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BattleofYarmouk

Coordinates:32.81411N35.95482E

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheBattleofYarmoukwasamajorbattlebetween
theMuslimArabforcesoftheRashidunCaliphateand
thearmiesoftheEasternRomanEmpire.Thebattle
consistedofaseriesofengagementsthatlastedforsix
daysinAugust636,neartheYarmoukRiver,along
whattodayarethebordersofSyriaJordanandSyria
Israel,eastoftheSeaofGalilee.Theresultofthebattle
wasacompleteMuslimvictorywhichendedByzantine
ruleinSyria.TheBattleofYarmoukisregardedasone
ofthemostdecisivebattlesinmilitaryhistory,[5][6]and
itmarkedthefirstgreatwaveofIslamicconquestsafter
thedeathofprophetMuhammad,heraldingtherapid
advanceofIslamintothethenChristianLevant.
InordertochecktheArabadvanceandtorecoverlost
territory,EmperorHeracliushadsentamassive
expeditiontotheLevantinMay636.AstheRoman
armyapproached,theArabstacticallywithdrewfrom
SyriaandregroupedalltheirforcesattheYarmouk
plainsclosetoArabiawhere,afterbeingreinforced,
theydefeatedthenumericallysuperiorByzantinearmy.
ThebattleisconsideredtobeoneofKhalidibnal
Walid'sgreatestmilitaryvictories.Itcementedhis
reputationasoneofthegreatesttacticiansandcavalry
commandersinhistory.[7]

BattleofYarmouk
PartoftheMuslimconquestofSyria
(ArabByzantineWars)

AcrosstheravinesliesthebattlefieldofYarmouk,this
picturetakenabout8milesaway,fromJordan.

Date

1520August636

Location

NeartheYarmoukRiver
32.81411N35.95482E

Result

DecisiveRashidunvictory

Territorial
changes

LevantannexedbyRashidun
Caliphate

Belligerents

Contents

ByzantineEmpire,
GhassanidKingdom

1Prelude

RashidunCaliphate

Commandersandleaders

2Byzantinecounterattack
3Muslimstrategy
4Battlefield
5Troopdeployment
5.1TheRashidunarmy
5.1.1Weaponry
5.2TheByzantinearmy
5.2.1Weaponry
6TensionsintheByzantinearmy
7Battle
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Heraclius
Theodore
Trithyrius[1]

Umaribnal
Khattb
Khalidibnal
Walid
Vahang[]
AbuUbaidahibnal
JabalahibnalAiham
Jarrah
Dairjan
AmribnalA'as
NiketasthePersian
KahulabintAzwar
Buccinator(Qanateer)
Shurahbilibn
Gregory[2]
Hassana
YazidibnAbi
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7.1Day1
7.2Day2
7.3Day3
7.4Day4
7.5Day5
7.6Day6
8Aftermath
9Evaluation
10References
11Notes
12Bibliography
12.1Primarysources

Sufyan

Strength
15,000150,000
(modernestimates)a[]

15,00040,000
(modernestimates)d[]

100,000400,000
(primarysources)b[]c[]

24,00040,000
(primarysources)e[]

Casualtiesandlosses
45%or50,000+killed
(modernestimates)[3][4]

4,000killed[3]

70,000120,000killed
(primarysources)f[]

12.2Secondarysources
13Externallinks

Prelude
DuringthelastByzantineSassanidWarsin610,HeracliusbecametheemperoroftheByzantineEmpire,[8]
afteroverthrowingPhocas.MeanwhiletheSassanidPersiansconqueredMesopotamiaandin611they
overranSyriaandenteredAnatolia,occupyingCaesareaMazaca.Heraclius,in612,managedtoexpelthe
PersiansfromAnatolia,butwasdecisivelydefeatedin613whenhelaunchedamajoroffensiveinSyria
againstthePersians.[9]OverthefollowingdecadethePersianswereabletoconquerPalestineandEgypt.
MeanwhileHeracliuspreparedforacounterattackandrebuilthisarmy.Nineyearslaterin622,Heraclius
finallylaunchedhisoffensive.[10]AfterhisoverwhelmingvictoriesoverthePersiansandtheiralliesinthe
CaucasusandArmenia,Heraclius,in627,launchedawinteroffensiveagainstthePersiansinMesopotamia
winningadecisivevictoryattheBattleofNinevehthusthreateningthePersiancapitalcityofCtesiphon.
Discreditedbytheseseriesofdisasters,KhosrauIIwasoverthrownandkilledinacoupledbyhisson
KavadhII,[11]whoatoncesuedforpeace,agreeingtowithdrawfromalloccupiedterritoriesofthe
ByzantineEmpire.HeracliusrestoredtheTrueCrosstoJerusalemwithamajesticceremonyin629.[12]
MeanwhiletherehadbeenrapidpoliticaldevelopmentinArabia,whereMuhammadhadbeenpreaching
Islamandby630,hehadsuccessfullyunitedmostoftheArabiaunderasinglepoliticalauthority.When
MuhammaddiedinJune632,AbuBakrwaselectedCaliphandhispoliticalsuccessor.Troublesemerged
soonafterAbuBakr'ssuccession,whenseveralArabtribesopenlyrevoltedagainstAbuBakr,whodeclared
waragainsttherebels.InwhatbecameknownastheRiddawars(ArabicfortheWarsofApostasy,632
33),AbuBakrmanagedtouniteArabiaunderthecentralauthorityoftheCaliphatMedina.[13]
Oncetherebelshadbeensubdued,AbuBakrbeganawarofconquest,beginningwithIraq.Sendinghis
mostbrilliantgeneral,KhalidibnalWalid,Iraqwasconqueredinaseriesofsuccessfulcampaignsagainst
theSassanidPersians.AbuBakr'sconfidencegrew,andonceKhalidestablishedhisstrongholdinIraq,Abu
BakrissuedacalltoarmsfortheinvasionofSyriainFebruary634.[14]TheMusliminvasionofSyriawasa
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seriesofcarefullyplannedandwellcoordinatedmilitaryoperationsthatemployedstrategyinsteadofpure
strengthtodealwithByzantinedefensivemeasures.[15]TheMuslimarmies,howeversoonprovedtobetoo
smalltohandletheByzantineresponse,andtheircommanderscalledforreinforcements.Khalidwassent
byAbuBakrfromIraqtoSyriawithreinforcementsandtolead
theinvasion.InJuly634,theByzantinesweredecisivelydefeated
atAjnadayn.DamascusfellinSeptember634,followedbythe
BattleofFahlwherethelastsignificantgarrisonofPalestinewas
defeatedandrouted.[16]
CaliphAbuBakrdiedin634.Hissuccessor,Umar,was
determinedtocontinuetheCaliphateEmpire'sexpansiondeeper
intoSyria.[17]ThoughpreviouscampaignsledbyKhalidwere
successful,hewasreplacedbyAbuUbaidah.Havingsecured
southernPalestine,Muslimforcesnowadvancedupthetrade
route,whereTiberiasandBaalbekfellwithoutmuchstruggle,and
conqueredEmesaearlyin636.Fromthereon,theMuslims
continuedtheirconquestacrosstheLevant.[18]

