitious anti-frost fill was formed
by blending waste foundry sand (WFS), fly ash
(FA), expandable polystyrene (EPS) beads,
cement (C) and water in proportions, which is
known as WFS-FA-EPS mixture. EPS beads are
used to reduce both the thermal conductivity and
unit weight of the mixture. Cement is used to
binder the mixture and yield designated strength.
The other components (WFS and FA) are
processed solid waste materials which are reused
as fine aggregates. This study is carried out to

investigate the effects of mixing ratio and frost
action on the thermal conductivity of the material.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Materials include WFS, FA, EPS bead, cement
and water. WFS sample was retrieved from a
green sand system. FA sample was Class F
according to ASTM C618. The index properties of
WFS and FA samples are shown in Table 1.
Figure 1 presents the gradation of the samples.
EPS beads are round polymer aggregate prepuffed from polystyrene resins. EPS beads, sizing
between 2-4 mm, are ultra light with bulk density
of 0.014 g/cm3. Common Portland cement and tap
water were used throughout the study.
TABLE 1 Index Properties of WFS and FA Samples
Property
WFS
FA
Water content (%)

Bulk density (g/cm3)
Specific gravity
Dry density, min. (g/cm3)
Dry density, max. (g/cm3)
1-5
1.248
2.5
1.259
1.577
22.3
0.598
2.2
0.605
0.867
Deng and Yu
Finer
percentage (%)
%
100
TABLE 2 Mixing Ratios and Densities of Test Series
FA
80
Series C (%) FA (%) EPS (%) w (%) U (g/cm3)
WFS
60
40
20
0
10
0.1
0.01
Thermal Cond. (W/mK)
Size
(mm)
(mm)
Fig. 1 Gradation of WFS and FA Samples.
1.1
7d
28d
28d F
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
20
25
30
35
40
Water Content (%)
1007
45
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
6.15
7.69
11.54
15.38
15.38
15.38
15.38
15.38
15.38
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
T10
T11
T12
T13
T14
15.38 30
15.38
0
15.38 13.04
15.38 52.94
15.38 30
1.08
1.08
1.08
0
0.62
1.08
1.54
1.85
1.08
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
25
1.13
1.14
1.16
1.70
1.35
1.17
1.04
0.97
1.14
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.08
35
30
30
30
40
1.18
1.23
1.19
1.12
1.21
w: water content, U: density.
Fig. 2 Thermal Conductivity vs Water Content.
Table 2 presents the mixing ratios of 14 series of

specimens prepared in this study and the density U
measured for each series. Mixing ratio was
designated in a mass percentage of a component
over WFS. Results show that the EPS inclusion
leads to 10%-49% reduction in density compared
to compact clay soils (e.g., 1.9 g/cm3), depending
on the mixing ratios.
Specimens were prepared using a steel ring in
oedometer test, which was 61.8 mm in diameter
and 20 mm in height. The specimens were cured
for 7 and 28 days prior to the tests. Each test
measurement was obtained using the average of
three specimens. Thermal conductivity was
measured using an ISOMET 2104 thermal device
(Applied Precision Ltd.) in accordance with
ASTM D5334.
Thermal conductivity tests were conducted three
times on the specimens of a series, i.e., day 7 test
(7d), day 28 tests before and after a frost action
(28d and 28d F, respectively). The frost action led
the specimen conditioned in a chamber of low and
constant temperature (-10r0.5 qC) for 48 h.

Figure 2 presents the thermal conductivity of
specimens prepared by C=15.38%, FA=30%,
EPS=1.08%, and w=25, 30, 35 and 40%. The
thermal conductivity increases with the increase of
water content, all other variables maintained
constant. This relation is ascribable to the
difference of 22 folds in thermal conductivity
between water (0.54 W/mK) and air (0.024
W/mK). Given the substitution of water for air,
all other proportions maintained constant in the
mixture, the thermal conductivity of the mixture is
thus increased. It is also noticed that the relation is
nonlinear. When the water content exceeds 35%,
the effect of the water content on the thermal
conductivity is marginal.
specimens prepared by C=15.38%, FA=30%,
w=30%, and EPS=0, 0.62, 1.08, 1.54 and 1.85%.
The thermal conductivity decreases with the
increase of EPS bead content, all other variables
maintained constant. The decrease is clear when
the EPS bead content is less than 1.08%, beyond
which the thermal conductivity varies marginally,
despite the curing age and frost option.
1.8
6th
1008
7d
1.5
28d
1.2
28d F
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
0.5
1
1.5
EPS Content (%)
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0
10
20
30
40
FA Content (%)
0.7
0.5
0.3
50
60
Fig. 4 Thermal Conductivity vs FA Content.
9
11
13
Cement Content (%)
15
17
Fig. 5 Thermal Conductivity vs Cement Content.

Thermal Cond.(W/mK)
7d
28d
28d F
7d
28d
28d F
0.9
Fig. 3 Thermal Conductivity vs EPS Content.

1.1
1.1
7d
1.6
28d
1.2
28d F
0.8
0.4
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Water-Solid Ratio
1.2
Fig. 6 Thermal Conductivity vs Water-Solid Ratio.

specimens prepared by EPS=1.08%w=30%
C=15.38%, and FA=0, 13.04, 30 and 52.94%. The
thermal conductivity decreases with the increase
of FA content, all other variables maintained
constant. The decrease is basically linear for the
specimens investigated in this study. FA is
essentially the residue of coal when burned, which
comprises spherical glassy particles with 50-80%
porosity. The highly porous component leads to a
lightweight and thermal isolation mixture if
blended with other components.
From Figs. 2-5, the thermal conductivity decreases

with curing age, which is ascribable to the
reduction of free water content associated with the
cement hydration process. It is also shown that the
frost action conducted at day 28 leads to increased
thermal conductivity, which is ascribable to the
conversion of free water into ice. The thermal
conductivity of ice (2.2W/mK) is around 4 folds
of that of water, which, in turn, results in 1.392.01 folds increase of thermal conductivity of the
mixture.

specimens prepared by FA=30%EPS=1.08%
w=30%, and C=6.15, 7.69, 11.54 and 15.38%. The
effect of cement content on the thermal
conductivity is marginal, in particular, for the
specimen prepared by C>7.69%. Cement
hydration leads to two results, i.e., reduction of
free water content and gain in mixture compaction.
The two variations cause opposite effect to the
thermal conductivity. In this investigation,
although compromised, the effect of water content
reduction slightly prevails.
Multiple factors affect the thermal conductivity at

different weight or even opposite effect. It is
desirable to draw a variant combining the effect of
major factors and depicting solely the variation of
thermal conductivity. In accordance with the
aforementioned effect of each factor, it is
reasonable to define the variant as the mass ratio
of water over the combination of EPS and FA, i.e.,
water-solid ratio. Cement is not included into the
variant due to its marginal effect. As the effect of
EPS outweighs those of the other two factors, it is
sound to magnify the EPS weight by an empirical
value. The empirical value is determined by fitting
Deng and Yu
the variant using three series of responses (i.e., 7d,

28d and 28d F) at a statistically significant level,
which leads to a value 50. That is, the variant is
written as w/(50EPS+FA).
Figure 6 presents the relation between the watersolid ratio and the thermal conductivity. The
specimens were prepared with water-solid ratio
between 0.24 and 1.0 and thermal conductivity
between 0.35 to 1.59 W/mK. It is shown that the
increase of water-solid ratio leads to a linear
increase of thermal conductivity for series of 7d
(R2=0.92), 28d (R2=0.94) and 28d F (R2=0.94),
respectively. That is, although drawn at an
empirical level, the variant basically depicts the
variation of thermal conductivity, at least for the
specimens investigated in this study.
Table 3 lists the thermal conductivity of common
frozen geomaterials and the frozen WFS-FA-EPS
mixtures investigated in this study. It is seen that
the thermal conductivity of frozen WFS-FA-EPS
mixture is less than those of common geomaterials.
Specifically, the thermal conductivity of EPSbased mixture ranges within 0.512-1.023 W/mK,
which is 50-80% less than that of sandy and
clayey soils, all other variables (e.g., moisture
content) maintained comparable.
The advantage of WFS-FA-EPS mixture in
thermal conductivity leads the mixture an
attractive choice of earth fill material to be used in
seasonable frost regions. The advantage is
expected to control heat transport, reduce frost
depth and mitigate freeze-thaw impairment
imposed onto the underlying infrastructures.
Compared to the EPS blocks, the mixture is also
competitive. The mixtures can be prepared by
controlling the strength and cost, and be used
straightforwardly to various spaces.
CONCLUSIONS
The thermal conductivity of the WFS-FA-EPS
mixture increases with the increase of the water
content, decreases with the increase of the EPS
and FA contents, and decreases with the curing
age. The tendency is limited to the mixture with
water and EPS contents less than or equal to 35%
1009
TABLE 3 Thermal Conductivity of Frozen

Geomaterials (Bin 1998)
Thermal
Unit
Moisture
Content weight conductivity
(%)
(kN/m3) (W/mK)
Geomaterial
Cement concrete
Dry-wet 23.9-24
1.4-1.7
Gravel
Dry-wet 19-21
1.5-2.1
Grit
Dry-wet 18-21
1.9-2.2
Porous rock
Dry-wet 10-12
0.7-1.1
Cement-soil
10-30
15-18
1.4-1.9
Lime-soil
10-30
15-17
1.3-1.7
Grout-gravel
10-30
16-19
1.5-2.1
Fly ash-lime-soil
10-30
13-15
0.8-1.4
Fly ash-lime
10-30
13-15
0.7-1.1
Sand
10-30
18-23
1.8-2.3
Sandy soil
10-30
15-18
1.6-2.2
Clayey soil
10-30
14-17
1.0-2.1
Silty soil
10-30
16-18
1.7-2.2
WFS-FA-EPS mixture 20-27
9-13
0.5-1.0
and 1.08%, respectively. The water-solid ratio is

used to combine the effect of water, FA and EPS
contents. The WFS-FA-EPS mixture is recognized
as an attractive choice of earth fill material to be
used in seasonal frost regions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was supported by Fundamental
Research Fund for the Central Universities and
carried out under Hohai Talent Program (2009).
REFERENCES
Radhakrishna H.S., Chan H.T. and Crawford A.M.,
et al. (1989) Thermal and Physical Properties of
Candidate Buffer-Backfill Materials for a
Nuclear Fuel Waste Disposal Vault, Can. Geot.
J., 26(4), 629-639.
Yu Y.T. and Deng A. (2008) Mechanism and
Prevention of Highway Distress in Seasonal
Frost Area, Proc. Geotech Eng. Disaster
Mitigation Rehabli., Springer & China Science,
797-802.
Bin W.S. (1998). Prevention of Road Surface Frost:
Fundamental and Application. Harbin Institute
of Technology Press. (in Chinese)
Artificially Cemented Sand Dosed by Void/cement Factor

R. Caberlon C.
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil (rccaberlon@hotmail.com)
N. C. Consoli
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil (consoli@ufrgs.br)
ABSTRACT The use of Voids / Cement factor (Vv/Vce) for soil-cement dosages,
supplies the necessary subsidies to reach the characteristics required to the soil, with
trustworthiness. The materials are uniform fine sand and Portland cement of high initial strength
named CP V-ARI. Through preliminary tests of unconfined compressive strength were obtained
the Vv/Vce curves for three different void ratios, for different cement percentages. With these
results were obtained one trend curve for different dosages of this sand. In other words, using
this curve, the engineer can choose the amount of cement and the compaction effort appropriate
to provide an optimum mixture.
INTRODUCTION
The use of traditional techniques in geotechnical
engineering often faces problems because of high
costs and/or environmental issues. An example is
the construction of foundations in soils with poor
bearing capacities, where the costs of a deep
foundation solution can be incompatible with the
overall costs for low-budget building projects. In
these cases, an alternative is the improvement of
local soil by the addition of cementitious materials
[Porbaha et al. (1998), Thom et al. (2005),
Consoli et al. (2003, 2007, and 2008), Rattley et al.
(2008)].
In spite of the numerous applications, there are no
dosage methodologies based on rational criteria as
in the case of the concrete technology, where the
water/cement ratio plays a fundamental role in the
assessment of the target strength or stiffness. In
recent work the soil-cement ratio has been assessed
by numerous laboratory tests that aim to find the

minimum amount of cement that meets the target
properties in terms of strength and durability. This
approach probably results from the fact that soilcement shows a complex behavior that is affected
by many factors, for example the physicalchemical properties of the soil, the amount of
cement, and the porosity and moisture content at
the time of compaction [Felt (1955), Moore et al.
(1970), Clough et al. (1981), Porbaha et al., 2000,
Consoli et al. (2000, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2007)].
This study therefore aims to quantify the influence
of the amount of cement and the porosity (here
associated to voids/cement ratio) on the stressdilatancy-strength behavior of artificially cemented
sand.
MATERIALS,
METHODS
AND
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Caberlon and Consoli 1011
Materials
The sand used in the testing was obtained from the
region of Osorio near Porto Alegre, in Southern
Brazil, being classified [ASTM D 2487-93 (1993)]
as non-plastic uniform fine sand (SP) with specific
gravity of the solids 2.65. Mineralogical analysis
showed that sand particles are predominantly
quartz. The grain size (see Fig. 1) is purely fine
sand with a mean effective diameter (D50) of 0.17
mm, being the uniformity and curvature
coefficients of 2.11 and 1.15, respectively.
different cement percentages, of 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9 e

