DISCIPLINE COURSE -1

SEMESTER -1
Paper: 101: GEOMORPHOLOGY
Unit 1: Geomorphology and Internal Structure of
the Earth
1.2: Earth: Internal Structure
Lesson Developer:
Dr. Prabuddh Kr. Mishra

Bhim Rao Ambedkar College

University of Delhi, Delhi

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Table of Contents

1.2: Earths: Interior Structure

1.2.1: Objective
1.2.2: Background
1.2.3: Evidences about Earths Interior
1.3: Scientific profile of Internal Structure of the Earth
(A) Chemical Sub-division

1.3.1: Crust
1.3.2: Mantle
1.3.3: Core

(b) Mechanical Sub-division

1.3.4: Lithosphere
1.3.5: Aesthenosphere
1.3.6: Mesosphere
1.3.7: Barysphere
Summary
Exercises
Glossary
References

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1.2 Earth: Interior Structure

1.2.1 Objectives
This unit entitled Earth: Interior Structure tries to understand the structure, conditions and
material properties within the Earths interior. An understanding of the earths interior is
essential to follow the nature of changes going on over the earth surface which are related
to the deep laid internal forces operating from within the earth.

1.2.2 Background
During the 1800s there was keen interest on the interior of the earth. Several scientific
experiments happened during this period. Till this period the details of the interior structure
of the earth, viz. the information regarding the core mantle and crust (their compositions,
thickness, etc) was very limited and had not been discovered in a holistic manner. During
this period it was made clear through scientific evidences of volcanic eruptions that the
earths interior is hot enough to melt the rocks. However, the temperature and the
existence of radioactivity of the interior were unknown. Jules Vernes book, A Journey to
the Center of the Earth (1864, 272 pages; originally published in France as Voyage au Centre
de la Terre), epitomized the interest of the earth and its interior during this period and
wrote an adventurous and exciting science fiction story that is still popular today. The
understanding of the earths interior is based mainly on indirect sources, because so far it
has not been possible to have access to the inner levels of the earths structure.

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Fig. 1 Interior Structure of the Earth

(Source: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/earthint/earthint.htm)

To watch video on the Earths interior click on the following site:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0mWQs1_L3fA
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N9ncfAsmiSg

1.2.3 Evidences about Earths Interior

a) High level of Temperature and Pressure Downwards
The recurrent volcanic eruptions throwing out extremely hot, molten material from the
earths interior and the existence of hot springs, geysers etc. point to an interior which is
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very hot. Although the average rise in temperature from the surface downwards is 32 0 C per
meter, this rise is not uniform throughout. In the upper 100km the increase is estimated at
300 km and 10 C per km after that. As per this calculation, the temperature is 2000 0 C at the
earths core. The high temperature is attributed to internal forces, automatic disintegration
of the radioactive substances, chemical reactions and other sources.
Although ideally the innermost part of the earth should be in liquid or a gaseous state due
to the high temperature, yet because the pressure also increases with depth, the core is a
rigid mass. The layer enveloping the core is in semi-solid or plastic state.
B) Behaviour of the Earthquake Waves
The earthquake waves are measured with the help of a seismograph and are of three typesthe P wave or primary waves (longitudinal nature), secondary waves or S waves
(transverse in nature) while the surface waves are long or L waves. The velocity and
direction of the earthquake waves undergo changes when the medium through which they
are travelling changes. Thus, the velocity of P waves decreases towards the interior pointing
to less solid layer ( a characteristics of longitudinal waves), but increases for a while when
passing through the inner core only to decrease as it comes out of the core. This point to a
solid core surrounded by a partially molten layer. Similarly, the S wave cannot pass through
a liquid medium and are only transmitted through a rigid or solid medium. The S waves
cannot deflected while travelling inwards and come out at the earths surface. This, again
points to a molten, semi molten layer below the crust and mantle. The L waves do not pass
and do not go deeper inside the earth.
3) Evidences from the Meteorites
The meteorites are solid bodies freely travelling in space which accidently come under the
sphere of influence of the earths gravity and as a result fall on earth (or collide with it).
Their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme friction and the inner core is
exposed. The heavy material composition of their core confirms the similar composition of
the inner core of the earth, as both evolved from the same star system in the remote past.