Byzantinecounterattack
MapdetailingtheRashidunCaliphate's
HavingseizedEmesa,theMuslimswerejustamarchawayfrom
invasionoftheLevant.
Aleppo,aByzantinestronghold,andAntioch,whereHeraclius
resided.Seriouslyalarmedbytheseriesofsetbacks,Heraclius
preparedforacounterattacktoreacquirethelostregions.[19][20]In635YazdegerdIII,theEmperorof
Persia,soughtanalliancewiththeByzantineEmperor.Heracliusmarriedoffhisdaughter(accordingto
traditions,hisgranddaughter)ManyanhtoYazdegerdIII,tocementthealliance.WhileHeracliusprepared
foramajoroffensiveintheLevant,YazdegerdwastomountasimultaneouscounterattackinIraq,inwhat
wasmeanttobeawellcoordinatedeffort.WhenHeracliuslaunchedhisoffensiveinMay636,Yazdegerd
couldnotcoordinatewiththemaneuverprobablyowingtotheexhaustedconditionofhisgovernment
andwhatwouldhavebeenadecisiveplanmissedthemark.[21]

UmarwonadecisivevictoryagainstHeracliusatYarmouk,andusedgreatstrategytoengageandentrap
Yazdegerd.ThreemonthslaterYazdegerdlosthisimperialarmyattheBattleofQadisiyahinNovember
636,endingSassanidcontrolwestofPersia.
Byzantinepreparationsbeganinlate635andbyMay636Heracliushadalargeforceconcentratedat
AntiochinNorthernSyria.[22]TheassembledarmyconsistedofcontingentsofByzantines,Slavs,Franks,
Georgians,ArmeniansandChristianArabs.[23]Thisforcewasorganizedintofivearmies,thejointleaderof
whichwasTheodoreTrithouriostheSakellarios.Vahan,anArmenianandtheformergarrisoncommander
ofEmesa,[24]wasmadetheoverallfieldcommander,[25]andhadunderhiscommandapurelyArmenian
army.Buccinator(Qanateer),aSlavicprince,commandedtheSlavsandJabalahibnalAiham,kingofthe
GhassanidArabs,commandedanexclusivelyChristianArabforce.Theremainingcontingents,all
European,wereplacedunderGregoryandDairjan.[26][27]Heracliushimselfsupervisedtheoperationfrom
Antioch.ByzantinesourcesmentionNiketas,sonofthePersiangeneralShahrbaraz,amongthe
commanders,butitisnotcertainwhicharmyhecommanded.[28]
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Atthattime,theRashidunarmywassplitintofourgroups:oneunderAmrinPalestine,oneunder
ShurahbilinJordan,oneunderYazidintheDamascusCaesarearegionandthelastoneunderAbuUbaidah
alongwithKhalidatEmesa.AstheMuslimforcesweregeographicallydivided,Heracliussoughttoexploit
thissituationandplannedtoattack.Hedidnotwishtoengageinasinglepitchedbattlebutrathertoemploy
centralpositionandfighttheenemyindetailbyconcentratinglargeforcesagainsteachoftheMuslimcorps
beforetheycouldconsolidatetheirtroops.ByforcingtheMuslimstoretreat,orbydestroyingMuslim
forcesseparately,hewouldfulfillhisstrategyofrecapturinglostterritory.Reinforcementsweresentto
CaesareaunderHeraclius'sonConstantineIIIprobablytotiedownYazid'sforceswhichwerebesiegingthe
town.[26]TheByzantineimperialarmymovedoutfromAntiochandNorthernSyriasometimeinthemiddle
ofJune636.
TheByzantineimperialarmywastooperateunderthefollowing
plan:
Jabalah'slightlyarmedChristianArabswouldmarchto
EmesafromAleppoviaHamaandholdthemainMuslim
armyatEmesa.
Dairjanwouldmakeaflankingmovementmoving
betweenthecoastandAleppo'sroadandapproach
Emesafromthewest,strikingattheMuslims'leftflank
whiletheywerebeingheldfrontallybyJabalah.
GregorywouldstriketheMuslims'rightflank,
approachingEmesafromthenortheastviaMesopotamia.
Qanateerwouldmarchalongthecoastalrouteandoccupy
Beirut,fromwherehewastoattackweaklydefended
DamascusfromthewesttocutoffthemainMuslimarmy
atEmesa.

MuslimandByzantineTroop
Movementsbeforethebattleof
Yarmouk.

Vahan'scorpswouldactasareserveandwouldapproach
EmesaviaHama.[29]

Muslimstrategy
TheMuslimsdiscoveredHeraclius'preparationsatShaizarthroughRomanprisoners.Alerttothe
possibilityofbeingcaughtwithseparatedforcesthatcouldbedestroyed,Khalidcalledforacouncilofwar.
ThereheadvisedAbuUbaidahtopullthetroopsbackfromPalestineandfromNorthernandCentralSyria,
andthentoconcentratetheentireRashidunarmyinoneplace.[30][31]AbuUbaidahorderedthe
concentrationoftroopsinthevastplainnearJabiya,ascontroloftheareamadecavalrychargespossible
andfacilitatedthearrivalofreinforcementsfromUmarsothatastrong,unitedforcecouldbefielded
againsttheByzantinearmies.[32]ThepositionalsobenefitedfromcloseproximitytotheRashidun
strongholdofNajd,incaseofretreat.Instructionswerealsoissuedtoreturnthejizya(tribute)tothepeople
whohadpaidit.[33]However,onceconcentratedatJabiya,theMuslimsweresubjecttoraidsfrompro
ByzantineGhassanidforces.EncampingintheregionwasalsoprecariousasastrongByzantineforcewas
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garrisonedinCaesearaandcouldattacktheMuslimrearwhiletheywereheldinfrontbytheByzantine
army.OnKhalid'sadvicetheMuslimforcesretreatedtoDaraah(orDara)andDayrAyyub,coveringthe
gapbetweentheYarmoukGorgesandtheHarralavaplains,[30]andestablishedalineofcampsinthe
easternpartoftheplainofYarmouk.Thiswasastrongdefensivepositionandthesemaneuverspittedthe
MuslimsandByzantinesintoadecisivebattle,onewhichthelatterhadtriedtoavoid.[34]Duringthese
maneuvers,therewerenoengagementssaveforaminorskirmishbetweenKhalid'selitelightcavalryand
theByzantineadvanceguard.[35]

Battlefield
ThebattlefieldliesinthewesternplaneofSyrianHauran,just
southeastoftheGolanHeights,anuplandregioncurrentlyon
thefrontierbetweenIsrael,JordanandSyria,eastoftheSeaof
Galilee.ThebattlewasfoughtontheplainnorthofYarmouk
River,whichwasenclosedonitswesternedgesbyadeep
ravineknownasWadiurRuqqad.Thisravinejoinsthe
YarmoukRiver,atributaryoftheJordanRiver,onitssouth.
Thestreamhadverysteepbanks,rangingfrom30m(98ft)
200m(660ft)inheight.OnthenorthistheJabiyaroadandto
theeastaretheAzrahills,althoughthesehillswereoutsidethe
Mapdetailingthelocationofthearea
actualfieldofbattle.Strategicallytherewasonlyone
wherethebattletookplace.
prominenceinthebattlefield:a100m(330ft)elevationknown
asTelalJumm'a,andfortheMuslimtroopsconcentratedthere,
thehillgaveagoodviewoftheplainofYarmouk.Theravineonthewestofthebattlefieldwasaccessible
atafewplacesin636AD,andhadonemaincrossing:aRomanbridge(JisrurRuqqad)near'Ain
Dhakar[36][37]Logistically,theYarmoukplainhadenoughwatersuppliesandpasturestosustainboth
armies.Theplainwasexcellentforcavalrymaneuvers.[38][39]