12%. This points were choosed considering the
brazilian and the international soil-cement
experience [Mitchell (1981), Consoli et al. (2003,
2006 e 2007), Thom et al. (2005)]. Because of the
typical scatter of data for unconfined compression
tests, for each point three specimens were tested.
RESULTS
Figures 2 and 3 shows the unconfined compressive
strength and splitting tensile strength versus
cement percentage.
3000
e=0.64 q u = 136.19 [C]1.14 [R 2 = 0.99]
e=0.70 q u = 97.01 [C]1.20 [R 2 = 0.99]
2500
e=0.78 q u = 66.89 [C]1.30 [R 2 = 0.99]
q u (kPa)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
10
12
14
Fig.2 Variation of unconfined compressive strength (qu)

with cement content. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
400
e=0.64 q t = 18.6 [C]
350
1.18
[R = 0.99]
1.29
[R = 0.98]
e=0.70 q t = 11.8 [C]

e=0.78 q t = 7.5 [C]
300
1.38
[R = 0.97]
250
q t (kPa)
The minimum and maximum void ratios are 0.6

and 0.85, respectively. Portland cement of high
initial strength (Type III) was used as the
cementing agent. Its fast gain of strength allowed
the adoption of seven days as the curing time. The
specific gravity of the cement grains is 3.15.
Distilled water was used for the characterization
tests, but for molding specimens for the
compression tests tap water was used.
Ce me nt (%)
Fig.1 Osorio sand grain size distribution
200
150
Methods
The unconfined compressive strength tests were
carried out following NBR 5739/80 standard and
the splitting tensile strength tests were carried out
following NBR 7222/83 standard.
100
50
0
0
10
12
14
Ce me nt (%)
Experimental Program
The molding points were choosed considering the
void cement of 0.64, 0.70 and 0.78, with moisture
content of 10%. Each point was molded with seven
Fig. 3 Variation of splitting tensile strength (qt) with

cement content. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
6th
1012
In figures 2 and 3 can clearly be observed that for

higher cement amount, higher will be the strength
for the same void ratio. For the same cement
amount, for higher void ratio, lower will be the
strength.
Figures 4 and 5 shows the unconfined compressive
strength and the splitting tensile strength versus
porosity ().
Figure 6 show the void/cement factor in terms of

porosity () and volumetric cement amount (Cv)
versus unconfined compressive strength and
splitting tensile strength.
1% cement (STS)
2% cement (STS)
2500
3% cement (STS)
5% cement (STS)
7% cement (STS)
9% cement (STS)
2000
2500
q u (kPa)
2000
-5.34
12% cement (STS)
1% cement
qu = 4.4x10 []
[R = 0.94]
2% cement
qu = 5.4x1013[] -7.07 [R2 = 0.95]
3% cement
qu = 6.9x109[] -4.51 [R2 = 0.91]
5% cement
qu = 1.7x108[] -3.34 [R2 = 0.79]
7% cement
qu = 2.1x109[] -3.90 [R2 = 0.90]
9% cement
qu = 3.8x107[] -2.73 [R2 = 0.83]
12% cement
qu = 5.1x107[] -2.74 [R2 = 0.93]
q u and q t (kPa)
3000
10
1% cement (UCS)
-1.30
2% cement (UCS)
q u = 28327[/C v ]
1500
3% cement (UCS)
R = 0.98
5% cement (UCS)
7% cement (UCS)
9% cement (UCS)
1000
12% cement (UCS)

-1.30
q t = 4266[/C v ]
2
1500
R = 0.97
500
1000
500
0
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
40
60
80
100
45
(% )
Fig. 4 Variation of unconfined compressive strength

(qu) with porosity. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
400
350
1% cement
qt = 2.4x1010 [] -5.71 [R2 = 0.96]
2% cement
qt = 2.7x1015 [] -8.68 [R2 = 0.96]
3% cement
qt = 2.2x1013 [] -7.28 [R2 = 0.73]
5% cement
qt = 1.5x1010 [] -5,10 [R2 = 0,96]
7% cement
q t = 1.3x109 [] -4.29 [R2 = 0.89]
9% cement
q t = 2.3x109 [] -4.38 [R2 = 0.95]
12% cement
q t = 7.5x105 [] -2.10 [R2 = 0.90]
300
q t(kPa)
20
/ Cv
250
200
150
100
50
0
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
(% )
Fig. 5 Variation of splitting tensile strength (qt) with

porosity. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Analyzing this figures (4 and 5), can be observed

that for the same cement amount, the higher
porosity, the lower the strength. For the same
porosity, the higher cement amount, the higher the
strength.
Fig. 6 The use of adjusted voids/cement ratio to model

the deviator stress. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Analyzing figure 6 can be observed that the

unconfined compressive strength is higher than the
splitting tensile strength, for the same void/ cement
factor (/Cv).
CONCLUSIONS
Can be observed qualitatively, as expected, that
this material shows a similar trend of behavior for
both tests, unconfined compressive strength and
splitting tensile strength in the comparisons as a
percentage of cement and porosity. Turning to a
quantitative analysis of the results, it is observed
that the ratio between splitting tensile strength and
unconfined compressive strength were about 15%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to
Brazilian MCT/CNPq (projects Produtividade em
Pesquisa, Edital Universal 2008 and PNPD), to
ANEEL (project CEEE-UFRGS) and to ProDoc
CAPES for their financial support to the research
group.
Caberlon and Consoli 1013
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM (1993). Standard classification of soils
for engineering purposes. ASTM D 2487-93,
Philadelphia.
Brazilian Standard Association (1980). Mortar
and concrete - Test method for compressive
strength of cylindrical specimens. NBR 5739,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Brazilian Standard Association (1983). Mortar
and concrete - Test method for splitting tensile
strength of cylindrical specimens. NBR 7222,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese).
Chandler, R. J., Crilly, M. S. and MontgomerySmith, G. (1992). A low-cost method of
assessing clay desiccation for low-rise
buildings. Proc., Institute of Civil Engineers,
Civil Engineering, 2(2), 8289.
Chang, T. S. and Woods, R. D. (1992). Effect of
Particle Contact Bond on Shear Modulus.
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, New
York: ASCE, 118 (8), 1216-1233.
Clough, G. W., Sitar, N., Bachus, R. C. and Rad,
N. S. (1981). Cemented Sands Under Static
Loading. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering Division, New York: ASCE, 107
(6), 799-817.
Consoli, N.C., Prietto, P.D.M., Carraro, J.A.H.
and Heineck K.S. (2001). Behavior of
Compacted Soil-Fly Ash-Carbide Lime-Fly
Ash Mixtures. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 127,
774-782.
Consoli, N. C., Vendruscolo, M. A. and Prietto, P.
D. M. (2003). Behavior of Plate Load Tests
on Soil Layers Improved with Cement and
Fiber. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 129
(1), 96-101.
Consoli, N. C., Rotta, G. V. and Prietto, P. D. M.
(2006).
Yielding-compressibility-strength
relationship for an artificially cemented soil
cured under stress. Gotechnique, London,

56(1), 69-72.
Consoli, N. C., Foppa, D., Festugato, L. and
Heineck, K. S. (2007). Key parameters for
strength control of artificially cemented soils.
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 133(2),
197-205.
Consoli, N. C., Viana da Fonseca, A., Cruz, R. C.
and Heineck, K. S. (2009). Fundamental
parameters for the stiffness and strength control
of artificially cemented sand. Journal of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, 135 (in press).
Dass, R. N., Yen, S. C., Dass, B. M., Puri, V. K.
and Wrigth, M. A. (1994). Tensile StressStrain Characteristics of Lightly Cemented
Sand.
Geotechnical
Testing
Journal,
Philadelphia: ASTM, 17 (3), 305-314.
Ingles, O G. & Metcalf, J. B. (1972). Soil
Stabilization Principles and Practice.
Australia: Butterworths Pty. Limited, 366p.
Marinho, F. A. M. (1995). Suction Measurement
through Filter Paper Technique. Proceedings
of Unsaturated Soils Seminar, UFRGS, Porto
Alegre, 1, 111-125. (in Portuguese)
Mitchell, J. K. (1976). Fundamental of Soil
Behavior. New York: John Wiley & Sons
Inc., 422p.
Moore, R. K., Kennedy, T. W. and Hudson, W. R.
(1970). Factors Affecting the Tensile Strength
of Cement-Treated Materials. Highway
Research Record: Soil Stabilization: Multiple
Aspects, Washington, D. C: HRB, 315, 64-80.
Thom, A., Donato, M., Consoli, N. C. and
Graham, J. (2005). Circular footings on a
cemented layer above weak foundation soil.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 42(6), 15691584.
Study the Applicability of Composites and Their Interaction with the

Ground, for Use In the Walls Retaining Structures
G. Jara
Golder Associates S.A. (gjara@golder.cl)
ABSTRACT The present article contains the main results of a pilot study conducted by the author, for evaluating the interaction
that develops at the interface granular soil-composite. To evaluate this interaction has been tested in direct shear apparatus using
two types of soil, and plates of composite made from fiberglass and polyester resin. In these tests it was determined the effect of
surface roughness of the plates and the degree of soil compaction, the friction that is created between the two materials. The
composite plates were subjected to a surface treatment, which defined three types of roughness.
Introduction
From a geotechnical perspective, the structural
behavior of many projects is defined by the soil
structure interaction. The interaction that is created in
this interface is mainly due to friction between these
two materials.
This article presents the results of an experimental
work developed at the Geotechnical Laboratory of the
Polytechnic University of Madrid, to evaluate the
friction at the interface between soil and composites,
as part of development of the Doctoral Thesis
conducted by the author.
The Laboratory tests to determine the friction of the
composite-soil interface were conducted in a
conventional direct shear device adapted for this
research, according to the recommendations made by
Potyondy (1961), Rao et al (1998) and Frost and Han
(1999). To complete these tests, two types of soils
have been selected. These soils are commonly used in
Madrid filling projects, and are composed of
fiberglass plates and polyester fiber with different
surficial roughness.
Composite materials
Composite materials (also known as composites), are
fibers reinforced with metallic materials, polymers
and ceramics. It was introduced in the 1950s by the
aerospace industry. The applications of composites in
civil engineering projects have grown steadily in the
last 40 years, for instance: strengthening of concrete
with fiberglass, the construction of building
structures, piles sleeves used in aggressive media and
bridges made of these materials, among others.
The composites are heterogeneous materials

consisting of an organic matrix (polymer) associated
with a fibrous reinforcement, usually glass, carbon or
aramid. The mechanical properties of the material are
determined by the fibers. The stresses developed in
the composite are taken by these fibers, and
transferred from one fiber to another through the
matrix.
Surface friction between soil and construction
materials
The friction developed at the interaction of soil and
different construction materials have been studied in
numerous investigations. The importance of this,
according to Frost and Han (1999), is because this
interface friction plays an important role in the design
of many geotechnical applications such as: foundation
of structures piles, earth retaining structures, and
reinforced soil structures.
Typically the friction at the interface is expressed in
terms of a friction coefficient or a friction angle
(Rao et al, 1998). For purely cohesive soils, the
contact at the interface can be expressed in terms of
an adhesion coefficient, ca.
Values of are commonly defined in terms of the
friction angle of the soil . Many of the values
recommended in the literature are widely accepted in
Geotechnical Engineering practice.
Influence of roughness in the surficial friction
Many studies have shown that surface roughness
plays an important role in the behavior of the
interface between soil and solid surfaces (Uesugi and
Kishida, 1986-a and 1986-b; Rao et al, 1998; Frost
and Han, 1999); As a result, an increase in surficial
Jara
roughness leads to and an increase in the friction

