Macdonell Vedic Grammar For Stundents

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BRIEF RECORD
Author:
Macdonell, Arthur Anthony
Title:
A Vedic Grammar For Students
Publ.:
Oxford : Clarendon Press 1916
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x, 508 p.
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A VEDIC GRAMMAR
FOR STUDENTS
BY
ARTHUR ANTHONY
MACDONELL
M.A., PH.D.
BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN
THE
UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE ; FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY ;
FELLOW OF
THE ROYAL DANISH ACADEMY
I N C L U D I N G A C H A P T E R ON S Y N T A X A N D T H R E E
A P P E N D I X E S : LIST OF V E R B S , M E T R E , A C C E N T
OXFORD
AT T H E CLARENDON PRESS
1916
OXFORD UNIVERSITY
LONDON
EDINBURGH
TORONTO
MELBOURNE
HUMPHREY
PUBLISHER
PRESS
GLASGOW
NEW YORK
BOMBAY
MILF0RD
TO T H E UNIVERSITY
PREFACE
A PRACTICAL Vedic grammar has long been a desideratum.
It is one of the chief aids to the study of the hymns of the
Veda called for forty-three years ago in the preface to his
edition of the Rigveda by Max Mller, who adds, ' I doubt
not that the time w i l l come when no one i n India w i l l call
himself a Sanskrit scholar who cannot construe the hymns
of the ancient Rishis of his country. It is mainly due
to the lack of such a work that the study of Vedic literature,
despite its great linguistic and religious importance, has
never taken its proper place by the side of the study of
Classical Sanskrit either i n England or India. Whitney's
excellent Sanskrit Grammar, indeed, treats the earlier lan
guage in its historical connexion with the later, but for this
very reason students are, as I have often been assured,
unable to acquire from it a clear knowledge of either the
one or the other, because beginners cannot keep the two
dialects apart in the process of learning. T i l l the publication of my large Vedic Grammar in 1910, no single work
comprehensively presented the early language by itself.
That work is, however, too extensive and detailed for the
needs of the student, being intended rather as a book of
reference for the scholar. Hence I have often been urged
to bring out a short practical grammar which would do for
the Vedic language what my Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners
does for the Classical language. I n the second edition
(1911) of the latter work I therefore pledged myself to
iv
PREFACE
meet this demand as soon as I could. The present volume

redeems that pledge.
When planning the book I resolved, after much reflection,
to make it correspond paragraph by paragraph to the
Sanskrit Grammar, this being the best way to enable students
to compare and contrast every phenomenon of the earlier
and the later language. To this extent the present book
presupposes the other ; but it can quite well be used inde
pendently. The experience of many years teaching, however,
leads me to dissuade beginners from starting the study of
Sanskrit by means of the present grammar.
Students
should, in my opinion, always commence with classical
Sanskrit, which is more regular and definite, as well as
much more restricted in the number of its inflexional forms.
A good working knowledge of the later language should
therefore be acquired before taking up Vedic grammar,
which can then be rapidly learned.
In carrying out the parallelism of this grammar with
the other I have experienced a good deal of difficulty in
numbering the corresponding paragraphs satisfactorily,
because certain groups of matter are found exclusively i n
the Vedic language, as the numerous subjunctive forms, or
much more fully, as the dozen types of infinitive compared
with only one in Sanskrit ; while some Sanskrit formations,
as the periphrastic future, are non-existent i n the earlier
language. Nevertheless, I have, I think, succeeded i n
arranging the figures in such a way that the corresponding
paragraphs of the two grammars can always be easily
compared. The only exception is the first chapter, con
sisting of fifteen paragraphs, which in the Sanskrit Grammar
deals with the Ngar alphabet. A s the present work
throughout uses transliteration only, it seemed superfluous
to repeat the description of the letters given i n the earlier
work. I have accordingly substituted a general phonetic
PREFACE
survey of Vedic sounds as enabling the student to understand

clearly the linguistic history of Sanskrit. The employment
of transliteration has been necessary because by this means
alone could analysis by hyphens and accentuation be
adequately indicated. Duplication with Ngar characters,
as in the Sanskrit Grammar, would have increased the size
and the cost of the book without any compensating advan
tage. A n account of the accent, as of vital importance i n
Vedic grammar, would naturally have found a place in the
body of the book, but owing to the entire absence of this
subject i n the Sanskrit Grammar and to the fulness which
its treatment requires, its introduction there was impossible.
The accent is accordingly dealt with i n Appendix I l l as
a substitute for the Chief Peculiarities of Vedic Grammar
appearing at the end of the Sanskrit Grammar.
The term Vedic is here used to comprehend not only the
metrical language of the hymns, but also the prose of
the Brhmaas and of the Brhmaalike portions of the
Atharvaveda and of various recensions of the Yajurveda.
The grammatical material from the later period is mainly
given i n small type, and is in any case regularly indicated
by the addition of the letter B (for Brhmaa). Otherwise
the phase of the earlier language presented is that of the
Rigveda, as being both the oldest and furnishing the most
abundant material. But forms from the other Vedas are
often also supplied without any distinguishing mark as long
as they conform to the standard of the Rigveda. If, how
ever, such forms are i n any way abnormal, or i f it seemed
advisable to point out that they do not come from the
Rigveda, this is indicated by an added abbreviation i n
brackets, as ' (AV.) ' for ' (Atharvaveda). On the other hand
' (RV.) is sometimes added i n order to indicate, for some
reason or other, that a form is restricted to the Rigveda.
It is, of course, impossible to go much into detail thus i n
vi
PREFACE
a practical work ; but the exact source of any particular

form can always be ascertained by reference to the large
Vedic Grammar. The grammatical usage of the other Vedas,
when it differs from that of the Rigveda, is regularly ex
plained. The reference is given with precise figures when
syntactical examples are taken from the Rigveda, but with
abbreviations only (as TS. for Taittirya Sahit or B. for
atapatha Brhmaa) when they come from elsewhere.
Syntactical citations are not always metrically intact because
words that are unnecessary to illustrate the usage i n question
are often omitted. The accent in verbal forms that happen
to occur i n Vedic texts without it, is nevertheless given
if its position is undoubted, but when there is any uncer
tainty it is left out. I n the list of verbs (Appendix I) the
third person singular is often given as the typical form even
when only other persons actually occur. Otherwise only
forms that have been positively noted are enumerated.
I ought to mention that i n inflected words final s, r, and d
of endings are given in their historical form, not according
to the law of allowable finals ( 27) ; e.g. d t s , not d t ;
t s m d , not t s m t ; p i t r , not p i t ; but when used
syntactically they appear i n accordance with the rules of
Sandhi ; e. g. dev n d t ; v t r s y a vadh I .
The present book is to a great extent based on my large
Vedic Grammar. It is, however, by no means simply an
abridgement of that work. For besides being differently
arranged, so as to agree with the scheme of the Sanskrit
Grammar, it contains much matter excluded from the Vedic
Grammar by the limitations imposed on the latter work as
one of the volumes of Bhler's Encyclopaedia of IndoAryan
Research. Thus it adds a full treatment of Vedic Syntax
and an account of the Vedic metres. Appendix I, moreover,
contains a list of Vedic verbs (similar to that i n the Sanskrit
Grammar), which though all their forms appear i n their
PREFACE
vii
appropriate place within the body of the Vedic Grammar, are

not again presented there in the form of an alphabetical list,
as is done here for the benefit of the learner. H aving
subjected all the verbal forms to a revision, I have classified
some doubtful or ambiguous ones more satisfactorily, and
added some others which were inadvertently omitted in the
large work. Moreover, a full alphabetical list of conjunctive
and adverbial particles embracing forty pages and describing
the syntactical uses of these words has been added i n order
to correspond to 180 of the Sanskrit Grammar. The
present work therefore constitutes a supplement to, as well
as an abridgement of, the Vedic Grammar, thus in reality
setting forth the subject with more completeness as a whole,
though i n a comparatively brief form, than the larger work.
I may add that this grammar is shortly to be followed by
a Vedic Reader consisting of selected hymns of the Rigveda
and supplying microscopic explanations of every point on
which the elementary learner requires information. These
two books will, I hope, enable him i n a short time to become
an independent student of the sacred literature of ancient
India.
For the purposes of this book I have chiefly exploited
my own Vedic Grammar (1910), but I have also utilized
Delbrck's Altindische Syntax (1888) for syntactical material,
and Whitney's Roots (1885) for the verbal forms of the
Brhmaa literature. I n describing the metres (Appen
dix II) I have found Oldenbergs Die Hymnen des Rigveda
(1888), and Arnold's Vedic Metre (1905) very useful.
I am indebted to Dr. James Morison and to my former
pupil, Professor A . B . Keith, for reading all the first proofs
with great care, and thus saving me from many misprints
that would have escaped my own notice. Professor Keith
has also suggested important modifications of some of my
grammatical statements. Lastly, I must congratulate
viii
PREFACE
Mr. J . C Pembrey, Hon. M . A . , Oriental Reader at the

Clarendon Press, on having completed the task of reading
the final proofs of this grammar, now all but seventy years
after correcting Professor H . H . Wilson's Sanskrit Grammar
in 1847. This is a record i n the history of Oriental, and
most probably of any, professional proof reading for the
press.
A. A. MACDONE LL.
6 CHADLINGTON ROAD, OXF0RD.
March 30, 1916.
CONTENTS
PREFACE .
. . .
LIST oF ABBREv1AT1oNs .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
CoRREOT1oNs
CHAPTER I:
PHONETIC
PAG Es
iii-viii
xi
INTRODUCTION
Relation of Vedic to SanskritOral tradition and

WritingSounds of the Vedic LanguageThe Vowels
Vowel GradationThe ConsonantsAncient Pronuncia-
tion .
CHAPTER
II:
Xii
EUPHONIC
1-19
COMBINATION
External Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of Con

sonantsInternal Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of
Consonants .
. . . . . . . . .
20--47
C H A P T E R III : DECLENSION
Nouns : Consonant Stems -ûnchangeable changeable :
with Two Stems; with Three Stems Vowel Stems
Degrees of ComparisonNumerals : Cardinals ; Ordinals ;
Numeral DerivativesPronouns: Personal Demonstra
tive Interrogative Relative Reflexive Possessive
Compound Derivative Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. 47-117
CHAPTER I V : CONJUGATION
IntroductoryThe Present SystemFirst Conjugation
^Second Conjugation- The AugmentReduplication
Terminations Paradigms IrregularitiesThe Perfect
The Pluperfect- The Aorist: First Aorist; Second
AoristBenedictiveThe Future : Simple ; Periphrastic
CONTENTS
PAGE
ConditionalThe Passive Participles GerundIn

finitive Derivative Verbs: Causative Desiderative-
IntensiveDenominative .
.
.
.
.
.
.
117-207
CHAPTER V : INDECLINABLE
WORDS
PrepositionsAdverbial Case-forms Adverbs formed

with SuffixesConjunctive and Adverbial ParticlesInterjections .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
208-253
CHAPTER
V I : NOMINAL STEM
A N D COMPOUNDS
FORMATION
Primary SuffixesSecondary Suffixes GenderVerbal

CompoundsNominal Compounds: Co-ordinatives Deter.
minatives : Dependent and Descriptive Possessives
Governing CompoundsSyntactical CompoundsIterative Compounds .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
254-282
CHAPTER VII: SYNTAX
Introductory Order of Words Number Concord
PronounsUse of the CasesLocative and Genitive
AbsoluteParticiplesGerund InfinitiveUse of the
TensesUse of the Moods: ImperativeInjunctiveSubjunctive0ptativePrecativeConditional .
.
. 283-368
List of Verbs
369435
AppEND1x
II. Vedic Metre
436-447
ApPEND1x
III. The Vedic Accent .
ApPEND1x 1.
. 448-469
471-498
GENERAL INDEx
499-508
VED1C INDEx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A . --^ accusative case.
. ^ tmanepada, middle voice.
AA . ^ Aitareya rayaka.
A B . ^ Aitareya Brhmaa.
Ab. = ablative case.
act. = active voice.
A V . = Atharvaveda.
Av. ^ Avesta.
B . ^ Brhmaa.
C. = Classical Sanskrit.
D.
dative case.
du. = dual number.
f.
= feminine.
G. genitive case.
Gk. ----- Greek.
I.
----- instrumental case.
IE. ^ Indo-European.
I-Ir.
Indo-Iranian.
ind. ----- indicative mood.
K . ^ Khaka sahita.
K B . = Kautaki Brhmaa.
L . = locative ease.
Lat. --^ Latin.
m. masculine.
mid. = middle voice.
MS. = Maitraya Sahit.
N . = nominative ease.
P. --^ Parasmaipada, active voice.
PB. = Pacavia (= Taya) Brhmaa.
pl. = plural number.
RV. ^ Rigveda.
B. ^ atapatha Brahmaa.
s.
------ singular number.
SV. = smaveda.
TA. = Taittirya rayaka.
TB. = Taittirya Brhmaa.
TS. ^ Taittirya sahita.
V.
= Vedic (in the narrow sense as opposed to B. = Brhmaa).
VS. = Vjasaneyi Sahit.
YV.
Yajurveda.
N.B.Other abbreviations will be found at the beginning of
Appendix I and of the Vedic Index.
CORRECTIONS
P.
P.
P.
P.
P.
25, line 24, for am i t i read am ti.

27, line 29, last word, read srat.
133, line 5, for bbhrmhe read bibhmhe.
144, line 31, for stride read strike.
156, lines 6 and 10, for oiketat and ciketathas read cketat
and oketathas.
P. 158, line 21, for (va desire) read (va bellow).
P. 174, lines 30 and 31, delete cucyuvmhi and cucyavrta (cp.
p. 382 under cyu),
P. 188, footnote, for 'gerundive read 'gerund '.
P. 200, line 6, for ' f yaj ' read of yaj '.
P. 215, line 32, for tv:n read t v m ; similarly, pp. 220, line 15,
22I. line 4, 222, line 4, 238, line 9, 242, line 30, for n read m.
P. 273, footnote, last line but one, for ' hciefiy ' read ' chiefly '.
P. 286, line 15, for follows' read 'precedes'.
P. 340, line 17, for tni read ty n i.
P. 347, at the end of line 10, add (i. s i ) .
,, ,, line 17, for v read v.
., ,, line 21, for ducarm read ducrma.
P. 348, line 28, for vettu read vttu.
P. 350, line :^0, after wisdom add (i. 42 ).
P. 351, line 28, for abhi read abh.
. 352, line 31, for v y um read vaym.
,, ,, line 34, for (v. 69) read (vf. 59^).
5
CHAPTER I
PHONETIC
INTRODUCTION
1. Vedic, or the language of the literature of the Vedas,

is represented by two main linguistic strata, i n each of
which, again, earlier and later phases may be distinguished.
The older period is that of the M antras, the hymns and
spells addressed to the gods, which are contained i n the
various Sahits. Of these the Rigveda, which is the most
important, represents the earliest stage. The later period
is that of the prose theological treatises called Brhmaas.
Linguistically even the oldest of them are posterior to most
of the latest parts of the Sahits, approximating to the
stage of Classical Sanskrit. But they still retain the use
of the subjunctive and employ many different types of the
infinitive, while Sanskrit has lost the former and preserves
only one single type of the latter. The prose of these
works, however, to some extent represents better than the
language of the M antras the normal features of Vedic
syntax, which i n the latter is somewhat interfered with by
the exigences of metre.
The language of the works forming appendices to the
Brhmaas, that is, of the rayakas and Upaniads, forms
a transition to that of the Sutras, which is practically
identical with Classical Sanskrit.
The linguistic material of the Rigveda, being more ancient,
extensive, and authentic than that of the other Sahits, all
of which borrow largely from it, is taken as the basis of
this grammar. It is, however, considerably supplemented
from the other Sahits. The grammatical forms of the
Brhmaas, where they differ from those of Classical
Sanskrit, have been indicated i n notes, while the r syntax
PHONETIC INTRODUCTION
[l-3
is fully dealt with, because it illustrates the construction of

sentences better than the metrical hymns of the Vedas.
2. The hymns of the Vedas were composed many centuries
before the introduction of writing into India, which can
hardly have taken place much earlier than 600 B. c. They
were handed down till probably long after that event by
oral tradition, which has lasted down to the present day.
Apart from Such tradition, the text of the Sahits has
been preserved i n manuscripts, the earliest of which, owing
to the adverse climatic conditions of India, are scarcely five
centuries old. H ow soon they were first committed to
writing, and whether the hymns of the Rigveda were edited
in the form of the Sahit and Pada texts with the aid of
writing, there seems insufficient evidence to decide ; but it
is almost inconceivable that voluminous prose works such
as the Brhmaas, i n particular the atapatha Brhmaa,
could have been composed and preserved without such
aid.
3. The sounds of the V e d i c language. There are
altogether fifty-two sounds, thirteen of which are vocalic
and thirty-nine consonantal. They are the following :--a. Nine simple vowels : a i u ; four diphthongs :
e o a i au.
b. Twenty-two mutes divided into five classes, each of
which has its nasal, making a group of twenty-seven :
(a) five gutturals (velars) : k k h g gh ;
(l^) five palatals : e ch. j j h ;
2
The text of the Vedas, with the exception of Aufrecht's and

Weber's transliterated editions of the RV. and the TS., is always printed
in the Devangar character. The latter having been fully described
in my Sanskrit grammar for Beginners(414), it is unnecessary to
repeat what is there stated. It will suffice here to give a summary
account of all the sounds of the Vedic language.
This sound is very rare, occurring only once i n the RV. and not
at all in the A v .
2
3-4]
THE
VOWELS
(y) seven cerebrals : h , and . h and h. ;

(^) five dentals : t t h d d h n ;
(^) five labials : p p h b bh m ;
c. Four semivowels : y (palatal), r (cerebral), 1 (dental),
v (labial) ;
d. Three sibilants : (palatal), (cerebral), s (dental) ;
e. One aspiration : h ;
f One pure nasal : (i) called Anusvra (aftcrsound).
g. Three voiceless spirants: (Visarjanlya), h (Jihv
mlya), (Upadhmnya).
4. a. The simple vowels :
ordinarily represents an original short vowel (IE. ^ ) ;
but it also often replaces an original sonant nasal, represent
ing the reduced form of the unaccented syllables an and
am, as sat beside s n t a m being; gat gone beside
gamat has gone.
represents both a simple long vowel (IE. e o) and
a contraction ; e. g. m t r (Lat. mter) mother ; sam
asam I was. It frequently also represents the unaccented
syllable an ; e. g. k h a t dug from k h a n dig.
i is ordinarily an original vowel ; e. g. d i v (Gk. ^tft )
in heaven. It is also frequently the low grade of e and y a ;
e. g. v i d m (t^^)
we know beside v d a (oâ) I know ;
nviha newest beside n v y a s newer. It also represents the
low grade of radical ; e. g. i- taught beside s ti teaches.
is an original vowel ; e. g. jv living. But it also often
represents the low grade of y ; e.g. a--mhi we would
attain beside ay m I would attain ; or a contraction ; e. g.
r they have sped (= i i r 3. pl. PI. of is) ; mat by
thought (= mat).
1
This is much the rarest class of mutes, being scarcely half as

common as even the palatals.
These two sounds take the place of h respectively between
vowels i n the RV. texts ; e. g. o (but ya), mho (but mhv n ).
9
[4
u is an original vowel ; e. g. m d h u (Gk. p^0v) honey.

It is also the low grade of o and va ; e. g. y u g n. yoke
beside yga m. yoking ; s u p t asleep beside svpna m.
sleep.
is an original vowel ; e. g. b h r (ot^p^) I. brow. It is
also the low grade of au and v ; e. g. d h t shaken beside
d h a u t r I. shaking ; s d sweeten beside svd enjoy ;
and often represents a contraction; e.g. c r = u u c r
they have spoken (3. pi. pf. of vac) ; b h the two arms =
bh.
is a vocalic r, being the low grade of ar and r a ; e. g.
k t done beside c a k r a I have done ; gbht seized
beside g r b h a m. seizure.
occurs only i n the ace. and gen. pl. m. and I. of ar stems
(in which it is the lengthened low grade) ; e. g. pitrn,
m t ; pit m , s v s m .
1 is a vocalic 1, being the low grade of al, occurring only
i n a few forms or derivatives of the verb k p (kalp) be in
order : c k p r 3. pl. pf. ; c k p t i 3. s. aor. subj. ; k p t i
(VS.) I. arrangement beside kalpasva 2. s. impv. mid.,
k l p a m. pious work.
b. The diphthongs.
e and o stand for the original genuine diphthongs i u.
They represent (1) the high grade corresponding to the
weak grade vowels i and u ; e. g. scati pours beside
sikt poured ; bhjam beside bhjam aor. of bhuj enjoy ;
(2) the result of the coalescence of a with and in external
and internal Sandhi ; e. g. n d r a = indra ; cit = a u cit ;
p a d = p a d du. n. two steps ; b h v e t a b h v a t a 3. s.
opt. might be ; m a g h n (= m a g h un) weak stem of
m a g h v a n bountiful ; 3) e = az in a few words before
d, dh, h ; e. g. edh be 2. s. impv. of as beside sti ; o az
before b h of easeendings, and before y and v of secondary
suffixes ; e. g. dvobhis inst. pl. of dvas n. hatred ;
45]
VOWEL
GRADATION
d u v o y wishing to give (beside d u v a s y ) ; s h o v a n

mighty beside shasvant.
ai and au etymologically represent i and u, as is
indicated by the fact that they become y and av in Sandhi ;
e. g. gvas eows beside gus ; and that the Sandhi of a
with e (= i) and o (= u) is ai and au respectively.
5. Vowel gradation. Simple vowels are found to inter
change in derivation as well as in verbal and nominal in
flexion with fuller Syllables, or if short also with long vowels.
This change is dependent on shift of accent: the fuller or
long syllable remains unchanged while it bears the accent,
but is reduced to a simple or short vowel when left by the
accent. This interchange is termed vowel gradation. Five
different series of such gradation may be distinguished.
a. The G u a series. H ere the accented high grade
syllables e, o, ar, al, constituting the fundamental stage
and called Gua (cp. 17a) by the native grammarians, inter
change with the unaccented low grade syllables i , u, ,
respectively. Beside the Gua syllables appear, but much
less frequently, the syllables ai, au, r (l does not occur),
which are called Vddhi by the same authorities and may be
regarded as a lengthened variety of the Gua syllables.
Examples are : dida has pointed out : di pointed out ;
mi I go : ims we go ; p n m i I obtain : p n u m s we
obtain ; v r d h y a to further : v d h y a , id.
The low grade of both Gua and Vddhi may be , , r, r ; as
bibhya I have feared and bibh y a has feared : bht frightened ; juh v a
has invoked : ht invoked ; tat r a has crossed : tirte crosses and tr
crossed.
b. The S a m p r a s r a a series. H ere the accented high

grade syllables ya, va, ra (corresponding to the Gua stage
e o, ar) interchange with the unaccented low grade vowels
i , u , ; e.g. iyja I have sacrificed : i sacrificed; v i
desires : u - m s i we desire ; j a - g r h - a I have seized : ja-gh-r
they have seized.
H
P ONETIC INTRODUCTION
[5
^,. Similarly the long syllables y, va, r are reduced to 1, , r ; e. g.

jy f. might : jyte is overcome ; bruy t would say : bruvt id. ;
svd. sweet : sudyati sweetens ; dr g hyas longer : drgh long.
c. The a series.
1. I n its low grade stage a would normally disappear, but
as a rule it remains because its loss would i n most cases
lead to unpronounceable or obscure forms ; e. g. sti is :
snti theyare; jagma I have gone : j a g m r they have
gone ; p d y a t e goes : p i b d a n standing firm ; h n t i slays :
g h n n t i they slay.
2. The low grade of the Vddhi vowel is either a or
total loss ; e. g. p d m. foot : pad with the foot ; dadh ti
puts : d a d h m s i we put ; pun ti purifies : punnti they
purify ; dad ti gives : d e v t t a given by the gods.
3. W h e n represents the Gua stage its low grade is
normally i ; e. g. sth s thou hast stood : sthit stood.
^. sometimes it is owing to analogy; e.g. pun ti purifies :
punh purify. Sometimes, especially when the low grade syllable
has a secondary accent, it is a ; e. g. ghate plunges : ghana n. depth.
d. The a i and au series.