Troopdeployment
MostearlyMuslimaccountsplacethesizeoftheMuslimforcesbetween24,000and40,000andthe
numberofByzantineforcesbetween100,000and400,000.Modernestimatesofthesizesoftherespective
armiesvary:thevastmajorityofestimatesfortheByzantinearmyarebetweenbetween80,000and
150,000,whileotherestimatesareaslowas15,00020,000.[40][41]EstimatesfortheRashidunarmyare
between25,000and40,000.OriginalaccountsareentirelyfromArabsources,generallyagreeingthatthe
ByzantinearmyandtheiralliesoutnumberedtheMuslimArabsbyasizeablemargin.m[]Theonly
ByzantinesourceisTheophanes,whowroteacenturylaterandwhoseaccountisbelievedtobealsobased
onArabsources.Accountsofthebattlevary,somestatingitlastedaday,othersmorethanaday.

TheRashidunarmy
Duringacouncilofwar,thecommandoftheMuslimarmywastransferredtoKhalidi[]byAbuUbaidah,
CommanderinChiefoftheMuslimarmy.[42]Aftertakingcommand,Khalidreorganizedthearmyinto36
infantryregimentsandfourcavalryregiments,withhiscavalryelite,themobileguard,heldinreserve.The
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armywasorganizedintheTabi'aformationatight,defensiveinfantryformation.[43]Thearmywaslined
uponafrontof12kilometres(7.5mi),facingwest,withitsleftflanklyingsouthontheYarmoukRivera
milebeforetheravinesofWadialAllanbegan.Thearmy'srightflankwasontheJabiyaroadinthenorth
acrosstheheightsofTelalJumm'a,[44]withsubstantialgapsbetweenthedivisionssothattheirfrontage
wouldmatchthatoftheByzantinebattlelineat13kilometres(8.1mi).Thecenterofthearmywasunder
thecommandofAbuUbaidahibnalJarrah(leftcenter)andShurahbilbinHasana(rightcenter).Theleft
wingwasunderthecommandofYazidandtherightwingwasunderAmribnalA'as.[42]Center,leftand
rightwingsweregivencavalryregiments,tobeusedasareserveforcounterattackincasetheywere
pushedbackbytheByzantines.Behindthecenterstoodthemobileguardunderthepersonalcommandof
Khalid.IfandwhenKhalidwastoooccupiedinleadingthegeneralarmy,DhararibnalAzwarwould
commandthemobileguard.Overthecourseofthebattle,Khalidwouldrepeatedlymakecriticaland
decisiveuseofthismountedreserve.[42]KhalidsentoutseveralscoutstokeeptheByzantinesunder
observation.[45]InlateJuly636,VahansentJabalahwithhislightlyarmoredChristianArabforcesto
reconnoiterinforce,buttheywererepulsedbythemobileguard.Afterthisskirmish,noengagement
occurredforamonth.[46]
Weaponry
HelmetsusedincludedgildedhelmetssimilartothesilverhelmetsoftheSassanidempire.Mailwas
commonlyusedtoprotecttheface,neckandcheekseitherasanaventailfromthehelmetorasamailcoif.
HeavyleathersandalsaswellasRomantypesandalbootswerealsotypicaloftheearlyMuslim
soldiers.[47]Armorincludedhardenedleatherscaleorlamellararmorandmailarmor.Infantrysoldierswere
moreheavilyarmoredthanhorsemen.Largewoodenorwickerworkshieldswereused.Longshaftedspears
wereused,withinfantryspearsbeing2.5m(8.2ft)longandcavalryspearsbeingupto5.5m(18ft)long.
ShortinfantryswordsliketheRomangladiusandSassanidlongswordswereusedlongswordswere
usuallycarriedbyhorsemen.Swordswerehunginbaldrics.Bowswereabout2metres(6.6ft)longwhen
unbraced,similarinsizetothefamousEnglishlongbow.Themaximumusefulrangeofthetraditional
Arabianbowwasabout150m(490ft).EarlyMuslimarchers,whilebeinginfantryarcherswithoutthe
mobilityofhorsebackarcherregiments,provedtobeveryeffectiveindefendingagainstlightand
unarmoredcavalryattacks.[48]

TheByzantinearmy
AfewdaysaftertheMuslimsencampedattheYarmoukplain,theByzantinearmy,precededbythelightly
armedGhassanidsofJabalah,movedforwardandestablishedstronglyfortifiedcampsjustnorthofthe
WadiurRuqqad.[49]j[]TherightflankoftheByzantinearmywasatthesouthendoftheplains,nearthe
YarmoukRiverandaboutamilebeforetheravinesofWadialAllanbegan.TheleftflankoftheByzantines
wasatthenorth,ashortdistancebeforetheHillsofJabiyabegan,andwasrelativelyexposed.Vahan
deployedtheImperialArmyfacingeast,withafrontabout13kilometres(8.1mi)long,[50]ashewastrying
tocoverthewholeareabetweentheYarmoukgorgeinthesouthandtheRomanroadtoEgyptinthenorth,
andsubstantialgapshadbeenleftbetweentheByzantinedivisions.Therightwingwascommandedby
GregoryandtheleftbyQanateer.ThecenterwasformedbythearmyofDairjanandtheArmenianarmyof
Vahan,bothundertheoverallcommandofDairjan.TheRomanregularheavycavalry,thecataphract,was
distributedequallyamongthefourarmies,eacharmydeployingitsinfantryattheforefrontanditscavalry
asareserveintherear.VahandeployedJabalah'sChristianArabs,mountedonhorsesandcamels,asa
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skirmishingforce,screeningthemainarmyuntilitsarrival.[51]EarlyMuslimsourcesmentionthatthearmy
ofGregoryhadusedchainstolinktogetheritsfootsoldiers,whohadalltakenanoathofdeath.Thechains
werein10manlengthsandwereusedasaproofofunshakeablecourageonthepartofthemen,whothus
displayedtheirwillingnesstodiewheretheystoodandneverretreat.Thechainsalsoactedasaninsurance
againstabreakthroughbyenemycavalry.However,modernhistorianssuggestthattheByzantinesadopted
theGraecoRomantestudomilitaryformation,inwhichsoldierswouldstandshouldertoshoulderwith
shieldsheldhighandanarrangementof10to20menwouldbecompletelyshieldedonallsidesfrom
missilefire,eachsoldierprovidingcoverforanadjoiningcompanion.[50]
Weaponry
TheByzantinecavalrywasarmedwithalongsword,knownasthespathion.Theywouldalsohavehada
lightwoodenlance,knownasakontarionandabow(toxarion)withfortyarrowsinaquiver,hungfroma
saddleorfromthebelt.[52]Heavyinfantry,knownasskoutatoi,hadashortswordandashortspear.The
lightlyarmedByzantinetroopsandthearcherscarriedasmallshield,abowhungfromtheshoulderacross
thebackandaquiverofarrows.Cavalryarmorconsistedofahauberkwithamailcoifandahelmetwitha
pendant,i.e.athroatguardlinedwithfabricandhavingafringeandcheekpiece.Infantrywassimilarly
equippedwithahauberk,ahelmetandlegarmor.Lightlamellarandscalearmorwasalsoused.[53]