parameters and ca.
A common method to quantify the roughness is based
on profile heights records, for which profilometers, a
micrometer sensitive equipment, are used. From the
statistical treatment of data obtained by this device,
the surface roughness is determined from the
maximum roughness Rmax. The value of Rmax for the
profile is obtained by the following expression
R mx =
R max 1 + R max 2 + + R max n

n
Some researchers have proposed alternative

formulations to those presented above, in order to
correlate the friction at the interface with the particle
size of soil. As discussed by Lings and Dietz (2005),
fine sand tends to mobilize greater friction in the
interface than coarse sand, if both slide on a given
surface roughness.
Uesugi and Kishida (1986-b) were the first to

introduce the concepts of roughness and particle size
of sand. They defined the standardized roughness as
Rn =
1015
The two soils selected for this study are the tosquiza
sand and the crumb sand, characteristics the city of
Madrid, which have been characterized both from a
physical, chemical, and mechanical standpoint, as
well.
Manufacture of composites
The plates of composite materials used in direct shear
tests are made out of fiberglass and polyester resin.
All plates are made of the same size, with a square
section of 5,9 5,9 cm and a thickness of 4 mm.
For the study of friction at the interface, the
composite plates were manufactured with three types
of surface roughness, which were identified as GFPRB (fiberglass plate with low roughness), GFP-RI
(plate fiberglass intermediate roughness), and; PFVRA (fiberglass plate with high roughness)
Images were taken from each of the plates, including
a digital camera and an electronic microscope. One
example is shown in Figure 1. The images allows the
assessment of surface texture achieved in each plate,
which was confirmed by the profile heights obtained
with the profilometry device (Figure 2).
R mx
D50
where
Rmax height profile measured

profilometer, considering L=D50.
D50 is the sieve oppening that retains 50% of the

material.
with
the
Fig. 1 Images of glass fiber plates for testing the
friction and detail in the electronic microscope (PFVRA)
Experimental study: interaction between granular

soil and composites
This experimental study has been aimed at evaluating

the interaction that is developed between two soil
types and composites. The experiments consist on
direct shear tests.

Additional to the direct shear tests, the surface

roughness of the specimens was measured with the
profilometry equipment, which allowed determining
the profile heights and the normalized roughness Rn.
Fig. 2 Height profile in fiberglass plate with high

roughness (PFV-RA)
Soils used for friction study
1016
6th
For this experimental study, two soils were selected:

the crumb sand and the tosquiza sand, which
correspond to materials characteristics the city of
Madrid and are frequently used in fillings projects.
(a)
All tests for the crumb and Tosquiza sand have been
executed in drained conditions with preliminary
consolidation. The shear loading rates were set to
0.03 and 0.06 mm/min based on consolidation curves
of the soil samples. It is apparent from the tests that
the rate of loading has no significant influence in the
results.
(b)
Fig. 3 Soils used in direct shear tests for the study of

surface friction. (a) crumb sand, (b) Tosquiza sand
In order to assess their mechanical behavior, direct
shear tests and triaxial test have been performed and
the angle of internal friction and cohesion c were
determined. The direct shear tests were performed in
drained conditions, while the triaxial tests were
performed in undrained conditions, with pore
pressure measurement. The results of tests for both
soils are presented in the Table 1.
Table 1 Summary of soil mechanical parameters
obtained in direct shear tests and triaxial, for different
degrees of compaction.
Tosquiza sand
Degree of
compaction
( )
Direct shear test

95% PN
35
Crums sand
( )
c t m 2
0,15
c t m
92% PM
38
95% PM
39
0,15
41
0,25
100% DR
43
Triaxial test
95% PM
35
3,0
37
Evaluation of the soil-composite interaction
Fig. 4 Equipment set up used in direct shear friction

tests (UPM)
Results
Influence of soil type and surface roughness in the
friction tests
To assess the influence of soil type and the surface
roughness of the composite specimens, the results of
the test are presented in Figures 5 and 6 in terms of
the standard roughness Rn determined for each
sample, which is a function of the mean particle size
(D50).
As shown in figure 5, the values of friction of all
specimens tested correspond to values of Rn within
0.18 and 1.8 approximately. Accordingly, the
roughness of the composites specimens designed for
this study can be classified as intermediate to rough
(Paikowsky et al, 1995), values which are
considerably higher to those obtained by Frost and
Han (1999). This is primarily due to a larger sand
mean particles size than those used by Frost and Han,
and secondly, to a lower peak roughness of the FRP
specimens. As a result, the friction developed in the
interface () is 1.25 to 1.5 higher than those obtained
by these researchers.
Figure 6 show the relationship
normalized roughness Rn y
relationship /. The latter is
in geotechnics to estimate the
obtained between the

la relacin and the
a term normally used
value of which is
Jara
1017
presented in Figures 7 and 8, for tosquiza sand and

crumb sand, respectively. In both cases the values of
according to the standard roughness Rn is
presented.
used for the design of many engineering works.

Moreover, the results obtained by Potyondy (1961) in
their direct shear tests were defined from this
relationship.
As shown, the values of / obtained are in a range
between of 2/3 and with the highest values
corresponding to the tosquiza sand. Thus, the
relationship / for the crumb sand take values
between 0.66 and 0.90 while in the tosquiza sand
this relationship takes values between 0.85 and .
1,2 PN
PM
p ( )

Rmx D50
p ( )
Fig. 7 Influence of compaction in the friction

interface tosquiza sand - composite material
Rmx D50
p ( )

1,2 PM
DR

Fig. 5 Relationship between the normalized

roughness Rn and the friction angle at the interface .

Rmx D50
Fig. 8 Influence of compaction in the friction

interface crumb sand - composite material
In general the results show that an increasing degree

of compaction leads to increasing values interface
friction , with PM of the order of 1.2PN for the
case of tosquiza sand and, DR of the order of 1.2PM
for the case of crumb sand.
2
a
3

Conclusions
Rmx D50
Fig. 6 Relationship between the normalized

roughness Rn and the coefficient of friction at the
interface /.
Influence of degree of compaction in friction tests

The results of the influence of the degree of
compaction in the interface soil-composite is
The results of friction tests performed show that the

various factors studied have a major influence on the
interaction between composites and soils. Of all the
factors analyzed, the roughness of the plates is the
one with the greatest influence on the friction angle of
the interface , increasing linearly with increasing
standard roughness Rn, in both the crumb sand and
tosquiza sand.
The results allows to confirm the points made by
Frost and Han (1999): materials with lower mean
particle size D50 sliding on a surface with equal
1018
6th
roughness reach higher values of that those with

higher value of D50. Notice however the effect of
compation, since these results were produced for
materials with similar conditions of densification.
Accordingly, the values of the friction angle between

the materials are in agreement to those observed in
previous researches (Potyondy, 1961; Uesugi and
Kishida, 1986-ay 1986-b; Tsubakihara et al, 1993;
Rao et al, 1998; Frost and Han, 1999; Ampera and
Aydogmus, 2005), being generally higher in all tests.
Both crumb sand and the tosquiza sand developed

adequate friction angles in the interaction with
composite materials. Hence, both materials can be
used in the design of retaining walls, especially in
mechanically stabilized earth structures.
References
AMPERA, B. and AYDOGMUS, T. (2005).

Skin friction between peat and silt soils with
construction materials. Electronic Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering. Volumen 10, Bundle
D
(en
lnea).
Disponible
en
http://www.ejge.com/2005/JourTOC10D.htm.
DIETZ, M. and LINGS, M. (2006). Postpeak
strength of interfaces in a stress-dilatancy
framework. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering. 132 (11): 14741484.
FROST, J., and HAN, J. (1999). Behavior of

interfaces between fiber-reinforced polymers and
sands.
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering. 125 (8): 633640.
PAIKOWSKY,
S.,
PLAYER,
C.
and
CONNORS, P.
(1995). A dual interface
apparatus for testing unrestricted friction of soil
along solid surfaces. Journal Geotechnical
Testing. 18 (2): 168-193.
POTYONDY, J. (1961). Skin friction between
various soils and construction materials.
Geotechnique. 11 (4): 339-353.
RAO, S., ALLAM, M. and ROBINSON, R.
(1998). Interfacial friction between sands and
solid surfaces. Proceedings Instn. Civil
Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering. 131:
75-82.
UESUGI, M. and KISHIDA, H. (1986-a).
Influential factors of friction between steel and
dry sands. Journal Soils and Foundations. 26
(2): 33-46.
UESUGI, M. and KISHIDA, H. (1986-b).

Frictional resistance at yield between dry sand
and mild steel. Journal Soils and Foundations.
26 (4): 139-149.
The Applicability of Asphalt Binder Oil Residue and Municipal Solid

Waste Ash to be Used in Low Traffic Roads
Michle Dal To Casagrande
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (michele_casagrande@puc-rio.br)
Gino Omar Calderon Vizcarra
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (ginocalderon@hotmail.com)
Lucianna Szeliga
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ( szeliga_engamb@yahoo.com.br)
Laura Maria Goretti da Motta
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (laura@coc.ufrj.br)
ABSTRACT The great generation of urban solid has been a concern in several countries. This work presents
a study with two materials: the asphalt binder oil residue accumulated in the bottom of asphalt tanks and the
municipal solid waste ash, to be used, respectively, as a substitute of conventional binder in asphalt mixtures
and for soil stabilization in pavements base layers. Were evaluated properties as the mechanical behavior of
the mixtures through experimental tests. The results show the potential of incorporating these residues for
low traffic roads, allowing the construction of low cost roads and an environmental use of the residue.
ASPHALT BINDER OIL RESIDUE

All operations in the petroleum industry
generate a great number of oily residues. The
refineries are responsible for most of such
residues. Some products are accumulated in
the bottom of the oil tanks. The residue studied
is basically composed of emulsions of heavy
oil, water and solids. Its variable composition,
which is associated with the production in a
refinery, makes it difficult to reuse the material.
The residue studied was provided by the
Refinery Lubnor/Petrobras, located in
Fortaleza/Cear, northeast Brazil. The
generation of this type of residue varies in time
and it also depends on the production capacity
and generation of asphalt binder in the
refineries. It is further associated with the
maintenance of the storage tanks. The
experience accumulated with this type of
material is restricted to techniques of
environmental treatment and use as a material
in systems of waterproofing of sanitary

embankments.
The aggregates were selected to fit gradation C
of the Brazilian Federal Department of Roads
(DNER). A coarse aggregate of maximum size
of was used along with material passing
sieve # 200, with real densities of 2.651 and
2.655, respectively. All aggregates are of
granite origin, including the referred filler. Los
Angeles Abrasion of the coarse aggregate was
49% DNER-ME 35 317/97. For the
preparation of the laboratory mixture
specimens, aggregates were sieved in all sieves
between and #200 to assure the least
variation of the target gradation curve. The
residue known as asphalt binder oil residue
results from the accumulation of material
removed from the bottom of the storage tanks
of conventional asphalt at the referred refinery.
Penetration tests, according to DNER ME003/99 indicated that the residues penetration
is approximately 35% greater than the
1020
6th
penetration of AC 50/70. Brookfield viscosity

and the subsequent compaction and mixture
temperatures were determined based on ASTM
D 4402 (2002) and ASTM D 2493 (2001) at
three different temperatures: 135, 150 and
175C. The AC 50/70 presented higher
viscosity than the oil residue (about 30-40%
higher). The variation decreased with the
increase in temperature. Mixing and
compaction temperatures were approximately
10C lower for the residue when compared to
the conventional AC.
In Brazil, the AC optimum content in HMAs is
typically determined using the Marshall
Procedure NBR 12891/93 or local adaptations
of the procedure. Five groups of three samples
with different binder contents are prepared. A
first content is based on the local design
experience with the components used in the
mixture. The other four contents are within r
0.5% and within r 1.0% of the first arbitrary
content. The theoretical maximum density
(TMD) was determined based on the Rice test
ASTM D 2041(2000). The volumetric
parameters used for selecting the binder
content are: void in the mineral aggregate
(VMA), volume of voids (Vv), bitumen-void
ratio (BVR) and apparent density. The
optimum binder content was determined from
Vv and BVR, according to Soares et al. (2000).
All of the samples presented volumetric
parameters that satisfy the recommendations of
DNER-ES 313/97 with respect to desired
intervals of volume of voids (3-5%) and for
the bitumen-void ratio (75-82%). The
optimum binder contents found (Table 1) were
a little above typical content for conventional
mixtures using the same aggregates.
Tensile strength tests in diametral compression
(TS), at 0.8 mm/s, 25C, were performed
according to DNER-ME 138/94. The stiffness
parameter typically used in Brazil is the
resilient modulus (RM) (Motta, 1995). The
tests performed in the present research
followed (DNER-ME 133/94). RM was
determined in lab samples (diameter of 10
0.02 cm and height of 6.35 0.20 cm), at 25C.