The low grade of a i (which appears as ay before vowels
and before consonants) is ; e. g. gayati sings, gth m.
song : gt sung.
The low grade of au (which is parallel to v : 5 b a) is ;
e. g. dh v ati washes : dht washed ; d h a u t r I. shaking :
dh ti m. shaker, d h m m. smoke.
e. Secondary shortening of , , . The low grade
syllables , , r and r(= ) are further reduced to i , u , ,
owing to shift of accent from its normal position i n a word
to its beginning, in compounds, reduplicated forms, and
vocatives ; e. g. huti I. invocation: hti call; d d ivi shining:
d p y a kindle ; crke thou commemoratest : krt I.
praise (from root k) ; pipt m 3. du. : p r t full (root
p) ; d v i voc. : dev nom. goddess ; v r u voc. : varu-s
nom. motherinlaw.
6-7]
H
T
E CONSONANTS
The Consonants.
6. The guttural mutes represent the Indo-European
velars (that is, q-sounds). In the combination k- the
guttural is the regular phonetic modification of a palatal
before s ; e. g. d see : aor. d k - a t a ; vac speak : fut.
vak-yti.
7. The palatals form two series, the earlier and the later.
a. Original palatals are represented by c h and , and to
some extent by j and h.
1. The aspirate ch is derived from an I E . double sound,
s + aspirated palatal mute ; e. g. c h i d cut off = Gk. o^vy^.
But i n the inchoative suffix cha it seems to represent s +
unaspirated palatal mute ; e. g. g c h - m i = Gk. ô^ô.
2. The sibilant represents an I E . palatal (which seems
to have been pronounced dialectically either as a spirant or
a mute) ; e. g. a t m 100 Lat. centum, Gk. ârou.
3. The old palatal j (originally the media of = I-Ir. z,
French j) is recognizable by appearing as a cerebral when
final or before mutes ; e. g. yjati sacrifices beside aor.
y has sacrificed, y sacrificer, i sacrificed.
4. The breathing h represents the old palatal aspirate
IIr. ^h. It is recognizable as an old palatal when, either as
final or before t, it is replaced by a cerebral ; e. g. v h a t i
carries beside v has carried.
b. The new palatals are c and to some extent j and h .
They are derived from gutturals (velars), being interchange
able, i n most roots and formatives, with gutturals ; e. g.
c-ati shines beside k-a m.flame, k - v a n flaming, ukr
brilliant ; yuje I yoke beside y u g n. yoke, yga in. yoking,
y u k t yoked, ygvan yoking; d u d r h a has injured
beside d r g h a injurious.
a. The original gutturals were changed to palatals by the palatal
sounds i , y immediately following ; e. g. citt noticed beside kta
m . will from cit perceive ; jyas stronger beside ugr strong ; druhy, a
proper name, beside drogha injurious.
[8-lo
S. The cerebrals are entirely secondary, being a specifically

Indian product and unknown i n the Indo-Iranian period.
They are probably due to aboriginal, especially Dravidian,
influence. They are still rare i n the RV, where they never
occur initially, but only medially and finally. They have
as a rule arisen from dentals immediately following the
cerebral (= original s, , j , h) or r-sounds (r, , ) ; e. g.
d u - r a (= dus-tra) invincible ; v - i (= v-ti) wishes ;
m (= mjt) cleansed ; n (= nizd) nest ; dh
(= duzdh) illdisposed; d h ^ (= dht) firm; n m
( = nn m ) of men.
Final cerebral mutes represent the old palatals j , , h ;
e. g. r (= rj) m. ruler nom. s. ; v i p (= v-p) I. a river ;
(= sh) overcoming ; v (= vht) has conveyed
(3. s. aor. of vah).
9. a. The dentals are original sounds, representing the
corresponding I E . dentals. The mutes t and d, however,
sometimes take the place of original s before s and b h
respectively ; e. g. vtss ( A Y ) aor. of vas dwell ;
m d b h s inst. pl. of m s month.
1
b. The labials as a rule represent the corresponding I E .

sounds. But b is very rarely inherited; the number of
words containing this sound has, however, been greatly
increased in various ways. Thus it often replaces p or bh
i n Sandhi and b h i n reduplication ; e. g. p i b d a n firm
beside p a d n. place ; r a b d h taken beside r b h a n t e they
take ; babh v a has been from b h be. There are also many
words containing b which seem to have a foreign origin.
10. The nasals. Of the five nasals belonging to the
corresponding five classes of mutes, only the dental n and
the labial m appear independently and i n any part of a word,
1
z ( = s or old palatal zh), the soft form of , has always disappeared

after cerebralizing d or dh and lengthening the preceding vowel.
Though written as a short vowel the is prosodically long.
2
10]
NASALS
initially, medially, and finally ; e. g. mt I. mother, n m an

n. name. The remaining three are always dependent on
a contiguous sound. The guttural , the palatal , and the
cerebral are never initial, and the last two are never final.
The guttural appears finally only when a following k or g
has been dropped, as i n stems ending i n c or j and i n
those compounded with d ; e. g. p r a t y nom. s. of
p r a t y c facing; kd nom. s. of kd of what kind?
a. Medially appears regularly only before gutturals ;
e. g. a k in. hook ; a k h y a embrace ; ga n. limb ; j g h
1. leg. Before other consonants it appears only when k or g
has been dropped ; e.g. y u d h i for yugdhi ( = y u j d h i )
2. s. imp v. of yuj join.
b. The palatal nasal occurs only before or after c or j , and
before ch ; e. g. p c a five ; yaj m. sacrifice ; v chantu
let them desire.
e. The cerebral appears within a word only, either
before cerebral mutes or replacing dental n after r, or
(either immediately preceding or separated from it by certain
intervening letters) ; e. g. d a m. staff; n m of men ;
v r a m. colour ; u hot ; k r m a a n. step.
d. The dental n is the commonest of the nasals ; it is
more frequent than m, and about three times as frequent as
the other three taken together. A s a rule it represents
I E . n ; but it also appears in place of the dental d or t, and
of labial m before certain suffixes. It is substituted for d
before the suffix na ; and for d or t before the m of
secondary suffixes ; e. g. n n a n. food (from ad eat) ;
v i d y n m a n t gleaming ( v i d y t I. lightning) ; m n maya
earthen (md I. earth). It is substituted for m before t ;
before suffixal m or v ; and before suffixal s or t that have
been dropped as final ; e. g. y a n t r n. rein (yam restrain) ;
ganma, gnvah (aor. of gam go) ; gan (= gams,
gamt) 2. 3. s. aor. of gam go ; y n (= yamst)
3. s. aor. of y a m restrain ; d n gen. of d m house (=dams),
10
H
[ioil
e. The labial m as a rule represents I E . m ; e. g. n m an,

Lat. nomen. It is by far the commonest labial sound, being
more frequent than the four labial mutes taken together.
fi The pure nasal. Distinct from the five class nasals is
the pure nasal, variously called Anusvra and Anunsika,
which always follows a vowel and is formed by the breath
passing through the nose unmodified by the influence of any
consonant. The former is usually written with a dot before
consonants, the latter as before vowels. The proper use
of Anusvra is not before mutes, but before sibilants and h
(which have no class nasal). W h e n final, Anusvra usually
represents m, sometimes n (66 A 2). Medially Anusvra
regularly appears before sibilants and h ; e. g. va m.
reed ; hav i offerings ; m s n. flesh ; s i h m. lion.
It usually appears before s, where it always represents
m or n ; e. g. msate 3. s. subj. aor. of man think ;
pianti beside p i n i from pis crush ; k r a s y t e fut. of
k r a m stride. W h e n Anusvra appears before or h ( = I E .
guttural or palatal) it represents the corresponding class
nasal.
11. The semivowels. The semivowels y , r , 1, V are
peculiar in having each a vowel corresponding to it, viz.
i , , , u respectively. They are called a n t a ( ) s t h in the
Prtikhyas, or ' intermediate ', as standing midway between
vowels and consonants.
a. The semivowel y is constantly written for i before
other vowels within the Veda itself. It also sometimes
appears without etymological justification, especially after
roots i n -a, before vowel suffixes ; e. g. dyi 3. s. aor. pass.
of da give. Otherwise it is based either on I E . i ( = Gk.
spiritus asper) or voiced palatal spirant y ( Gk. ^) ; e. g.
y s who (Gk. o^), yaj sacrifice (Gk. a.ytos) ; but yas boil
(Gk. ô), yuj yoke (Gk. ^ y ) , It is probably due to this
difference of origin that yas boil and y a m restrain reduplicate
with y a in the perfect, but yaj sacrifice with I.
SEMIVOWELS
11
b. The semivowel v is constantly written for u before

other vowels within the Veda itself. Otherwise it seems
always to be based on I E . u , that is, on a v interchangeable
with u, but never on an I E . spirant v not interchangeable
with u.
e. The semivowel r generally corresponds to I E . r, but
also often to I E . 1. A s Old Iranian invariably has r for
both, it seems as i f there had been a tendency to rhotacism
in the IndoIranian period. I n order to account for the
Vedic relation of r to 1, it appears necessary to assume
a mixture of three dialects: one i n which the I E . r and 1
were kept apart ; another i n which I E . 1 became r (the
Vedic dialect) ; and a third i n which I E . r became 1
throughout (the later Mgadh).
r is secondary when it takes the place of phonetic (= z)
as the final of stems i n is and us before endings beginning
with bh; e. g. havr-bhis and vpur-bhis. This substitution
is due to the infiuence of external Sandhi, where is and us
would become ir and ur.
a. Metathesis of r takes place when r would be followed by or h

+ consonant. It appears i n forms of d see and sj send forth ; e. g.
drum to see, ssra one who engages in battle ; also i n brahman m.
priest, brhman n. devotion beside barns n. sacrificial litter (from bh or
barh make big) ; and i n a few other words.
d. The semivowel 1 represents I E . 1 and i n a few instances

I E . r. It is rarer than i n any cognate language except Old
Iranian, i n which it does not occur at all. It is much rarer
than r, which is seven times as frequent. A gradual increase
of 1 is apparent i n the R V . ; thus i n the tenth book are
found the verbs mluc and labh, and the nouns l m a n ,
lohit, which i n the earlier books appear as mruc sink,
rabh seize, r m a n n. hair, rohit red. This letter occurs
eight times as often i n the latest parts of the R V . as i n the
oldest ; and it is seven times as common i n the A V . as i n
the R V . It seems likely that the recorded Vedic dialect
12
[1I12
was descended from an Indo-Iranian one i n which rhotacism

had removed every 1 ; but that there must have been another
Vedic dialect i n which I E . r and 1 were kept distinct, and
a third in which I E . r became 1 throughout ; from the
latter two 1 must have found its way into the literary
language to an increasing extent. I n the oldest parts of the
R V . there are no verbal forms preserving I E . 1, and only a few
nouns : (u)lok m. free space, l o k a m. call, and -mila mixed.
a. In the later Sahits l occasionally occurs both medially and
finally for ; e. g. 1le (vs. Kava) = e (RV. e) ; bal ti (Av.), cf.
RV. b itth. In a good many words l is probably of foreign origin.
12. The sibilants are all voiceless, but there are various
traces of the earlier existence of voiced sibilants (cp. 7 a 3 ;
8 ; 15, 2 k). There is a considerable interchange between
the sibilants, chiefly as a result of assimilation.
a. The palatal sibilant represents an I E . palatal (mute
or spirant). Besides being the regular substitute for dental s
i n external Sandhi before voiceless palatals (e. g. i n d r a ca),
it occasionally represents that sibilant within words by
assimilation ; e. g. v u r a (Lat. socer) father-in-law ; a
(IE. kas) m. hare. Sometimes this substitution takes place,
without assimilation, under the influence of allied words, as
i n k a m. hair beside k s a r a (Lat. caesaries). It is also to
some extent confused with the other two sibilants i n the
Sahits, but here it interchanges much oftener with s
than with . Before s the palatal becomes k, regularly
when medial, sometimes when final ; e. g. d k ase 2. s. aor.
subj. mid., and d k [s] nom. s. from d see.
b. The cerebral is, like the cerebral mutes, altogether
secondary, always representing either an original palatal or
an original dental sibilant.
Medially it represents the
palatals s (= I-Ir. ) and j (= I-Ir. z) and the combination k
before the cerebral tenues n (themselves produced from
dental tenues by this ) ; e. g. na from n a be lost ;
m-a 3. s. impf), from mj wipe ; ta- from tak hew.
1214]
BR
H
EAT ING H SPIRANTS
13
Medially it is regularly, and initially very frequently,

substituted for dental s after vowels other than a and after
the consonants k , r, ; e. g. tihati from s t h stand ;
suupur 3. pl. pI. from svap sleep; a b h m . bull;
u k n m. ox ; var n. rain ; h a v u in oblations ; n u
uvanti they praise ; goi winning cattle ; div n being
in heaven.
Occasionally represents dental s as a result of assimila
tion ; e. g. six (Lat. sex) ; victorious nom. s. from
sh overcoming.
c. The dental s as a rule represents I E . s ; e. g. va-s
horse, Lat. equo-s; s-ti Gk. ^r-rt. In Sandhi it is often
replaced by the palatal and still offener by the cere
bral .
13. The breathing h is a secondary sound representing
as a rule the second half of an original guttural or palatal
aspirate, but occasionally of the dental d n and the labial bh.
It usually stands for palatalized gh, this origin being
recognizable by the appearance of the guttural i n cognate
forms ; e. g. h n t i strikes beside g h n n t i , jagh n a ; d u d r h a
has injured beside d r g h a injurious. It sometimes represents
an old palatal aspirate (= IIr. zh), as is recognizable by its
being replaced as final or before t by a cerebral ; e. g. v h a t i
carries beside v has carried, h (= uzh) for v a h t .
It stands for d h e. g. in g h ate plunges beside g d h n.
ford ; hit placed beside d h i t from d h put. It represents
bh i n the verb grab seize beside grabh. The various origins
of h led to a certain amount of confusion i n the groups of
forms from roots containing that sound. Thus beside
m u g d h , the phonetic past participle of m u h be confused,
appears m h (AV.) bewildered.
14. Voiceless spirants. There are three such represent
ing original final s or r. Visarjanya has its proper place in
paus. Jihvmlya (formed at the root of the tongue) is the
guttural spirant and is appropriate before initial voiceless
14
[14-15
gutturals (k, kh). Upadhmnya (on-breathing) is the bi-labial

spirant f and appears before voiceless labials (p, ph.),
Visajanya may take the place of the latter two, and always
does so in the printed texts of the Sahits.
15. Ancient pronunciation. As regards the pronuncia
tion prevailing about 500 B.C. we have a sufficiently exact
knowledge derived from the transcription of Sanskrit words
i n foreign languages, especially Greek ; from the information
contained i n the old grammarians, Pini and his school ; and
especially from the detailed statements of the
Prtikhyas,
the ancient phonetic works dealing with the Sahits.
The internal evidence supplied by the phonetic changes
occurring in the language of the texts themselves and the
external evidence of comparative philology justify us i n
concluding that the pronunciation i n the period of the
Sahits was practically the same as i n Pini's time.
The only possible exceptions are a very few doubtful points.
The following few remarks w i l l therefore suffice on the
subject of pronunciation :
1. a. The vowels. The simple vowels and a were
pronounced as i n Italian.
But i n the time of the
Prtikhyas was already sounded as a very short close
neutral vowel like the u i n English but. It is, however,
probable from the fact that the metre hardly ever admits
of being elided after e and o i n the R V . , though the
written text drops it i n about 75 per cent. of the occurrences,
that at the time when the hymns were composed the
pronunciation of was still open, but that, at the time
when the Sahit text was constituted, the close pronun
ciation was already becoming general.
The vowel , now usually sounded as r i (an early pro
nunciation as shown by the confusion of and r i in ancient
inscriptions and MSS.), was i n the Sahits pronounced as
a vocalic r, somewhat like the sound in the final syllable of
the French chambre. It is described in the R V . Prtikhya
15]
PRONUNCIATION
15
as containing an r i n the middle. This agrees with ero,

the equivalent of i n Old Iranian.
The very rare vowel 1, now usually pronounced as l r i , was
in the Sahits a vocalic 1, described i n the R V . Prtikhya
as corresponding to 1 representing an original r.
b. The diphthongs e and o were already pronounced as
the simple long vowels and i n the time of the Prtikhyas;
and that this was even the case in the Sahits is shown by
the fact that their Sandhi before a was no longer ay and av
and that the a was beginning to be elided after e and o.
But that they represent the original genuine diphthongs i
and u is shown by the fact that they are produced i n
Sandhi by the coalescence of a with i and u.
The diphthongs ai and au are at the present day pro
nounced as i and u, and were so pronounced even at the
time of the Prtikhyas. But that they etymologically
represent i and au is shown by their Sandhi.
c. Lengthened vowels. The vowels i and u were often
pronounced long before suffixal y ; e. g. s y t e is pressed
(su) ; j a n y n t desiring a wife (jni) ; also before r when
a consonant follows; e.g. g r b h s (but gras) ; a, i , u
often become long before v ; e. g. vidhyat he wounded
(a is augment) ; jigv s having conquered ( ji) ; t van
observing order (t) ; y vant how great ; as compensation
for the loss of a following consonant ; e. g. gn for g u h t
(15, 2 k) ; they are also often pronounced long for metrical
reasons ; e. g. r u d h h v a m hear our prayer.
d. Svarabhakti. W h e n a consonant is i n conjunction
with r or a nasal, the metre shows that a very short vowel
must often be pronounced between them ; e. g. n d r a =
n d r a ; yaj yaj^n sacrifice ; gn = g^n woman.
2
1 A term used in the Prtikhyas and meaning vowel-part '.

Described by the Prtikbyas as equal to ^., or mora in length
and generally as equivalent to a in sound.
2
16
H
[15
e. Loss of vowels. W i t h very few exceptions the only

vowel lost is initial a which, i n one per cent. of its occurrences
in the R V . and about 20 per cent. in the A V . and the metrical
portions of the Y V . , is dropped i n Sandhi after e and o.
In a few words the disappearance of initial a is prehistoric ;
e. g. v bird (Lat. avis) ; s n t i they are (Lat. sunt),
fi. H iatus. In the written text of the Sahits hiatus,
though as a rule tolerated i n diphthongs only, appears in
Sandhi when a final s, y , v has been dropped before
a following vowel ; when final , , e of dual endings are
followed by vowels ; and when a remains after final e
and o.
Though not written, hiatus is common elsewhere also in
the Sahits : y and v must often be pronounced as i and u ,
and a long vowel or diphthong as two vowels, the original
vowels of contractions having often to be restored both
within a word and in Sandhi; e.g. j y h a mightiest as
j y i h a ( = jy iha from j y be mighty).
2. Consonants. a. The aspirates were double sounds,
consisting of mutes followed by a breathing ; thus k h is
pronounced as i n ' inkhorn ' ; th as in ' pothouse ; p h as
in ' topheavy ' ; gh as i n ' loghouse ' ; dh as i n ' madhouse ;
bh as i n ' Hobhouse .
b. The gutturals were no doubt velars or sounds pro
duced by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.
They are described by the Prtikhyas as formed at the
' root of the tongue ' and at the ' root of the jaw .
c. The palatals c, j , c h are pronounced like c h i n ' church ',
j i n join, and ch i n the second part of Churchill.
d. The cerebrals were pronounced somewhat like the
so-called dentals t, d, n i n English, but with the tip of
the tongue turned farther back against the roof of the
mouth. The
y include the cerebral and l h which in
Rigvedic texts take the place of and h between vowels.
The latter occurs medially only ; the former finally also.
PRONUNCIATION
17
Examples are: refreshment; tur a b h i b h t y j ;

ha invincible.
e. The dentals i n the time of the Prtikhyas were
post-dentals, being produced by the tongue, according to
their description, at the ' root of the teeth ' (danta-mla).
f. The class nasals are produced with organs of speech
in the same position as for the formation of the correspond
ing mutes while the breath passes through the nose.
The pure nasal, when called Anunsika, combines with the
preceding vowel to form a single sound, a nasalized vowel,
as in the French 'bon'; when called Anusvra (aftersound), it forms in combination with the preceding vowel
two successive sounds, a pure vowel immediately followed
by the pure nasal, though seeming to form a single sound,
as i n the English 'ba-ng' (where, however, the nasal is
guttural, not pure).
g. The semivowel y is the voiced palatal spirant produced
i n the same place as the palatal vowel 1. The semivowel v
is described by the Prtikhyas as a voiced labio-dental
spirant. It is like the English v or the German w. The
semivowel r must originally have been a cerebral, as is
shown by its phonetic effect on a following dental n. B y
the time of the Prtikhyas it was pronounced i n other
positions also. Thus the R V . Prtikhya speaks of it as
either post-dental or produced farther back (but not as
cerebral).
The semivowel 1 is described in the Prtikhyas as
pronounced i n the same position as the dentals, which
means that it was a post-dental.
h. The sibilants are all voiceless. The dental s sounds
like s in ' sin ; the cerebral like sh i n ' shun (but with
the tip of the tongue farther back) ; while the palatal is
produced midway between the two, being the sibilant pro
nounced in the same place as the spirant in the German
ich. Though the voiced sibilants z, z (palatal French j),
18
z, z h (cerebral) have entirely disappeared, they have generally

left traces of their former existence i n the phonetic changes
they have produced.
i. The sound h was undoubtedly pronounced as a voiced
breathing in the Sahits. The Prtikhyas describe it as
voiced and as identical with the second element of voiced
aspirates (g-h, d-h, b-h). This is corroborated by the
spelling ^ l - h (= h) beside Ô (= ).
j. There are three voiceless spirants appearing only as
finals. The usual one, called Visarjanya i n the Prtikhyas,
is according to the Taittirya Prtikhya articulated i n the
same place as the end of the preceding vowels. Its place
may be taken by Jihvmlya before the voiceless initial
gutturals k, k n ; and by Upadhmnya before the voiceless
initial labials p, ph. These two are regarded by the R V .
Prtikhya as forming the second half of the voiceless
aspirates k h and p h respectively (just as h forms the second
half of gh, b h , ^c.), They are therefore the guttural spirant
(Greek) ^ and the bilabial spirant f respectively.
k. Loss of consonants. This is almost entirely confined
to groups of consonants. When the group is final, all but
the first element, as a rule, is dropped i n paus and i n
Sandhi (28). I n initial consonant groups a sibilant is often
lost before a mute ; e. g. c a n d r shining beside c a n d r ;
s t a n a y i t n m. beside t a n a y i t n thunder; t y m. beside
s t y thief; t beside st m. star; p y a t i sees beside s p
m. spy, spaa seen. I n a medial group the sibilants s
and regularly disappear between mutes ; e. g. bhakta,
3. s. aor. for hhaka beside b h a k i . A mute may
disappear between a nasal and a mute ; e. g. yudh for
yugdh.
a. Medially, voiced sibilants, the dental
the cerebral z,
and the palatal z, have disappeared before the voiced dentals
d, d h , and h , but nearly always leaving a trace of their
former existence. Only in the two roots containing
15]
PRONUNCIATION
19
s sit, s order, the sibilant has disappeared without a trace :

dhvam, a--dhi. But when a preceded the z the loss
of the sibilant is indicated by e taking the place of az ;
e. g. edh (for azdh) from as be ; sed, perfect stem of sad
sit for sazd; similarly i n d e h give (for dazdh) beside
d a d d h . When other vowels than a preceded, the ^ was
cerebralized and disappeared after cerebralizing the follow
ing dental and lengthening the preceding vowel ; thus
stohvam (= stozhvam for stosdhvam) 2. pl.
aor. beside stoa ; similarly m h n. reward (Gk.
ôô^), Similarly the old voiced palatal z disappeared after
cerebralizing a following d or d h and lengthening the
preceding vowel ; e. g. t h i for tazhi (= takdhi) from
tak fashion ; oh for adh (= sakdh) beside
ah sixth. Still commoner is the loss of the old aspirated
palatal zh represented by h, which was dropped after
cerebralizing and aspirating a following t and lengthening
the preceding vowel ; e. g. sh for sht conqueror from
sah ; g h concealed for g u h t (from guzht).
l. H aplology. When two identical or similar syllables
are in juxtaposition, one of them is sometimes dropped ;
e. g. tuvr[va]vn roaring mightily beside t u v r v a ;
i r [ a d h ] d h y a i inf. of i r a d h seek to win; m a d g h a m.
a plant yielding honey, beside m a d h u d g h a shedding sweet
ness ; ra-[sa]kt I. headache.
20
CHAPTER II
R U L E S OF S A N D H I OR E U P H O N I C C O M B I N A T I O N
OF S O U N D S
16. Though the sentence is naturally the unit of speech,
which forms an unbroken chain of syllables euphonically
combined, it is strictly so only i n the prose portions of the
A V and the Y V . B u t as the great bulk of the Vedas is
metrical, the editors of the Sahit text treat the hemistich
(generally consisting of two Pdas or verses) as the euphonic
unit, being specially strict in applying the rules of Sandhi
between the verses forming the hemistich. But the evidence
of metre supported by that of accent shows that the Pda is
the true euphonic unit. The form which the final of a word
shows varies according as it appears in paus at the end of
a Pda, or in combination with a following word within the
Pda. W i t h the former is concerned the law of finals in
paus, with the latter the rules of Sandhi. Avoidance
of hiatus and assimilation are the leading principles on
which the rules of Sandhi are based.
Though both are i n general founded on the same phonetic
laws, it is necessary, owing to certain differences, to dis
tinguish external Sandhi, which determines the changes
of final and initial letters of words, from internal Sandhi,
which applies to the final letters of verbal roots and
nominal stems when followed by certain suffixes and
terminations.
a. The rules of external Sandhi apply with few exceptions
(which are survivals from an earlier stage of external Sandhi)
to words forming compounds, and to final letters of nominal
stems before the caseendings beginning with consonants
( b h y m bhis, bhyas, su) or before secondary (182, 2)
suffixes beginning with any consonant except y.
EXTERNAL
1718]
21
SANDH I
A . E x t e r n a l Sandhi.
Classification of Vowels.
17. Vowels are divided into
A . 1. Simple vowels : a ; i ; u ; ;
2. Gua vowels : a ; e
o
ar a l .
3. Vddhi vowels: ; ai ; au ; r .
a. Gua (secondary duality) has the appearance of being
the simple vowel strengthened by combination with a pre
ceding a according to the rule (19a) of external Sandhi
(except that a itself remains unchanged) ; Vddhi (increase),
of being the Gua vowel strengthened by combination with
another a.
B . 1. Vowels liable to be changed into semivowels : i , ;
u , ; ^ and the diphthongs e, a i , o au (the latter half of
which is i or u) : consonantal vowels.
2. Vowels not liable to be changed into semivowels (and
only capable of coalescence) : a, : unconsonantal vowels.
1
Combination of F i n a l and I n i t i a l Vowels.