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From the above scientific evidence a fairly convincing picture of the earths interior can be
drawn (Fig. 2a)

Fig 2 Earths interior structure. The silicic (contains silicon and oxygen) crystalline rocks make up the
earths crust. The mantle is rich in Iron- and magnesium-rich silicate rocks. The core is primarily
made up of iron and nickel. The outer core is in molten state and the inner core is in solid state. (
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/journey/journey.htm)

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Fig. 2a Earth's shallow (0 to 600 km depth) structure showing chemical layer and mechanical
classification (http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/earthint/earthint.htm)

Did You Know

Some Numerical Facts about Earths Interior
Crust=

0- 100 KM

(0.5% of Earths volume)

- SIAL

Mantle=

100-2900 KM

(16% of Earths volume)

- SIMA

Core=

2900-6400 KM (83% of Earths volume)

-NIFE

Earths Density= 5.517 g/cm3

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1.2.3 A Sectional Profile of the Earths Structure

The structure of the earths structure is layered and broadly three layers can be identifiedCrust, Mantle and Core (Fig. 3).
(A) Chemical Sub-division
1.3.1: Crust
The outermost layer or cover of the earth is crust with an approximate thickness of 100 km.
In fact it is the earths surface on which we are standing on. It is composed of igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It forms 0.5% of the earths crust volume.
Geologists have discovered, with the help of indirect evidences like seismology, volcanic
eruption, etc., that the interior of the earth has very high temperature. However, the
temperature of the earths core is influenced by the atmosphere above it and thus, the crust
would be same temperature as the air above. It might be, as hot as 50C in the desert and
might be below freezing near Greenland and Antarctica.
The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary materials and below that lie crystalline,
igneous and metamorphic rocks which are acidic in nature. The lower layer of the crust
consists of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks. The continents are composed of lighter silicate=
silica + aluminium (also called SIAL)- while the oceans have the heavier silicates- silica +
magnesium (also called SIMA) which form the part of the mantle.
The rigid zone of the earths crust is also known as Lithosphere. The layer below it is the
zone of Asthenosphere, which is a part of mantle and helps in the movement of the
lithospheric plates.

1.3.2: Mantle
Earth's mantle lies between 100- 2900km below the earths surface and forms 16% of the
earths volume. The outer layer of the mantle is partly somatic and behaves like plastic mass
while the inner layer is composed of wholly somatic ultra-basic rocks. Temperature of the
earths mantle varies and increases with increase in depth. Lowest temperature is found
immediately below the crust and highest immediately above the heat-producing core. This
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phenomenon of steady increase of temperature with depth in the interior of the earth is
known as geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient changes the behaviour of the rock
at different zones and the different rock behaviours are captured to divide the mantle in
two different zones. The boundary between the crust and the mantle is a surface
discontinuity which was discovered by A. Mohorovicic and is, therefore named after him.
This is often referred to simply as the Moho, or as M-discontunity. Thus, the continent of
the lighter material is floating in a sea of heavier and denser material.
1.3.3: Core
Earth's Core lies between 2900 km and 6400 km below the earth surface and accounts for
83% of the earths volume. The central core has the heaviest mineral materials of high
density. It is composed of nickel and iron (ferrous) and is therefore called as nife, while a
zone of mixed heavy metals and silicates separates the core from outer layers. Geologists
have assumed this composition based on the calculation of the density and upon the fact
that many meteorites (which are thought to be portions of the interior of a planetary body)
are iron-nickel alloys.
The earths core has the highest temperature of all the layers and is a major source of heat
for the earths interior. The core receives heat from radioactive materials present within the
core, which releases heat when it breaks down into more stable substance. The core has
been divided into two different zones, the outer core (liquid state) and the inner core (solid
state). The outer core is in liquid state as the temperature in this zone is high enough to
melt the iron and nickel alloy. However, the inner core is in solid state inspite of its
temperature higher than the outer core. This is mainly due to the immense pressure of the
overlying rocks exerting on the inner core, which keeps this zone in solid state.

Discontinuities within the Earth

Conrad Discontinuity-

between outer and inner crust

Mohorovicic Discontinuity-

between crust and mantle

Repetti discontinuity-

between outer and inner mantle

Wheichart-Gutenberg Discontinuity -between mantle and core

Lehmann Discontinuity between outer and inner core
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Fig . 3 Earth Interior through 3D view

Web link
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/natural_hazards/tectonic_plates_rev1.shtml

(b) Mechanical Sub-division

1.3.4: Lithosphere
The rocky, solid portion of the earths crust, from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of
Mariana trench, is called as lithosphere. Lithosphere also includes the solid portion of the
upper layer of the mantle. It is composed of variety of minerals. It is divided into several
large fragments, called plates, and the motion of these surface plates is over the years is
referred to as plate tectonics (Fig. 2a & 4).

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Fig . 4 Earth Interior- Sectional profile

Web link: http://www.universetoday.com/73597/what-is-lithosphere/

1.3.5: Aesthenosphere
The zone, below the lithosphere extending between the depth of 100 km and 700 km is
aesthenosphere. It is a low velocity zone. The word aesthenosphere has been taken from a
greek word asthens which means weak. it is highly viscous and mechanically weak and
deforming zone of the upper mantle of the earth. Compared to the lithosphere above, this
region is more plastic or less viscous, that is, it is softer, more pliable and capable of bending
or deforming without breaking.
The aesthenosphere is involved in plate tectonic movements and isostatic adjustments. The
pressure of the overlying rocks keeps this zone in plastic state, inspite of the relative high
temperature. It is relatively low density zone. The scientists and seismologists gathered
information and evidences of this zone. The major information about the physical properties
of this zone came from the earthquake waves. Theses waves decreases with decreasing
rigidity. The seismic waves pass through this zone in a relatively low velocity than the upper
lithosphere mantle. Thus, this zone is also known as low-velocity zone (LVZ). This low