Instantaneous and not total strain is considered
in the determination of the RM. The results are
presented in Table 2.
TABLE 1: Volumetric results of mixtures
40 % A C 5 0/ 70 +
60 % R e s id ue
6. 9
19 .6
4. 0
6 0 % A C 50 /7 0 +
4 0% R e si du e
7 .0
1 9.7
4 .1
7 9.3
2 .29
79 .4
2.2 9
Bin der con ten t (% )

VM A (% )
V v (% )
10 0%
A C 5 0/ 70
6 .9
1 9.5
4 .1
1 00 %
Res id ue
6 .8
19 .1
3 .8
BV R (%)
A pp arent d ens it y
7 9.1
2 .29
79 .9
2. 30
M ix tu re
TABLE 2: Tensile strength and resilient modulus

100% AC 50/70
100% Residue
40% AC + 60% Residue
(1) Tensile strength in diametral

compression (MPa)
0.85
0.65
0.78
60% AC + 40% Residue
0.84
Mixture
10 0 % A C 50 /7 0
1 00 % R e s id ue
4 0% A C + 60 % R e s id u e
( 2) R e s il ie n t
M o du lu s ( M P a )
3, 07 3
2, 23 2
2, 52 0
6 0% A C + 40 % R e s id u e
2, 72 9
M ix tu re
The tensile strength results for the mixture

with 100% residue as the binder presented
lower values when compared to the
conventional HMA investigated. As for the
resilient modulus, the results of the mixture
with 100% residue are not far from results of
conventional mixtures. Nevertheless, the RM
value is approximately 27% lower when
compared to the mixture with pure AC. The
differences can be related to the lower
viscosity of the residue when compared to the
Casagrande et al.
viscosity of the pure AC. In the binder formed

by a mix of pure AC and residue, it is noted
that the results are improved as the AC content
increases in relation to the residue content,
which is expected.
Mixture fatigue is typically obtained under
diametral compression. The mixture with the
residue as the binder presents the lower fatigue
life, when considering the same stress state.
The mixture with the pure AC and the one
with 60% AC + 40% residue preformed very
similarly, especially under lower stress states.
The results indicate that a mixture with 100%
residue should not be used under high traffic
volumes but may be used for low traffic roads.
Whereas a combination of AC and residue
allows the use of a substantial amount of
residue (40%) even for high traffic volume
roads. Such percentage of residue represents
an economy of approximately US$ 8,000/km.
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE ASH

The use of alternative materials is not common
practice in geotechnical engineering. Recent
research has been conducted, aimed at this
goal. It is not always possible to find natural
soils that meet the requirements of the
specifications for the use of stabilized bases
and sub-bases without granulometric mixture.
The soil, when found, is located far from
infrastructure, which increases the costs for
transportation. An alternative to minimize the
high costs is stabilizing the soil with waste.
The proposition of this study should be
preceded by a prior knowledge of the potential
and limitations of the regional materials.
This study evaluates the application of fly ash
obtained from incineration of Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW) use in base layers of pavements,
by mixing the ashes with a non-lateritic
regional clay soil. The Usina Verde is a
privately held company located in the Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro, and aims to
provide environmental solutions for the
1021
disposal of municipal solid waste, through

incineration with energy co-generation. The
Usina Verde receives, daily, 30 tons of MSW
Company's Waste Disposal of Rio de Janeiro.
In sorting, recyclable materials are segregated
manually and with metal detectors. Then the
MSW is crushed and separate fine material and
sent to drying. These wastes are sent to the
incinerator, which operates at a temperature of
950C.
During the combustion process, two ashes are
produced: bottom ash and fly ash. The bottom
ash is deposited in the bottom of the chamber
after combustion, referred to the storage tank
and arranged into buckets. The hot gases and
fly ash are exhausted chamber afterburner and
inhaled into the recovery boiler, which is used
to produce energy. Subsequently, the gases
are neutralized in a set of washers and then the
clean gases are extracted and discharged into
the atmosphere. The wash solution is collected
in settling tanks where the neutralization takes
place with the ashes of the process and
calcium
hydroxide,
which
causes
mineralization and this solution, is reused in
the washing process. Then, the ash is sent to
settling tanks where it is periodically removed
and stored in buckets. At the end of the
incineration process are obtained from 8 to
10% by volume of the two ashes, which
represent about 80% of bottom ash and 20% of
fly ash (Fontes, 2008). Fly ash is an effective
agent for chemical stabilization in soil
mechanics, changing the soil density, moisture
content, plasticity and resistance of soils.
Typical applications include: stabilization of
soils to increase the strength, drying the soil
and control of the contraction-expansion
(ACAA, 2003). The non-lateritic clay soil in
study came from a deposit located in the city
of Campo Grande/RJ. Fly ash comes from the
burning of municipal solid waste (MSW) at
Usina Verde, which is located on Rio de
Janeiro / RJ. The main chemical components
of soil, which are normally found in residual
soils, are SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3, which
participates actively in the process of chemical
1022
6th
stabilization of soil. The soil and MSW fly ash

chemical composition can be observed on
Figures 1 and 2. It is notable the variability of
the chemical composition of fly ash.
ash decreases the expansion of the material,

however, high content of fly ash when can
deteriorate the mechanical behavior, resulting
in a thicker layer.
Regarding the characterization of soil, MSW

fly ash and mixtures can be noted as follows:
first, the limits of Attemberg for pure MSW fly
ash could not be performed due to the behavior
of granular material, which during the test did
not show plastic characteristics to their
achievement. Second, that the inclusion of
MSW fly ash decreases the liquid limit and
plasticity index, and increases the plastic limit
of soil.
Regarding the classification MCT (Nogami
and Villibor, 1995), the soil is classified as
NG behavior "non-lateritic-clay." These soils
when compacted under the conditions of
optimum moisture content and density
maximum energy normal characteristics of the
traditional very plastic clays and expansive.
The use of these soils is related to restrictions
resulting from its high expansibility, plasticity,
compressibility
and
contraction
when
subjected to drying, its use is not
recommended for base pavements, and some
of the worst soil for the purpose of paving,
from the tropical soils (Nogami and Villibor,
1995).
The optimum moisture content decreases a
level of 20% fly ash and grows to a maximum
of 40%. The results of Resilient Modulus tests
(Figures 1 and 2) show that the Resilient
Modulus of soil in study is dependent on the
deviator stress and even adding the MSW fly
ash, this behavior does not change. It is
appreciated that the higher the deviator stress,
the lower the value of resilient modulus. The
mixture with 20% MSW fly ash improved the
mechanical behavior of pure soil, the mixture
with 40% MSW fly ash downgrade the
mechanical behavior, but it improved with
cure time. Other influence factor is the cycle
number of cycling load. The resilient modulus
improved with cycling loading. The MSW fly
Fig.1 Soil chemical composition
Fig.2 MSW fly ash chemical composition

Lixiviation and Solubility tests performed

according to Brazilian standards NBR 10005
(ABNT, 2004b) and NBR 10006 (ABNT,
2004c) for MSW fly ash and soil stabilized
with 40% fly ash content. The mixture is
classified Non-dangerous and non-inert
(Vizcarra, 2010). The behavior of mixtures
with MSW fly ash should be carefully
evaluated for various MSW fly ash content,
analyzing the results of physical, chemical,
environmental, and mechanical together.
Casagrande et al.
Fig.4 Soil resilient modulus vs. stresses

1023
Mixtures with MSW ash inclusion had a

mechanical behavior compatible with the
requirements for a low traffic volume. The
inclusion of 20% of fly ash on the nonlateritic clay soil improved the mechanical
behavior and reduced the expansion of the
soil. The soil mixed with a content of 40%
of fly ash worsened the mechanical
behavior compared to pure soil, with the
consequent increase in thickness; however,
improved with cure time and cycle
loading number, decrease significantly the
expansion of the soil. The results were
satisfactory, being dependent on the ash
content added, cure time and cycle
loading number, highlighting the positive
work of MSW fly ash for use in base
layers of road pavements, eliminating the
current problems of waste disposal in
dumps and landfills, putting a noble
application to this material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fig.5 Soil with 40% of MSW fly ash resilient

modulus vs. stresses (with 7 days of cure).
The authors thank CNPq (MCT/CNPq 14/2009

# 480748/2009-8 project) and CAPES for the
financial support, as well as Lubnor/Petrobras
for the supply of the AC and the asphalt binder
oil residue and Usina Verde S.A. for the
Municipal Solid Waste ash supply.
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
AASHTO (1996) TP46-94 - Standard Test

Method for Determining the Resilient
Modulus of Soils and Aggregate Materials.
American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington,
D.C.
ASTM (2000) D 2041 Standard Test Method
for Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity
and Density of Bituminous Paving Mixture.
American Society for Testing and Materials.
ASTM (2001) D 2493 - Standard ViscosityTemperature Chart for Asphalts. American
It was possible to produce a mixture with

a mechanical behavior similar to a
conventional HMA, specifically with 60%
AC + 40% asphalt binder residue. The
results indicate that a mixture with 100%
of asphalt binder oil residue can be used in
low traffic volume roads. Either combined
or by itself in low traffic roads, the use of
the residue represents not only great cost
economy, but also an environmentally
friendly solution for a current problem of
the petroleum industry;
1024
6th
Society for Testing and Materials.

American Society for Testing and Materials.
ASTM (2002) D 4402 - Standard Test Method
for Viscosity Determinations of Unfilled
Asphalts Using the Brookfield Thermosel
Apparatus. American Society for Testing
and Materials.
ABNT (1984) NBR 6459 - Determinao do
Limite de Liquidez. Associao Brasileira
de Normas Tcnicas. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
ABNT (1984) NBR 7181 - Anlise
Granulomtrica. Associao Brasileira de
Normas Tcnicas. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
ABNT (1986) NBR 7182 - Ensaio de
Compactao. Associao Brasileira de
Normas Tcnicas. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
ABNT (1993) NBR 12891 Dosagem de
Misturas Betuminosas pelo Mtodo
Marshall. Associao Brasileira de Normas
Tcnicas. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
ABNT (1994) NBR 7180 - Determinao do
Limite de Plasticidade. Associao
Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas. Rio de
Janeiro, Brasil.
ABNT (2004a) NBR 10004 - Resduos Slidos
Classificao. Rio de Janeiro, 2004.
ABNT (2004b) NBR 10005 - Lixiviao de
Resduos Procedimento. Rio de Janeiro,
2004.
ABNT (2004c) NBR 10006: Solubilizao de
Resduos Procedimento. Rio de Janeiro,
2004.
AMERICAN COAL ASH ASSOCIATION
(ACAA). (2003) Fly Ash Facts for
Highway Engineers. 4 Edition.
DNER (1994) Departamento Nacional de
Estradas de Rodagem. DNER-ME 093/94.
Solos Determinao da densidade real.
Norma Rodoviria, Mtodo de Ensaio.
DNER (1994) Departamento Nacional de
Estradas de Rodagem. DNER-ME 131/94.
Solos Determinao do Mdulo de
Resilincia. Norma Rodoviria, Mtodo de
Ensaio.
DNER (1994) Mtodos de Ensaios Determinao do Mdulo de Resilincia de