IS. If the same simple vowel (short or long) occurs at
the end of one word and the beginning of the next,
contraction resulting in the long vowel is the rule in the
written text of the Sahits. Thus ih s ti = i h asti ;
ndr = n d r a ; t v g n e = t v agne ; v t d m = v i d m ;
s k t m = su u k t m .
4
The Vddhi form of (which would be l) does not occur.

In this vowel gradation, as Comparative Philology shows, the
Gua vowel represents the normal stage, from which the simple
vowel was reduced by loss of accent, while Vddhi is a lengthened
variety of Gua (5 a). The reduction of the syllables ya, va, ra (which
are parallel with the Gua stage) to the corresponding vowels i u,
(5 b) is termed Samprasraa (distraction).
never appears under conditions rendering it liable to be changed
into r (cp. 4 a, p. 4).
does not occur because never meet in the Sahits, and final
does not even occur in the RV.
2
22
EXTERNAL VOWEL SANDH I
[1819
a. The contraction of + a and of + occasionally does

not take place, even in the written text of the RV., both
between the Pdas of a hemistich and within a Pda ; thus
man , a g n ; man a b h ; v u t ; s r d h v ;
and i n a compound, s u t y a .
b. On the other hand, the metre requires the contracted
vowels of the written text to be restored in pronunciation.
I n such cases the restored initial is long by nature or
position, while the preceding final, if long, must be shortened.
Thus cs t is pronounced as ca s t ; c r c a t a as ca arcata ;
m p as m p (for m p) ; matd e as m a t i
d e ; ynt n dava as y n t i n d a v a ; b h a v a n t k a
as bhavantu u k a . When the first word is a mono
syllable (especially v or h), the written contractions and
are usually to be pronounced with hiatus ; thus h l n d r a as
h ndra.
19. a and
a. coalesce with the simple vowels and to the Gua
vowels e and o respectively ; e. g. i h h a i h iha ;
p i t v a = pit i v a ; m = m ; bh = ubh . They
are never contracted to ar in the written text of the R v or
VS. ; hut the metre shows that the combination is sometimes
to he pronounced as ar, for instance i n the compound
saptaya the seven seers = saptarya.
1
Because of the prosodical rule that a long vowel is always

shortened before another vowel. Cf. note 5.
Occasionally 4 i remain uneontracted in the written text of
the R V . , as jy iym, pib imm, raay ih.
3 This contraction is a survival because and are simple long
vowels, but they were originally i, u.
But i n many instances where the contraction is written, the
original simple vowels must be restored with hiatus ; thus subhgos
= subhg u.
is always shortened or nasalized before in the written text ;
e. g. ttha t (for t t h ) ; vipany m tsya (for vipany ) .
2
1921]
EXTERNAL VOWEL
S A N DH I
23
b. coalesce with Gua vowels to Vddhi ; e. g. i b h i

= ebhi.
c. are absorbed by Vddhi vowels ; e. g. s m a s y a u i j
s m a s y a auij.
20. The simple consonantal vowels and before dis
similar vowels or before diphthongs are regularly changed
to the semivowels y and v respectively in the written text
of the Sahits ; e. g. p r t y y a m p r t i ayam ; j n i t r y
ajjanat = j n i t r ajjanat ; tv t a = t t. But the
evidence of the metre shows that this y or v nearly always
has the syllabic value of :t or . Thus v y must be
read as v u ; v i d t h e v ajn as v i d t h e u ajn.
a. Final (which does not occur i n the R V . ) becomes r
before a dissimilar vowel ; an example is v i j t r t t
vijt e t t (B.).
21. The Gua vowels e and o
a. remain unchanged before a. which is generally elided
i n the written text of the Sahits, but according to the
evidence of the metre, must almost invariably i n the R V . ,
and generally in the A V . and Y V . , be pronounced. whether
written or not. I n dev s o a p t r a (1. 3^) the a is both
1
a instead of contracting with e is sometimes nasalized before it :

aminanta vai (for a e) ; upsthm k (for e). Again is
sometimes elided before e and o ; as p'satu (for a e), yth'ohie
(for 0).
Because and are prosodically shortened before a following
vowel (p. 22, note 1).
The exceptional treatment of e in sttava ambym for sttave
ambym is a survival showing that the Sandhi of e and 0 before a
was originally the same as before other vowels.
I n the RV. it is elided i n about 75 per cent., i n the A v . i n about
66 per cent. of its occurrences.
In the RV. it must be pronounced in 99 per cent., i n the A v . and
the metrical parts of the Y v . i n about 80 per cent. of its occurrences.
The frequent elision of the a i n the written text compared with
its almost invariable retention in the original text of the RV., indicates
a period of transition between the latter and the total elision of the
post-vedic period.
2
24
EXTERNAL VOWEL SANDH I
[2123
written and pronounced ; i n s n v gne (i. 1^) it must be

restored as s n v e l gne.
1
b. before every other vowel (or diphthong) would naturally

become ay and av (the form they assume within a word),
but the former drops the semivowel throughout, while the
latter does so only before ; e. g. agna i h (for agnay) ;
v y a u k t h b h (for vyav) ; but v y a v yhi.
22. The Vddhi vowels ai and au are treated before
every vowel (including a) or diphthong exactly i n the same
way as e and o before vowels other than a. Thus a i
becomes (through y) throughout, but au only before
(through v) ; e. g. t s m ak (for tsmy), t s m n d r y a ;
sujihv p a (for sujihv v ), but tv , t v i n d r g n .
2
a. The (secondary) hiatus caused by the dropping of y

and v in the above cases (21 b and 22) as a rule remains.
But further contraction is sometimes actually written i n the
Sahits ; e. g. srtav j u for srtav ju (through
s r t a v y for srtavi) ; v s u for v a s u (through v y
for vi). Sometimes, again, the contraction, though not
written, is required by the metre. Thus ta i n d r a must be
pronounced as tendra, and gon p a (AV.) for goh p a
(through gohy) as gohpa.
Irregular V o w e l Sandhi.
23. V d d h i instead of Gua results from the contraction of
a. the preposition (in the A V . and VS.) with initial
i n r t i = t i and i n r c h a t u chatu. I n the case of
the 1atter verb, the TS. extends this contraction to prepositions
ending i n a : p r c h a t i = p a chati and a v r c h t i =
ava c h t i .
Because e and 0 were originally = i and u.

This is also the sandhi of the A B . and K B .
2325]
ABSENCE
OF V O W E L S A N D H I
25
b. The preposition p r (in the R V . ) with initial i in

priayr = pr isayr.
c. The augment a with the initial vowels i , u , r ; e. g.
ichas 2. s. impf. of is wish ; u n a t 3. s. impI. of u d wet ;
r t a 3. s. aor. of go.
1
Absence of V o w e l Sandhi .
24. The particle u is unchangeable^ i n pronunciation
before vowels, though as a rule written as v after a con
sonant ; e. g. b n u ave, but v d v n d r a . W h e n it
combines with the final a of a particle to o, i n
u, t h o = t h a u , u.t = u t u , m = m u it remains
unchanged even i n the written text ; e. g. t h o n d r y a .
25. a. The and of the dual (nom. acc.) never change
to y and v. This dual is never to be pronounced short,
but the sometimes is ; e.g. h r (^ ) t s y a , but sdhu.
( ^) asmai. This may remain before i as i n h r i v a ,

but in several instances the contraction is written, as i n
r d a s m = r d a s im, while i n several others, though
not written, it must be pronounced.
3
b. The rare locatives singular in and are also regularly

written unchanged i n the R V . , but they seem always to be
treated as prosodically short.
c. The of the nom. plur. m . (of the pronoun asu) am
is always given as unchangeable i n the Pada text (am iti),
but it never happens to occur before a vowel i n the R V .
4
This is perhaps a survival of a prehistoric contraction of (the

original form of the augment) with i , u, r to i, u, r.
The term applied by the native phoneticians to unchangeable
vowels is praghya separated. Such vowels are indicated i n the Pada
text by an appended iti. u is always there written i n its lengthened
and nasalized form as um i t i .
It is occasionally written unchanged i n its lengthened form even
after a consonant, as tm akrvan.
Except vdy asym, to be pronounced vdi asym.
2
26
CONsONANT sANDH1
^-..7
^. The of the nom. s. i n prthiv , prthujry, samr j rarely, of

the istr. sum once, and of the instr. ut often, remains unchanged
before vowels ; e. g. samr j dbi, sum abhvan.
1
26. The diphthong e is unchangeable i n various nominal

and verbal forms.
a. The e of the nom. acc. d u a l (= a + ) , fem. and neut.
of a stems, is not liable to Sandhi ; e. g. r d a s u b h
ghymam.
b. The verbal dual e of the 2. 3. pres. and perf. mid.
never combines, though it is nearly always prosodically
shortened ; e. g. p a r i m a m n t h e asm n .
e. The e of the locative of the pronominal forms t v
in thee, a s m in us, y u m in you are unchangeable ; ^'
e. g. t v i t ; asm yu ; y u m itth .
2
Combination of F i n a l and I n i t i a l Consonants.

27. The external Sandhi of consonants is primarily and
almost exclusively concerned with the assimilation of a final
to a following initial sound. Since the Sandhi of final
consonants generally speaking starts from the form they
assume i n paus. it is necessary to state the law of allowable
finals at the outset. That law may be formulated as follows :
only unaspirated hard mutes, nasals, and Visarjanya are
tolerated, and palatals are excluded, as finals. B y this law
the thirtynine consonants classified in ^ 3 are reduced to
1
The unchangeableness of the vowel here being only occasional is

not indicated with i t i i n the Pada text.
Except dhyem for dhye im, as it is also probably to be
pronounced.
Under the influence of the nominal dual e ; for there was origin
ally no difference between this dual e and any other e i n middle
forms, such as the dual vane, sing. to, and the plur. ante.
Also used as dat. i n the RV.
They are always written with i t i in the Pada text.
Final n and r are, however, to a considerable extent treated not
on the basis of their pausal form, but of etymology.
2
2728] E X T E R N A L
S A N D H I OF C O N S O N A N T S
27
the following eight as permissible i n paus :k, ; ; t, n ;

p, m ; Visarjanya.
The aspirate and soft mutes (3 b) are eliminated, leaving
only hard unaspirated mutes to represent them. The palatals
(3 b ^), including (3 d), and h (3 e), are replaced by k or
( by ).
(3 d) is replaced by , s (3 d) and r (3 e) by Visarjanya.
The nasal (3 b y) and the three semivowels y, 1, v (3 c)
do not occur.
2 S. The rule is that only a single consonant may be
final. H ence all but the first of a group of consonants
must be dropped ; e. g. b h a v a n 3. pi. impI. were (for
b h a v a n t ) ; t n ace. pi. those (for tans) ; t u d n striking
(for t u d n t s ) ; pr forward (through pr k for pr cs) ;
c h n 3. s. aor. has pleased (for c h a n t s t ) .
a. k, t, or t, when they follow an r and belong to the
root, are allowed to remain ; e. g. v r k 3. s. aor. of vj
bend (for v r k t ) ; r k nom. s. of rj strength ; m r
3. s. impf. of mj wipe ; vart 3. s. aor. of v t turn ; suh r t
nom. s. of suh r d friend.
1
^. There are seven instances i n the Sahits i n which a suffixal s or

t is retained instead of the preceding radical consonant. (1) s thus
appears i n the following four nominatives sing. : sadham s beside
sadham t (for sadham d s) companion of the feast; avays (for ava
yjs) f. sacrificial share ; vays (for vayjs) m. a kind of priest ;
purods sacrificial cake (for purod -s). (2) s or t similarly appears i n
the following four singular verbal preterite forms : ys (for yajs)
beside ay 2 s. aor. of yaj sacrifice ; sras (for srajs) 2. s. aor. of sj
emit ; bhanas (for bhanaks) 2. s. impf. of bhaj break ; and srat
(for asrast) 3 3. s. aor. of sras fall.
2
The only instance of a suffix remaining after r is i n dart 3. s. aor.

of d cleave beside dar 2. s. (for dars).
The s is probably due to the analogy of nominatives, like ms moon,
draviod s wealthgiver, ^c.
The appearance of s or t here is due to the beginnings of the
3
28
E X T E R N A L CONSONANT S A N D H I
[29
Classification of Consonants.
29. The assimilation, of which the application of the
rules of consonant Sandhi consists, is of two kinds. It is
concerned either with a shift of the phonetic position i n
which a consonant is articulated, or with a change of the
quality of the consonant. H ence it is necessary to understand
fully the classification of consonants from these two aspects.
In ^ 3 b c d (cp. 15, 2bh) an arrangement according to the
place of articulation is given of all the consonants except
four, the breathing h and the three voiceless spirants, which
are phonetically described in ^ 15, 2 ij.
a. Contact of the tongue with the throat produces the
gutturals, with the palate the palatals, with the roof of
the mouth the cerebrals, with the teeth the dentals, while
contact between the lips produces the labials.
b. I n forming the nasals of the five classes, the breath
partially passes through the nose while the tongue or the
lips are in the position for articulating the corresponding
tennis. The real Anusvra is formed i n the nose only,
while the tongue is i n the position for forming the particular
vowel which the Anusvra accompanies.
e. The semivowels y, r, 1 v are palatal, cerebral, dental,
and labial respectively, pronounced i n the same position as
the corresponding vowels i , , , u , the tongue being in
partial contact with the place of articulation in the first
three, and the lips i n partial contact in the fourth.
d. The three sibilants are hard spirants produced by
partial contact of the tongue with the palate, roof, and teeth
respectively. There are no corresponding soft sibilants
(English z, French j), but their prehistoric existence may be
inferred from various phenomena of Sandhi (cp. 15, 2 ko.).
tendency to normalize the terminations so as to have s in the 2. s. and
t i n the 3. s. some halfdozen examples of this have been found i n
the Brhmaas ; e.g. ves 2. s. impf. ( veds) from v i d know.
2932]
EXTERNAL
CONSONANT S A N D H I
29
e. h and are respectively soft and hard spirants produced

without any contact, and articulated i n the position of the
vowel that precedes or follows. h occurs only before soft
letters, only after vowels and before certain hard letters.
30. Quality of consonants.

Consonants are
1. either hard (surd, voiceless) : k k h c ch, h , t th,
p ph ; s ; h (3) ;
or soft (sonant, voiced): all the rest (3) (besides all the
vowels and diphthongs).
2. either aspirated : k h gh, eh j h , h h h, t h dh
ph bh, h h h , s ;
or unaspirated : all the rest.
Hence the change of c to k is a change of the position of
articulation (palatal to guttural), and that of e to j is a
change of quality (hard to soft) ; while the change of c to g
(hard palatal to soft guttural) or of t to j (hard dental to soft
palatal) is one of both position and quality.
31. It is essential to remember that consonant Sandhi
cannot be applied till finals have been reduced to one of the
eight allowable sounds (27). The latter are then modified
without reference to their etymological value (except partially
in the case of n and
Visarjanya).
Only six of these
allowable finals occur at all frequently, viz. k , t, n, p, m ,
and Visarjanya, while the cerebral and the guttural
are rare.
I. Changes of Quality.
32. A final consonant (that is, a mute or Visarjanya) is
assimilated in quality to the following initial, becoming soft
before soft initials, and remaining hard before hard initials
(consonants).
Hence final k , t, p before vowels and soft consonants
become g, , d, b respectively ; e. g. arvg r d ha (through
arvk for arvc) ; havyav juhv s ya (through -v for
vh) ; urv (through for : cp. 3 b ^y) ; gmad
30
[3237
v j ebhi (for gmat) ; a g n d t y a t (through a g n t for

a g n d h ) ; t r i b gyatr (through t r i p for t r i b h ) ;
ahj (for apj ) .
33. Fina1 k , , t, p before n or m may, and i n practice
regu1arly do, become the nasal of their own class ; e. g.
p r a m r t y a s y a (through p r a g for p r a k ) ; vir
mitr v ruayo (through vir for vir ) ; avati (TS.)
(through ) for navati ; sn n (through a s d for
ast) ; t n m i t r s y a (for t d ) ; t r i k a k m n i v r t a t (through
t r i k a k b for t r i k a k p from t r i k a k b h ) .
34. Final t becomes 1 through d ; e. g. g l l m n a
(for gt).
35. Since the nasals have no corresponding hard sounds,
they remain unchanged i n quality before initial hard sounds.
The guttural , which is rare, remains otherwise unmodified
also (cp. 52) ; but it may before sibilants insert a transitional
k, e.g. p r a t y f i k s beside p r a t y s. Final m is liable to
change of position before all consonants (42). Final dental
n is liable to change before vowels (42, 52), palatals, dentals,
the semivowel 1, and sometimes p (40).
36. The dental nasal n remains unchanged before (1) the
gutturals k , k h , g, g h ; (2) the labials p. ph, b, bh, m ; (3) the
soft dentals d, d h , n ; generally also before t (40, 2) ; (4) the
semivowels y, r, v, and the breathing h ; (5) the cerebral
and the dental sibilants and s.
a. Before and s a transitional t may be inserted,
e.g. h a n t s h a s ; t n t s m .
1
I I . Changes of Position.
37. The only four final consonants (27) liable to change of
are the dental t and n, the labial m, and Visar
position
janya.
1
The palatal and cerebral nasals, as has already been stated, do not
occur as finals.
Before p it sometimes becomes ; cp. 40, 5.
2
37-40]
EXTERNAL
31
a. The two dentals become palatal before palatals.

b. Visarjanya and m adapt themselves to the phonetic
position of the following consonant.
1. F i n a l t.
38. Final t before palatals (c, j , ch, ) is changed to a
palatal (c or j) ; e.g. t c c k u for t t c k u ; y t a y j
jana for y t a y t j a n a ; r o h c chyv for r o h t yv . ^
2. F i n a l n .
39. Final n before vowels is changed, after a long vowel,
to Anusvra : i f the preceding vowel is , to m, if it is , ,
, to mr ; e.g. s r g m v a for s r g n ; vidv m agne for
vidv n ; paridh m r t i for paridh n ; abh m r i v a for
abh n ; nm r a b h for n n .
40. 1. Final n before all palatals that occur becomes
palatal ; e.g. urdhv c a r t h y a for rdhv n ; t
j u e t h m for t n ; vajri n a t h i h i for v a j r i n ; but since
before a transitional t may be inserted, vajnt n a t h i h i
may (through vajric ^' nathihi) become vaj chnathihi.
a. Before c the palatal sibilant is sometimes inserted i n
the RV the preceding n then becoming Anusvra. This
3
Final dentals never come into contact with initial cerebrals i n

the Sahits. No initial cerebral mutes occur i n the RV., and even
the cerebral sibilant occurs only in ss suc and its compounds, and
once in for s from sh.
On the change of to ch after c see 53.
Both m and mr here represent original ns through m, the Sandhi
of being here the same as that of before vowels. n n
n remain unchanged at the end of a Pada (as being i n paus) before
a vowel ; e. g. devay n n'tandra (f. 72 ).
mr occurs only once, otherwise remaining unchanged as n
because two r sounds are avoided i n the same syllable (cf. Vedic
Grammar, 79).
That is, t before becomes o (38).
That is, after c initial may become ch (53).
There are no examples of the inserted sibilant before ch in the
Sahits.
2
5
6
7
32
[4041
insertion takes place, only when the sibilant is etymologically

justified, almost exclusively (though not without exception
even here ^) before ca and c i d ; e. g. anuyj ca,
amen cit. I n the later Sahits the inserted sibilant
becomes commoner, occurring even where not etymologi
cally justified.
2. Final n usually remains unchanged before dental t,
e.g. tv v n t m n ; but the dental sibilant is sometimes
inserted i n the R V . , the preceding n then becoming
Anusvra.
This insertion takes place, only when the
sibilant is historically justified ; e. g. v d a s t v m (for
vdan).
I n the later Sahits the inserted sibilant
becomes commoner, occurring even where not etymo
logically justified.
3. Final n before initial 1 always becomes nazalized 1;
e. g. jigv l l a k m .
4. Though final n generally remains unchanged before
y, r, v, h (36, 4), n , n , n sometimes become m, m r , m r
as before vowels (39) ; e. g. dev n h a v m a h e ; but svvm
y t u (for svvn) ; dadv m v (for dadv n ) ; p v oannm
rayivdha (for annn) ; pamr hatam (for pan) ; ds
ymr ynau (for dsyn).
5. Final n when etymologically representing ns sometimes
becomes before p (36, 2) ; thus n p h i (for nn) ;
n p t ram ; s v t a v p y (for svtavn).
1
3. F i n a l m .
41. Final m remains unchanged before vowels ; e.g.
a g n m H e Ipraise Agni.
1
That is, i n the nom. s. and acc. pl. m., which originally ended
in ns.
E . g . pa ca stht cartham (i. 72 ),
As in the 3. p i . impf., e. g. bhavan (originally bhavant) and the
voc. and loc. of n stems, e. g. rjan (which never ended in s).
No initial th occurs i n the RV.
2
4142]
EXTERNAL
33
^. In a very few instances the m is dropped and the vowels there

upon contract. This Sandhi is mostly indicated by the metre only :
thus rrm ih must be pronounced rrh. It is very rarely
written, as i n durghaitt for durgham ett. The Pada text, however,
neither here (durgh ett) nor elsewhere analyses a contraction i n
this way.
42.
Final m before consonants is changed
1. before the semivowel r , the three sibilants , s, s

and the breathing h to Anusvra ; e. g. htra ratnadh
tamam
(for
htram)
;
vrdhamna
sv
(for
vrdha
mnam) ; mitr huve (for mitrm).
1
2. before y , 1, v it becomes nasalized y , 1, v ; but the

printed texts regularly use Anusvra
instead ; e. g. s
y u d h ; yaj vau.
3. before mutes it becomes the class nasal, and n before
n ; e.g.
bhadrn
kariysi ; ty camasm ; nvan
t v u ; b h a d r n nah. Most MSS. and the printed texts,
however, represent this assimilated m by Anusvra ; e. g.
bhadr kariysi; ty camasm; nva tvu;
b h a d r na.
2
This Sandhi is identical with that of n before the palatals c j , ch