TensionsintheByzantinearmy
Khalid'sstrategyofwithdrawingfromtheoccupiedareasandconcentratingallofhistroopsforadecisive
battleforcedtheByzantinestoconcentratetheirfivearmiesinresponse.TheByzantineshadforcenturies
avoidedengaginginlargescaledecisivebattles,andtheconcentrationoftheirforcescreatedlogistical
strainsforwhichtheempirewasillprepared.[34][54]Damascuswastheclosestlogisticalbase,butMansur,
leaderofDamascus,couldnotfullysupplythemassiveByzantinearmythatwasgatheredattheYarmouk
plain.Severalclasheswerereportedwithlocalcitizensoversupplyrequisition,assummerwasatanend
andtherewasadeclineofpasturage.GreekcourtsourcesaccusedVahanoftreasonforhisdisobedienceto
Heraclius'commandnottoengageinlargescalebattlewithArabs.GiventhemassingoftheMuslim
armiesatYarmouk,however,Vahanhadlittlechoicebuttorespondinkind.Relationsbetweenthevarious
Byzantinecommanderswerealsofraughtwithtension.TherewasastruggleforpowerbetweenTrithurios
andVahan,Jarajis,andQanateer(Buccinator).[55]Jabalah,theChristianArableader,waslargelyignored,
tothedetrimentoftheByzantinesgivenhisknowledgeofthelocalterrain.Anatmosphereofmistrustthus
existedbetweentheGreeks,Armenians,andArabs.Longstandingecclesiasticalfeudsbetweenthe
MonophysiteandChalcedonianfactions,whileofnegligibledirectimpact,certainlyinflamedunderlying
tensions.Theeffectofthesefeudswasdecreasedcoordinationandplanning,oneofthereasonsforthe
catastrophicByzantinedefeat.[56]

Battle
Foragoodunderstandingofthedescriptionofthebattle,itisusefultobeacquaintedwiththedivisionsof
opposingforces.ThebattlelinesoftheMuslimsandtheByzantinesweredividedintofoursections:theleft
wing,theleftcenter,therightcenterandtherightwing.NotethatthedescriptionsoftheMuslimandthe
Byzantinebattlelinesareexactlyeachother'sopposite,i.e.:sotheMuslimrightwingfacedtheByzantine
leftwing(seeimagen[]).
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VahanwasinstructedbyHeracliusnottoengageinbattleuntilall
avenuesofdiplomacyhadbeenexplored.[57]Thiswasprobably
becauseYazdegerdIII'sforceswerenotyetreadyfortheoffensive
inIraq.Accordingly,VahansentGregoryandthenJabalahto
negotiate,thoughtheireffortsprovedfutile.Beforethebattle,on
Vahan'sinvitation,Khalidcametonegotiatepeace,toasimilarend.
Thesenegotiationsdelayedthebattlesforamonth.[50]Ontheother
hand,CaliphUmar,whoseforcesatQadisiyahwerethreatenedwith
confrontingtheSassanidarmies,orderedSa`dibnAbiWaqqasto
enterintonegotiationswiththePersiansandsendemissariesto
YazdegerdIIIandhiscommanderRostamFarrokhzd,apparently
Troopdeployment.
invitingthemtoIslam.Thiswasmostprobablythedelayingtactic
Muslimarmy
employedbyUmaronthePersianfront.[58]Meanwhilehesent
Byzantinearmy
reinforcements[50]of6,000troops,mostlyfromYemen,toKhalid.
Thisforceincluded1,000Sahaba(companionsofMuhammad),
amongwhomwere100veteransoftheBattleofBadr,thefirstbattleinIslamichistory,andincluded
citizensofthehighestrank,suchasZubayribnalAwwam,AbuSufyan,andhiswifeHindbintUtbah.[59]
Umar,apparentlywantingtodefeattheByzantinesfirst,employedthebestMuslimtroopsagainstthem.
ThecontinuingstreamofMuslimreinforcementsworriedtheByzantines,whofearingthattheMuslims
withsuchreinforcementswouldgrowpowerful,decidedthattheyhadnochoicebuttoattack.The
reinforcementsthatweresenttotheMuslimsatYarmoukarrivedinsmallbands,givingtheimpressionofa
continuousstreamofreinforcements,inordertodemoralizetheByzantinesandcompelthemtoattack.[60]
ThesametacticwouldberepeatedagainduringtheBattleofQadisiyah.[45]

Day1
Thebattlebeganon15August636.[61]Atdawnbotharmieslined
upforbattlelessthanamileapart.ItisrecordedinMuslim
chroniclesthatbeforethebattlestarted,George,aunitcommander
intheByzantinerightcenter,rodeuptotheMuslimlineand
convertedtoIslamhewoulddiethesamedayfightingonthe
Muslimside.[62]ThebattlebeganastheByzantinearmysentits
championstoduelwiththeMuslimmubarizun.Themubarizunwere
speciallytrainedswordsmenandlancers,withtheobjectivetoslay
asmanyenemycommandersaspossibletodamagetheirmorale.At
midday,afterlosinganumberofcommandersintheduels,Vahan
orderedalimitedattackwithathirdofhisinfantryforcestotestthe
Day1,limitedattacksbythe
strengthandstrategyoftheMuslimarmyand,usingtheir
Byzantinearmy
overwhelmingnumericalandweaponrysuperiority,achievea
breakthroughwherevertheMuslimbattlelinewasweak.However
theByzantineassaultlackeddeterminationmanysoldiersoftheImperialArmywereunabletopressthe
attackagainsttheMuslimveterans.[63]Thefightingwasgenerallymoderate,althoughinsomeplacesitwas

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especiallyintense.Vahandidnotreinforcehisforwardinfantrytwothirdsofwhichwaskeptinreserve
withonethirddeployedtoengagetheMuslims,andatsunsetbotharmiesbrokecontactandreturnedto
theirrespectivecamps.[62]

Day2
Phase1:On16August636,Vahandecidedinacouncilofwarto
launchhisattackjustbeforedawn,tocatchtheMuslimforce
unpreparedastheyconductedtheirmorningprayers.Heplannedto
engagehistwocentralarmieswiththeMuslimcentreinaneffortto
stallthemwhilethemainthrustswouldbeagainstthewingsofthe
Muslimarmy,whichwouldtheneitherbedrivenawayfromthe
battlefieldorpushedtowardsthecentre.[62][64]Toobservethe
battlefield,Vahanhadalargepavilionbuiltbehindhisrightwing
withanArmenianbodyguardforce.Heorderedthearmytoprepare
forthesurpriseattack.UnbeknownsttotheByzantines,Khalidhad
preparedforsuchacontingencybyplacedastrongoutpostlinein
frontduringthenighttocountersurprises,whichgavetheMuslims
timetoprepareforbattle.Atthecenter,theByzantinesdidnotpress
hard,intendingtopindowntheMuslimcentrecorpsintheir
positionandpreventingthemfromaidingtheMuslimarmyinother
areas.Thusthecenterremainedstable.Butonthewingsthe
situationwasdifferent.Qanateer,commandingtheByzantineleft
flankwhichconsistedofmainlySlavs,attackedinforce,andthe
Musliminfantryontherightflankhadtoretreat.Amr,theMuslim
rightwingcommanderorderedhiscavalryregimentto
counterattack,whichneutralizedtheByzantineadvanceand
stabilizedthebattlelineontherightforsometime,butthe
Byzantinenumericalsuperioritycausedthemtoretreattowardsthe
Muslimbasecamp.[65]

Day2,Phase1.