Misturas Betuminosas. DNER-ME 133/94.
Ministrio dos Transportes, Brasil.
DNER (1994) Mtodos de Ensaios Misturas
Betuminosas determinao da resistncia
trao por compresso diametral. DNERME 138/94. Ministrio dos Transportes,
Brasil.
DNER (1997) Pavimentao Concreto
Betuminoso. DNER-ES 313/97. Ministrio
dos Transportes, Brasil.
DNER (1997) Agregados Determinao da
abraso Los Angeles. DNER-ME 35
317/97. Ministrio dos Transportes, Brasil.
DNER (1999) Material Betuminoso
Determinao da Penetrao. DNER ME003/99. Ministrio dos Transportes, Brasil.
Fontes, C. M. A. (2008) Utilizao das cinzas
de lodo de esgoto e de resduo slido
urbano em concretos de alto desempenho.
PhD. Thesis. Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil.
Medina, J., Motta, L. M. G. (2005) Mecnica
dos Pavimentos. 2 Edio. Editora UFRJ.
Rio de Janeiro. Brasil. 570 p.
Motta, L. M. G. (1995) Curva de Resilincia e
Fadiga de Misturas Asflticas. Instituto
Brasileiro de Petrleo, So Paulo, SP,
Brasil.
Nogami, J. S., Villibor, D. F. (1995)
Pavimentos de Baixo Custo com Solos
Laterticos, Editora Villibor, So Paulo.
240 p.
Soares, J.B.; L.M. Motta; J.A. Paiva e J.V.C.
Branco (2000) Propriedades Mecnicas de
Misturas Asflticas com Variao de
Granulometria e de CAP. 15o Encontro de
Asfalto - IBP.
Vizcarra, G.O.C. (2010) Aplicabilidade de
Cinzas de Resduo Slido Urbano Para
Base de Pavimentos. M.Sc. Disssertation.
Civil Engineering Department of Pontifical
Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro,
PUC-Rio, Brazil.
Characterization and Analysis of the Mechanical Behavior of the CDW

with Fiber Addition for Geotechnical Application
T F Macedo
Department of Civil Engineering (UPE), Recife, Brazil (thaisa_197@hotmail.com)
K P V Lafayette
Department of Civil Engineering (UPE), Recife, Brazil (klafayette@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT The construction and demolition waste (CDW) is a material proceeding from same wastefulness in
workmanships or of demolitions. This is discarded many times in dispossessed places that can provoke illnesses
through the junction with the urban garbage and this, to contaminate the water under the floor or the ground
existing. The main objective of this work is to study the properties of the RCD and its use in geotechnical
workmanships. In such a way, the study of the RCD with the fiber addition becomes interesting through the
characterization, of assays of direct shear, CBR and compacting with Normal Proctor soon after the improvement.
The result of this research was sufficiently positive; therefore it was possible to verify the improvement of the CDW
with the addition of fiber in the use in geotechnical workmanships.
INTRODUCTION
The industry of the civil construction is very
important for the life style of the modern society,
therefore the world-wide population grows to each
day, in a very fast form. With this, it is necessary
the construction of buildings, industries, in a
generalized manner, installations of sanitary
exhaustion, among others.
This advance and growth of the civil construction
are come from some imperfections, generated for
the lack of techniques of organization, production
and execution, causing wastefulness of materials,
transformed into residues of the construction and
demolition (CDW).
As time goes by, the necessity appeared to use

again definitive materials as polypropylene fibers,
which had the ease to be joined. For this reason,
the technique of ground reinforcement through the
inclusion of polypropylene fibers has been studied
for some researchers of the entire world (SILVA,
2007).
By means of Resolution CONAMA n307/2002,
this is based on criteria and lines of direction that
compose the management of the residues of the
construction and demolition.
The main objective of this work is to make a
characterization of the CDW and an analysis of the
mechanical behavior of the residue with the fiber
addition for geotechnical ends.
The CDW's are many times discarded in

inadequate places, as for example, strips of land,
provoking contamination in ground, consequently,
the water under the ground, and vectors of
illnesses, as insects.
METHODOLOGY
The material used for this research was the
construction and demolition waste (CDW), that it
was collected from a workmanship located in the
city of Recife, in Pernambuco, where it was found
in the structure phase.
Soon, it is important to make a study with the

residues of the construction and demolition, so that
it has an adjusted destination, using this material
again in geotechnical workmanships, with the
polypropylene fiber addition.
After the collection the residue was directed to the

Mechanics of Ground Laboratory of the University
of Pernambuco for the accomplishment of the
improvement and, after that, the gravimetrical
composition and the assays.
1026
6th
The improvement was necessary so that the waste

was triturated and its grains were with inferior or
equal size 4,8mm, verified through the passing
material in the bolter with opening of 4,8mm.
Through the gravimetrical composition (Fig.1), it
had a separation of the constituent materials of the
sample, and a weighed so that it knew the
percentage of each material of the sample as a
whole.
TABLE. 1 - Amount of the assays.

ASSAYS
CHARACTERIZATION
COMPACTING WITH
NORMAL PROCTOR
SHEAR STRENGHT
TOTAL
AMOUNT
07
01
16
24
The material that was added to the CDW for the

accomplishment of the shear assays was fiber
Concrefil the polypropylene, where they had been
donated by the ORPEC, being verified some
criteria as uniformity, for being chemically inert
and the availability in the market. The fibers
possess length of 20mm approximately, possess
specific weight of 9,1 kg/m , do not absorb water
and have low thermal electric conductivity, as it
shows figure 2.
Fig. - Gravimetrical composition of the CDW.

Soon after the improvement, it was possible to

carry through the following assays of
characterization:
granulometria,
limits
of
consistency (plasticity and liquidity), real density
of the grains, pH in water and mineralogy. After
that the compacting assays had been made, for the
attainment of the excellent humidity and the
specific weight dry maximum, and finally the
assays of shear strength, using the tensions of 50,
100, 150 and 200 kPa for each one of the
conditions. These assays of shear strength had
been effected in the forms natural (with and
without fibers) and flooded (with and without
fibers).
By not existing specific norm for assays with
wastes of the construction and demolition (CDW),
it was taken as reference norms of Infrastructure
the Transportation National Department (DNIT)
and of the Brazilian Association of Technique
Rules (ABNT) for Mechanics of Ground. Table 01
below presents the amount of the executed assays.
Fig. 2 - Polypropylene fibers Concrefil.

RESULTS
Physical and chemical characterization
The real density of the grains was of 2,686,
confirming, thus, the absence of limit of liquidity
(LL) and limit of plasticity (LP), disclosing the
predominance of arenaceous material in the sample
of RCD.
The chemical analysis of the sample was carried
through the assay of pH in water, with a gotten
value of 9,4, demonstrating to be a material of
alkaline liquid constitution which had the cement
presence and whitewash in the composition of the
CDW grains.
Macedo and Lafayette
1027
Gravimetrical composition
The materials found in bigger percentages had
been of concrete, mortar and small material, being
equivalent 41%, 26% and 16%, respectively.
Through this gravimetrical composition the biggest
percentage of present concrete in the searched
sample could be confirmed that the studied phase
is really of structure, had.
Granulometria
The graph of figure 3 states the values in
percentage of the constituent materials of the
sample, as silt, clay and sand. Through this it was
verified that the sample is typically arenaceous.
Fig. 3 - Grain sized curve of the sample of CDW.
Mineralogy
The mineralogy was carried through in the
LAGESE (Laboratory of Geology Sedimentary) of
the UFPE, where it was verified through a
binocular magnifying glass that the RCD grains,
according to Valena (2009), are composites for
materials badly selected, with format of subangular the angular ones, with the presence of
muscovite and biotite, bigger predominance of
quartz and in lesser portion of oxide and hydroxide
mica of iron, as it is presented in figure 4.
Fig. 4 - Sample of CDW - increase of 8x.

Compacting
By means of the compacting assay (Normal
Proctor) the excellent humidity results of with 14%
and apparent specific weight had been gotten dry
maximum of 1,75 g/cm .
After the compacting assay, was made with the
resultant material of this assay a new grain sized
analysis. In such a way, it was possible to perceive
that it did not have significant alteration of the
grains of the sample of CDW, when this last grain
sized curve (material resultant of the compacting)
was compared to the first one (material not
compact), as it shows the graph of figure 5. In
accordance with Santos (2007), it means,
according to some processes of production of the
CDW, since its generation until its storage. With
this, the CDW reveals that is a material capable to
resist the impacts came from the compacting assay
and the process of improvement.
Fig. 5 - Grain sized analysis of the grains before

and after the compacting.
6th
Shear strength
The used bodies of test for the accomplishment of
the assays of shear strength had been molded from
the joined parameters of the compacting assay, as
the excellent humidity and the apparent specific
weight dry maximum.
Through these values amount of water and
material was calculated it to be molded. This assay
was carried through using the tensions of 50KPa,
100KPa, 150KPa and 200KPa, with speed of
0,24mm/min, in the forms natural (with and
without fibers) and saturated (with and without
fibers). The amount of fibers was of 0,5% of the
total of the weight measured for the molding of the
test body.
220
150 kPa
160
200 kPa
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
Cisalhante tension (kPa)

...
10
Fig. 7 - Curves Tension Cisalhante x Horizontal

Displacement - saturated without fiber.
180
160
50 KPa
100 KPa
150 KPa
Cisalhante Tension (kPa)

...
140
100 kPa
150 kPa
140
Horizontal Displacement (mm)
50 kPa
160
100 kPa
180
The sample of CDW when submitted to the shear

assay, presented ascending curve, initially, until
reaching a maximum peak, before reaching two
millimeters of horizontal displacement. After that,
the curve was decreasing until stabilization.
Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9 represent the shear curves.
180
50 kPa
200

...
1028
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
200 kPa
120
100
2
4
6
8
10

Displacement - with fiber.
80
60
40
250
50 KPa
100 KPa
150 KPa
200 KPa
0
0
10
Fig. 6 - Curves Tension Cisalhante x natural Horizontal

Displacement without fiber. (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Cisalhante Tension (KPa)

...
20
200
150
100
50
0
0
10

Displacement of the CDW saturated with fiber.
The compacting curves had been necessary for the

attainment of the covering of resistance and,
Macedo and Lafayette
consequently, of the involved parameters (angle of

attrition and cohesion), as shown in table 2 and
figure 10.
TABLE 2 - Parameters of the sample of CDW.
Sample
Cohesion
Angle of
(kPa)
attrition ()
Natural
--38,5
without fibers
Saturated
7,53
42,3
without fibers
Natural
14,0
42,96
with fibers
Saturated
8,73
45,59
with fibers

...
250
200
Nat without
fibres
Sat without
fibres
150
Nat with
fibres
100
The properties of resistance and the mechanical

behavior of the CDW had been analyzed through
the curves and covering of resistance, and were
since the influence of polypropylene fibers
improved the physical capacity and mechanics of
the waste. This was shown through the resistance
parameters (cohesion and angle of attrition),
therefore its values had been superior when it had
the presence of fibers in the CDW, independent of
the natural or flooded condition. In this way, the
CDW together with fibers would be well
applicable in geotechnical workmanships.
REFERENCES
Conama Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente
(2002). Resoluo n. 307 de 5 de julho de
2002. Estabelece diretrizes, critrios e
procedimentos para a gesto dos resduos da
construo. Dirio Oficial da Repblica
Federativa do Brasil.
Orpec.
Disponvel
em:
<
www.orpecengenharia.com.br > acesso em 03
de julho de 2008.
Sat with
fibres
50
1029
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Normal Tension (kPa)
Fig. 0 Envelopes of resistance of the CDW.
The parameters of resistance of the sample of

CDW with the fiber addition, in the natural and
saturated condition, when compared with the
parameters of resistance of the CDW without the
fiber addition, were observed that its values had
been superior in the sample that the fiber were
inserted, in which justify the use of the CDW with
these polypropylene fibers in the application in
geotechnical workmanships.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of the characterization assays, can be
verified that the waste of construction and
demolition is a typically arenaceous material and
therefore do not present limit of liquidity (LL) nor
plasticity limit (LP).
Silva, C. C. da. Comportamento de solos siltosos

quando reforados com fibras e melhorados
com aditivos qumicos e orgnicos. Dissertao
(Mestrado em Engenharia Civil), Universidade
Federal do Paran, Curitiba, 2007.
Santos, E. C. G. dos. Aplicao de Resduos da
Construo e Demolio reciclados (RCD-R)
em Estruturas de solos Reforados. Dissertao
(Mestrado), Escola Politcnica de So Carlos,
Universidade de So Paulo, So Carlos, 2007.
Valena, L. (2009) Verbal Communication.
Proposal of a Permeable Gutter with Consideration for