(40) and the soft dentals d, d. n (36, 3), and of t before n (33).
1
Anusvra seems to have been used originally before the sibilants

and h only. Compounds like samr j show that m originally remained
unchanged before r (49 b),
The Taittirya Prtikhya allows the optional use of Anusvra
before these semivowels.
'- Forms with internal m like yamymna and pamlukta show
that m originally remained unchanged i n external Sandhi before y
and l ; and forms like jaganv n (from gam go) point to its having
at one time become n before v i n Sandhi.
Before labials it of course remains.
This assimilation before n being identical with that of d, led to
ambiguity i n some instances and consequent wrong analysis by the
Padapha.
Max Mller in his editions prints Anusvra throughout, even
before labials ; Aufrecht has Anusvra except before labials, where
he retains m.
2
34
EXTERNAL
4. F i n a l
[43
Visarjanya.
43. Visarjanya is the spirant to which the hard s and

the corresponding soft r are reduced i n paus. If followed
by a h a r d sound,
1. a palatal (c, ch) or a dental (t) mute, it becomes the
corresponding Sibilant ; e. g. dev c a k m (through deva
for dev s ) ; p ca (through p ca for p u r ca,) ; y s te
(for y) ; v b h i s t n (for bhi).
1
a. Visarjanya, if preceded by and u, before dental t often becomes

cerebral s, which cerebralizes the following initial t to t. I n the RV.
this occurs chiefly, and in the later Vedas only, before pronouns;
e. g. agn e ; krtu m ; also nki an u. In compounds this
change takes place in all the sahits ; e. g. dara hard to pass.
2
2. a guttural (k, kh) or labial (p, ph) mute, it either

remains or becomes J i h v m l y a () before the gutturals
and Upadhmnlya (h.) before the labials ; e. g. v o
k r m i (for vos) ; n d r a p c a (for n d r a s ) ; p n a
p u n a (for p n a r ) ; d y u pthiv .
3
a. After a it often, in the Rv becomes s, and after , ; e. g. divs

pri ; ptnvatas kdhi ; dyu pit . In compounds this change
takes place regularly i n all the sahits ; e. g. parasp farprotecting ;
bavip drinking the offering ; duk t evildoing, dupd evilfooted.
3. a simple sibilant, it either remains or is assimilated ;
e. g. v a i v t a m a or v a i v t a m a ; d v or d v
; n a s a p t n or nas s a p t n ; p n a s m or p n a s
sm.
Assimilation is undoubtedly the original Sandhi ;
4
This combination (in which visarjanya represents original r) is

contrary to etymology, but is universal in sentence sandhi and is
subject to only two exceptions i n compounds : svr-cakas and svrcanas.
The only exception i n the RV. is ctus-triat thirty-four.
This treatment before gutturals and labials corresponds to that
before t ( l a), and was doubtless the original one in sentence sandhi.
This combination (in which visarjanya represents original r),
though contrary to etymology, is universal in external Sandhi ; but
2
43-46]
EXTERNAL
but the M SS. usually employ

editions regularly do so.
Visarjanya
35
and European
a. Before a sibilant immediately followed by a hard mute, a final

visarjanya is dropped ; e. g. mandbhi stmebhi (through mand
bhi for mandbhis) ; du-ut f. ill-praise (for du-ut), The dropping
is prescribed by the Prtikhyas of the Rv the v s and the TS.,
and is applied by Aufrecht in his edition of the RV.
b. Before a sibilant immediately followed by a nasal or semivowel,
a final Visarjanya is optionally dropped ; e. g. kta rva .(for kta) ;
nisvarm (through n i for nis).
44. Visarjanya (except after a or ) before a soft sound

(vowel or consonant) is changed to r ; e.g. ibhir ya
(through ibhi for ibhis) ; a g n r h t (through a g n
for agns) ; paribh r si (through bh for bh s ),
45. 1. The final syllable (= s) drops its Visarjanya
before vowels or soft consonants; e.g. sut i m (through
sut for sut s ) ; v v v (through v v for vvs).
2. The f i n a l syllable a (= as)
a. drops its Visarjanya before vowels except a ; e. g.
k h y a (through k h y a for khyas).
b. before soft consonants and before a, is changed to o,
after which a may be elided (21 a) ; e. g. n d a v o v m
(through n d a v a for n d a v a s ) ; no t i (through n a for
nas) or n ' t i .
46. The final syllables a (= ar) and (= ar), in the
comparatively few instances i n which the
Visarjanya
represents an etymological r, do not form an exception (45)
to the general rule (44) ; e. g. p r t r a g n ; p n a r n a ;
svar d r u h ; vr avyat .
1
in compounds the original r frequently remains ; e. g. vanarsd,

dhurd, ^:c. This survival shows that r originally remained before
sibilants i n sentence sandhi.
r is original in dvr door, vr protector, vr water ; har ay, ur
dawn, dhar udder, vdhar weapon, vnar wood, svr light ; antr within,
avr down, p n a r again, prtr early ; the voe. of stems, e.g. bhr t ar ;
the 2. 3. s. of past tenses from roots in , e. g. var, from v cover.
1
36
EXTERNAL
[4749
47. r followed by r is always dropped, a preceding short

vowel being lengthened ; e. g. p n rp i for p n a r .
4S. The three pronouns (nom. m. s.) s that, s y that,
e this, drop the Visarjanya before all consonants ; e. g.
s v n n i , s y d t , e t m . The Visarjanya is here
otherwise treated regularly ; at the end of a Pda, e. g.
p a d s 1 cakra e l , and before vowels, e. g. s ap,
e asura, e 'mandan (for amandan); s adh, e
ndra.
2
a. s however, generally combines in the RV. with a following

vowel ; e. g. ssmai for s asmai ; sd for s d ; suadh for s
adh.
Sandhi i n Compounds.
49. The euphonic combination at the junction of the
members of compounds is on the whole subject to the rules
prevailing i n external Sandhi. Thus the evidence of metre
shows that contracted vowels are often to be pronounced
with hiatus when the initial vowel of the second member is
prosodically long (cp. 18 b) ; e. g. y u k t - a v a (for yukt va)
having yoked horses, d e v - i d d h a kindled by the gods (for
d e v d d h a ) , c h a - u k t i (for chokti) invitation.
Compounds have, however, preserved many archaisms of
Sandhi which have disappeared from Sandhi in the sentence.
a. In vi-pti lord of the house and viptn mistress of the house
remains instead of the required by external Sandhi.
b. In samr j sovereign ruler m appears instead of the Anusvra
required before r (42, 1), as i n sar j antam.
4
I n a few instances 0 appears instead of ( ar) under the influence

of a as the pausal form of neuters in as ; e. g. dho romam (for
udhudhar) ; also in the compound aho-rtr for aha-.
s, however, twice retains it i n the RV. ; s plikn (v. 2 )
and ss tva (viii. 33 ) for s.
3 sy never occurs i n the R V . before a vowel or at the end of
a Pda.
vi-pti has in post-Vedic Sanskrit become vipati.
2
16
^^1
EXTERNAL
C O N S O N A N T sANDHI
37
e. A group of compounds formed with dus ill as first member com

bine that adverb with a following d and n to d ( duzd) and du
(=duzn) instead of durd and dur : dbha (for dusdbha) hard
to deceive, d not worshipping (for dusd), dh malevolent (for
dusdh ) ; d-a hard to attain (for dur-na), da (for dusn a)
hard to attain and hard to destroy.
1
d. Final (etymological) r i n the first member is preserved i n the

RV. before hard sounds where the rules of external Sandhi require
visarjanya or a sibilant (43): varkry producing water; svroakas
brilliant as light ; p r pati lord of the stronghold, svrpati lord of heaven ;
vanarsd and vanard sitting in the wood, dhursd being on the yoke ;
svar winning light; svrati acquisition of light. The V S . also has
aharpti lord of day, and dhr h bearing the yoke.
e. Radical stems in i r , ur mostly lengthen their vowel before con
sonants (as they do within the simple word); e.g. dhrd being on
the yoke, pry a leading to the fort.
2
50. Compounds further often contain archaisms which

though still existing i n external Sandhi are obsolescent and
disappear entirely i n later periods of the language.
a. I n six compounds candr bright retains its old initial
sibilant i n the second member ; e. g. va-candra brilliant
with horses, puru-candr ver y br illiant. A s an independent
word it is, excepting three occurrences i n the R V . , invariably
candr.^
b. A final s of the first member or an initial s of the
second member is cerebralized ; e. g. du-ra hard to cross,
du-ha har d to r esists
1
But dur the form required by the later external sandhi is

already commoner in theRV.; e. g. durd ka, dur m an.
Nouns ending in radical r retain the r before the ending su of the
loc. ph ; gr, dhr, pr.
External sandhi gradually encroaches here i n the later Sahits ;
e. g. svpati i n the Sv.
But gir retains its short vowel i n grvaas fond of praise and gr
vhas praised in song.
H ow nearly extinct candr is as an independent word is indicated
by the fact that in the analysis of its six compounds it always appears
as candr i n the Padapha.
I n post-vedic sanskrit only dustara, dusaha.
2
38
EXTERNAL
[5051
c. A dental n in the second member is cerebralized after

, r, i n the first member :
a. almost invariably, whether initial, medial, or final in a root, when
a verbal derivative is compounded with a preposition that contains r ;
e. g. nirj f. bright garment, prihuta denied, pr m. breath ; and
even in suffixes, as pray a n. advance (from y go).
^. predominantly in other compounds when the second member is
a verbal noun ; e. g. grma chief of a village, durg i dangers, pit
ya trodden by the fathers, rakoh demonslaying ; but puroy v an
beside prtary v a going out early. Cerebralization never takes place
i n ghn the weak form of han killing ; nor i n aknh tied to the axle,
kravyav h ana conveying corpses, carmamn tanner, yum nta led
by you.
^y. less regularly when the second member is an ordinary (non
verbal) noun ; e. g. uras broadnosed, prapt greatgrandson ; but
candrnirij having a brilliant garment, pnarnava again renewed.
d. The final vowel of the first member is often lengthened,

especially before v ; e. g. ann vdh prospering by food.
This is often due to an old rhythmical tendency (also
appearing in the sentence) to lengthen a vowel before
a single consonant between two short syllables ; e. g.
r a t h s h able to draw the ear.
e. Final or of the first member is often shortened
before a group of consonants or a long syllable ; e. g. r a
mradas soft as wool ( r ) ; pthivih standing on the
earth (pthiv ) ; amvac t ana driving away disease (mv).
Doubling of Consonants.
51. The palatal c h etymologically represents a double
sound and metrically lengthens a preceding short vowel.
For the latter reason the R V . Prtikhya prescribes the
doubling of ch (in the form of cch) after a short vowel, and,
as regards long vowels, after only, when a vowel follows.
This rule is followed by Max Mller in his editions of the
R V . ; e. g. u t c c h a d , cchdvidhna, but me chantsat.
1
i The Vedic MSS. almost invariably write the simple oh, and this
practice is followed by Aufrecht in his edition of the Rigveda and
L . v. Schroeder in his edition of the MS. It is also followed i n the
present work.
5256]
39
52. Before vowels final and n, i f preceded by a short

vowel, are doubled ; o. g. kd n d r a ; h a n n n d r a .
Though the nasal is always written double, the metre shows
that this rule is only partially applied as regards pronun
ciation in the R V .
a. The compound vra-av with stallions as steeds (=n) is an
exception.
Initial Aspiration.
53. After a final c, initial regularly becomes c h ; e. g.
y e c h a k n v m a for y d a k n v m a .
a. The same change occasionally takes place after ; thus
v p chutudr (for utudr ) ; tur chum (for um ) ,
54. Initial h, after softening a preceding k, t, t, p, is
changed to the soft aspirate of that mute ; e. g. s a d h r y g
ghit for hit ; v havy n i for v havy n i ; sdad
d h t for sdat h t .
55. If gh, dh, bh, or h are at the end of a (radical)
syllable beginning with g, d, or b, and lose their aspiration
as final or otherwise, the initial consonants are aspirated by
way of compensation ; e. g. from dagh reach the 3. s.
injunctive is dhak (for daght) ; b d h waking becomes
b h t ; d h milking becomes d h k .
1
B . I n t e r n a l Sandhi.
56. The rules of internal Sandhi apply to the finals of
roots and nominal and verbal stems before all endings of de
clension (except those beginning with consonants of the
middle stem : 73 a) and conjugation, before primary suffixes
(182, 1) and before secondary suffixes (182, 2) beginning
with a vowel or y. Many of these rules agree with those
of external Sandhi. The most important of those which
differ from external Sandhi are the following :
1
This is not really compensation but the survival of the original

initial aspiration of such roots, which was lost owing to the avoidance
of an aspirate at the beginning and end of the same syllable. H ence
when the final aspirate disappeared, the initial returned.
40
INTERNAL
S A N DH I
[57-61
FinaI Vowels.
57. I n many cases before a vowel is changed to i y ;
u and to uv ; e. g. d h + e = d h i y - dat. s. for thought ;
b h + i = b h u v - on earth ; y u - y u v - has joined ( yu).
58. Final before y becomes r i (154, 3) ; e. g. k make :
k r i - y t e 3. s. pres. pass. is done. Final before consonant
terminations is changed to r, after labials to r ; e. g. g
swallow : gryte is swallowed, g r - swallowed ; p fill :
p r - y t e is filled, p r - filled.
59. e, a i , o, au are changed before suffixes beginning
with vowels or y to ay, y , av, v respectively ; e. g.
e + u = a y - lying ; r a i + e = r y for wealth ; go + e =
gve for a cow; n a u + i = n v in a boat; g o + y a
g v y a relating to cows.
F i n a l Consonants.
60. The most notable divergence from external Sandhi is
the unchangeableness of the final consonants (cp. 32) of
roots and verbal or nominal stems before suffixes and
terminations beginning with vowels, semivowels and nasals
(while before other letters they usually follow the rules of
external Sandhi); e.g. v c ya to be spoken, d u r a s y
worshipping, yas-vat glorious ; v c m i I speak (but v k t i
speaks) ; vocam I will speak, p a p c y t would mix ; pr c
a nom. pl. forward.
a. Before the primary suffix na, d is assimilated ; e. g. nna n. food
(for adna), chinn cut o^ (for chidna) ; and before the secondary
suffixes mant and maya, t and d ; e.g. vidynmant accompanied by
lightning (vidyt) and mnmya consisting of clay (md), In the nominal
caseform am (for anm) of six () the final is assimilated.
61. Nominal or verbal stems ending i n consonants and

followed by terminations consisting of a single consonant,
drop the termination altogether, two consonants not being
tolerated at the end of a word (28). The final consonant
that remains is then treated according to the rules of external
61^3]
I N T E R N A L CONSONANT SANDH I
41
Sandhi. Thus p r a c + s nom. s. forward becomes pr

(the s being first dropped, the palatals being changed to
gutturals by 27, and the k being then dropped by 28) ;
similarly adoh + t = d h o k he milked (55).
62. Aspirates followed by any sounds except vowels,
semivowels or nasals (60) lose their aspiration ; e. g. randh +
d h = r a n d d h 2. s. aor. impv. subject ; 1abh + syate =
lapsyate (B.) 3. s. fut. will take ; but y u d h in battle ;
r b h y a seizing.
a. A lost soft aspirate is, if possible, thrown back before
dnv, bh, s (55) ; e. g. inddhvam 2. p l . impv. of i n d h
kindle ; b h u d b h s inst. pl., b h u t s l o c p l . B u t before s
this rule applies only partially ; thus from dabh harm : des.
dpsati desires to injure, d i p s intending to hurt ; bhas
chew : b p s a t i chews ; guh hide : des. jugukatas beside
aghukat ; dah burn : part. d k a t beside d h k a n t ; d u h
milk : aor. d u k s a t beside dhukat.
b. But it is thrown forward on a following t and th,
which are softened ; e. g. rabh + ta r a b d h seized ;
r u d h + t i = ruddhi ; r u n d h + t m = r u n d d h m 3. s .
impv. let him obstruct.
63. Palatals. a. W h i l e c regularly becomes guttural
before consonants (cf. 61 ; 27 ; 7 b), j i n some cases (the
majority) becomes guttural (k, g). i n others cerebral (, , ) ;
1
For the Vedic language tolerates two aspirates neither at the

beginning and the end of the same syllable, nor at the end of one and
the beginning of the next. On the other hand, there is no loss of
aspiration i n the root if an aspirate (after a vowel) which belongs to a
suffix or a second member of a compound follows ; e. g. vibhbhis
with the Vibhus ; garbhadh m. breedingplace. (The two imperatives bo
dh be for bhodh, and jah strike for jhah, follow the general rule.)
Except in the case of the root dh place, the weak stem of which
dadh (following the analogy of 62a) becomes dhat before t and th
(cf. 134 B b).
j always becomes k before a conjugational s (cp. 144, 4) ; e. g. mk
va 2. s. impv. of mj wipe.
2
42
I N T E R N A L CONSONANT S A N D H I
[6365
e. g. u k t spoken ( vac) ; y u k t joined (yuj) ; rug

broken ( r u j : cp. 65); but r nom. s. king (for r j + s ) ;
m h i 2. s. impv. wipe (for mjdhi) ; r r kingdom (for
r j t r a : cp. 64).
b. The palatal before bh (73 a) normally becomes ;
k before s ; always before t and t h (cp. 64) ; e. g. pab h s with looks (p), v i - b h s with tribes (v) ; vek-ysi
fut. of vi enter ; v i k - loc. pl. (v) ; d k nom. s. of d
direction ; n k nom. s. of n night ; vi- entered (vi).
c. c and j (not ) palatalize a following n ; e. g. yaj + na =
yaj- sacrifice, but p r a - n question.
d. The c h of the root praoh ask is treated like :
p r k t 3. s. sis aor., p r 3. s. s aor. (= prachst) ;
p asked, p r u m inf. to ask.
64. Cerebrals change following dentals to cerebrals (39);
e. g. is + t = i ; avi + d h i = a v i h 2. s. impv. is
aor. of av; a + n m (for anm) = a m (cp. 33, 60a),
a. While the cerebral sibilant seems always to be
come a cerebral mute (t or ) in declension and becomes
i n conjugation, it regularly becomes k before s i n conju
gation (cp. 63 b and 67) ; e. g. d v i + s d v nom. s. hating,
v i p r + s = vipr drop, v i p r b h i s inst. pl. ; avi 1
d h = a v i h 2. s. impv. iaor. of av favour ; d v i + s a t =
dvikat 3. s. inj. sa aor. of d v i hate.
65. Change of dental n to cerebral .
A preceding cerebral , , r, (even though vowels, gut
tural or labial mutes or nasals, y , V, or h intervene) changes
a dental n (followed by a vowel or n , m , y , v) to cerebral ;
e.g. n + nm = n m of men ; p i t + n m pit m of
fathers ; var + na = v r a m. colour ; u + na u hot ;
1
g in cases of d and d : digbhys drgbbs.

But i n the nom. v (v), v-p (v-p) and sp spy (sp) the
cerebral has taken the place of the phonetic k owing to the influence
of other forms i n which tlie cerebral is phonetic.
No example occurs of this sound before the su of the loc. plur.
1
65]
CEREBRALIZATION
OF D E N T A L
43
k r m a a n. step (vowels and labial nasal intervene), a r k a

(guttural and vowel) ; gbhti seizes (labial mute) ; brah
may devotion (vowel, h, labial nasal, vowel ; n followed
by y).
This rule is followed throughout within a word even when
a which it contains is produced by Sandhi; e.g. u u v
(for u s u v n ) .
a. The cerebralization of n takes place almost as regularly in verbs
compounded with the prepositions pr before, pr away, pri round,
nr (for ns) out, as well as i n nominal derivatives of these combina
tions ; e. g. parde (nud thrust), praet guide (n lead); prihuta
denied ; pr iti breathes ( an) ; n r hayt (ban strike), but not i n forms
with ghn (e.g. abhipraghnnti) ; pr hiomi, but parihinmi
(hi impel).
b. I n nominal compounds n is usually cerebralized when it is the
initial of the second member i n the R V . ; e.g. durman illnamed,
prapat greatgrandson ; but trink n. third heaven. It is less fre
quent medially ; e. g. prvh forenoon, v amaas manlyspirited, but
imanas offarseeing mind ; np a giving drink to men, but parip n a
n. drink (cp. 50 c ^),
c. Cerebralizatien is even extended to external Sandhi in a closely
connected following word, most often initially i n the enclitic nas us,
rarely in other monosyllables such as n now, n like, occasionally i n
other words also ; ^ e. g. sah a ; pri et . . . viat. It some
times occurs medially, oftenest in the enclitic pronoun ena this ; e. g.
ndra eam. It occasionally appears i n accented words also after
final r ; e. g. gr hea.
Table showing when n changes to .
in spite of intervening vowels,

gutturals (including h),
labials (including v),
and y
change
n
to
if followed
by vowels,
n , m , y , v.
There are two exceptions to this rule in the RV., the gen. plur.
rnm and rr n m.
After the final cerebral of (for six), assimilated to the
following n (33), initial dental n is cerebralized i n savati ninetysix
(Ts.) and i n a iramimta (B.).
2
44
[6^
66 A . The dental n
1. remains unchanged before y and v ; e. g. h a n y t e is
slain ; tanvn stretching, n d n a n v a n possessed of fuel
(indhana), a s a n v n t having a mouth.
2. as final of a root becomes Anusvra before s ; e. g. ji
ghsati wishes to kill ( han) ; also when it is inserted
before final s or i n the neuter plural (71c; 83); e.g.
n s i n. pi. of n a s sin ; h a v i n. pl. of h a v s
oblation (83).
B . The dental s
1. becomes dental t as the final of roots or nominal
stems
a. before the s of verbal suffixes (future, aorist, desiderative)
in the three verbs vas dwell, vas shine, and ghas eat ; thus
avtss thou hast dwelt ; v t s y a t i will shine ; jighatsati
wishes to eat (171, 5) and j i g n a t s hungry.
b. before caseendings with initial b h i n the reduplicated
perf. participle and i n four other words : thus j g v d b h i s
inst. p l . having awakened ; u d b h i s from us I. dawn ;
m d b h s , m d b h y s from m s m. month ; s v t a v a d b h y a s
from s v t a v a s selfstrong. This change was extended
without phonetic justification to the nom. ace. s. n. i n the
R V . , as t a t a n v t extending far.
2. disappears
a. between mutes ; e. g. b h a k t a 3. s. s aor., for
bhaksta beside bhaki, of bhaj share; cae for
cake (= original caste) 3. s. pres. of cak speak ;
a-gdha uneaten for a-ghs-ta from ghas eat.
A similar loss occurs i n verbal compounds formed with
1
The change of s to t before the t of the 3. s. of a past tense, as i n

vy-vt has shone forth from vi-vas, is probably not a phonetic change,
but is rather due to the influence of the 3. s. of other preterites with t ;
*-vs-t having thus become -vt instead of *vas.
There having been no case-ending s here. No example occurs in
the R V . and A V . of a loc. pl. in vat-su.
2
66-67]
CEREBRALIZATION
OF
45
the preposition u d and the roots s t h stand and stambh

support ; c. g. t - t h i t a and t - t a b h i t a raised up.
b. before d h ; e. g. - d h i for s - d h i 2. s. impv. of s
order ; dhvam 2 pl. mid. impv. of s sit ; also after
becoming and cerebralizing the following dental ; e. g.
stohvam (for stosdhvam) 2. pl. aor. of stu praise.
67. Change of dental s to cerebral .
1
A preceding vowel except a (even though

Anusvra
intervenes) as well as k, r, change dental s (followed by
a vowel, s, t, th, n , m , y , v) to cerebral ; e. g. from h a v s
oblation: h a v inst. s., h a v i nom. pl. ; c k u s n.
eye : c k u inst. s., c k i nom. pl. ; havu loc.
pl. ; srj I. wreath : s r a k loc. p l . ; g r I. song : g r
loc. pl. ; t h a t i stands from s t h stand ; ckumant
possessing eyes ; b h a v i y t i will be from b h be ; suv p a
has slept from svap sleep. But s a r p (final) ; m n a s
(a precedes) ; u s r matutinal.
2
a. The cerebralization of s regularly takes place i n the RV. initially

in verbal compounds after prepositions ending i n i and u as well as i n
nominal derivatives from such compound verbs ; also after the preposi
tion ns out ; e. g. n da sit down, nu uvanti they praise ; niha
ma conquering.
b. I n nominal compounds, s is more usually cerebralized than not,
when the initial s of the second member is preceded by vowels other
than ; e. g. suma having abundant Soma. But s is often retained i n
the RV., not only when or r follows, as in hdisp touching the heart,
risvar sung by seers, but also when there is no such cause to prevent
4
The s, however, remains i n forms of his injure, nis kiss, and

pus man, probably under the influence of the strong forms hinsti,
pmasam, ê.
words i n which s otherwise follows r or any vowel but must be
of foreign origin, as bsaya a demon, bsa n. root fibre, bus n. vapour.
s remains when immediately followed by r or , e. g. tisrs, tis
bhis, tism f. of tri three; usrs gen., usr and usrm loc, beside
uar voc. dawn.
The s remains unchanged when followed by (even when t i n
tervenes) or r (even though a intervenes, with additional m or v in
smar remember and svar sound).
2
46
[6769
the change ; e. g. gsakhi beside gakhi possessing cattle. After r the

s becomes i n svar light winning, svr t i f. obtainment of light.
o. Cerebralization is even extended to externa1 Sandhi i n initial
s after a final i and u in the RV. when the two words are syntactically
closely connected. This change chiefly takes place i n monosyllabic
pronouns and particles, such as s, sy, sm, sma, svid, and particu
larly s ; e.g. . It also occurs i n numerous verbal forms and
participles ; e. g. yy h h for ye are, div n being in heaven. In
other words the change is rare ; e. g. tr adhsth. In the later
sahitas this form of external Sandhi is very rare except i n the
combination u s.
1
Table showing when s changes to .