Day2,Phase2.

Phase2:Khalid,awareofthesituationatthewings,orderedthe
cavalryoftherightwingtoattackthenorthernflankofthe
Byzantineleftwingwhilehewithhismobileguardattackedthe
southernflankoftheByzantineleftwing,whiletheMuslimright
winginfantryattackedfromthefront.Thethreeprongedattack
forcedtheByzantineleftwingtoabandontheMuslimpositionsthey
hadgainedon,andAmrregainedhislostgroundandstarted
reorganizinghiscorpsforanotherround.[65]Thesituationonthe
MuslimleftwingwhichYazidcommandedwasconsiderablymore
serious.WhilsttheMuslimrightwingenjoyedassistancefromthe
mobileguard,theleftwingdidnotandthenumericaladvantagethe
Day2,Phase3.
ByzantinesenjoyedcausedtheMuslimpositionstobeoverrun,with
soldiersretreatingtowardsbasecamps.[59]HeretheByzantineshad
brokenthroughthecorps.ThetestudoformationthatGregory'sarmyhadadoptedmovedslowlybutalso
hadagooddefense.Yazidusedhiscavalryregimenttocounterattackbutwasrepulsed.Despitestiff
resistance,thewarriorsofYazidontheleftflankfinallyfellbacktotheircampsandforamomentVahan's
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planappearedtobesucceeding.ThecentreoftheMuslimarmywaspinneddownanditsflankshadbeen
pushedback.However,neitherflankhadbroken,thoughtheirmoralewasseverelydamaged.[66]The
retreatingMuslimarmywasmetbytheferociousArabwomeninthecamps.[59]LedbyHind,theMuslim
womendismantledtheirtentsandarmedwithtentpoleschargedattheirhusbandsandfellowmensinging
animprovisedsongfromtheBattleofUhudthatthenhadbeendirectedagainsttheMuslims.
Oyouwhorunfromaconstantwoman
Whohasbothbeautyandvirtue
Andleavehertotheinfidel,
Thehatedandevilinfidel,
Topossess,disgraceandruin.[65]
ThisboiledthebloodoftheretreatingMuslimssomuchthattheyreturnedtothebattlefield.[67]
Phase3:Aftermanagingtostabilizethepositionontherightflank,Khalidorderedthemobileguard
cavalrytoproviderelieftothebatteredleftflank.KhaliddetachedoneregimentunderDhararibnalAzwar
andorderedhimtoattackthefrontofthearmyofDairjan(leftcenter)inordertocreateadiversionand
threatenthewithdrawaloftheByzantinerightwingfromitsadvancedposition.Withtherestofthecavalry
reserveheattackedGregory'sflank.Hereagain,undersimultaneousattacksfromthefrontandflanks,the
Byzantinesfellback,butmoreslowlybecausetheyhadtomaintaintheirformation.[68]Atsunsetthecentral
armiesbrokecontactandwithdrewtotheiroriginalpositionsandbothfrontswererestoredalongthelines
occupiedinthemorning.ThedeathofDairjanandthefailureofVahan'sbattleplanleftthelargerImperial
armyrelativelydemoralized,whereasKhalid'ssuccessfulcounterattacksemboldenedhistroopsdespite
theirbeingsmallerinnumber.[69]

Day3
On17August636,Vahanponderedoverhisfailuresandmistakes
ofthepreviousday,wherehelaunchedattacksagainstrespective
Muslimflanks,butafterinitialsuccess,hismenwerepushedback.
Whatbotheredhimthemostwasthelossofoneofhiscommanders.
TheimperialByzantinearmydecidedonalessambitiousplan,
VahannowaimedtobreaktheMuslimarmyatspecificpoints.He
decidedtopressupontherelativelyexposedrightflank,wherehis
mountedtroopscouldmaneuvermorefreelyascomparedtothe
ruggedterrainattheMuslims'leftflank.Anditwasdecidedto
chargeatthejunctionbetweentheMuslimrightcenteranditsright
wingheldbyQanateer'sSlavs,tobreakthetwoapartandtofight
themseparately.

Day3,Phase1.

Phase1:ThebattleresumedwithByzantineattacksontheMuslimrightflankandrightcenter.[70]After
holdingofftheinitialattacksbytheByzantines,theMuslimrightwingfellback,followedbytheright
center.Theywereagainsaidtohavemetbytheirownwomenfolkwhoabusedandshamedthem.The

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corps,however,managedtoreorganizesomedistancefromthecampandheldtheirgroundpreparingfora
counterattack.[65]
Phase2:KnowingthattheByzantinearmywasfocusingontheMuslimright,Khalidibnwaleedlaunched
anattackwithhismobileguard,alongwiththeMuslimrightflank
cavalry.Khalidibnwaleedstruckattherightflankofthe
Byzantinesleftcenter,andthecavalryreserveoftheMuslimsright
centerstruckattheByzantinesleftcenteratitsleftflank.
MeanwhileheorderedtheMuslims'rightwingcavalrytostrikeat
theleftflankoftheByzantinesleftwing.Thecombatsoon
developedintoabloodbath.Manyfellonbothsides.Khalid'stimely
flankingattacksagainsavedthedayforMuslimsandbyduskthe
Byzantineshadbeenpushedbacktothepositionstheyhadatthe
startofthebattle.[65]

Day4

Day3,Phase2.

18August636,thefourthday,wastoprovedecisive.
Phase1:Vahandecidedtopersistwiththepreviousday'swarplan
ashehadbeensuccessfulininflictingdamageontheMuslimright.
QanateerledtwoarmiesofSlavsagainsttheMuslimrightwingand
rightcentrewithsomeassistancefromtheArmeniansandChristian
ArabsledbyJabalah.TheMuslimrightwingandrightcenteragain
fellback.[71]Khalidenteredthefrayyetagainwiththismobile
guard.Hefearedageneralattackonabroadfrontwhichwouldhe
wouldn'tbeabletorepulseandasaprecautionorderedAbu
UbaidahandYazidontheleftcentreandtheleftwingsrespectively
toattacktheByzantinearmiesattherespectivefronts.Theattack
wouldresultinstallingtheByzantinefrontandpreventageneral
advanceoftheImperialarmy.[72]
Phase2:Khaliddividedhismobileguardintotwodivisionsand
attackedtheflanksoftheByzantineleftcenter,whiletheinfantryof
theMuslimrightcenterattackedfromfront.Underthisthree
prongedflankingmanoeuvre,theByzantinesfellback.Meanwhile
theMuslimrightwingreneweditsoffensewithitsinfantry
attackingfromthefrontandthecavalryreserveattackingthe
northernflankoftheByzantineleftwing.AstheByzantineleft
centerretreatedunderthreeprongedattacksofKhalid,the
Byzantineleftwing,havingbeenexposedatitssouthernflank,also
fellback.[71]

Day4,Phase1.