for Environmental Conservation
Toward environmentally friendly road gutters)
Takayuki Adachi
Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Sapporo, Japan (ziban511@ceri.go.jp)
Satoshi Nishimoto
Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Sapporo, Japan (84107@ceri.go.jp)
Atsuko Sato
Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Sapporo, Japan (81152@ceri.go.jp)
ABSTRACT Road gutters formed using crushed stones, scallop shells and other high-drainage materials
(known as permeable gutters) were installed in a section where highly permeable ground was distributed to
allow surface water to infiltrate the ground through the gutters themselves.
Since permeable gutters can maintain natural and sound water circulation to a higher degree than artificial
concrete troughs as well as removing the risk of small animals falling in, they are considered to represent
environmentally friendly drainage systems. They can also reduce construction costs since the flow rate is
lower and the drainage section is smaller than systems that channel water through concrete troughs.
INTRODUCTION
Plans are currently under way to optimize the
collection of storm water and other surface water
discharge within road areas and channel it to rivers
or drains as much as possible. At the present time,
concrete trough gutters are generally installed on
the banquettes or toes of slopes to collect water at
their inlets and send it to existing drains at the flow
end. However, if there are no flow-end drains
within road areas, infiltration inlets may be used.
A ground condition necessary for the installation
of such inlets is the presence of a layer with
relatively high permeability near the surface. This
means that permeability can also be expected in
surrounding sections with concrete trough gutters.
Against this background, an attempt was made to
allow surface water to filter through road gutters
themselves by adopting high-drainage structures
(infiltration gutters) using crushed stone and
scallop shells in areas where highly permeable
ground is distributed.
Infiltration gutters are also considered to offer
environmentally friendly drainage, since they
maintain a sounder, more natural water circulation
system than artificial concrete troughs.
This study focuses on the creation of conditions
closer to those of the original natural water
circulation system as opposed to the artificial
concept of drainage water collection. To
demonstrate the effect of infiltration gutters, onsite test construction was conducted and the results
of visual and instrumental observation were
examined.
APPLICATION CONDITIONS OF
INFILTRATION FACILITIES
The conditions of application for infiltration
facilities are outlined beow.
Judgment from soil properties
Soil with properties for which high permeability
cannot be expected is not suitable for the
installation of infiltration gutters. Specifically,
these are areas where:
a) the coefficient of permeability is lower than
10-7 m/s;
b) air porosity is 10% or lower and soil is highly
compacted;
c) clay (with a grain size of 0.05 mm or smaller)
accounts for 40% or more of the grain size
distribution (except in weathered volcanic ash
or Kanto loam formation).
Judgment from groundwater levels
Reduced infiltration capacity is expected in areas
with high groundwater levels. Groundwater is
likely to rise significantly following rainfall and
Adachi, Nishimoto and Sato
1031
affect infiltration capacity, especially in lowland

areas. The degree of influence on infiltration
capacity depends on the distance between the
groundwater level and the bottom of the
infiltration facility. It is assumed that infiltration
capacity can be expected if the distance from the
bottom is 0.5 m or greater.
OVERVIEW OF TEST INSTALLAION
Infiltration gutters were installed at five sites
(Maruseppu, Akita, Ubaranai, Tanaka and Shuen)
in Abashiri Subprefecture between 2004 and 2007.
Cross sections of infiltration gutters
Drainage cross sections larger than those of U300B troughs were adopted for infiltration gutters
to maintain the flow-end drainage function.At
Maruseppu, Akita, Ubaranai and Tanaka, three
normal types with different shapes (shown in Fig.
2) were installed in series over a distance of
approximately 20 m each (Fig. 1). Special gabion
boxes filled with permeable 80-mm-class crushed
stone were used for all types.
At Shuen, Types A-1 and A-2 (weed prevention
types) as shown in Fig. 3 were installed in series
over a distance of approximately 20 m each in
addition to the normal Type A to reduce any
decline in the infiltration function caused by the
invasion of weeds. Type A-1 was prepared by
attaching a weed protection sheet to the bottom of
Type A, and Type A-2 was prepared by replacing
the filling of Type A with scallop shells, which
have a weed protection effect and offer high
permeability.
Fig. 2 Sectional views of infiltration gutter

(normal)
Fig. 3 Sectional views of infiltration gutters

(weed prevention)
Fig. 1 Infiltration gutters (Joint between Type A and B)
1032
6th
Preliminary survey
The following three tests were conducted at the
test sites:
a) Boring test
b) Grain-size test
c) Infiltration test
Follow-up
a) Visual observation
Regular observation (three to four times a year)
was conducted to monitor the surface infiltration
conditions of infiltration gutters and weed growth
conditions.
b) Soil moisture measurement
To confirm underground infiltration conditions,
soil moisture was measured hourly using soil
moisture meters placed at three points (GL -0.50, 0.75 and -1.00 m) in the depth direction near the
infiltration gutter at Maruseppu. The term soil
moisture here refers to the volume of water
content, i.e., its proportion in comparison to the
overall volume. GL refers to the bottom of the
infiltration gutter.
c) Water level measurement
Water levels were measured hourly using
groundwater level gauges placed near the
infiltration gutters. Two were placed at Shuen (for
each of the normal and weed-protection types).
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil conditions at the infiltration gutter
installation sites
Table. 1 shows the preliminary survey results.
The coefficient of permeability was higher in
Maruseppu, which has a thickly distributed gravel
layer and a low fine-grain fraction. As the
groundwater level was 0.5 m or more from the
bottom of the gutter, the infiltration capacity was
presumed to be sufficient.
At Akita, Ubaranai and Tanaka, volcanic ash
layers are thickly distributed, and the standard
values were satisfied for the coefficient of
permeability, fine-grain fraction and porosity. The
groundwater level was especially low in Tanaka,
indicating high infiltration capacity. At Ubaranai,
infiltration capacity was presumed to be sufficient,
as the values were slightly higher than the standard.
The values at Akita were almost the same as the

standard, raising some concerns about infiltration
capacity.
At Shuen, an appropriate grain size could not be
found as silt and peat layers are thickly distributed
and mixed with peat.
The higher groundwater level than those at the
other sites gave rise to concerns about infiltration
capacity.
Table.1 Preliminary survey of individual sites with infiltration gutters
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Rainwater Storage and Infiltration Technology.
Table.2 Visual observation results for individual sites with infiltration gutters
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Visual observation results

Table. 2 shows the results of visual observation.
There were no clear differences in filtration
conditions, deformation and weed growth among
Types A, B and C. Infiltration capacity was
satisfactory even for Type C, which had the
smallest amounts of construction material and
excavated soil.
No deformation or damage was observed in any of
the infiltration gutters. Since it had been more
than five years since the installation of the one at
Maruseppu, it was considered that there were no
problems in terms of durability.
Table. 3 shows the conditions at the bottom of the
infiltration gutters on days after rainfall during
periods of heavy precipitation in 2008. The data
indicate that the bottoms of those in Maruseppu,
Ubaranai and Tanaka were either dry or slightly
wet even on days after rainfall (Fig. 4). Since
infiltration by storm water was observed, the
infiltration capacity was considered satisfactory.
While moisture and pools of water were found at
the flow end of the gutter in Akita, the drainage
1033
TypeA (normal)
Fig. 4 Maruseppu (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Type A -1 (weed prevention sheet)

Fig. 5 Akita(For colour figure, refer to CD)
function was considered sufficient as gradual

infiltration of water was observed (Fig. 5).
Water flow was continuously observed at Shuen
(Fig. 6), with the water depth from the bottom of
the infiltration gutter measured at the starting point
of installation at and four locations downstream of
this point.
Table. 4 shows the results. It was found that water
became gradually shallower in the downstream
direction. Since the cross section of the infiltration
gutter at Shuen is uniform, it can be concluded that
the flow rate decreased gradually, meaning that at
least partial infiltration occurred with the flowing
water.
Although the infiltration conditions were
considered inferior to those of the other test sites
judging from the presence of flowing water, the
drainage function causing water to run to the flow
end was being fulfilled. As can be seen from the
results of the preliminary groundwater level survey
(Table. 1), the depth from the bottom of the gutter
to the groundwater level was less than 0.5 m and
Type A -2 (scallop shells) (For colour figure, refer to CD)

Fig. 6 Shuen
Table.3 Conditions of infiltration gutters on days after rainfall

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Instrumental observation results

a) Soil moisture meter measurement results
Fig. 7 and 8 shows the relationship between soil
moisture and daily precipitation measured at
Maruseppu with focus on times of rainfall and the
thawing season.
It can be seen from these figures that the soil
moisture content was almost uniform at each depth
and became higher with increased depth at normal
times and in winter. However, it increased
significantly at GL -50 and -75 m at times of
rainfall and during the thawing season, exceeding a
value of GL -100 cm. Since the fluctuation range
was greater at GL -50 cm than at GL -75 cm, the
soil moisture values were reversed from those seen
under normal conditions.
Subsequently, the
original values were regained gradually in normal
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shallower than at the other test sites. This was

thought to be a cause of the continuous flow.
From the above results, it can be concluded that
infiltration gutters perform both infiltration and
water collection functions. It was also found that
groundwater levels greatly affect infiltration
capacity.
Weeds tended to grow on the infiltration gutters in
general. They sprouted in spring and in summer,
and dead plant matter accumulated at the bottom of
the gutters. Moss growth was also observed in
some damp sections. In spring, the number of
dead weeds was not high enough to cause clogging.
U-shaped concrete troughs may require weed
removal, as the accumulation of dead matter
reduces the flow section and impairs flow capacity.
However, the necessity of such maintenance is
considered low for infiltration gutters, since their
infiltration capacity is hardly affected by the
accumulation of dead weeds.
In addition, there was less weed growth on the
sides of weed prevention-type gutters compared
with normal types, indicating the weed prevention
effects of weed prevention sheets and scallop
shells (Fig. 6).
The above results indicated that the drainage
function of gutters can be achieved with more
natural materials in place of artificial concrete
troughs.
*URXQGZDWHUOHYHO*/ P
6th
6RLOPRLVWXUH
1034
conditions, indicating that infiltration certainly

occurred at GL -50 and -75 cm.
At Maruseppu, the groundwater level was GL -90
cm (Table. 1), and soil moisture at GL -100 cm
was almost uniform without influence from rainfall.
b) Groundwater level measurement results
Fig. 9 and 10 show the relationship of the
groundwater level with daily precipitation and soil
moisture at Maruseppu.
It can be seen from Fig. 9 that the groundwater
level increased during rainfall and then returned to
an almost uniform level. The same pattern was
also observed at Akita and Ubaranai.
The
infiltration conditions at these three sites were
thought to be favorable, as groundwater levels
became stable at positions lower than the bottom
of the infiltration gutters.
It can also be seen from Fig. 10 that changes in the
groundwater level are connected to the soil
moisture content at GL -50 and -75 cm. It was
therefore found that, if infiltration conditions are
good, soil moisture and groundwater levels show
the same patterns at times of rainfall and during
the thawing season.
At Shuen, there was almost no influence from
rainfall, as the groundwater level was high.
The groundwater level at Tanaka was low, and
could not be confirmed even by boring down to a
depth of 4 m. Since the groundwater level could
not be measured even at times of rainfall and
during the thawing season, the infiltration capacity
was considered sufficient.
CONCLUSION
The following findings were obtained as a result of
visual and instrumental observation in this test
installation:
(1) There are no clear differences in infiltration
conditions according to the shape of
infiltration gutters.
(2) Infiltration gutters are considered sufficiently
durable, as no deformation or damage was
observed.
(3) Infiltration gutters perform both infiltration
and water collection functions.
(4) Infiltration capacity is greatly affected by
groundwater levels, and becomes higher with
lower water levels.
1035
(5) Gutter functions can be achieved with more

natural materials in place of artificially made
concrete troughs.
(6) The effects of weed growth and accumulation
of dead plant material on infiltration capacity
are minor.
(7) Scallop shells are effective in preventing
weed growth.
(8) An infiltration effect was confirmed from
fluctuations in soil moisture at times of
rainfall and during the thawing season.
(9) When infiltration conditions are good, soil
moisture and groundwater levels show
similar patterns at times of rainfall and during
the thawing season.
AFTERWORD
In this study, it was confirmed that infiltration
gutters can be installed if groundwater levels are
low.
The increased use of natural materials for such
gutters in place of artificially made concrete
troughs achieved an environmentally friendly
water circulation system. Slopes on the sides of
the gutters were also thought to prevent small
animals from falling in.
Since infiltration gutters require less maintenance
than conventional concrete troughs, they are
expected to reduce on-site maintenance and
management work.
We also hope that the installation of infiltration
gutters will be widely considered for sites to solve
problems such as the difficulty of removing flowend drainage.
REFERENCES
Japan Road Association: Guidelines for Road
Earthwork (2009)
Association for Rainwater Storage and
Infiltration Technology: Technical Guidelines
for Stormwater Infiltration Facilities (2006)
Association for Rainwater Storage and
Infiltration Technology: Technical Guidelines
for Stormwater Infiltration Facilities (2006
Japanese Society of Forest Environment:
Methods for Forest Environment Study (1999)
Role of Geo-technical Properties of Nonconventional