Vowels except a
(in spite of inter
vening Anusvra),
k, r,
change
s
to
if followed
by vowels,
t, t h , n,
In, y v.
68. The labial m remains unchanged before y , r, I (op.

60 and 42 B 1) ; e. g. y a m y m n a being guided, v a m r m.
ant, p a m l u k t a concealed. But before suffixes beginning
with v it becomes n ; e. g. jaganv n having gone (from
gam go).
69. a. The breathing h becomes k i n all roots before s ;
e. g. d h k i 2. s. pres. from dah burn : saki 2. s. pres.
from sah prevail.
b. I n roots beginning with d it is treated like gh before
t, t h , d h ; e. g. dah + t = d a g d h burnt (62 b), d u n + t m
= d u g d h m 3. du. pres. Similarly treated is the oldest
form of the perf. pass. participle of the root m u h : m u g d h
bewildered.
c. h in all other roots is treated like an aspirate cerebral,
which after changing a following t, th, d h to h and
1
In the RV. occurs the sandhi yju kannm (for skannm) with
out cerebralization of the nn (cp. 65).
6970]
DECLENSION
47
lengthening a preceding short vowel, is dropped ; e. g.

sah + ta s h overcome ; r i h + ta = r h ticked ;
m u h + ta m h (AV.) bewildered; vah + ta = h ;
vah + d h v m = v o h v m (VS.).
d. A n exception to e is the root nah bind, in which h is
treated as d h : n a d d h bound. A n exception to both b
and e is the root d h : d h firm (begins with d and has
a short vowel).
1
CHAPTER III
DECLENSION
70. Declension, or the inflexion of nominal stems by
means of endings that express the various syntactical rela
tions represented by the cases, is most conveniently treated,
owing to characteristic difference of form, meaning, and use,
under (1) nouns (including adjectives) ; (2) numerals; (3) pro
nouns.
In Vedic there are
a. three genders : masculine, feminine, and neuter ;
b. three numbers : singular, dual, and plural ;
e. eight cases : nominative, vocative, accusative, instru
mental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative.
1
In all these past participles the h is i n the RV. written as h.

with Samprasaraa.
Through vazhdhvam : azh here becoming o just as original as
(through az) becomes o (cp. 45 b).
Before this h the vowel never appears lengthened, but it is
prosodically long (cp. 8, note 2).
This is the order of the cases i n the H indu Sanskrit grammarians,
excepting the vocative, which is not regarded by them as a case. It
is convenient as the only arrangement by which such cases as are
identical in form, either i n the singular, the dual, or the plural, may
be grouped together.
9
48
DECLENSION
[7l72
71. The normal caseendings added to the stem are the

following :
S1NGULAR.
-^L F.
N.
N.
V.
A.
I.
s
^
am
D.
L
DUA .
L
L
P URA .
M. F.
N.
M. F.
N.
^
au
bhym
Ab.l
G. 1
L.
as
i^
^
i
os
bhis
bhyas
m
su
a. The vocative is the same (apart from the accent) as

the nominative i n all numbers except the mase. and fem.
sing. of vowel stems generally and the masc. sing. of con
sonant stems in an, man, van ; mant, vaut ; in ; as ;
ys, vs ; tar.
b. The nom. acc. sing. has the bare stem excepting the
words i n a, which add m .
c. The nom. voc. ace. plur. neut. before the ending i
insert n after a vowel stem and before a single final mute
or sibilant of a consonant stem (modifying the n according
to the character of the consonant : cp. 66 A 2).
72. A n important distinction in declension is that between
the strong and the weak stem. It is fully developed only
in derivative consonant stems formed with the suffixes a c ,
an, man, van ; ant, mant, vant ; tar ; ys, .vs.
In the first four and i n the last the weak stem is further
reduced before vowel endings. The stem here has three
forms, which may be distinguished as strong, middle, and
weakest.
a. Shift of accent was the cause of the distinction. The
stem, having been accented i n the strong cases, here naturally
preserved its full form ; but it was shortened i n the weak
cases by the accent falling on the endings. For a similar
reason the last vowel of the strong stem, i f long, is regularly
7274]
DECLENSION
49
shortened i n the vocative, because the accent always shifts

to the first Syllable i n that case.
73. The strong stem appears i n the following cases :
Nom. voc. acc. sing.
Nom. voc. acc. dual
of masc nouns.
Nom. voc. (not acc.) plur.
Nom voc. acc. p l u r a l only of neuters.
a. W h e n the stem has three forms, the middle stem
appears before terminations beginning with a consonant
(bhym, bhis, bhyas, su) ; the weakest before terminations
beginning with a vowel i n the remaining weak cases ;
e. g. p r a t y c a u nom. du. ; p r a t y g b h i s inst. pl. ;
p r a t c s gen. du. (93).
b. I n neuters with three stems, the nom. voc. acc. sing.
are middle, the nom. voc. acc. du. weakest; e.g. p r a t y k
sing. ; pratc du. ; p r a t y c i pl. (93). The other eases
are as i n the masc.
2
NOUNS.
74. Nominal stems are, owing to divergences of inflexion,
best classified under the main divisions of consonant and
vowel declension.
I. Stems ending in consonants 3 may be subdivided into
A . unchangeable ; B . changeable.
II. Stems ending i n vowels into those in A . a and ; B . i
and u ; C. and .
1
Excepting names of relationship in tar (101), nearly all nouns

with changeable stems form their feminine with the suffix (100).
Changeable stems are named i n this grammar i n their strong and
original form, though the middle form would be more practical, inas
much as that is the form in which changeable stems appear as prior
member in compounds.
Some sanskrit grammars begin with the vowel declension in a
(II. A) since this contains the majority of all the declined stems i n
the language. But it appears preferable to begin with the consonant
declension which adds the normal endings (71) without modification.
2
50
DECLENSION
[7577
I. A . Unchangeable Stems.
75. These stems are for the most part primary or radical,
but also include some secondary or derivative words. They
end i n consonants of all classes except gutturals (these having
always become palatals, which however revert to the original
sound in certain cases). They are liable to such changes only
as are required by the rules of Sandhi before the consonant
terminations (cp. 16 a). Masculines and feminines ending
i n the same consonant are inflected exactly alike ; and the
neuters differ only in the acc. s. and nom. voc. ace du. and pl.
76. The final consonants of the stem retain their original
sound before vowel terminations (71) ; but when there is no
ending (i.e. i n the nom. sing., in which the s of the m. and
f. is dropped), and before the ending su of the loc. pl., they
must be reduced to one of the letters k, t, t, p or Visarjanya
(27) which respectively become g, , d, b or r before the
terminations beginning with bh.
a. The voc. sing. m. I. is the same as the nom. except i n
stems in (derivative) as (83).
b. Forms of the nom. voc acc. pl. n. seem not to occur
in the Sahits except i n the derivative as, is, us stems,
where they are common ; e.g. ps, arc i, c k i .
1
Stems i n Dentals.
77. Paradigm triv t m. I. n. threefold.
S1NG.
L
DUA .
L
P UR.
N . m. I. triv t
n. triv t N . A . triv t , N . m. I. triv t as
A . m. f. triv t am n. triv t
m. f. triv t au A . m. I. triv t as
I.
trivt
L
D. [ t r i v d b h y m ] ^ ^
D.
triv t e
Ab
Ab. G.
triv t as
G.
[triv t os] G.
triv t am
L.
triv t i
L.
triv t os
L.
triv t su
m. I. v trvtas.
1
But i n the Brahmaas are found from bhrt bearing, vt turning,

hut sacrificing the N . pl. n. forms bhnti, vnti, hu:nti.
77]
STEMS I N D E N T A L S
51
1. Of the stems i n t most are radical, nearly thirty of

them being formed with a determinative t added to roots
ending i n the short vowels i , u , ; e.g. j - t conquering,
r t hearing, k t making. Nearly a l l of them, however,
appear as the last member of compounds, except c t I. thought ;
d y t I. brilliance ; nt I. dancing ; v t I. host. From sarva
hut offering completely occurs i n N . pl. n. the form sarva
hunti i n the A B . There are also a few derivative stems
formed with the suffixes vat, t t , it, ut, and secondary
t; e.g. p r a v t I. height, devtt I. divine service; s a r t
I. stream ; m a r t m. stormgod ; ykt n. liver, k - t n.
excrement.
2. There are only three stems i n t h : k p t h , n. penis,
p t h m. path, a b h i - n t h adj. piercing.
3. a. About 100 stems end i n radical d, a l l but a few
being roots used as the final member of compounds ; e. g.
nom. a d r i b h d mountaincleaving. Only eight occur as
monosyllabic substantives : n dI.contempt, b h dI.destroyer,
v d I. knowledge, d I. wave, m d I. joy, m d I. clay, h d n.
heart (used i n weak eases only) ; and p d m. foot. The
latter lengthens its vowel i n the strong eases :
Sing. N . p t . A . p d am.
I . pad .
D. p a d . A b . G .
pads.
L . pad.
Du. N . A . p d . I. Ab. padbhy m .
G.L. pads.
P l . N . p d as.
A . pads. I. p a d b h s . D. p a d b h y s .
G. pad m . L . p a t s .
b. There are also six stems formed with derivative d
(suffixal ad ud), seemingly all feminine : dd and dhd
nether millstone, bhasd hind quarters, v a n d longing, a r - d
autumn, k a k - d summit, k k - d palate.
4. There are about fifty radical stems i n dh, simple or
compound. They are almost restricted to m. and I., no
distinctively n. forms (N. A . du. pl.) occurring and only four
forms being used as n. i n the G. L . s. Seven stems appear
52
DECLENSION
[7778
as monosyllabic nouns : v d h strengthening as a masc. adj .,

the rest as fem. substantives : n d h bond ; s r d h foe ; k d h
hunger ; y d h fight ; m d n conflict ; v d h prosperity ; sp d h
battle.
5. Radical stems i n n are formed from half a dozen roots.
Four of these are monosyllabic substantives: t n I. succession ;
r n m. joy ; v n m. wood ; svn adj. sounding. There are
also the compound adjectives t u v i v n roaring aloud and
gon winning cows. H a n slaying occurs as the final
member of at least thirtyfive compounds, but as it follows
for the most part the analogy of the an stems, it will be
treated under these (92).
1
Stems i n Labials.
7S. These stems, which end in p, bh, and m only, are not
numerous. No neuters occur in the first two and only one
or two in the last.
1. A l l the monosyllabic stems i n p are fem. substantives.
They are: p water, k p beauty, k p night, k p finger,
r p deceit, r p earth, v p rod. There are also about dozen
compounds, all adjectives except v i p I. summit. Three
of the adjectives occur as I., the rest as m. ; e. g. pau-t p
m. delighting in cattle.
a. p lengthens the stem in the N . V . pl. pas, a form
sometimes used for the A . also. The forms occurring are :
S i n g . I . ap . A b . G . aps. Du. N . p. Pl. N . V . pas. A .
aps. I. adbhs. D. Ab. a d b h y s . G. ap m . L . aps.
2. The six uncompounded stems i n b h are all I. substan
tives : k b h push, gbh. seizing, nbh. destroyer, u b h
splendour, s t b h praise (also adj. praising), and k a k b h peak.
There are also more than a dozen compounds : the substan
tives are all I., the rest being m. or I. adjectives ; there are
1
The accent of these stems is irregular i n remaining on the radical

syllable (App. III. 11, 1), except tan (beside tn) and van m .
78-79]
STEMS I N P A L A T A L S
53
no neuters. The cases of t r i - b n I. triple praise (a metre)

are : Sing. N . t r i p . A . t r i b h - a m . L t r i b h - . D .
tribhe.
Ab. tribh-as.
L . tribh-i ; P l . A .
tribhas.
a. n b h lengthens its vowel i n the N . pi. nabh-as.
A. nbh-as.
3. There are five or six monosyllabic stems i n m, and
one compound : m n. happiness, d m n. (?) house, k m ,
gm, j m I. earth, h m in. (?) cold ; sanm I. favour.
a. G m and j m syncopate i n the s. I.Ab.G. : gm, j m ;
gms, j m s ; k m syncopates in the A b . G. s. and
lengthens its vowel i n N . du. pl. : k m s ; k m ; k m a s .
D m has the G. s. d n (for dms) in the expressions p t i r
d n and pt1 d n = d m p a t i s and d m p a t lord of the
house and lord and lady of the house.
Stems i n Palatals.
79. The palatals (c, j , ) undergo a change of organ when
final and before consonant terminations (cp. 63). e always
becomes guttural (k or g), j and nearly always become
guttural, but sometimes cerebral ( or ).
1
1. The unchangeable stems i n c when uncompounded

are monosyllabic and almost exclusively I. substantives.
Tvc skin, however, twice occurs as a m., and k r c curlew
is m. Compounds, as adjectives, are often m., but only one
form occurs as a n., i n the adv. pk in a mixed manner.
Vc speech would be declined as follows :
Sing. N . V . v k .
A . v c am (LaI. vocem). I. vac .
D. vc. Ab. G. vcs. L . vcI.
Dual. N . A . v v c , v c au. I. v g bhy m .
Plur. N . V . v c as. A . v c as (rarely vcs). I. v g b h s .
D.Ab. v g b h y s . G. vc m .
Stems i n derivative ac are changeable (93).
54
DECLENSION
[79
Similarly declined are :tvc skin ; sic hem ; r c lustre,

sc flame, s r c ladle ; c stanza, m c injury ; n i m r c
sunset and other compounds. K r c forms its N . s. k r ,
du. k r c a u .
2. There is only one stem i n ch, formed from the root
pch ask : N . du. m. bandhup c h asking after kinsmen ;
also the D. and A . infinitive forms pch to ask, samp c he
to greet ; vip c ham and samp c ham to ask.
3. a. Uncompounded radical stems i n j are mostly I.
substantives ; but j driver, vj stake at play are m., and
y j , r j , bhr j are m. as well as I. Neut. forms occur i n
compound adjectives, but never the distinctively n. endings
of the N . A . V . du. and p l .
When the j is derived from a guttural, it becomes a
guttural i n the N . s. and before consonant endings ; when
derived from an old palatal, it becomes a cerebral i n the
N . s. and before consonants, but k before the su of
the L . p l .
Thus i n the N . r k (rj) vigour ; n i r k (nirj) bright
garment; but bhr m. shining (bhr j ), r m. king, I.
mistress ; L . pl. srak garlands (srj), p r a y k u offerings
(prayj).
2
^. The N . of avayj f. share of the sacrificial oblation and of vayaj m.

priest who offers the oblation is anomalous in dropping the j and adding
the s of the nom. : avays, vays (cp. 28^).
b. There are seven m. and I. adj. or subst. formed with

the suffixes aj and ij : svapnaj sleepless, tj thirsty,
1
From vyac extend occurs the strong form uruvycam far extend
ing, and from sac accompany only the strong forms A. scam, and N. pl.
scas.
This word meaning companion also has a nasalized form in
N . A . s. du. : y (for yk), yjam, yj.
But i n a Brhmaa bhj sharing forms the N . pi. n. form bhji.
Except in tvk from tuj m. sacrificing in due season, priest (from
yaj sacrifice).
2
79]
STEMS I N P A L A T A L S A N D
55
dh-j bold, san-j old ; u-j desiring, b h u r - j f. arm, va-j

m. trader. There is also the n. sj blood.
uij m. I. would be declined as follows :
1
Sing. N . u k .
A . uj-am.
L uj-.
D. u1j-e.
G. ujas.
Du.N. uij-. G . L . uj-os.
P l . N . usj-as. A . uij-as. I. ug-bhis. D. u g - b h y a s .
G. uj-m.
4. There are about sixty monosyllabic and compound
stems in formed from about a dozen roots. Nine mono
syllabic stems are I. : d worship, d direetion, d look,
n night, p sight, p ornament, pr dispute, v settlement,
v r finger. Two are 1n. : lord and s p spy. A l l the
rest are compounds (about twenty of them formed from
d).
Some half-dozen cases of the latter are used as
neuter, but no distinctively n. forms (N.A. du. pl.) occur.
The , as it represents an old palatal, normally becomes
cerebral before bh, but i n d and d a guttural. Before
the su of the L . pi. it phonetically and regularly becomes k.
It usually also becomes k in the N . s. (which originally
ended i n s), as dk, n k ; but cerebral i n s p and vi-sp
spy, v and v-p a river.
The normal forms, if made from v settlement, would be :
N . v v . A . v - a m . I. vi- . D. vi-. A b . G . vi-s.
L . vi-.
Du. N . A . v-, v-au.
PI. N . A . v-as. I. v i - b h s . D. V i - b h y s . G. vi- m .
L. vik.
The N . of some compounds of dr is nasalized, as kd (for
kd k) of what kind but td k such.
The N . s irregularly represents the final palatal (28 a) i n puroa
m. sacrificial cake : N . puros, A . puro am.
This word is of obscure origin, but the j probably represents a
reduced suffix.
1
56
DECLENSION
[8081
Stems i n Cerebrals.
50. The only cerebral stems that occur end in and .
Of the former there are only two : I. praise (only found
i n s. I. ) and i I. refreshment (only i n s. I. i and
G. is).
There are a number of stems from about a dozen roots
ending i n preceded by i , u , , or k. Seven of these are
uncompounded : I. refreshment, tv I. excitement, d v I.
hatred, r I. injury ; I. dawn ; p k I. satiation ; dadh
bold. The rest are compounds of the above or of mis wink,
s r i lean, u k sprinkle, m u steal, p r u drip, dh dare,
v rain ; k eye. The becomes i n the N . , and before
bh, but is of course dropped when k precedes ; e. g. N . d v ,
v i p r I. drop, a n k eyeless, blind ; I. pl. viprbhis.
^. The final becomes k in the adverbial neuter form dadhk boldly.
Stems i n h .
51. There are some eighty stems formed from about
a dozen roots. A l l three genders are found i n their inflexion,
but the neuter is rare, occurring i n two stems only; and
never i n the plural. Of monosyllabic stems n h destroyer,
m h mist, g h hidingplace, r h sprout are I., d r h fiend is m.
or I., s h conqueror is m., m h great, m. and n. A l l the
rest are compounds, more than fifty being formed from the
three roots d r u h hate, vah carry, sah overcome ; over thirty
of them from the last. The two stems u h I. a metre,
and s a r h bee are obscure in origin.
a. A s h represents both the old guttural gn and the old
palatal j n it should phonetically become g or before bh,
but the cerebral represents both in the only two forms that
occur with a b h ending. I n the only L . pi. that occurs,
1
upnh f. shoe occurs only in the L . s. upnhi. Judging by

the inflexion of the word in classical sanskrit the h would become a
dental i n the N . s. and before consonant endings.
8182]
STEMS I N H
AND R
57
anatsu (from anavh), the h unphonetically became ,

which has been dissimilated to t. I n the N . the phonetic k
appears i n the six forms dhak, dhuk, dhruk, ruk,
spk, u k , and the unphonetic i n the three forms v,
, sar.
1
b. Stems formed from vah and sah lengthen the radical

vowel i n the strong cases, the former always, the latter
generally.
The forms actually occurring i f made from s h victorious
would be :
Sing. N . V . m. I. .^ A . m. I. s h am. I. sah . D. sah.
Ab.G. sahs. L . sah.
Du. N . A . V . m. I. sh and s h au. N . A . n. sah .
PI. N . A . V . m. I. s n as.
A . m. shas and s a h s ;
I. shas. D . abhys.
G. m. sah m .
L . m.
as.
Stems i n r.
S2. There are over fifty stems in radical r. The preceding

vowel is nearly always i or u , only two stems containing
and three a. Twelve stems are monosyllabic (seven I..
three m.. two n. ), the rest being compounds. The r
remains before the su of the L . pi., and the radical vowel
7
anavh being a changeable stem with three forms is treated

under the irregular changeable stems (96) .
when h becomes the initial s is cerebralized.
There are no stems i n 1 ; while the five which may be regarded
as ending i n the semivowels y or v are treated below (102) as ai, o,
or au stems.
The stems i n which the r is derivative (and preceded by a), in
the suffixes ar and tar, are treated below (101) as r stems.
gr praise, dvr door, dhr burden, pr stronghold, tr star, psr
victuals, str star.
gr praising, var protector, m r destroyer.
var water, svr light.
2
3
6
7
58
DECLENSION
is lengthened i n the N . s. and before consonant endings.

The forms occurring, i f made from p r , would be :
Sing. N . pur.
A . pram.
D. p u r .
L. pur.
Du. N . A . p r , p r a u .
P l . N . v p r a s . A . p r a s . I. p r b h s .
G. pur m . L . pr.
Ab.G. purs.
D. p r b h y s .
a. dvr has the weakened A. pl. form dras (also once durs and
once dv r as), the only weak case occurring.
b. tr occurs i n one (strong) form only, N . pl. t r as, and str in
one (weak) form only, I. pl. st b his.
e. svr n. light has the two contracted forms D. sur G. s r as.
It drops the caseending in the L . s. sar.
1
Stems i n s.
S3. I. The radical s stems number about forty. A dozen
are monosyllabic, five being m. : j s relative, m s month,
vs abode, pus male. s ruler ; two I. : k s cough, n s
nose ; five n. : s face, bh s light, m s flesh, d s arm, y s
welfare. The rest are compounds, e.g. su das giving well,
liberal.
4
a. Before bh the s becomes d i n the two forms I. mdbhs and D.

mdbhys, and r i n the only other one that occurs : dorbhy m .
b. The A . pi. has the accentuation of weak cases i n mss and
jss.
2. The derivative stems in s are formed with the suffixes

as, is, us, and are, with few exceptions, neuter substan
tives. A l l of them lengthen their final vowel i n the N . V . A .
pl. n., e. g. m n s i , j y t i , c k i . The m . and f.
are mostly compounds with these stems as their final
member.
a. The as stems consist almost entirely of neuters, which
1
W i t h irregular accent.
W i t h the accent of a disyllabic.
Like the an stems (90, 2).
This word might be a feminine.
This word will be treated later (96, 3) as an irregular changeable
stem.
3
5
STEMS I N AS
83]
59
are accented on the root, as m n a s mind, but these as final

members of adjective compounds may be inflected i n all
three genders. There are also a few primary masculines,
which are accented on the suffix, being either substantives,
as raks m. demon, or adjectives (some of which occur also
in the I. as well as n.), as aps active ; and one primary I.,
us dawn.
The N . s. m. I. lengthens the vowel of the suffix : e. g.
g i r s m., u s I., s u m n s m. I. In about a dozen
compounds the long vowel appears (owing to the influence
of the m.) i n the n. also ; e. g. ramrads soft as wool.
Before endings with initial bh the suffix as becomes o
(45b). The forms actually occurring, if made from pas,
n. (Lat. opus) work and aps m. I. active would be as follows :
1
Sing. N . p a s ; ap s .
A . p a s ; apsam.
I. p a s ;
aps. D. pase ; apse. A b . pasas ; apsas.
L . pasi ; a p s i . v. pas.
Du. N . A N . p a s ; a p s , apsau.
D. apbhym.
G. pasos.
PI. p s i ; apsas. I. pobhis ; apbhis. D . po
bhyas ; a p b h y a s .
G. pasm ; apsm.
L.
p a s s u ; apssu.
Similarly N . n. y a s glory, m. I. ya s glorious ; I.
apsar s nymph.
^. A number of forms have the appearance of being contractions
in the A . s. and N . A . pl. m. f. : m asam and as = asas ; thus
mahm great, vedh m ordainer, um dawn, jar m old age, medh m
wisdom, vaym vigour, ngm sinless, apsar m . PI. N . m. girs,
ngs nvedas cognisant, sajs united; f. medh s , jos insati
able, nveds, sur d hs bountiful. A. m. ngs sumedh s (?)
intelligent; f. us.
The vowel of this word is optionally lengthened i n the A . s.,

N . A. du., N . V . pi. : usam beside usam, ^:c.
The ending au is here very rare and occurs chiefly i n the later
Sahits.
2
60
DECLENSION
[83
b. The is stems, numbering about a dozen, consist

primarily of neuters only. W h e n they form final members
of compounds, they are secondarily inflected as m. ; only
one single such form, N . s. sv-ocis self-radiant, occurs
as a I.
The final s becomes before vowel-endings and the
L . pl. su, and r before bh. The inflexion of the n. differs
from that of the m. in the A . s., N . A . du. and pl. The
actual forms occurring, if made from ocs glow i n the n.
and from -ocis m. (when it differs from the n.), would
be:
Sing. N . ocs ; A . ocs ; m. ociam.
I. oc-.
D. oc-e. A b . G. oci-as. L . o c - i . V . cis.
PI. N . A . oc i, m. -oci-as. I. ocr-bhis.
D . ocrbhyas. G. oc-m. L . oc-u (67).
a. as f. prayer, which is not really an is stem, being derived from
4-is (the reduced form of the root s), is inflected thus: N . 1s.
A. -am. L -. P l . N . A . -as.
c. The us stems, numbering at least sixteen exclusive

of compounds, comprise several primary masculines as well
as neuters ; three of the latter when. compounded are also
inflected as I. Eleven of the us stems are n. substantives,
all but one (jans birth) accented on the radical syllable ;
four of these (rus, ckus, t p u s , vpus) are also used as
m. adjectives. Three of the exclusively m. us stems are
adjectives accented on the suffix, while two (nnus, m n u s )
are substantives accented on the root.
The final s becomes before vowel endings, and r
before bh. The inflexion of the n. is the same as that of
the m. except in the A . s. and N . A . du. pl. The only
I. forms (about half a dozen) occur i n the N . and A . :
e. g. N . ckus seeing, A . du. t p u - hot.
The actual forms occurring, if made from ckus eye as n.
and seeing as m. would be :
8385]
H
C ANGEABLE
STEMS
61
Sing. N . ckus. A . ckus ; m. ckuam. I. cku.