Day4,Phase2.

WhileKhalidandhismobileguardweredealingwiththeArmenian
frontthroughouttheafternoon,thesituationontheotherendwasworsening.[73]Byzantinehorsearchers
hadtakentothefieldandsubjectedAbuUbaidahandYazid'stroopstointensearcherypreventingthem
frompenetratingtheirByzantinelines.ManyMuslimsoldierslosttheirsighttoByzantinearrowsonthat
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day,whichthereafterbecameknownasthe"DayofLostEyes".[74]TheveteranAbuSufyanisalsobelieved
tohavelostaneyethatday.[74]TheMuslimarmiesfellbackexceptforoneregimentledbyIkrimahbin
AbiJahal,whichwasontheleftofAbuUbaidah'scorps.IkrimahcoveredtheretreatoftheMuslimswith
hisfourhundredcavalrybyattackingtheByzantinefront,whiletheotherarmiesreorganizedthemselvesto
counterattackandregaintheirlostpositions.AllofIkrimah'smenwereeitherseriouslyinjuredordeadthat
day.Ikrimah,achildhoodfriendofKhalid'swasmortallywoundedanddiedlaterintheevening.[73]

Day5
DuringthefourdayoffenseofVahan,histroopshadfailedto
achieveanybreakthroughandhadsufferedheavycasualties,
especiallyduringthemobileguard'sflankingcounterattacks.Early
on19August636,thefifthdayofthebattle,Vahansentanemissary
totheMuslimcampforatruceforthenextfewdayssothatfresh
negotiationscouldbeheld.Hesupposedlywantedtimeto
reorganizehisdemoralizedtroops.ButKhaliddeemedvictorytobe
inreachandhedeclinedtheoffer.[75]Uptillnow,theMuslimarmy
hadadoptedalargelydefensivestrategy,butknowingthatthe
Byzantineswereapparentlynolongereagerforbattle,Khalidnow
decidedtotaketheoffensiveandreorganizedhistroops
Deploymentoftroopsonthefifth
accordingly.Allthecavalryregimentsweregroupedtogetherinto
day.Khalidgatheredallhiscavalry
onepowerfulmountedforcewiththemobileguardactingasits
foradecisiveflankingcharge.
core.Thetotalstrengthofthiscavalrygroupwasnowabout8,000
mountedwarriors,aneffectivemountedcorpsforanoffensive
attackthenextday.Therestofthedaypasseduneventfully.KhalidplannedtotrapByzantinetroops,
cuttingofftheireveryrouteofescape.Therewerethreenaturalbarriers,thethreegorgesinthebattlefield
withtheirsteepravines,WadiurRuqqadatwest,WadialYarmoukinsouthandWadialAllahineast.The
northernroutewastobeblockedbyMuslimcavalry.[76]Therewerehowever,somepassagesacrossthe200
metres(660ft)deepravinesofWadiurRaqqadinwest,strategicallythemostimportantonewasatAynal
Dhakar,abridge.KhalidsentDhararwith500cavalryatnighttosecurethatbridge.Dhararmovedaround
thenorthernflankofByzantinesandcapturedthebridge.Thismaneuverwastoprovedecisivethenext
day.[77]

Day6
On20August636,thefinaldayofthebattle,[78]Khalidputintoactionasimplebutboldplanofattack.
WithhismassedcavalryforceheintendedtodrivetheByzantinecavalryentirelyoffthebattlefieldsothat
theinfantry,whichformedthebulkoftheimperialarmy,wouldbeleftwithoutcavalrysupportandthus
wouldbeexposedwhenattackedfromtheflanksandrear.Atthesametimeheplannedtopusha
determinedattacktoturntheleftflankoftheByzantinearmyanddrivethemtowardstheravinetothe
west.[77]
Phase1:KhalidorderedageneralattackontheByzantinefrontandgallopedhiscavalryaroundtheleft
wingoftheByzantines.PartofhiscavalryengagedtheByzantineleftwingcavalrywhiletherestofit
attackedtherearoftheByzantineleftwinginfantry.MeanwhiletheMuslimrightwingpressedagainstit
fromthefront.Underthistwoprongedattack,theByzantineleftwingfellbackandcollapsedandfellback
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totheByzantineleftcenter,greatlydisorderingit.[75]Theremaining
MuslimcavalrythenattackedtheByzantineleftwingcavalryatthe
rearwhiletheywereheldfrontallybytheotherhalfoftheMuslim
cavalry,routingthemoffthebattlefieldtothenorth.TheMuslim
rightwinginfantrynowattackedtheByzantineleftcenteratitsleft
flankwhiletheMuslimrightcenterattackedfromfront.
Phase2:Vahan,noticingthehugecavalrymaneuverofthe
Muslims,orderedhiscavalrytogrouptogether,butwasnotquick
enoughbeforeVahancouldorganizehisdisparateheavycavalry
squadrons,Khalidhadwheeledhiscavalrybacktoattackthe
concentratingByzantinecavalrysquadrons,fallinguponthemfrom
thefrontandtheflankwhiletheywerestillmovingintoformation.
ThedisorganizedanddisorientedByzantineheavycavalrywassoon
routedanddispersedtothenorth,leavingtheinfantrytoitsfate.[79]

Day6,Phase1.

Phase3:WiththeByzantinecavalrycompletelyrouted,Khalid
turnedtotheByzantineleftcenterwhichalreadyheldthetwo
prongedattackoftheMusliminfantry.TheByzantineleftcenter
wasattackedatitsrearbyKhalid'scavalryandwasfinally
broken.[79]
Thelastphase:WiththeretreatoftheByzantineleftcenter,a
generalByzantineretreatstarted.Khalidtookhiscavalrynorthto
Day6,Phase2.
blockthenorthernrouteofescape.TheByzantinesretreatedwest
towardsWadiurRuqqadwheretherewasabridgeatAynal
Dhakarforsafecrossingacrossthedeepgorgesoftheravinesof
WadiurRuqqad.[73]Dhararhadalreadycapturedthebridgeaspart
ofKhalid'splanthenightbefore.Aunitof500mountedtroopshad
beensenttoblockthispassageway.Infact,thiswastherouteby
whichKhalidwantedtheByzantinestoretreatallalong.The
Byzantinesweresurroundedfromallsidesnow.[75]k[]Somefell
intothedeepravinesoffthesteepslopes,otherstriedtoescapein
thewaters,onlytobesmashedontherocksbelowandagainothers
werekilledintheirflight.Neverthelessalargenumberofthe
soldiersmanagedtoescapetheslaughter.[80]Jonah,theGreek
Day6,Phase3.
informantoftheRashidunarmyduringtheConquestofDamascus
diedinthisbattle.TheMuslimstooknoprisonersinthisbattle,
althoughtheymayhavecapturedsomeduringthesubsequentpursuit.[81]TheodoreTrithuriosdiedonthe
battlefield,whileNiketasmanagedtoescapeandreachEmesa.JabalahibnalAyhamalsomanagedto
escapeandlater,forashorttime,cametotermswiththeMuslims,butsoondefectedtotheByzantinecourt
again.[82]