Adsorbents in Defluoridation
B. Bhattacherjee
Kolkata Metropolitan Water and Sanitation Authority, Kolkata, India (bbudda1234@gmail.com)
S.P. Mukherjee
Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India (sibapmukh@yahoo.co.in)
G. Banerjee
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India (goutam_itbhu@yahoo.co.in)
ABSTRACT Defluoridation is coined as removal of excess fluoride from water. The present study has
been conducted to investigate the role of geo-technical properties of the non conventional materials like
sludges of conventional water and waste water treatment plants and their products, employing
adsorption technique. The grain size and permeability have been found to have remarkable impacts on
the efficacy of removal by the adsorbent materials. The adsorption kinetics has been found mainly to
follow first -order mechanism as well Freundlich isotherm model for bio adsorbents and BET,
Langmuir Isotherm models for others. Keywords: adsorption, defluoridation, sludges, geo-technical,
isotherm, permeability.
INTRODUCTION: Several candid methods

have been suggested for removing excess
fluoride in water. One of such is adsorption.
The present study has been conducted to
investigate the efficacy of various low-cost nonconventional waste materials in removing
fluoride from water environment as well as to
assess the role of geotechnical properties of
those materials in that process. The materials
under study include sludges of conventional
water and waste water treatment plants and their
hybrid products with brick dusts and bentonite
respectively. The defluoridation capacity of
sludge materials have not been well
documented as yet as per available information,
though proven non-conventional materials like
bentonite and brick-dusts have been reported
in literature to remediate fluoride to different
degrees. Grain size analysis and permeability
test reveal some weakness of the sludge
materials in respect to their field applications;
Capper & Geddles (1966). To meet the
geotechnical requirement as well as to enhance

the efficacy of fluoride-removal, hybrid
materials therefore have been prepared in the
present study with the proportionate mixing of
brick dust with WTP sludge and bentonite with
STP sludge, keeping cost of production more or
less unchanged. It has been noticed in the study
that geotechnical properties of these materials
have a marked role in making them to be
worthy as fluoride adsorbents; Means & Parcher
(1963). Permeability determines the field
efficacy of the adsorbent while grain size also is
one of the major governing parameters for
fluoride removal. About 79% removals have
been achieved with a contact time of
120minutes.
METHODOLOGY Four adsorbent materials
have been considered for the study. These
materials are sludges of water treatment plant
(designated here as WTP), municipal sewage
treatment plant treating domestic sewage
(designated here as STP), sludge of water
Bhattacherjee, Mukherjee and Banerjee
treatment plant (WTP) blended with brick dust

in equal proportion (designated here as WTPB),
sludge of sewage treatment plant (STP) blended
with bentonitein 1:0.5 proportion designated
here as STPBN. In this study the concentration
of fluoride in synthetic solution has been kept
10mg/l and while dosage of adsorbent ranges
from
5gm/l
to
55gm/l.The
fluoride
concentrations has been measured with the help
of UVspectrophotometer using SPADNS
method. The geotechnical properties were
tested using standard method as prescribed in
IS2720.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Geotechnical properties of adsorbents The
geotechnical properties of the virgin i.e. the
sludge materials as well as the composite
materials produced out of sludge materials by
mixing with other ingredients are presented in
the tables .WTPS, WTPB, STPS, STPBN stand
for the sludge materials and its products i.e.
composite materials already described.
B.D, D.D, W.C, L.L, P.L as used in the table

stand for bulk density, dry density, water
content, liquid limit and plastic limit
respectively. From
the above tables the
geotechnical classification of the adsorbents
are concluded as follows: (i) WTP sludge is
Clayey silt.(ii) WTP sludge blended with bricks
is Clayey sandy silt.(iii) STP sludge is Clayey
sandy silt(iv) STP
sludge blended with
bentonite is Sandy clayey silt
Removal Kinetics [1-U (t)] versus time is
plotted using the sorption kinetic data, when U
(t) is considered as fractional attainment of
equilibrium between two phases i.e. solid and
liquid phase A near straight line plot is observed
for all concentrations indicating that reaction
can be approximated to first order reversible
kinetics in case of all the selected adsorbents as
presented below. First order reversible kinetics
model for various adsorbent materials are
presented in following figures.
0.00
-0.02 0
Ln(1-Ut)
TABLE1 Geo technical properties of WTP sledges
100
200
-0.04
Sample
B.D (gm/cc)
WTPS
1.76(av)
WTPSB
1.78(av)
D.D(gm/cc)
1.33(av)
1.48(av)
W.C (%)
28-34
20-22
-0.10
L.L (%)
P.L (%)
45-48
18-19
15-16
58-60
25-26
1.4x10-5
36-37
11-14
25-30
56-59
14-16
3.8x10-4
-0.12
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Permeability(cm/s)
1037
300
400
R2 = 0.955
-0.06
-0.08
Tim e in m initues
Fig1. Model for WTP sludge

0.00
TABLE2 Geotechnical properties of bioadsorbents

Sample
B.D (gm/cc)
D.D(gm/cc)
W.C (%)
L.L (%)
P.L (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Permeability(cm/s)
STPS
1.41(av)
1.11(av)
15-17
36-38
NP
25-28
61-65
10-11
3.6x10-4
STPBN
1.53(av)
1.23(av)
25-26
45-47
17-19
14-16
64-67
19-20
1.25x10-5
Ln(1-Ut)
-0.02
-0.04
50
100
150
R2 = 0.9005
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10
tim e in m initues
Fig.2. Model for WTP sludge with brickdust
200
1038
6th
0.00
100
200
300
400
-0.04
-0.06
R2 = 0.9534
-0.08
-0.10
-0.12
-0.14
Tim e in m initues
Fig.3. Model for STP sludge

0.00
-0.02 0
-0.04
Ln(1-Ut)
Ln(1-Ut)
-0.02 0
yielding 46% removal of initial fluoride

concentration.
60% of total removal is
accomplished within 90minutes and 120minutes
respectively iii WTP sludge blended with brick
dust:-The equilibrium time of contact is reached
within 120 minutes of contact yielding 79%
removal of initial fluoride concentration. 90%
of total removal is accomplished within
90minutes.
100
200
300
400
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10
R2 = 0.8916
Effect of grain size on removal The coefficient

of co- relation between the (%) removal
capacity of adsorbents and particle sizes of
adsorbents shows a negative co-relation of
adsorbent material .Table 3 shows the corelation co efficient for the materials in regards
to particle size.PS as mentioned in the table
below stands for particle size.
TABLE 3 Correlation co-efficient between
removal efficiency of fluoride and particle
sizes.
-0.12
STP
-0.14
-0.16
STPB
WTP
WTPB
STP
STPB
0.988
Fig 4. Model for STP sludge with bentonite
WTP
0.964
0.967
Theoretically when time equates to zero, the

value [1-U (t)] equates to unity, which indicates
the initial high rate of fluoride uptake during the
first phase of time. The observations about the
adsorbent materials are as follows
i STP sludge: equilibrium time of contact is
reached within 300minutesof contact yielding
58% removal of initial fluoride concentration,
though 80% of the total removal is noticed
within 180 minutes. ii.STP sludge with
bentonite: The equilibrium time of contact is
reached in240minutes of contact yielding 66%
removal of initial fluoride concentration. 75%
of the total removal is accomplished within
90minutes.ii.WTP sludge. The equilibrium time
of contact is reached within 240minutes
WTPB
0.931
0.916
0.962
PS
-0.95
-0.96
-0.98
-0.95
-0.18
PS
Tim e in m initues
Findings of ANN model The Artificial Neural

net Work (ANN),a mathematical tool has also
used to verify the observations obtained ;
ASCE,JH E(2000). It has
supported the
observations giving highest removal efficiency
for WTP sludge with brick dust (81.17%)
followed by TP sludge with bentonite (77.34%),
Bhattacherjee, Mukherjee and Banerjee
STP sludge (66.31%)

(54.08%) respectively.
and
WTP
sludge
CONCLUSION It is observed that .STP sludge

is highly permeable and WTP sludge is nearly
impermeable due to presence of of high
percentage of clay. Such weakness of the
geotechnical properties have rendered them
unsuitable for field applications; Muskhar.
(1946). The permeability has been improved for
WTP sludge by blending with brick dust
whereas permeability of STP sludge has been
corrected for field application by mixing with
bentonite which is pure clay and highly
impermeable (Khosla et al 1936). Correlation
coefficient between the (%) removal capacity of
adsorbents and particle sizes of adsorbents
reveals that with the increase in particle or grain
size of the material, fluoride removal efficacy of
the adsorbent material decreases. This is also
evident from table 2. From the geo technical
consideration it is found that removal of
fluoride has a negative co-relation with particle
or grain sizes and clayey sandy silt or sandy
clayey silts are found more effective in regards
to percentage removal of fluoride. Therefore it
is concluded that when grain size helps to select
suitable adsorbent as it has a good role in
1039
g
determining fluoride removal efficacy of
adsorbent material, permeability determines
suitability of the adsorbent material with respect
to its field applications.
.
REFERENCES
1. ASCE Task Committee on Application of
Artificial Neural Networks in Hydrology,
Artificial neural networks in Hydrology I:
Preliminary
concepts,
J.
Hydrologic
Engineering, Vol.5 (2), 115-123, 2000
2. Capper, P.l.CASIER, W.f.AND Geddles J.D.
(1966); Problems in Engineering Soil, E.and
F.N.Spon Ltd London.
3. Earth Manual (1960) U.S.Bureau of
Reclamation.Denver, Denver, Colorado.
4. Khosla, A.N., Bose, N.K. and Taylor, E.M
(1936) Design of weirs on permeable
foundation, Publication No 12, Central Board of
Irrigation, India.
5. Means, R.E. and Parcher J.N. (1963) Physical
properties of Soil, Carles E. Merill Book Co.,
Columbus, Ohio.
6. Muskhar M. (1946) The flow of
Homogeneous fluids through porous media,
McGraw
Hill
Book
Co,
1937;
J.W.Edward.1946.
Geotechnical Characterization of Waste Paper Sludge in Rio de Janeiro

J. C. Bizarreta
Pontifcia Universidade Catlica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(jcbizarreta@yahoo.com)
T. M. de Campos
Pontifcia Universidade Catlica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
(tacio@puc-rio.br)
ABSTRACT This paper presents the study of physical characteristics, permeability, retention curve, and
contraction of waste paper sludge in Rio de Janeiro. This material consists of lignocellulosic materials, a
matrix of calcium carbonate (calcite and aragonite). It has high moisture content in the order of 300%, an
organic matter content of 30% and a specific gravity 2.08. The main feature of this waste is that it suffers
large contractions without cracking. The WPS has an optimum moisture content of 70% and a maximum dry
density of 0.79g/cm3. The saturated permeability is between 10-9 m/s - 10-5 cm/s and depends on the moisture
content of compaction and morphology. The retention curve of the waste is produced by using the paper
filter method; air entry value of suction (AEV) is 800kPa. Both properties make this waste a good candidate
for use as oxidative and capillary barrier in the final cover for municipal solid waste landfills.
INTRODUTION
Waste paper sludges (WPS) were characterized by
different authors (e.g. NCASI 1989, Zimmie et al.
1993, Mo-Young & Zimmie 1996, 1997, Kraus
et al. 1997, Quiroz et al. 1998, Cabral et al. 1999,
2002, Kamon et al. 1999, 2002, Teixeira 2002, Lo
et al. 2002, Iberio 2007). The WPS have been
investigated by a variety of researchers who have
analyzed its capabilities of being used as a final
cover for municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills,
as a capillary or oxidative barrier (e.g. Cabral et al.
2000, Parent & Cabral 2006, Massood et al.
2008).
In this paper, the results of characterization
attempts are presented along with a discussion of
its use as a material for final covers. The
difficulties regarding the execution of this
procedure are also discussed.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A WPS from a Paper Industry from Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, was tested in the Geotechnical and
Environmental Laboratory of PUC-Rio. Such
industry produces special types of paper, some of
them used to manufacture cigarettes in different
parts of the world. Fresh samples of the waste,

collected just after its production, were used in the
tests. They were kept, in the laboratory, inside a
sealed container, under a temperature of 20o1oC.
The mineralogical composition was obtained by
means of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and energydispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) along with
phase analysis using the Rietveld method. The
morphological structure was observed using the
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique.
For the binocular magnifier image analysis, three
1cmx1cm samples were prepared, being extracted
from the saturated hydraulic conductivity test
sample.
For the pH test, a WPS sample that had just
arrived in the laboratory was used and the
procedure was based on the NBR standards.
Chemical tests were made according to the ASTM
D 5291 (ASTM, 2002) standards.
Conventional geotechnical characterization tests
were used in the physical characterization, based
on the Brazilian Standards (NBR). During the
execution of the tests, many difficulties were
faced. On the gravity specific test, the sample
quantity was approximately five grams, a lot less
Bizarreta and Campos
than the amount suggested by NBR regarding clay.