D. ckue. A b . G. ckuas. L . c k u i .
Du. N . A . c k u ; m. cku. D. c k u r b h y m .
PI. N . A . c k i ; m . ckuas. I. ckurbhis.
D. ckurbhyas. G. ckum.
I.
B . Changeable Stems.
54. Regular changeable stems are found only among

derivative nouns formed with suffixes ending i n the dentals
t, n , s, or the palatal c. Those in t are formed with the
suffixes ant, mant, vant ; those i n n with an,
man, van, and i n , m i n , v i n ; those i n s with ys
and vas ; those i n c with a c (properly a root meaning
to bend). The stems i n ant (8586), i n (87), yams (88)
have two forms, strong and weak ; those i n an (9092),
vs (89), and a c (93) have three, strong, middle, and
weakest (73).
Nouns w i t h T w o Stems.
1
55. Stems i n ant comprise present, future, and aorist

participles (156) active (m. and n.). The strong stem is i n
ant, the weak in at ; e. g. a d n t and adat eating from
ad eat. These participles are inflected i n the m. and n.
only, the I. having a special stem i n I. The n. inflexion
differs from the m. i n the N N . A . s. du. pl. only. The
accent, if resting on the suffix, shifts i n weak cases to the
endings that begin with vowels.
3
Excepting those of the reduplicating verbs and a few others that

follow their analogy (85 b),
On the formation of the f. stems see 95.
In Latin and Greek the distinction was lost by normalization :
G. edentis, ^t^ro.^.
2
62
DECLENSION
[85
MAsCUL1NE.
s1NGULAR.
L
DUA .
L
L
P URA .
N . a d n (Gk. ^t^)
a d n t au
V. dan
d a n t au.
A . a d n t a m (Lat. edentem) a d n t au
I.
D.
Ab.G.
L.
adat
adat
adats
adat
D. a d d b h y m
G. adats
a d n t a s (Gk. ô^r^)
dantas
adats
I.
D.Ab.
G.
L.
addbhis
addbhyas
adat m
adtsu
NEUTER.
N.A. adt
adat
adnti
Other exampIes are: r c a n t singing, s d ant (sad sit),

g h n n t (han slay), yant (i go), snt (as be) ; p y - a n t
seeing ; i c h n t wishing ; k v n t doing ; s u n v n t pressing ;
b h a j n t breaking ; j n n t knowing ; j a n y a n t begetting ;
y y u t s a n t wishing tofight ; fut. kariynt about to do ; aor.
skant (sah overeome).
a. The analogy of these participles is followed by a few
adjectives that have lost their old participial meaning:
h n t weak, p ant spotted, b h n t great, r a n t brilliant;
also the substantive d n t tooth. The adj. m a h n t great,
also originally a participle, deviates from the participial
declension i n lengthening the vowel of the suffix i n the
strong forms :
2
Sing. N . m. mah n ; n. m a h t . A . mah n tam. I. mahat .

Du. N . A . mah n t, au. D . 1 n a h d - b h y 1 n .
PI. N . mah n tas.
A . mahats.
I. m a h d b h i s .
L. mahtsu.
1
For original adnts cp. Lat. edens.

Probably an old participle of ad eat with prehistoric loss of the
initial a like snt being from as be.
From the root mah (original1y magh). Cp. Lat. magnus.
2
8586]
PRESENT
PARTICIPLES
63
b. The participles of verbs with a reduplicating present

base, i. e. those of the third class (127, 2) and intensives
(172), do not distinguish a strong stem, i n other words,
have at throughout; e.g. b b h y a t fearing, g h n i g h n a t
repeatedly killing (han). The analogy of these participles
is followed by a few others formed from unreduplicated
bases: d -at worshipping, s at instructing; also dkat
and dhkat aor. part. of dah burn. A few others, again,
originally participles, have come to be used as substantives
with a shift of accent to the suffix. Three of these are I.
and two m. : v a h t , s r a v t I. stream ; v e h t I. barren cow ;
v g h t m. sacrificer ; sact - m. pursuer. Besides the first
three substantives just mentioned there are no feminines
except the adjective a-sact unequalled when used as a I.
Hardly any n. forms occur except from the old reduplicated
participle j g - a t going, living (from g go), used chiefly as
a substantive meaning the animate world. The infiexien of
these reduplicated stems i n at is like that of the compounded
radical t stems (77), the accent never shifting to the endings.
The forms occurring if made from d d a t giving ( da)
would be:
Sing. N . m. n. d d a t . A. m. d d a t - a m . I. d d a t - . D .
d d a t - e . G. d d a t - a s . L . ddat-I.
1
Plur. N . A . d d a t - a s .
I. d d a d - b h i s .
G. ddat-am.
S6. The adjective stems formed with the suffixes -mant

and -vant, which both mean possessing, are inflected exactly
alike and differ from the stems in -ant solely i n lengthening
the vowel of the suffix in the N . s. m. The v. of these stems
1
Which has been weakened because here the accent is regularly

on the reduplicative syllable.
But vh-ant carrying as a participle.
But srv-antjlowing.
The derivation of this word is uncertain.
But scat as a participle (from sac accompany).
Lit. having no equal ; but -sacant- as the f. of the participle scat.
The f. is formed with from the weak stem : mat-, vat- (95) .
2
64
DECLENSION
[8687
is regularly formed with mas and vas ; e. g. hvimas

from havmant ; b h g a v a s from b h g a v a n t .
From g m a n t possessed of cows would be formed :
Sing. N . m. g m n ; n. g m a t . A . m. gmantam. L . g
mati. V . m. g m a s .
PI. N . m. g m a n t a s ; n. g m n t i .
A . m. g m a t a s .
L. gmatsu.
3
^7. Adjective stems are formed with the suffixes i n ,

min, v i n , which mean possessing. Those in i n are very
common, those i n vin number nearly twenty, but there
is only one i n min : gmn praising. They are declined
in the m. and n. only ; but the n. forms are very rare,
occurring i n the s. N . I. G. only. These stems sometimes
come to be used as m. substantives ; e. g. g t h n singer.
A s in all derivative stems ending in n , the vowel of the
suffix is lengthened i n the N . s. m., and the n disappears i n
that case (in the n. also) and before consonant endings.
The forms actually occurring, if made from n a s t n having
hands, would be as follows :
4
Sing. m. N . hast . A . h a s t n a m . I. h a s t n . D. h a s t n e .
A b . G . h a s t n a s . L . hastnI. V . h s t i n .
Du. m. N . A . h a s t n , au.
I,D. h a s t b h y m .
G.L.
hastnos.
P L m. N . hastnas. I. h a s t b h i s . D . h a s t b h y a s . G .
hastnm. L . hastu.
Sing. n. N . h a s t . I. h a s t n . G. h a s t n a s .
1
There are sixteen in the RV. in vas and only three in the later
van (of which there are eight more in the Av.), There are six
vocatives i n mas i n the RV., but no example of the form in man.
There are also vocatives i n vas from stems in van and vs
(cp. the v. in yas from stems i n yams).
The only two forms that occur are ghtvnti and paum n ti.
The Padaptha reads vanti and manti in these forms, and the
lengthening of the vowel seems metrieal.
The f . stem is formed with : avn possessing horses ; f. avn-.
3
8889]
C O M P A R A T I V E S T E M S I N YMS
65
SS. 3. Comparative stems are formed with the suffix

ys, which is nearly always added with the connecting
vowel to the accented root. Only two stems are formed
with ys exclusively : jy ys greater and s n y s
older ; six others are formed with y s as well as ys ;
e.g. b h y s and b h v y s more. The strong stem
is reduced in the weak cases, by dropping the nasal and
shortening the vowel, to yas.
These stems are declined
in the in. and n. only. No forms of the du. occur, and i n
the pi. only the N . A . G. are found. The V . s. ends in
yas. The forms actually occurring, if made from kn
ys younger, would be as follows :
MAsCUL1NE.
S1NGULAR.
L
L
P URA .
N. knyn
A. knysam
1.
D.
Ab. G^
L.
V.
knyas
knyase
knyasas
knyasi
knyas
knysas
knyasas
G. k n y a s m
NEUTER.
N.A. knyas
knysi
The I.D. A b . G. sing. n., identical with the m., also occur.
Nouns w i t h Three Stems.
S 9. 1. The stem of the perf. part. active is formed with
the suffix vs. This is reduced in the weak cases in two
ways : before consonant terminations (by dropping the nasal
1
The f. is formed by adding 1 to the weak stem, e.g. pryas

nearer.
Cp. the mant, vant (86), and the vas (89) stems
2
66
DECLENSION
[89
1
and shortening the vowel) to vas which becomes vat ;

and before vowel terminations (by loss of the nasal accom
panied by Samprasraa) to us which becomes us. There
are thus three stems: vs, vat, and u. The accent
always rests on the suffix in uncompounded forms. The
inflexion is restricted to the m. and n. The only specifically
n. form occurring is the A . s. The V . s. is regularly formed
with vas. The forms actually occurring, if made from
cakv s having done, would be as follows :
2
MAsCUL1NE.
SINGULAR.
DUAL.
PLURAL.
N . cakvan
cakv s
cakv sas
A . cakv sam
cakv s
cakrsas
I. c a k r
D. cakre
Ab.G. c a k r s a s
I. c a k r v d b h i s
G. c a k r s m
V . ckvas
NEUTER.
N.A.
cakrvt
a. In about a dozen of these participles the suffix vs

is preceded by i (either as a reduced form of final radical
or as a connecting vowel) :
jajiv n (from j know), t a s t h i v n (sth stand), papi
vn (p drink), yayiv n (y go), rariv n (r give) ; yiv n
(i go), jagmiv n (beside jaganv n : gam go), paptiv n
(pat fly), proivn (praFvas dwell), vivi-i-v n (vi enter) ;
4
1
2
On the change of s to t cp. 66 B 1 b.

The f. is formed with from the weakest stem : e. g. cakrs-1.
Cp. the mant, vant (86), and the ys stems (88).
On the change of m to n see 68.
8990]
STEMS I N A N , MAN, V A N
67
okiv n (uc be wont). This i is dropped before us ; e. g.

tastha, yas, jagme.
90. 2. Nouns i n an, man, van include a large number
of words, those i n van being by far the commonest, those
in an the least frequent. These stems are almost restricted
to m. and n. ; but some forms of adjective stems serve as I.,
and there is one specifically I. stem yan woman.
I n the strong cases the a of the suffix is usually lengthened,
e. g. d h v a n a m ; but i n half a dozen an and man stems it
remains unchanged, e. g. aryamam. I n the weak cases
the a is often syncopated before vowel endings, though
never when man and v a n are preceded by a consonant,
e. g. I. s. gr v a from gr v an pressing stone (but - m a n -
stone), while before consonant endings the final n disappears,
e.g. r j abhis. I n the R V . syncopation never takes place
in the N . A . du. n., nor with one exception (ata-d v ni)
in the L . s.
As in all other n stems, the nasal is dropped i n the N . s.,
e. g. m. d h v , n. k r m a . But there are two peculiarities
of inflexion which, being common to these three groups, do
not appear elsewhere i n the consonant declension. The
ending of the L . s. is i n the R V . dropped more often than
not ; e. g. m r d h n beside m r d h n i on the head. I n the
N . A . pl. n. both the final n of the stem and the termination i
are, in the R V . , dropped in nineteen stems, e.g. k r m a ;
while they are retained i n eighteen, e. g. k r m i .
1. The an stems, which are both m. and n.. besides the
2
With reversion to guttural, lack of reduplication, and strengthened

radical vowel.
The stems i n an and man form their f. with added to their
weakest form; those i n van substitute var.
That is, the a represents an original sonant nasal.
Seven of these appear with i n the Sahit text, but with , like
the rest, i n the Pada text. The evidence of the Avesta indicates that
the form of the sahit is the older.
six or seven adjectival forms are used as f.
2
68
DECLENSION
[90
one I. yan, are not numerous. In the strong forms

bhu-kn chief of the bhus, p n , a god, and yan
woman retain short a ; u k n ox and v an bull fluctuate
between a and . In the inflexion of these stems (unlike
those i n man and van) the concurrence of three consonants
is not avoided ; e. g. r-, I. of r-n.
^. six stems belong etymologically to this group though seeming to
belong to one of the other two. They are : y-v-an m. youth, vn m.
dog, rj-van m. a man, matar-van m. a demi-god, v-bhvan farreaching, p r i - j m a n going round. rn n. is an extended form of
ras head = ir(a)sn.
1
The normal forms, if made from r j an king, would be :

s1NGULAR.
N . rj
L
DUA .
L
L
P URA .
N . A . r j n, au
A . r j nam
V . r j an^
I.
D.
Ab. G.
L.
r j
r j e
r j as
r j ani
r j an
I.D. r j abhym
G. r j os
N.
r j nas
A.
r j as
I. r j abhis
D . r j abhyas
G. r j m
.
L . r j as
The n. differs in the N . A . only. No example of the s. N . A .

occurs (p. 70, n. 1). But the du. of h a n day is han, pl.
hni.
2. The stems i n man are about equally divided between
m. and n., the former being mostly agent nouns, the latter
verbal abstracts. About a dozen forms from these stems
as final members of compounds are used as feminines.^ I n
see below, 91. 3, 4.
Probably from grow.
From bh be.
From gam go.
The V . of mtar-van is m t arivas as if from a stem in van.
No certain examples of f. formed with from man stems are
found i n the RV., though the Av. has five such at the end of
compounds.
1
STEMS I N M A N
90]
69
the strong forms a r y a m n m. a god, t m n m. self j m a n

victorious retain the short vowel i n the suffix. In the weak
forms, even when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, about
a dozen forms do not syncopate the a, e. g. b h m a n ,
d mane. In the I. s. seven stems not only syncopate, but
drop either the m or the n as well : prathin pre ,
bhn , mahin , vari ; drghm , ram- .
The normal forms, if made from - m a n (Gk. aûû)
in. stone, would be :
Sing. N . m. A . m n - a m . I. m a n - . D. man-e.
Ab. G. m a n - a s . L . m a n - i and m a n . v m a n .
Du. N . A . V . mn-. L . m a n - o s .
Plur. N . V s m n - a s . A . m a n - a s . I. m a - b h i s . D.
m a - b h y a s . G. manm. L . ma-sn.
1
The n. differs in the

k r m a n act are :
Sing. k r m a .
krma.
N . A . only.
Du. k r m a .
These cases from
PI. k r m i ,
krm,
3. The stems in van are chiefly verbal adjectives and

are almost exclusively declined in the m. H ardly a dozen
of them make n. forms, and only five or six forms are used
as I. I n the strong cases there is only one example of
the a remaining short: a n a r v a m . I n the weak cases,
when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, the a is always
syncopated in the Sahit text except i n the forms dvne,
vasuvne, and tavani. The V . is usually formed in
van, but there are four in vas : t v a s , evayvas
prtaritvas, vibhvas.
2
when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, the a is generally synco

pated, as mahimn , also mahin , ^:c
The f. of these stems is otherwise formed with 1, which is, how
ever, never added to van, but regularly to a collateral suffix vara.
Twentyfive such stems i n var are found i n the RV.
Cp. the mant, vant, ys, vs stems.
2
70
DECLENSION
[9091
The normal forms occurring, if made from gr van m.

pressingstone, would be :
Sing. N . gr v . A . gr v am. I. gr v . D. gr v e.
Ab. G. gr v as. L . gr v ai and gr v an. V . gr v an.
Du. N . A . V . gr v , au. I. gr v abhym. G. gr v os.
PI. N . V . gr v as.
A . gr v as.
I. gr v abhis.
D.
gr v abhyas. G. gr v m. L . gr v asu.
The n. differs in the N . A . only. These cases (the du.
does not occur) formed from d h n v a n bow are: Sing.
d h n v a . PI. d h n v n i , d h n v , d h n v a .
Irregular Stems i n an.
91. 1. P n t h a n m. path, forming the strong stem

P n t h a n , is best treated under the irregular stems i n
radical (97 A . 2 a).
2. han n. day, otherwise regular, supplements the N . s.
with har.
3. vn m. dog, otherwise inflected like r j an, takes
Samprasaraa i n its weakest stem n. which, as representing an Originally disyllabic stem. retains the accent :
1
s1NGULAR.
N . v (ôu)
A. v n am
I. n -
G. n-as (^vuos)
DUAL.
v n a, au
v n , au
PLURAL.
v n as
sunas
L v-bhis
D. v - b h y a s
G. n - m
The normal N . i n a appears to have been avoided i n an stems,

collateral stems always being substituted i n this case, as ki for
akn eye, ^c.
so also in Greek : ^vôs ^ n-as.
3 Cp. Greek
2
9192]
I R R E G U L A R STEMS I N A N
71
4. yvan, m. youth, otherwise regular, forms its weakest

stem, y u n , by Samprasraa and contraction ( y u n ) :
1
s1NGULAR.
L
DUA .
N. yv
V. yvan
A . yvnam
L
L
P URA .
N.A. yvn
N . V . yvanas
A.
D. y n e
G. y n as
y n as
I. y v a b h i s
D. y v a b h y a s
3
5. m a g h v a n bountiful, an epithet of Indra, also forms

its weakest stem, m a g h n , by Samprasraa and contraction
(maghun) :
s1NGULAR.
DUAL.
N . maghv
V. mghavan
A. maghvnam
maghvn
G. m a g h n a s
maghnos
PLURAL.
maghvnas
maghnas
maghnm
6. d h a n n. udder supplements the N . s. with d har

and d has ; before consonant endings, the latter stem also
occurs : p l . L . d hassu
92. The root han, which forms the final member of
thirtyfive compounds i n the RV, follows, for the most part,
the analogy of derivative stems i n an. The strong stem is
Cp. Lat. juvenis and jnior.

The stem retains the accent because it represents a disyllable ;
cp. vn.
The supplementary stem magh-vant is also used i n the following
eases : N . maghvn. P l . L maghvad-bhis. D. maghvad-bhyas.
L . maghvat-su.
2
72
DECLENSION
[9293
han (with a long vowel in the N . s. only), the middle is h,

and the weakest ghn.
The cases that occur would i n the
compound v t r a h n Vtraslaying be :
1
s1NGULAR.
L
DUA .
L
L
P URA .
N . vtrah
N . A . v t r a h a , au
v. v t rahan
A . vtraham
I.
D.
G.
L.
N . vtrahas
A . vtraghns
vtraghn
vtraghn
vtraghns
vtraghn
I. v t r a h b h i s
3. Adjectives i n a c .
2
93. These words, the suffix of which generally expresses

the meaning of ward, form the strong stem i n ac, the
middle i n ic or c (according as ac is preceded by y or v).
About fourteen stems have a weakest form i n c, and about
six i n c, which, if they are the contractions of accented
syllables, shift the accent to the endings. They are inflected
i n the m. and n. only, the I. being formed with from the
weakest stem. The only cases occurring i n the pl. are the
N . A . and in the du. N . A . L .
The forms actually found, i f made from p r a t y c turned
towards, would be :
3
H ere the h reverts to the original guttural aspirate ; the n in this

combination is never cerebralized.
Properly the root ac bend, which has, however, practically
acquired the character of a suffix.
H ere ya and va irregularly contract to and , instead of i and u.
This is the general rule of the RV., but not of the Av. Thus
A . pi. pratcs RV., prat c as AV.
2
3
4
ADJECTIVES IN ANC
93]
73
MAsCUL1NE.
DUAL.
s1NGULAR.
N . p r a t y (61)
A. pratycam
I.
D.
Ab.G.
L.
prate
pratc
pratcs
prato
PLURAL.
N . A . p r a t y c , au
N . pratycas
A. pratcs
L . pratcs
NEUTER.
N.A. pratyk
Pratc
a. Other words similarly declined are :

STRoNG STEM.
M1DDLE
STEM.
WEAKEsT
STEM.
n y c downward
samye united
tirye transverse
d a e upward
a n v c following
vvac allpervading
nyk
samyk
tiryk
dak
anvk
vvak
nc
samc
tir-c
dc
anc
vsc
b. About a dozen stems, i n which the a c is preceded

by a word ending i n a, have no weakest form. Such are
p c backward, a r v e hitherward, v e downward, dev c
godward, p r c turned away, pr c forward. The only
1
The stem nie seems to have retained the accent ; for the f. is nc
(not no), and the L nc being used adverbially probably has an
adverbial shift of accent. dovadryo godward also retains the accent
on the suffix : I. devadr c .
The y is here inserted by analogy.
H ere tiri takes the place of tirs across, from which the weakest
stem tirao ( = tirs 1 ao) is formed.
though no y precedes the a of the suffix, by analogy.
2
74
DECLENSION
[9395
cases occurring in the du. and pi. are the N . A . m. The

inflexion of these words may be illustrated by p c :
Sing. m. N . p. (61).
A . pcam.
I. pc.
L . pci.
Du. N . A . p c , pcau.
P l . N . pcas. A . pcas.
The only distinctively n. form is N . A . s. pr k . The I. is
formed from the weak stem with : pre.
94. The points to be noted about changeable stems are :
1. The vowel of the suffix is lengthened in the N . s. m.
except in ant and a c stems : g m n , agniv n ; k n y n ;
cakv n ; r j ; m , gr v , y v ; hast , g-m1,
tarasv ; but a d n , p r a t y .
2. The N . sing. ends i n a nasal i n all changeable stems
except those in n, which drop it.
3. A l l changeable stems that lengthen the vowel in the
N . s. m. shorten it i n the V . Those that drop the n i n
the N . , retain it i n the V . , while those that have n (after a)
in the N . drop it in the V . , and add s :
thus r j an (N. r j ), m a n (N. m), gr v an (N.
gr v ), y v a n (N. y v ) ; h s t i n (N. hast ) ; hvimas
(N. h a v m n ) , m r u t v a s (N. m a r t v a n ) ; k n y a s (N.
k n y n ) ; ckvas (N. ckvn).
2
a. The only changeable stems in which the V. does not differ in form
(though it does in accent) from the N . are the ant and ac stems :
dan (N. adn) ; prtya (N. praty).
95.
The feminines of nouns with changeable stems are
In B. some halfdozen N.A. plur. n. forms occur : prci, praty

ci, arvci, samyci, sadhryaci, anvaei.
One an stem has a V . i n as : mtariv-as (p. 68, n. 5).
Four van stems form their V . i n vas : tvas, evayvas prtar
itvas, vbhvas.
The RV. has three vocatives in van : arvan, atvan, avasvan.
The A V . has five others, but none i n vas.
2
9596]
F E M I N I N E S OF C H A N G E A B L E STEMS
75
formed by adding to the weak stem (when there are two

stems) or the weakest (when there are three) ; e. g. adati
(m. a d n t ) ; d h e n u m t (m. d h e n u m n t ) , m a v a t (m.
m a v a n t ) ; a r k n (m. a r k n ) ; n v y a s (m. nvys) ;
jagm(m.jagmiv s); samr j (m.r j an), m a g h n
(m. maghvan), ghn (m. hn) ; pratc (m. p r a t y c ) ;
avitr (m. avit r ).
a. The f. of the present participle active of the first conjugation
(125) is made from the strong m. stem i n ant (cp. 156); that of
the second conjugation from the weak stem i n at ; e. g. bhvant
being, uchnt shining, pyant obtaining abundantly, oodyant
urging ; but ghnat (m. ghnnt) slaying, pprat furthering (m. pprat),
kvat (m. kvnt), yujat (m. yujnt) yoking, punat (m.
punnt) purity ing.
1
b. The f. of the simple future participle is formed like the present

participle of the first conjugation : s yant about to bring forth, san
iynt going to obtain.
e. Adjectives i n van form their f. i n var ; e. g. pvan (î^) fat,
f. pvar (.râ = ^fâ),
The f. of the irregular yvan young
(91. 4) is yuvat.
Irregular Nouns w i t h Changeable Stems.