Aftermath
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Immediatelyafterthisoperationwasover,Khalidandhismobileguardmovednorthtopursuethe
retreatingByzantinesoldiershefoundthemnearDamascusandattacked.Intheensuingfightthe
commanderinchiefoftheimperialarmy,theArmenianprinceVahan,whohadescapedthefateofmostof
hismenatYarmouk,waskilled.[83]KhalidthenenteredDamascuswherehewassaidtohavebeen
welcomedbythelocalresidents,thusrecapturingthecity.[31][84]
WhennewsofthedisasterreachedtheByzantineEmperorHeracliusatAntioch,[85]hewasdevastatedand
enraged.Heblamedhiswrongdoingsfortheloss,primarilyreferringtohisincestuousmarriagetohisniece
Martina.[86]Hewouldhavetriedtoreconquertheprovinceifhehadhadtheresources,[85]butnowhehad
neitherthemennorthemoneytodefendtheprovinceanymore.
InsteadheretreatedtothecathedralofAntioch,whereheobserveda
solemnserviceofintercession.[85]Hesummonedameetingofhis
advisersatthecathedralandscrutinizedthesituation.Hewastold
almostunanimously,andacceptedthefact,thatthedefeatwasGod's
decisionandaresultofthesinsofthepeopleoftheland,including
him.[87]HeracliustooktotheseaonashiptoConstantinopleinthe
night.Itissaidthatashisshipsetsail,hebadealastfarewellto
Syria,saying:
Farewell,alongfarewelltoSyria,l[][85]myfairprovince.Thouart
aninfidel's(enemy's)now.Peacebewithyou,OSyriawhata
beautifullandyouwillbefortheenemy.[87]

Day6,Thelastphase.

HeracliusabandonedSyriawiththeholyrelicoftheTrueCrosswhichwas,alongwithotherrelicsheldat
Jerusalem,secretlyboardedonshipbyParthiaofJerusalem,[85]justtoprotectitfromtheinvadingArabs.It
issaidthattheemperorhadafearofwater.[88]andapontoonbridgewasmadeforHeracliustocrossthe
BosphorustoConstantinople.AfterabandoningSyria,theEmperorbegantoconcentrateonhisremaining
forcesforthedefenceofAnatoliaandEgyptinstead.ByzantineArmeniafelltotheMuslimsin63839,
afterwhichHeracliuscreatedabufferzoneincentralAnatoliabyorderingallthefortseastofTarsustobe
evacuated.[89]In639642MuslimsinvadedandcapturedByzantineEgypt,ledbyAmribnalA'aswho
hadcommandedtherightflankoftheRashidunarmyatYarmouk.[90]

Evaluation
TheBattleofYarmoukcanbeseenasanexampleinmilitaryhistorywhereaninferiorforcemanagesto
overcomeasuperiorforcebysuperiorgeneralship.
TheImperialByzantinecommandersallowedtheirenemytohavethebattlefieldofhischoosing.Eventhen
theywereatnosubstantialtacticaldisadvantage.[49]Khalidknewallalongthathewasupagainstaforce
superiorinnumbersand,untilthelastdayofthebattle,heconductedanessentiallydefensivecampaign
suitedtohisrelativelylimitedresources.Whenhedecidedtotaketheoffensiveandattackonthefinalday
ofbattle,hedidsowithadegreeofimagination,foresightandcouragethatnoneoftheByzantine
commandersmanagedtodisplay.Althoughhecommandedanumericallyinferiorforceandneededallthe
menhecouldmuster,heneverthelesshadtheconfidenceandforesighttodispatchacavalryregimentthe
nightbeforehisassaulttosealoffacriticalpathoftheretreatheanticipatedfortheenemyarmy.[77]
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BecauseofhisleadershipatYarmouk,KhalidibnalWalidisconsideredoneofthefinestgeneralsin
history[7]andhisuseofmountedwarriorsthroughoutthebattleshowedjusthowwellheunderstoodthe
potentialstrengthsandweaknessesofhismountedtroops.Hismobileguardmovedquicklyfromonepoint
toanother,alwayschangingthecourseofeventswherevertheyappeared,andthenjustasquicklygalloping
awaytochangethecourseofeventselsewhereonthefield.[91]
VahanandhisByzantinecommandersdidnotmanagetodealwiththismountedforceandusethesizable
advantageoftheirarmyeffectively.[92]TheirownByzantinecavalryneverplayedasignificantroleinthe
battleandwereheldinstaticreserveformostofthesixdays.[60]Theyneverpushedtheirattacksandeven
whentheyobtainedwhatcouldhavebeenadecisivebreakthroughonthefourthday,theywereunableto
exploitit.ThereappearedtobeadecidedlackofresolveamongtheImperialcommanders,thoughthismay
havebeencausedbydifficultiescommandingthearmybecauseofinternalconflict.Moreover,manyofthe
Arabauxiliariesweremerelevies,whiletheMuslimArabarmyconsistedforamuchlargerpartofveteran
troops.[93]
TheoriginalstrategyofHeraclius,todestroytheMuslimtroopsinSyria,neededarapidandquick
deployment,butthecommandersonthegroundneverdisplayedthesequalities.Ironically,onthefieldat
Yarmouk,KhalidcarriedoutonasmalltacticalscalewhatHeracliushadplannedonagrandstrategic
scale:byrapidlydeployingandmanoeuveringhisforces,Khalidwasabletotemporarilyconcentrate
sufficientforcesatspecificlocationsonthefieldtodefeatthelargerByzantinearmyindetail.Vahanwas
neverabletomakehisnumericalsuperioritycount,perhapsbecauseoftheunfavorableterrainthat
preventedlargescaledeployment.However,atnopointdidVahanattempttoconcentrateasuperiorforce
toachieveacriticalbreakthrough.[94]Althoughhewasontheoffensive5daysoutofthesix,hisbattleline
remainedremarkablystatic.Thisallstandsinstarkcontrasttotheverysuccessfuloffensiveplanthat
Khalidcarriedoutonthefinalday,whenhereorganisedvirtuallyallhiscavalryandcommittedthemtoa
grandmanoeuvrethatwonthebattle.[91]GeorgeF.Nafziger,inhisbookIslamatwar,describesthebattle
as:

AlthoughYarmoukislittleknowntoday,itisoneofthemostdecisivebattlesinhuman
history......HadHeraclius'forcesprevailed,themodernworldwouldbesochangedastobe
unrecognizable.[5]