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velocity zone starts at a depth of 180220 km (forming the upper part of aesthenosphere)
and ends at a depth of about 700 km (forming the base of the aesthenosphere).
The aesthenosphere is usually much closer to the sea floor surfaces and mid-oceanic ridge.
The rigid lithosphere is thought to "float" or move about on the slowly flowing
aesthenosphere, creating the movement of crustal plates (Fig. 2a & 4).
1.3.6: Mesosphere
The term Mesosphere (mesospheric shell) derieved from was given and used for the first
time by Reginald Aldworth Daly, a geology professor in Harvard University, for the zone
immediately below the aesthenosphere and extending down to the mantle-core boundary
at 2830 km. This layer should not be confused with the Mesosphere, which is also a name of
one of the atmospheric layer. The study of the seismic waves passing through this zone
indicates prominent boundaries at 400 km and 670 km (Fig. 2a & 4).
1.3.7: Barysphere
The term barysphere is used to denote both the mantle and the core. However, it is
sometimes used to refer only to the core or only to the mantle. The term is now less used.

Summary/Key Points for Revision

There are many good reasons for studying earth interior. Certain things about the
surface simply cannot be explained by surface and near surface processes.

The interior of the earth can be known by the study of its density, seismic properties
and analogy from outer space.

The average Specific gravity of the earth is 5.5.

The best evidences on the physical and chemical properties of the interior of the
earth come from the study of seismic waves- P, S, and L.

On the basis of chemical composition earth can be divided into crust, mantle and
core.

On the basis of chemical composition earth can be divided into lithosphere,

aesthenosphere, mesosphere, and Barysphere (Core).
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Glossary
Crust
The Earths surface or the outer shell, composed of solid rock and is having thickness in
between 0 to 100 kilometres.
Mantle
The layer within the earths interior lying beneath the crust and above the core. This
extends from beneath the core and goes deep down to 2,900 km inside the earth. This
layer is mostly solid state.
Core
The innermost part of the interior of the earth is the core, lying beneath the mantle and
extends deep down to approximately 6,300 km inside the earth.
Oceanic crust
The part of the Earths surface that lies below the oceans. Oceanic crust is denser than
the continental crust and hence generally lies below sea level.
Plate Tectonics
The theory that explains the movement of the Earths plates.

Lesson review Questions

List two ways that scientists learn about what makes up the Earths interior?

How do we know that density increases towards the centre of the earth?

What type of rock makes up the oceanic crust?

What types of rock make up the continental crust?

Of what is the mantle generally thought to be composed?

Name two lines of evidence that suggest that interior is vey hot.

The boundary that separates the crust from the mantle is called as..
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The inner core is most likely composed of..

The interior composition and structure of Earth have been deduced in part from

The composition of the upper mantle is known because.

The largest portion of Earth's volume is.

The average thickness of the crust is..

Think Critically
1. List two reasons that scientists know that the outer core is liquid.
2. Suppose that Earths interior contains a large amount of lead. Lead is very dense:
11.34 g/cm3. Would the lead be more likely to be found in the crust, mantle, or
core?

References

Ronald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert. Geodynamics, 2nd ed., (2001) Cambridge
University Press

GEMS Institute of higher education, Nepal.Environment Management Club, Kushal.

An Introduction to the Solar System; McBride and Gilmour; Cambridge University

Press 2004

Ollier, C.and Pain, C. (2000), The Origin of Mountains ,Routledge.

S. Singh (1998), Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.

Dayal, P. (1976), A Text Book of Geomorphology, Shukla Book Dept, Patna.

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A.N. Strahler & A.R. Strahler (1978), Modern Physical Geography, John Wiley.

J.A. Steers, (1961). The Unstable Earth, Lyell Book Dept, Ludhiana.

Kale V. and Gupta, A. (2001) Elements of Geomorphology. Oxford University Press,

Calcutta.

Bharatdwaj,K. (2006). Physical Geography: Introduction to Earth.Discovery Publishing

House,Delhi.

Bloom, Arthur L., (2003) Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic

Landforms. First Indian Reprint. Delhi: Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.

Chorley, Richard J., Schumm, Stanley A. and Sugden, David E., (1984)Geomorphology.
London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.

Engeln, O. D. von, Geomorphology. (1960) New York: The Macmillan Company.

Suggested Readings
Hugget, R. J. (2011) Fundamentals of Geomorphology, Routledge, Oxon.
Strahler, A. and Strahler, A. (2002) Physical Geography: Science and Systems of the
Human Environment, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Holmes, A and Holmes, D.L. (1978) Holmes Principles of Physical Geology, BAS
Printers, Hampshire.

Web Links
1. http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Asthenosphere.html
2. http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~jte2/geosc20/lect07.html
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosphere_(mantle)

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