96. 1. ap I. water lengthens its vowel i n the strong cases
du. and pi. and substitutes t for p before bh. The forms
occurring are :
Sing. I. ap . Ab. G. aps. Du. N . p. PI. N . V .
pas.
A . aps. I. adbhis. D . a d b h y s . G . ap m .
L . aps.
2. anavh m. ox (lit. cartdrawer, from n a s + vah) has
three stems: the last syllable is lengthened i n the strong
stem anav h ; and shortened by Samprasraa i n the
weakest anah and i n the middle anad (dissimulated
The weak stem appears once i n sicat sprinkling beside the

regular sicnt.
I n a compound.
2
76
DECLENSION
[9697
for ana). The N . is irregularly formed as i f from

a stem i n vant. The forms occurring are :
s1NGULAR.
N . anavan
A . anadv h am
DUAL.
PLURAL.
N . anavahau
A . anadv h au
G. anahas
L. anadhi
N . anadv h as
A . anahas
D. anadbhis
L. anadtsu
3. pmas m. man has three forms . its a is lengthened

in the strong stem, and syncopated i n the weakest to pus,
in the middle to p u m . The forms occurring are :
2
SINGULAR.
N . p m n (89. 1)
V. pmas
A. pmsam
A b . G . puss
L . pus
PLURAL.
pmsas
puss
G. pus m
L . pus
I I . Stems ending i n Vowels.

3
97. A . 1. The stems i n derivative a (m. n.) and (f.)

constitute the most important declensions because the former
embraces more than one half of all nominal stems, and the
latter includes more feminines than any other declension.
Probably an old compound, with the second part of which the

Lat. mas male ' may be allied.
W i t h necessary loss of the s between consonants : cp. 28 and 16 a.
N . as, am = Gk. .o^, .o^ ; Lat. .ê, um.
a Gk. a , ; Lat. a.
2
77
STEMS I N A A N D
97]
These two declensions are also the most irregular since the
endings diverge from the normal ones here more than
elsewhere. The a declension is the only one in which the
N . A . n. has an ending i n the singular, and in which the
Ab. s. is distinguished from the G . The inflexion of the n.
differs from that of the m. in the N . A . V . s. du., and pi. only.
The forms actually occurring, if made from p r i y dear,
would bo :
PLURAL.
S1NGULAR.
MASC.
MAsC
FEM.
N . priys
N . priy s
priy s as
A.
priy n
I.
priyis
priybhis
D.Ab.
priybhyas
priy
A. priym
I. p r i y a
priy
D. priy y a
Ab. priy t
G. p r y s y a
L. p r i y
V. p r y a
4
12
priy s
priy s as
priy s
priy b his
priy m
priyy
priy
priy yai
FEM.
priy ys
G. priy m
L . priyu.
V. prys
prysas
11
priy ym^
prye
6
priy b hyas
10
priy m
priy s u.
prys
11
13
DuaI. N . A . m . priy , p r i y u ; I. p r i y .
I.D.Ab. m. I. n. priy b hym.
G.L. m.f.n. p r i y y o s .
Certain adjectives i n as a am follow the pronominal declension

(110).
These terminations originally came from the pronominal declen
sion (110). The final of ena is often lengthened (en).
3 This form, made with the normal I. ending , is rare.
This ending is preserved i n the Lat. o for od (e.g. 6^naivod in
inscriptions) and i n the Greek (Cre tic) adverb ô^ hence.
The terminations yai ( ye), ys ( yas), ym are due to
the influence of the feminines in (originally y), e.g. devyi,
devy s , devy m (cp. 100).
(For notes ^ l see next page.)
2
78
DECLENSION
a. The N . A . neuter forms are : Sing. p r i y m .

P l . p r i y and p r i y i . ^
[97
Du. p r i y .
14
a. I n the Brhmaas and stras the D. s. I. ending ai is used instead

of the Ab.G. ending as both i n this declension and elsewhere (98. 3 a) ;
e. g. jrayai tvaca of dead skin.
16
2. Radical stems, m. and I., are common in the R V . ,

being formed from about thirty roots. Most of them appear
only as the final member of compounds, but four are used as
monosyllables i n the m. : j child, tr protector, d giver,
sth standing ; and seven i n the I. : k abode, kh well,
gn divine woman, j child, jy bowstring, m measure,
vr troop.
The forms occurring i n the oblique cases are so
17
The form amba, occurring thrice i n the R V . , may have a V .

meaning, o mother l The VS. and TS. have the V . mbe as from a stem
mb mother.
This form seems to consist of a double ending : asas. The form
i n as is about twice i n the R V . and twentyfour times i n the A V . as
frequent as that i n asas.
That the ending was originally ns is shown by the Sandhi (40. 2) ;
cp. Gothic ans, Gk. inscr. o^s.
This ending is preserved i n such Greek datives as i^ro^. It is
slightly commoner in the RV. than priybhis, but i n the A V . it is
five times as common. It is almost always used i n the Brhmaas.
The n seems to have been due to the influence of the n stems.
The u of su is almost invariably to be read with hiatus, even
before u.
This form is rare i n the RV., being probably due to the influence
of the many masculines.
The du. i n is more than seven times as common as that i n an
i n the R V .
The form i n is commoner i n the R V . than that i n ni i n the
proportion of three to two. In the A V . the proportion is reversed.
^ This form is due to the influence of the an stems, which form
their m pL i n both and ni e. g. nm and nmnf.
There are no distinctively n. forms, as the radical vowel i n that
gender is always shortened to a, and the stem is then inflected
according to the derivative declension.
These stems become less common i n the later Sahits, where
they often shorten the final vowel to a, and are then inflected like
derivative a stems.
7
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 6
1 7
9798]
R A D I C A L STEMS
79
rare that some endings, such as those of the L . s., the

G.L. du., and the G. pl. are not represented at all. The m.
always takes s in the N . s., but the I. often drops it,
doubtless owing to the influence of the derivative stems.
The radical vowel is dropped before the endings e and as
of the D. and G. s. The forms actually occurring, if made
from j child m. I., would be :
1
Sing. N . j s, I. also j. A . j m . I. j. D. j . G. j s .
V . jas.
Dual. N . A . V . j and j u . I. j bhym.
Plur. N . j s .
A . j s .
I . j bhis.
D. j bhyas.
Ab.
j b h y a s . L . j su.
a. Five anomalously formed m. derivative stems in follow the
analogy of the radical stems.
The strong stem of path m. path is in the RV. pnth only : Sing. N .
pnths. A . pnthm. P l . N . pnths. The Av. has besides the
stem pnthn : sing. N . pnth. A. pnthanam. PI. N . pnthnas.
From the adverb tth thus is formed the sing. N . taths not say
ing ' yes '.
un m., a seer, has a N . like a f. : un. A. un-m. D. une.
mnth churning stick and mah great form the A . mnthm and
mahm.
3. Radical a stems, m. n., numbering about twenty,

consist almost entirely of stems i n radical that has been
shortened to a. Excepting k h a n. aperture they appear as
final members of compounds only ; e. g. p r a t h a m a j first
born. ha slaying is a reduced form of han ; e. g. a t r u - h
slaying enemies.
9S. B . Stems i n i and u (m.f.n.).
Both declensions embrace a large number of nouns of all
genders. But the i declension contains comparatively few
n. stems, and, excepting the N . A . s. and pl., n. forms are
1
Not, however, in most of the dative infinitives ; e. g. par-di to

give up, pra-khyi to see, prati-mi imitate (cp. 167).
Contrary to the rule generally applicable to monosyllabic stems,
the accent remains on the radical syllable throughout.
80
DECLENSION
[98
rare in it, not occurring at all in several cases. In the

u declension the masculines greatly preponderate, being
about four times as numerous as the I. and n. stems taken
together, while the neuters here greatly outnumber the
feminines. The inflexion, which is closely parallel i n both
groups, is practically the same in all genders except that
the N . A . s. and pi. n. differ from the m. and I., and the
A . pl. m. and I. differ from each other. The final vowel of
the stem shows Gua in three of the weak cases of the s.
(D.Ab.G.), as well as i n the V . s. and the N . pl. m. I.,
while it is abnormally strengthened i n the L . s. The
normal ending as of the A b . G . s. is reduced to s, while
that of the L . s. is always dropped in the i declension and
usually i n the u declension. The inflexion of the n stems
has influenced the i declension in the I. s. only, but the
u declension i n the G . A b . and L . also. Oxytone stems,
when i and u are changed to y and v, throw the accent on
a following vowel, not as Svarita, but as Udtta, and even
on the n m of the G . pi., though the stem vowel i n that
case does not lose its syllabic value.
The adjectives c-i bright and mdh-u sweet may be used
to illustrate the forms actually occurring :
S1NGULAR.
m.
N . ci-s
A . ci-m
cy-a
I.
ci-n-
1
I.
ci-s
ci-m
cy-
c
ci
n.
ci
ci
mdhn-s
mdhu-m
ci-n-
mdhu-n
1n.
mdhv-
n.
I.
mdhu-s mdhu
mdhu-m mdhu
mdhv-
mdhu-n-
Five stems in the RV. form their I. like cy, but twenty-five
(under the influence of the n declension) like cin.
This is the normal formation, but the contracted form i n is more
than twice as common i n the RV. The latter is i n the RV. further
shortened to i in about a dozen words.
The normally formed I. i n is made i n the m. by only four stems,
but that with n by thirty i n the RV. ; i n the n. the n form is used
almost exclusively.
1
98]
DERIVATIVE
I.
m.
D. c a y - e
Ab. c e s
ce-s
G. ce-s
L.
c
cau
n.
cay-e
ce-s
V. ce
m.
I.
caye
mdhav-e
[ce-s]
mdho-s
ce-s
c
cau
c
cau
ce
[ci]
mdho
81
n.
mdhav-e mdhave
mdhune
mdho-s mdhos
mdhunas
mdhos
mdho-s
mdhunas
mdhavi
mdhau
mdhau
mdhuni
mdho
mdhu
1 9
1 1
mdho-s
mdhv-as
mdhav-i
mdhau
STEMS I N I A N D U
1 2
13
DUAL.
N.A-V. c
c
ci-bhym
cyos
I.D.Ab.
G.L.
mdh
mdhvos
mdhv-
mdhvos
mdhunos
ar m.f. devout and vi m. sheep have arys and vyas.

The form in au is more than twice as common as that i n i n
m. and f.
The derivative 1, u and stems are the only ones that do not take
or au i n the dual.
t with aid is often used as a D. The RV. has seven datives i n ai,
e. g. bhrtyifor sustenance, following the analogy of the declension.
The RV. has six forms according to the declension, e. g. yuvaty s .
The form vd on the altar, occurring twice, is the only L. from an
i stem with the normal ending i ( = vdii).
7 This type occurs from over sixty stems, the normal formation
(mdhve) from only three stems i n the RV.
^' The normally formed type mdhvas is followed by six stems, the
prevailing type m^dhos by over seventy in the RV.
Seven stems follow this type, while nineteen follow mdhau i n
the RV.
From one stem also mdhve.
Once also mdhvas.
Also mdhvas, vsvas.
Only i n the form s n avi.
^ The only example i n RV. is urv the two earths. The vs. has
jnun two knees.
The only example is j n un0s (Av.).
2
1 0
11
12
13
15
1 4
mdh
1 5
82
[98
DECLENSION
PLURAL.
In.
I.
NN. cay-as
A . cn
m.
I.
n.
^
m
dh
d
h
a
v
a
s
m
d
h
a
v
a
s
^
cay-as^
^ mdhu
ci
c-ni m d h - n
mdh-s
mdhni
c-s
4
ci-bhis
oi-bhyas
cnm
eisu
I.
D.Ab.
G.
L.
n.
mdhubhis
mdhubhyas
mdhnm
mdhusu
a. Twentyseven i stems in the RV. show forms according to the

derivative declension i n the D.Ah.G.L. s. f. : e.g. bhtf.sustenance:
D. bhrtyi ; bh m i f. earth: A b . G . bh m ys, L. bh m ym. Such
forms i n ai, as, m are much commoner i n the AV. I n B . ai is
regularly used instead of as (cp. 97a ^), Besides the numerous I. s.
forms i n n the RV. has half a dozen i stems showing the influence
of the n declension i n the incipient use of the endings n i n the
N.AN. du. n. and n i i n the N . A . pl. n.
In the u declension the RV. has only three forms following the
analogy of the derivative i declension : u f. arrow : D. vai, G. v
as, suvstvs of the (river) Suvstu (all i n late passages). There are
3
The only stem not taking Gua is ar devout which has the N . pi.
arys m. f.
The original ending ns is i n both cn and mdhn preserved
i n the sandhi forms of s or r (39, 40).
About ten stems i n i i n the RV. have N. pl. forms according to
the derivative declension ; e. g. avns streams beside avnayas.
The normal type c ( ci-i) is of about the same frequency
as its shortened form ci, both together occurring about fifty times
in the RV. The secondary type cni occurs about fourteen times.
There is only one example of the N . pl. m. without Gua : mdhv-as
itself occurring four times.
There are two examples of the N . pl. I. without Gua : mdhv-as
and atkratv-as having a hundred powers.
The type without ending is made from twelve stems, the form
with shortened vowel being nearly twice as common as that with .
The secondary type mdhni is more frequent than mdhu.
In B. the D. s. f. ending ai is here regularly used instead of the
Ab G. s.
2
98^99]
IRREGULAR
STEMS
83
also some forms following the analogy of the u declension : A . -bhrvam from bhru fearless and N . du. and pi. i n yuv-a and yuv-as from
several stems derived with the suffix yu. Besides the numerous T.
singulars m. and n., there are many alternative n. forms, in the
remaining cases of the s. and N . A . pl., following the n declension :
D. mdhune, kapnne ; A b . mdhunas, snu.nas ; G. oruas,
druas, dras, mdhunas, vsunas ; L . yuni, s n uni ; dru
i ; N. A. pl. d r i,
b. There is no example of a v. s. n. from an i stem, and the only one
from an u stem is gggulu (Av.). This seems to indicate that the
v. s. i n these stems was identical with the N .
c. Adjectives in u often use this stem for the f. also ; e. g. oru dear ;
otherwise they form the f. i n u, as t a n m., tan f. thin (Lat. tenuis) ;
or i n 1, as u r m urv f. wide.
d. There are about a dozen stems i n which final i seems to be radical
in a secondary sense as representing a reduced form of roots ending i n
a. They are mostly m. compounds formed with dhi ; e. g. nidhf
treasury. There are also about eight stems formed from roots in u, all
of which except d y day are final members of compounds ; e. g. raghu
dr running swiftly ; besides some twelve stems i n which u is radical i n
a secondary sense, as representing the shortened form of the vowel of
three roots i n u ; e.g. sup clarifying well (from pu purify), parlbh
surrounding (from bhu be).
The inflexion of these radical i and u stems is exactly the same as
that of the derivative i and u stems given above.
Irregularities.
99. 1. p t i (Gk. 7ro^t^) m. husband is irregular i n the
D . G . L . s. : p t y e , p t y u r , p t y a u ; while the I. i n this
sense has the normal form p t y . W h e n it means lord,
either as a simple word or as final member of a compound,
it is regular : D. p t a y e , b h asptaye, G . p t e s , praj
pates, L . g p a t a u ; while the I. i n this sense is formed
with n : p t i n , b h asptin.
The I. is p t n (Gk.
7roruta) wife and lady.
1
The anomalous ending appears to be due to the influence of the

Ab.G. i n the names of relationship (101) i n like pitr, G. of pitr
father.
84
DECLENSION
[99
1
a. The f. jni wie takes the anomalous ending ur in the G. : jnyur.

It has the further anomaly of forming its N . jn like the derivative
declension.
2. s k h i 1n. friend, besides having irregularities like p t i

i n the weak eases of the s., has a strong stem formed with
Vddhi : N . s k h , A . s k h y a m , I. s k h y , D. s k h y e ,
A b . G . s k h y u r , V . s k h e . Du. s k h y and s k h y a u ;
P l . N . s k n y a s , A . skhn, L skhibhis, D. s k h i b h y a s ,
G. skhnm.
1
a. In the RV. skhi occurs as the final member of eight compounds

i n which it is inflected i n the same way and is also used as a f. ; e. g.
martsakh N . m. f. having the Maruts as friends.
3. a r devout is irregular in forming several cases like the

radical stems (except i n accentuation): sing. A . a r y m
(beside a r m ) m., G. a r y s m. ; pl. N . a r y s m. I.,
A . a r y s m. I.
a. The Vs. has also the N . s. ars, beside the regular ars of the RV.
vi sheep (Lat. ovis) also takes the normal ending as in the G. s. :
vyas. v m. bird has in the RV. the N . s. vs beside vs.
4. The neuters k i eye, s t h i bone, d d h i eurds, s k t h i

thigh, form their weakest cases from stems in n ; e. g.
I. dadhn , sakthn ; G. aks, a s t h n s , d a d h n s .
D u . N . ki (AV.), I. s k t h i b h y m , G. aks, but
s k t h y o s (VS.). I n the pl. the an stems are used in the
N . A . also : ak i (beside ki, A V . ) , asth n i (beside
s t h n i , A V . ) , s a k t h n i ; I. akbhis, a s t h b h i s ; D.
asthbhyas.
5. d y m. I. sky (originally diu, weak grade of dyo, 102, 3)
retains this stem before consonant terminations (taking
Vddhi i n the N . V . s.), but changes it to d i v before vowels :
1
2
Influenced, like ptyur, by the names of relationship in (101).

Formed regularly like ce from ci.
85
STEMS I N I A N D U
99100]
Sing. N . d y u s (^v^ = Aj^),

A . dvam.
I. div .
D. div. A b . G . d i v s (Atfo^.
L . div (^t/^), V .
d y u s (Z^v).
PI.N. dvas. A . m. dyun,3 I. dvas. I. d y b h i s .
2
1OO. C. Stems i n and are mostly I. when substan

tives, but a great many as final members of compounds are
adjectives used i n the m. as well as I.
I. The stems are very differently inflected according as
they are radical (a) or derivative (b). The analogy of the
primary radical group (1) is closely followed both i n
inflexion and accentuation by a secondary group (2) of about
eighty polysyllabic stems which, though formed with
derivative , are for the sake of clearness best treated as
a division of the radical group.
a. The normal endings as they appear i n the inflexion of
consonant stems are taken throughout this declension. The
G. pl., however, preserves the normal ending am i n one
single form only (dhiy m ), n m being otherwise always
added. The N . s. always adds s. Accentuation on the
final syllable of the stem is characteristic of this declension,
and, except i n monosyllabic stems, the acute remains on
that syllable throughout. Before vowel endings the is
split to i y i n monosyllabic nouns, even when they are final
members of compounds, as A . d h y a m , pl. N . n n adhiyas
having diverse intentions; but i n roots as final members of
4
The stem dv, the Samprasraa form of dyv, has made its way
into the strong cases, A . s. and N . pl owing to the very frequent
weak cases divs, ^:c which taken together occur more than 350 times
in the RV.
i.e. daus to be pronounced as a disyllable. The s of the N . is
retained i n this form.
These two forms, which occur only i n the RV. or passages borrowed
from it, always mean days.
Except accented dh, as adham (but sudh follows the general
rule, as sudhyas),
2
86
DECLENSION
[100
1
compounds only when two consonants precede, as yaja

p r y a m sacrificeloving, but y a j a n y m ( yajanam)
leading the sacrifice. Otherwise is always written as y ,
but is invariably to be pronounced as i , as n a d y m pro
nounced n a d a m stream.
The monosyllabic stems belonging to the radical class are
the feminines dh thought, bh fear, r glory, and the m. v
receiver (occurring only once i n the N . s.). The compounds
of the first three, being mostly Bahuvrhis (189), and the
compounds formed from the roots k r buy, n lead, p r love,
m diminish, v move, lie, r mix, being mostly accusative
Tatpuruas (187), are both m. and I.
The secondary group consists of more than eighty poly
syllabic stems accented on the final syllable and probably
for this reason following the analogy of the radical com
pounds. Excepting about half a dozen they are substantives,
nearly all I. The masculines are ah serpent, rath charioteer,
and about eight compounds.
b. The declension i n derivative embraces a large number
of stems formed by means of the suffix (originally y)
largely to supply a I. to m. words, and not normally accenting
the suffix. It also includes a large number of miscellaneous
I. stems of an independent character having no corresponding
m., as c might. It includes seven m. stems, five of
2
In the secondary radical group (a 2, p. 87) the 1 is split only i n

samudr and partly i n cakr.
The resolved forms given below are spelt with i (not i y as they
may have been pronounced) so as to avoid confusion with the written
forms of the sahit text that are spelt with iy. Again the resolved
vowel is given as I (not 1) because long vowels are regularly shortened
in pronunciation before vowels (p. 22, notes 1 and 5).
3 The exceptions are mostly stems i n which the preceding syllable,
having been reduced, throws the accent forward, e. g. ur, f. urv
wide ; or i n which, as proper names, the accent has shifted to indicate
a change of meaning, e. g. asikn a river, but sikn black.
2
l00]
R A D I C A L A N D D E R I V A T I V E I STEMS
87
which are proper names: Tirac , N m , P t h, M t al,