The liquid limit and plastic limit tests were done
by means of drying the material in the laboratory
environment (25C). For the liquid limit, it was
hard to create grooves using the curved tool for
clays because of the presence of fibers. Relating to
the plastic limit, it was difficult to identify the
exact moment in which the sample began to crack.
Sieve analysis was performed by passing water
through sieves, up to the sieve 400. Fourteen
samples were prepared for the Standard Proctor
testing following the NBR standard, each water
content point was obtained during different drying
stages at air contact and room temperature.
Shrinkage tests were performed on specimens
statically compacted at different initial water
contents in a ring with 71.5mm diameter and
20mm height.
The SWRC was obtained using the standard filter
paper method (e.g. Marinho 1994). Whatman No
42 filters were used and the calibration curve put
forwards by Chandler et al. (1992) was employed
to obtain the suction from the measured water
content of the specimens. To obtain drying curves,
different specimens (at given initial water content)
were left to dry under room temperature for
different periods of time.
The test of hydraulic conductivity was performed
by the variable-head method and rigid wall
permeameter according to the NBR standard. For
this experiment, nine samples were prepared in the
Standard Proctor mold with different water
content obtained by drying the samples at
environment temperature (25 up to 40C).
More methodology details in Bizarreta (2009).
characteristic of the studied material, since other

authors presented lower values, between 16.9 up
to 29.2% (e.g. Cabral 1999, 2002, Teixeira 2001).
The studied materials organic matter content is
low comparing to literature where it varies from
25 up to 86% (eg. Teixeira 2002, Mo-Young &
Zimmie 1996).
TABLE 1
Type
Organic
Mineral
Mineralogical composition of WPS.

Material
Formula
Organic matter
Calcite
CaCO3
Aragonite
CaCO3
Kaolinite
Si2Al2O5(OH)4
Anatase
TiO2
(%)
30
60
4.5
3.5
2
The WPSs pH result was 7.2, value comparable

to the revised literature results, which vary
between 7 and 8 (e.g. Cabral et al. 1999, 2000,
Kamon et al. 2002, Ng & Lo 2007). The chemical
element percentage results are Nitrogen (0.6%),
Carbone Total (16.6%), Hydrogen Total (1.8%),
and Sulfur Total (<0.3%).
On the mineral-fiber image, Fig.1a, it is possible
to visualize the predominance of minerals over
fibers, up to the point that the fibers can hardly be
distinguished. This does not happen to other
WPSs with similar magnification, in which fibers
are predominant, can be easily distinguished and
the minerals clot up away from them (e.g. Cabral
et al. 1999, Teixeira 2001, Cabral et al. 2002). In
Fig.1b the image of a free-fiber from the studied
material is presented, in which it is noticeable that
the fibers texture is not smooth due to the calcium
carbonate mineral depositions on its surface.

Mineralogical composition, morphological
structure and chemical characteristics
The volatile material is presumably of cellulose
fibers, hemicellulose and lignin (e.g. Teixeira
2001). The non-volatile material consists of
minerals such as calcite, aragonite, kaolinite e
anatase (Table 1). The main components are
calcium carbonate (Calcite and Aragonite), which
make up the 64.5% of the material. The presence
of calcium carbonate seems like a relevant
1041
Fig.1
SEM images of the WPS, (a) 500X e (b) 3000X
Physical characteristic of the WPS are presented

on Table 2. The natural water content values were
1042
6th
higher than the literature values which vary from

126 to 268 % (e.g. Zimmie et al. 1993, MoYoung & Zimmie 1996, Cabral et al. 1999,
Kamon et al. 1999, Iberio, 2007). The gravity
specific values are compatible with the ones found
on literature, between 1.62 and 2.30 (e.g. MoYoung & Zimmie 1996, Teixeira 2002).
TABLE 2
content of 65% (Fig.3). Other authors have found

shrinkage of 25 to 30% for samples with water
contents of 100 to 130% (e.g. Kraus et al. 1997).
Physical characteristics of WPS
Gs
wp (%)
wL (%) wn (%)
wop (%)
2.08
78
172
310-340
70
Gs = specific gravity; wP = plasticity limit; wL =
liquid limit; wn = natural water content; wop =
Proctor optimum moisture content
In the sieved material through the sieve 200 (0.076
mm), it was observed that the fibers were retained
and minerals passed. Fig.2 presents these
materials after drying in the oven. The gravity
specific value of these mineral particles was 2.74,
a lot higher than the WPSs. Beyond that, this
material began cracking after being in the oven at
110C while the WPS did not.
Retained
wi = 171%
Fig.3
wi = 128%
wi = 65%
Shrinkage for different water content

The optimal moisture content was 70% and the

maximum dry unit weight was 7.9 kN/m3. The
values are compatible with literature, where the
optimal moisture content varies from 13.1 to
110% and the maximum dry unit varies from 5.2
up to 8.7 kN/m3 (e.g. Teixeira 2002, Iberio 2007).
Figure 4 represents the compactation curve and its
comparison to other curves found on literature.
Material prepared with water content lower than
the optimum moisture content presented rigid
lumps that made it difficult to make the sample
homogeneous. Fig.5 shows the difference of
texture between a sample in the wet branch and
dry branch of the compactation curve.
10
WPS retained and passed through the sieve 200

One of the characteristics of the studied material is

that it does not present cracks; this was verified
during the shrinkage experiment, which means
that it behaves differently from the WPSs studied
by other authors who reported the presence of
cracks (e.g. Kraus et al. 1997). The studied
material presented a shrinkage of 45% in a sample
prepared with a water content of 170%, 35% for a
water content of 128% and 12% for a water
Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3)
Fig.2
Present paper
Klaus et al. (1997)
Moo-Young & Zimmie (1996)
Teixeira (2002)
Cabral et al. (1999)
Iberio (2007)
S=100% for Gs=2.08
S=70% for Gs=2.08
Passed
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
50
100
150
200
250
Molding Water Content (%)
Fig.4
Compactation curves of WPS
300
350
w = 114%
w = 50%
Samples molding with different water content

Fig.5
Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)

The SWRC curve presented an air entry value
(AEV) in the order of 800kPa, which constitutes
the main characteristic of the studied material,
since the WPSs of literature are of a smaller value
and range from 15 to 90kPa (e.g. Cabral et al,
1999, 2004, Parent 2006). This remarkable
difference may be associated with the relevant
presence of calcium carbonate and high
mineral/fiber rate, for example, the material
studied by Parent (2006) presented 29.2% of this
mineral, however the WPS studied in this paper
presents 64.5%, high relation mineral/fiber
(Bizarreta 2009, Bizarreta & de Campos 2010a).
1043
Internal morphology differences were observed
between samples with a water content of 300%
and a water content of 170% (Fig.8a and 8b). This
could explain the ksat difference between both
samples. The sample with water content of 300%
has a greater ksat, probably because the
compactation was not efficient for this humidity.
The image of the sample with a water content of
54% presents empty spaces of great dimensions
and high values of ksat (Fig.9c).
a
w=300%,ksat=1.10-8 m/s
b
Degree of saturation (%)
100
80
w=170%,ksat=5.10-9m/s
60
40
wi = 162%
wi = 130%
20
wi = 76%
0
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Suction (kPa)
Fig.6
SWRC under drying path
During the execution of the SWRC experiments,

through the filter paper method, fungi colonies
were observed. The presence of fungi did not
affect the results of the retention curve in a
relevant way (e.g. Bizarreta 2009, Bizarreta & de
Campos 2010a).
w=54%,ksat=4.10-6 m/s
Fig.8
Internal morphology for different water content

Samples prepared with moisture content greater

than the optimum moisture content (70%) had
lower hydraulic conductivity values, in the order
of 10-8 m/s. However, those with moisture content
lower than the optimum presented high values of
1044
6th
hydraulic conductivity, in the order of de 10-5 m/s

(Fig.7). The lower hydraulic conductivities were
observed in the plasticity band (78% to 178% of
water content). It can be intuited that the ksat
results relate to the shrinkage ease and the
consistency (Bizarreta & de Campos 2010b).
Hydraulic Conductivity (m/s)
This work was developed as part of the project

PRONEX-Rio E-26/171.544/2006, financed by
FAPERJ/CNPq. The first author thanks CAPES
for the support during his M.Sc. at PUC-Rio.
REFERENCES
1,E-04
ASTM (2002) Standard Test Methods for

Instrumental
Determination
of
Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Nitrogen in Petroleum Products
and Lubricants, ASTM D 5291.
1,E-05
1,E-06
Bizarreta J.C. (2009) Evaluation of the potential

use of waste paper industry in capillary barrier
systems. M.Sc. Thesis. Catholic University of
Rio de Janeiro (in portuguese).
1,E-07
1,E-08
1,E-09
1,E-10
0
40
80
120 160 200 240 280 320
Molding Water Content (%)
Fig.7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Obtained data for hydraulic conductivity
CONCLUSIONS
The shrinkage of material without the presence of
cracks is a beneficial characteristic for its use as
final cover for MSW landfills.
The low hydraulic conductivity on the wet branch
of the compactation curve is an advantage for the
use of the material as part of a cover system for
MSW landfills. The material in its natural
condition presents high water content and could be
used without the need of long drying processes.
The material needs high suctions in order to
desaturate. For this reason it shows favourable
conditions to be used as oxidative barrier.
The internal morphology is linked to the saturated
hydraulic conductivity. The binocular magnifier
image technique ended up being of great use on
the understanding of hydraulic properties.
The physical characteristics of WPS can be
studied separating the mineral and organic part
with the sieve 200, to improve its realization.
Bizarreta J. & de Campos T. (2010a). Water

retention curve and shrinkage of a waste from
the paper industry. UNSAT2010, Barcelona,
Espaa.
Bizarreta J. & de Campos T. (2010b). Variation of
hydraulic conductivity with moisture in the
waste paper industry. COBRAMSEG2010,
Gramado, Brazil (in portuguese).
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& Pastore E. (1999) Use of Pulp and Paper
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1045
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5-Geosynthetics and New Materials

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5-Geosynthetics and New Materials

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Geosynthetics and New Materials

A Case History of Using Geosynthetics for Slope Remedial Work

Fig. 1 Site conditions after slope failure.

The subsoil profile at the failure zone can be

Fig. 2 Location of boreholes.

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

Ground Level (RL, m)

Retaining Structures Measures

Soft clayey silt

Hard soil layer

Fig. 3 Subsoil profile at failure zone.

THE PROPOSED REMEDIAL OPTIONS

Internal Slope Reinforcement Measures

THE REMEDIAL DESIGN

Fig. 4 Typical section of geosynthetic wall.

THE CONSTRUCTION WORKS

Fig. 5 Installation of granular base.

The construction of the geosynthetic wall

Geomembrane Floating Cover for Anaerobic Lagoons in Thailand

digestion activity; control odor; and enable the

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

nations. Carbon trading allows these developed

safety against accidental drowning, protection

HDPE geomembrane is a flexible synthetic liners

Thermal expansion/contraction needs special

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen

from perforated pipe is transferred for further

Fig.1 A near-to-completion floating cover system using

Fig.2 A completed White surface HDPE Geomembrane

CONSTRUCTION QUALITY ASSURANCE

on the existing waste lagoon. The installation on

Fig.3 Floating Cover Installation on Wet Condition

HDPE floating cover

Fig.4 A Typical Section of Floating Cover System

A proper geomembrane installation and associated

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

alternatives of treating and releasing waste

value and environmentally sound in promoting the

Constr uction of an Economic Road Using J ute Geo-textiles in Flexible

uses of Jute Geo-textile in road construction

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

performance of with/without JGT Roads through

Type of Soil: Clayey Sandy Silt / Silty Sand

TABLE 1 Road section

Left hand side

Soil Investigation in different phases in terms of

Deb and Chakrabarti 881

JGT have been placed on prepared sub-grade

Total Pavement Thickness

TABLE 3 Design provisions

TABLE 4 Practical provisions

Projected Design CBR

Proposal for the new pavement was made on the

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

Road Cross section

TABLE 5 Comparative results of deflection in the

TABLE 6 Comparative results of deflection in the

Fig. 2 BBD test on constructed flexible pavement

Deb and Chakrabarti 883

TABLE 8 Determination of overlay thickness after

BBD Test could not be performed at this stage

TABLE 9 Determination of FDD & FMC before