References
1. ^Kennedy2006,p.45
2. ^Nicolle1994,pp.6465
3. ^abAkram2004,p.425
4. ^Britannica(2007):"Morethan50,000byzantinesoldiersdied"
5. ^abWalton2003,p.30
6. ^Nicolle1994,p.6
7. ^abNicolle1994,p.19
8. ^Haldon1997,p.41
9. ^GreatrexLieu2002,pp.189190
10. ^GreatrexLieu2002,p.196
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10. ^GreatrexLieu2002,p.196

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11. ^GreatrexLieu2002,pp.217227
12. ^Haldon1997,p.46
13. ^Nicolle1994,pp.1214
14. ^Luttwak2009,p.199
15. ^Nicolle1994,p.87
16. ^Akram2004,p.246
17. ^Runciman1987,p.15
18. ^Akram2004,p.298
19. ^Nicolle1994,p.60
20. ^Kaegi1995,p.112
21. ^Akram2009,p.133
22. ^Akram2004,p.402
23. ^AlWaqidi8thcentury,p.100
24. ^(Armenian) Bartikyan,Hrach.(Vahan).ArmenianSovietEncyclopedia.vol.xi.Yerevan:Armenian
AcademyofSciences,1985,p.243.
25. ^Kennedy2007,p.82
26. ^abAkram2004,p.409
27. ^AlWaqidi8thcentury,p.106
28. ^Nicolle1994,p.16
29. ^Akram2004,p.399
30. ^abNicolle1994,p.61
31. ^abKaegi1995,p.67
32. ^Akram2004,p.401
33. ^alBaladhuri9thcentury,p.143
34. ^abKaegi1995,p.134
35. ^Akram2004,p.407
36. ^Nicolle1994,p.64
37. ^Schumacher1889,p.7779
38. ^Kaegi1995,p.122
39. ^Nicolle1994,p.63
40. ^Kaegi2003,p.242
41. ^JohnHaldon(2013)
42. ^abcNicolle1994,p.66
43. ^Nicolle1994,p.34
44. ^Walton2003,p.29
45. ^abAkram2004,p.411
46. ^Akram2004,p.413
47. ^Nicolle1994,p.39
48. ^Nicolle1994,p.36
49. ^abKaegi1995,p.124
50. ^abcdNicolle1994,p.64
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51. ^Nicolle1994,p.65
52. ^Nicolle1994,p.29
53. ^Nicolle1994,p.30
54. ^Kaegi1995,p.39
55. ^Kaegi1995,pp.132133
56. ^Kaegi1995,p.121
57. ^Kaegi1995,p.130
58. ^Akram2009,p.132
59. ^abcNicolle1994,p.70
60. ^abKaegi1995,p.129
61. ^Nicolle1994,p.92
62. ^abcNicolle1994,p.68
63. ^Akram2004,p.415
64. ^Akram2004,p.417
65. ^abcdeNicolle1994,p.71
66. ^Akram2004,p.418
67. ^Regan2003,p.164
68. ^Akram2004,pp.41819
69. ^Akram2004,p.419
70. ^Akram2004,p.420
71. ^abNicolle1994,p.72
72. ^Akram2004,p.421
73. ^abcNicolle1994,p.75
74. ^abAlWaqidi8thcentury,p.148
75. ^abcNicolle1994,p.76
76. ^Akram2004,p.422
77. ^abcAkram2004,p.423
78. ^Kaegi1995,p.114
79. ^abAkram2004,p.424
80. ^Kaegi1995,p.138
81. ^Kaegi1995,p.128
82. ^Nicolle1994,p.80
83. ^Kaegi1995,p.273
84. ^Akram2004,p.426
85. ^abcdeRunciman1987,p.17
86. ^Runciman1987,p.96
87. ^abRegan2003,p.167
88. ^Regan2003,p.169
89. ^Kaegi1995,pp.14849
90. ^Kaegi2003,p.327
ab

^ Nicolle1994,pp.8789
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^abNicolle1994,pp.8789

92. ^Kaegi1995,p.137
93. ^Akram2004,p.408
94. ^Kaegi1995,p.143

Notes
^a:ModernestimatesforRomanarmy:
Donner(1981):100,000.
Britannica(2007):"Morethan50,000byzantinesoldiersdied".
Nicolle(1994):100,000.
Akram(1970):150,000.
Kaegi(1995):15,00020,000
Mango,Cyril(2002).TheOxfordHistoryofByzantium:80,000.
^b:RomansourceforRomanarmy:
Theophanes(p.337338):80,000Romantroops(Kennedy,2006,p.145)and60,000alliedGhassanid
troops(Gibbon,Vol.5,p.325).
^c:EarlyMuslimsourcesforRomanarmy:
Baladhuri(p.140):200,000.
Tabari(Vol.2,p.598):200,000.
IbnIshaq(Tabari,Vol.3,p.75):100,000against24,000Muslims.
^d:ModernestimatesforMuslimarmy:
Kaegi(1995):15,00020,000maximum.
Nicolle(1994):25,000maximum.
Akram:40,000maximum.
Treadgold(1997):24,000
^e:PrimarysourcesforMuslimarmy:
IbnIshaq(Vol.3,p.74):24,000.
Baladhuri:24,000.
Tabari(Vol.2,p.592):40,000.
^f:PrimarysourcesforRomancasualties:
Tabari(Vol.2,p.596):120,000killed.
IbnIshaq(Vol.3,p.75):70,000killed.
Baladhuri(p.141):70,000killed.
^g:HisnameismentionedinIslamicsourcesasJaban,Vahan
BenaasandMahan.Vahanismostlikelytobehisnameasitisof
Armenianorigin
^i:DuringthereignofAbuBakr,KhalidibnWalidremainedthe
CommanderinChiefofthearmyinSyriabutatUmar'saccession
asCaliphhedismissedhimfromcommand.AbuUbaidahibnal
Image1.Conceptsusedinthe
Jarrahbecamethenewcommanderinchief.(SeeDismissalof
descriptionofthebattlelines.
Khalid).
^j:SomeByzantinesourcesalsomentionafortifiedencampmentat
Yaqusah,18kilometres(11mi)fromthebattlefield.E.g.,A.I.AkramsuggeststhattheByzantinecamps
werenorthofWadiurRuqqad,whileDavidNicolleagreeswithearlyArmeniansourceswhichpositioned
campsatYaqusah(See:Nicollep.61andAkram2004p.410).
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^k:Akrammisinterpretsthebridgeat'AynDhakarforafordwhileNicolleexplainstheexactgeography
(See:Nicollep.64andAkramp.410)
^m:DavidNicollesuggestsatleastfourtoone.(SeeNicollep.64)
^n:ConceptsusedinthedescriptionofthebattlelinesoftheMuslimsandtheByzantines.Seeimage1.

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Oxford,ISBN9781407301617

Externallinks
YarmoukinSwordofAllahatGrandeStrategy(http://www.grandestrategy.com/2007/12/swordof
allahchapter34eveofyarmuk.html)byA.I.Akram
BattleofYarmukanimatedbattlemap(http://www.theartofbattle.com/battleofyarmuk636.htm)by
JonathanWebb
BattleofYarmuk,636(http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/muslimwars/articles/yarmuk.aspx)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Yarmouk&oldid=635327772"
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