Sbhar, besides r r ruler, sir weaver.
The inflexion of these stems differs from that of the
radical stems in three respects :(1) no s is added i n
the N . s. m. or I. ; (2) the endings diverge considerably
from the normal ones, the s. A . taking m , the D . ai, the
Ab.G. as, the L . m , the pl. N . V . A . s ; (3) stems accented
on the final vowel shift the acute to the ending i n the weak
cases of the s., i n the G . L . du., and i n the G. pl.
1
a. RADICAL STEMS.
b. DER1VAT1VE STEMs.
1. dh I. thought. 2. rath m.
I.
charioteer.
devI.goddess.
S1NGULAR.
N.
A.
I.
D.
G.
dh s
dhyam
dhiy
dhiy
dhiys
V.
rath s
ratham
rath
rathe
rathas
rthi
dev
devm
devy
devyi
A b . G . devy s
L . devy m
V . dvi
DUAL.
N . A . dhy, au
rath
L dhbhy m
G.L. d h i y s
rath bhym
rathos
N . A . dev
V . dv
D.Ab. dev bhym
devys
In the later language the derivative group (b) absorbs the second
ary radical group (a 2), while borrowing from the latter the N . AN.
du. and the N.V. pl. forms.
88
DECLENSION
[100
PLURAL.
N. dhyas
A. dhyas
I. dhbhs
G. d h n m
L. dh
rathas
rathas
rath bhis
1
D. rath bhyas
G. rath nm
L . rath u
dev s
devs
dev bhis
dev bhyas
dev nm
devu
V . dvs
a. Other words belonging to the secondary radical class (a 2) are :

kumr girl (A. kumram), tandr weariness (N. tandr s ), dt mes
senger (N. dut s ), nad stream (A. nadam), lakm mark (N. lakms,
A . lakmam), sih lioness (N. sihs, A . siham).
str woman, originally a disyllable, is inflected as a radical
monosyllabic stem in the sing. A . and pl. N . A . L : stryam ; stryas,
strbhs (accent) ; but retains traces of its derivative origin in the s.
N . str (no s), D. striyi (Av.), G. striy s L . striy m (Av.).
2
I I . The declension, which comprises both radical and

derivative stems, is much more homogeneous than the
declension. The inflexion of these two classes corresponds
exactly to that of the two divisions of the radical declension.
Practically all the stems i n this declension are oxytones
(including both the compound radical and the derivative
stems).
a. I n the radical class there are seven monosyllabic
stems, five of which are I. : d gift, b h earth, br. brow,
s y thread, s r stream ; one m. and I. : s begetter and
mother ; one 1n. : j speeding, steed. There are further two
reduplicated I. substantives and one adjective : juh . tongue,
j u h sacrificial spoon; j g singing aloud. Finally, there
are about sixty compounds, almost exclusively formed from
about eleven roots, e. g. p a r i b h surrounding.
1
dhnm occurs seven times i n the Rv dhiy m only once, the

latter being the only example of the normal ending.
In B . this form is used for the G. ; e. g. striyai paya woman's
milk.
2
100]
RADICAL
AND DERIVATIVE
STEMS
89
b. The derivative class comprises two divisions : the one

consists of about eighteen oxytone I. substantives, several
of which correspond to m. or n. stems i n u accented on the
first syllable, e. g. agru (m. gru) maid ; the other and
more numerous division consists of oxytone I. adjectives
corresponding to m. oxytones, e.g. b a b h r (m. b a b h r )
brown.
a. The normal endings as they appear i n the inflexion of consonant
stems are taken throughout this declension (radical and derivative).
The G. pi., however, takes the normal am i n uncompounded radical
stems only, but n m i n all others. The N . s. always adds s. Before
vowel endings the is split into uv i n monosyllabic nouns and
generally i n compounds with roots as final member (even when pre
ceded by a single consonant). In the minority of such compounds
(some nine i n theRV.)and i n all derivative stems, it is written as v
but pronounced as u . Thus A . bnvam, bhvam present; but
vibham eminent, tanam.
1
The forms occurring i f made from b h earth and

body would be the following :
tan
S1NGULAR.
RAD1CAL.
DER1v AT1vE .
N . bhus
A. bhvam
I. bhuv
Ab.G. bhuvs
L.
bhuv
D.
Ab.G.
L.
V.
tan s
tanam
tan
tane
tanas
tani
tanu.
tnu
The derivative stems show an incipient tendency to be influenced

by the inflexion of the derivative declension. The RV. has only one
such form : varu m ; the A V . has at least ten such ; the VS. has
A . pucal m courtesan, D . tanvi G. tanv s . I n B . the D. s. f.
ending ai is used for s ; e. g. dnenvi rta the seed of the cow.
Judging by the only two forms that occur, bhuv m and jguvm.
It is, however, split i n the derivative stems agr k a d r Soma
vessel, i n adjectives when u is preceded by y, and i n bbnats loathing.
H ence i n such forms it is given below as u (short because a vowel
is shortened before another i n pronunciation ; cp. p. 22, note 1).
2
90
DECLENSION
[100.101
DUAL.
N.A. bhv
I. bhbhy m
L. bhuvs
N.A. tan
D. tan bhym
L. tanos
PLURAL.
N. bhvas
A. bhvas
G. bhuv m
N.
A.
I.
D.
G.
tanas
tanas
tan bhis
tan bhyas
tan nm
1O1. D. Stems in (m. and I.), which in origin are

consonant stems i n derivative ar or tar, closely resemble
an stems (90) i n their declension. Derivative stems i n
consist of two groups, the one formed with the original
suffix ar, the other with tar. The former is a small group
of only eight stems, the latter a very large one of more
than 150. Both groups agree in distinguishing strong
and weak cases. The strong stem ends in ar . or r ,
which i n the weak forms is reduced to r before vowels and
before consonants. Both groups further agree in dropping
the final of the stem i n the N . s. m. I., which case always
ends i n . They resemble the vowel declension i n adding
the ending n i n the A . pl. m. and s i n the A . pl. I., and i n
inserting n before the am of the G. p l .
They have the
peculiar ending u r i n the G . s.^
1
1. The stems in ar are: m. dev husband's brother,

n man; I. us dawn, n n n d husband's sister, svs^
sister; n. h a r day, udhar udder, v d h a r weapon, which
4
Except usrs.
Except svsrm and nrm.
Except nras and usrs.
This word is probably derived with the suffix ar.
In this word the is probably radical : svsar.
101]
S T E M S I N A N D T
91
occur in the N . A . s. only. The forms that occur of the

first five stems are :
a. Sing. A . d e v r a m . PI. N . d e v r a s . L . dev u.
b. Sing. A . n r a m (u^pa). D . n r e . G. n r a s .
L . n r i (Ep. G k u^pt), Du. N . A . n r . V . n r and
nrau.
PI. N . V n r a s (Ep. G k u^p^),
A . nrn.
I. n bhis. D . A . n bhyas.
G. nar m and n m .
L . n u.
e. Sing. G. u s r s . L . n s r and usr m . V . ar.
P l . A . usrs.
d. Sing. G . n n n d u r . L . n n n d a r i .
e. Sing. N . svs. A . s v s r a m . I. svsr. D. svsre.
Ab. G. svsur. Du. svsr, au. L . svsros. PI. N .
s v s r a s . A . svss. I. svsbhis. G. s v s r m and
svsm.
2. This group includes two subdivisions, the one forming
its strong stem i n tar, the other i n t r (Gk. rnp, rôp,
Lat. tor). The former consists of a small class of five
names of relationship : three m., p i t r father, b h r t a r
brother, n p t a r grandson, and two I., d u h i t r daughter
and m t r mother, together with the m. and I. compounds
formed from them. The second division consists of more
than 150 stems (including compounds) which are either
agent nouns accented chiefly on the suffix, or participles
accented chiefly on the root. These stems are never I., and
only four are n.
2
In the t declension three stems are to be distinguished : the strong,

tar or tr ; the middle, t ; and the weakest, tr. The names of rela
tionship take the Gua form, agent nouns the Vddhi form of the
5
har and d har form their other cases from the an stems han
and dhan. Cp. 91. 6.
Often to be pronounced n m .
Following the analogy of the derivative declension.
svsram and narm are the only two forms of the declension
in which m is added direct to the stem.
The strong stem nptar does not occur i n the RV., npt taking
its place.
2
92
DECLENSION
[ici
strong stem. The inflexion of the m. and f. differs i n the A . pl. only.
The sing. G. is formed i n ur, the L. i n ari, the V . i n ar ; the pl. A .
m. i n tn, f. ts, G. i n tm.
The inflexion of the three stems dt m. giver (tôr^p,

dator), pit m. father (^rr^p, pter), mt I. mother
(^r), mter) is as follows :
S1NGULAR.
N. dt
A.
I.
D.
Ab.G.
L.
V.
dt r am
dtr
dtr
dtr
dtri
d t ar (^:or^p)
pit
pitram
pitr
pitr
pitr
p i t r i (rrar^pt)
p t a r (Jupiter)
mt
mtram
mtr
mtr
m
mtt rr i
m t ar
(^r^p)
DUAL.
N . A . dt r , au
p i t r , au
m t r , au
I.D. d t b h y a m
pit bhym
mt bhym
G.L. dtrs
pitrs
mtrs
PLURAL.
N.
dt r as
A. dtrn
I. dt bhis
D.Ab. dt bhyas
G. dt m
L. dtru
V.
d t ras
pitras
mtras
pitn
mtrs
pit bhis
pit bhyas
mt bhis
mt bhyas
pitn m
pit u
ptaras
mtrm
mt u
m t aras
101102]
STEMS I N D I P H T H O N G S
93
a. npt i n the RV. occurs in the weak stem only : sing. I. nptra,
D. nptre, G. nptur. P l . I. nptbhis. It is supplemented in the
strong forms by npt (Lat. nepot): sing. N.v. npat. A . nptam.
Du. N.A. npt. Pl. N . v . npatas. I n the TS. occurs nptram
(like svsram among the r stems).
b. The only n. stems occurring are dhart prop, dhmt smithy,
stht stationary, vidhart meting out, and of these Only about half a
dozen forms occur. The only oblique cases met with are the G. sthtur
and the L . dhmtri. The N.A. s. owing to its rarity seems never to
have acquired fixity i n the Veda, but sthtr represents the normal
form. I n B. the N . A . form i n begins to be used i n an adjectival
sense : bhart supporting, janayit creative.
c. Thef.of agent nouns i n tr is formed with from the weak stem
of the m., e. g. jnitr mother (inflected like dev).
1O2. E . Stems i n a i , o, au. The only stems i n

diphthongs are: r i m. and (rarely) I. wealth, g m. bull,
I. eow, d y m. I. sky, n u I. ship, g l n m . I. lump. They
form a transition from the consonant to the vowel declension ;
for while they take the normal endings like the ordinary
consonant declension, they add s i n the N . s. m. I. and
have a vowel before the endings with initial consonant.
There are no neuter forms.
1. r i appears as r y before vowels and r before con
sonants. The forms occurring are : Sing. A . r m (LaI.
rem). I. ry . D . r y (Lat. re). Ab. G. r y s .
PI. N . r y as. A . r y s . G. ry m .
2. go has as its strong form gau which appears as g in
the A . s. and pi. The Ab.G. are irregular i n adding s only
instead of as. The forms occurring are: Sing. N . gus
(ôv^. A . gam (û). I. gv. D. gve. A b . G . gs.
L . gv-I.Du. g v , au.Pl. N . g v as.
A . gas.
I. gbhis. D . gbhyas. G . g v m and g n m .
L. gu. v. g v as.
1
Rarely ryas ; once rs (SV.).

As regards accentuation this word is not treated as a monosyllabic
stem, never shifting the accent to the endings.
This form, which follows the vowel declension and is much less
common than gvm, occurs at the end of a Pda only.
2
94
DECLENSION
[102103
3. d y m. I. sky (cp. 99. 5) is declined like g . The

forms occurring are : Sing. N . d y u s (.^v^), ^ A . dy m
(Lat. diem). A b . G . dys. L . dyvi. V . d y u s and
d y u s (^v), Du. N . A . dy v .PI. N . V . dy v as.
4. n u is inflected quite regularly as far as can be judged
by the few forms occurring : Sing. N . n u s (uav^).
N . n v am (^fa), I. nv . G. n v s (u^fs). L . n v
(u^ft).Pl.N.
n v as (u^J^, nves), A . navas (u^fa^).
I. n u b h i s (uav^t).
5. g l u occurs i n two forms only: Sing. N . glus and
P l . I. g l a u b h s .
1
Degrees o f Comparison.
103. 1. The secondary suffixes of the comparative
tara (Gk. r^po) and the superlative tama (Lat. timo) are
regularly added to nominal stems (both simple and com
pound), substantives as well as adjectives, generally to the
weak or middle stem ; e. g. p r i y t a r a dearer, t a v s t a r a
stronger, vpuara more wonderful, b h g a v a t t a r a more
bounteous ; v t r a t r a a worse Vtra ; b h r i d v a t t a r a
giving more abundantly ; avat-tam most constant ; ratna
dha-tama best bestower of treasure ; hrayavmat-tama
best wielder of the golden axe ; rath tama best charioteer.
4
a. The final n of the stem is retained before these suffixes ; e. g.

madntara more gladdening, vntama most manly. An n is some
times even inserted ; e. g. surabhntara more fragrant ; rayntama
very rich.
The same as the N . of dyu (99. 5).

That is, daus with the proper V . accent, but with anomalous
retention of the N . s.
The N . pl. glvas also occurs i ntheA B .
These secondary comparatives and superlatives are commoner than
the primary i n the proportion of three to two.
2
103]
COMPARATIVE
AND SUPERLATIVE
95
b. In a few instances the strong stem of a present participle is used ;

e. g. vr d hantama being most mighty, shantama most victorious ; and
the weakest stem of a perfect participle : vidara wiser ; mh
ama most gracious.
c. These secondary suffixes are occasionally found added to the
primary comparatives and superlatives, e.g. rhatama most
beautiful.
d. They also form a comparative and superlative from the preposi
tion d up : ttara higher, uttam highest.
e. These suffixes form their f. i n ; e. g. mt tam most motherly.
1
2. The primary suffix of the comparative y s (Gk. ôu,

Lat. ior) and that of the superlative i h a (Gk. t^rro) are
added directly to the root, which is regularly accented and
gunates and , but leaves a unchanged apart from
nasalization i n a few instances. Final radical combines
with the initial of the suffix to e, which is, however, usually
to be read as two syllables.
Examples are : t j y s
sharper, tjiha very sharp (tij be sharp) ; j v y s quieker,
jviha quickest (j be swift) ; yjys sacrificing better,
yjiha sacrificing best; m h i h a most liberal (mah
bestow abundantly) ; j y h a greatest and j y e t h eldest ( j y
overcome).
3
a. In many instances these superlatives attach themselves in mean

ing to derivative adjectives, being formed from the root which the
latter contain ; e. g. ys smaller, iha smallest beside u
minute ; dvys farther beside dr far ; dr g hys longer, dr g h
iha longest beside drgh long ; 1ghys lighter beside lagh light ;
vrys wider, vriha widest beside ur wide ; -ys more fre
quent beside -vant constant ; 6iha very quick beside am quickly ;
brhiha very lofty beside bhnt gre^t; yviha youngest beside
yvan youth ; vriha most excellent beside vra choice ; s d hiha
straightest beside sdh. straight.
w i t h the accent of the ordinal suffix tam.

when used as an ordinal suffix tama forms its f. i n accented
(cp. 107).
Except jyen meaning eldest and kanih meaning youngest.
2
96
DECLENSION
[103
^. I n a few examples the suffix is added to the derivative form of

the root which appears in the adjective ; thus -iha (^ô^ro^) beside
-u (^-11s) swit (from a reach); t k yas sharper beside tk
sharp (from tij be sharp) ; nvyas newer, nviha newest beside nva
new ; svdys (î^, suvior) sweeter, svdiha (^^ro^) beside
svd (,^1^, suvis) sweet (from svad be sweet).
1
a. Beside the usual forms i n y s there occur about

half a dozen alternative comparatives made with the shorter
form of the suffix, y s : tvys (tvys) stronger ;
n v y s (nvys) newer ; p n y s (pnys)
more wonderful, b h y s (bhvys) beeoming more,
greater; r b h y s (rbhys) more violent; s h y s
(shys) stronger. Some halfdozen more have no
alternative form beside them: jy ys greater, older;
p r y s dearer, prha dearest (priy dear) ; v s y s
better, vsiha best (vsu good) ; r-ys (^p^tû) better,
r-ha best (r be bright), s n y s (Lat. senior) older
(sna old), s t h y s most steadfast (sthir firm).
2
b. Some comparatives and superlatives belong to their

positives i n sense only; e.g. k n y s ^ lesser, younger,
k n i h a smallest and kanih youngest (lpa small) ;
n d y s (Av. nazdyah) nearer, ndiha (Av. nazd
ita) nearest ( a n t i k near), v r y s higher, v r i h a
highest (vddh grown up).
4
From the adj. pp bad,theradical element of which is uncertain,

is formed direct the comparative p p ys i n the TS.
H ere the vowel remains unchanged. This is also the case i n the
corresponding superlative bhuyiha, which moreover adds the suffix
with an intervening y.
Cp. kany girl (^ kan), Gk. â^s (= 1ôs),
Appears i n this sense i n the TS.
Cp. vrman n., varmn m. height.
2
104]
CARDINALS
97
NUMERALS.
Cardinals.
1O4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
1
19. n v a - d a a .
20. v i a t
(Lat.
viginti).
30. tri-t.
40. catvri-t.
50. p a c t (7r.-u
s a p t (^7rr),
rôura),
a (o^r^, LaI. octo,
60. a-.
Gothic ahtau).
70. s a p t a - t .
n v a (Lat. novem).
80. a-t.
da (â),
90. n a v a - t .
ka-daa.
100. a t m
(âro^,
dva-daa
(^â),
Lat. centum).
tryo-daa.'^
1,000. s a h s r a n .
ctur-daa.
10,000. a y t a n.
pca-daa.
100,000. n i y t a n .
-aa.
1,000,000. p r a y t a n .
10,000,000. r b u d a n .
sapt-daa.
100,000,000. n y r h u d a n.
a daa.
ka.
d v (^vo, Lat. duo),
t r i (rpi, Lat. tri),
c a t r (Lat. quatuor).
p c a (7r^r^).
(^, Lat. sex).
1
19
a is an old dual form.

The cardinals between 10 and 20 are Dvandva compounds formed
by prefixing the accented unit to daa ten.
Here k stands for ka under the influence of dv daa.
Here the N . du. is retained instead of the stem form dva.
tryo, for tryas (45. 2), is the N . pl. (105).
catr as first member of a compound is regularly accented otur-.
For a-daa through az-daa (cp. 69 c, note 3),
This and the remaining cardinals are substantives. Those from
twenty to ninety are either old compounds (adj. and substantive : two
decades, ^ c ) or derivatives formed with -th
catvrim for catvri, n. pl. (105), like viat and trit.
Sixty to ninety are abstract f. nouns derived from the simple
cardinals (except at) meaning hexad of tens, ^c.
a- is radically cognate to a-.
2
3
4
7
3
10
11
98
DECLENSION
[104105
a. The numbers intermediate between the decades 20100

are Dvandva compounds formed by prefixing the accented
unit to the decade ; e. g. a viati 28 ; k a - t r i a t 31 ;
t r y a s - t r i a t 33 ; n v a - c a t v r i a t 49 ; nva-ai 69 ;
n v t i 89 ; p c a n a v a t i 95, avati 96, a navati
98 ; k a - a t a m 101, c t u - a t a m 104, t r i c - c h a t a m 130.
a. Intermediate numbers may also be expressed by adding together

unit and decade with or without ca ; e.g. nva ca navat ea ninety and
nine, navati nva ninety-nine.
^. In the TS. the number preceding a decade is also expressed by
kn n by one not ----- minus one ; thus kn n viat twenty less o
= 19 ; kn n catvrit 39 ; kn n a 59 ; kn n iti 79 ;
kn n atm 99.
b. There are two ways of forming multiples. The larger

number i n the du. or pl. may be multiplied by the smaller
used as an adjective ; e. g. d v a t 200 ; sa s a h s r a
60,000 ; tr i at tr s a h s r i t r i e ca n v a oa 3,339.
Otherwise the multiplier prefixed to the larger number
forms with it a possessive (adjective) compound accented on
the last syllable ; e. g. t r y a s t r i a t tri-at asahasr
6,333.
^. Multiples of numbers below 100 are sometimes formed i n these two
ways ; e.g. navat r nva nine nineties 810 ; trisapt 21, triav 27.
Declension of Cardinals.
105. Only the first four cardinals, like other adjectives,
distinguish the genders. k a one, while inflected chiefly i n
the s., forms a p l . also i n the sense of some ; d v two is of
course inflected in the dual only.
1. k a is declined like the pronominal adjectives vva
1
i A N . f. du. form of ka in the sense of a certain appears in ko

yuvat (AV.) a certain pair of maidens.
105]
99
CARDINALS
1
and s r v a
are :
(120 b). The forms occurring in the
Sahits
m. s. N . k a s . A . k a m . I. k e n a . G. k a s y a . L .
k a s m i n . P l . N . k e . D. k e b h y a s .
I. s. N . k a . A . k m . I. k a y . G. k a s y s . PI. N .
ks.
n. s. N . k a m . PI. N . k a .
2. d v two is declined quite regularly as a dual, like
p r i y (97 A . 1). The forms occurring are :
2
m. N . dv , d v u . I. d v b h y m .
I. N . d v . I. dv b hym.
n. N . d v . L . d v y o s .
G. dvyos.
L . dvyos.
3. t r three is declined i n the m. n. pl. quite regularly, like

ei (98 B). The I. stem is tis . the inflexion of which
differs i n the N . A . from other stems by adding the
normal ending as to the unmodified stem. The forms
occurring are :
4
m. PI. t r y a s . A . tr n .
tr m . L . t r i .
I. N . t i s r s . A . t i s r s .
I. t r i b h s .
D. t r b h y s .
G.
I. tisrbhis.
D. tis b hyas.
G.
n. N . A . tr , tr i.
4. e a t r four i n the m. n. has the strong stem catv r
(cp. Lat. quatuor). I n the G. pi., though the stem ends i n
The only form of the Ab. s. occurring, kt, follows the nominal
declension ; it is used in forming compound numerals, kn n trim
st 29, ^c. (Ts.) ; kasmt, used in the same way, occurs in a B. pas
sage of the TS.
The dual form is retained in the numeral compound dv daa 12.
Otherwise dvi is used as the stem in compounds, as dvipd biêd, and
in derivation, as dvfdh in two ways, ^c.
Probably for trisr formed like svs (10I. 1, note 5).
Except nars (10I. 1 c),
Once written tis m , though the is actually long metrically.
2
100
DECLENSION
[105106
a consonant, n is inserted before the caseending. The

I. stem is ctas, which is inflected exactly like tis and
shifts its accent like p c a . The forms occurring are :
m. N . catv r as. A . c a t r a s . I. c a t r b h i s . D. c a t r
bhyas. G. catur m .
I. N . A . ctasras. I. eatas bhis. D. catas bhyas. G.
catas m .
n. N . A . catv r i.
106. The cardinals from five to nineteen, though used
adjectivally, do not distinguish gender and take no ending
in the N . A . They also have in common the peculiarity
of accenting a before the consonant terminations and the
final syllable i n the G.
3
a. The forms of six occurring in the Sahits are :

N . A . (27).
I. abhs. D . abhys.
L . as.
b. The forms of a eight indicate that it was an old

dual. The forms that occur are :
3
N . A . a . au. I. abhs. D . abhys. L . as.

c. p c a five as well as s a p t seven and the cardinals
from nine to nineteen are declined like neuters i n an (90. 2)
except i n the G., which follows p r i y (97). The forms
occurring are :
N.A. pca. I. pacbhis. D. pacbhyas. G. pa
cnm. L. pacsu.
1
Like am the G. of , which, however, does not seem to

occur i n any of the Sahits.
With accent on the final syllable like the G. of pca, ^c.
'^ Except a and au which are N . A . dual forms.
Except a, which accents the terminations.
^ Meaning probably the two tetrads (perhaps with reference to the
fingers of the two hands).
a is the stem used as the first member of compounds in the
RV., but aa begins to be used in the A V .
2
106107]
S Y N T A X OF CARDINALS.
ORDINALS
101
N.A. sapt.
I. s a p t b h i s .
D.Ab. s a p t b h y a s .
G.
saptn m .
N . A . nva. I. n a v b h i s . D . n a v b h y a s . G. navan m .
N . A . d a . I. d a - b h i s . D. d a - b h y a s . G. dan m .
L . da-su.
N.A. kdaa. D. ekdabhyas. N. dvdaa. D. dv
da-bhyas.
N.
tryodaa.
I.
trayoda-bhis.
D.
trayoda-bhyas.
N . pcadaa.
D. pacadabhyas. N . aa. D . oa-bhyas. N . s a p t d a a .
D . s a p t a d a b h y a s . N . a d aa. D. aada-bhyas.
N. nvadaa. L navada-bhis. D. kn n vi
atyi (TS.).
d. The cardinals for the decades from twenty to ninety
with their compounds are I. substantives, nearly always
inflected i n the sing. and according to the declension of the
ste1^. final ; e. g. N. viat-s. A. viat-m. I. vi
aty.
N.
trit.
A.
trit-am.
I.
trit-a.
L.
triti. I f the sense requires it these numerals may be
used i n the pi. ; e. g. n v a navat s nine nineties ; navn
navatn m of nine nineties.
at hundred and s a h s r a thousand are neuters, which
may be declined i n all numbers ; e. g. d v at two hundred ;
sapt at n i seven hundred ; tr s a h s r i three thousand.
a. In the group jive to nineteen the bare stem may be used i n the
oblique cases agreeing with substantives; e.g. sapt h5tbhi with
seven priests (cp. 194 B a).
Ordinals.
1O7. The ordinals, being all adjectives ending i n a, are
declined i n the 1n. and n. like p r i y . The I. is formed
with (declined like dev ) except i n the first four, which
take .
The ordinals from first to tenth are formed with various
suffixes, viz. (t)1ya, tha, thama, ma. The formation
102
DECLENSION
[107
of the first four is somewhat irregular. The stems of the

ordinals from eleventh to nineteenth differ from those of
the corresponding cardinals only i n being accented on the
final syllable ; their inflexion differs from that of the latter
in following p r i y . Thus e k d a eleventh forms the
cases : m. s. A. ekda-m. Pl. N. ekdasas. A. ek
dan. L ekdais.
The ordinals from twentieth to ninetieth (including their
compounds), which also end i n accented , seem to be
abbreviated forms of the corresponding cardinals ; e. g.
c a t v r i fortieth.
The ordinals for hundredth and thousandth are formed
with the superlative suffix tama accented on the final
syllable : a t a - t a m , s a h a s r a t a m .
1
1st p r a t h a m , I. .
2nd dvit y a, I. .
3rd tt y a, I. (Lat. tert
ius).
tur y a, I. (for catur
ya through ktur
4th
ya).
c a t u r t h , I. (r^rap
To-^, Lat. quartus),
3
5th p a c a m , I. .
6th ah (LaI. sextus),
sapttha.
7th s a p t a m (Lat. septi
mus).
8th aam.
9th navam.
10th d a a - m (LaI. deci
mus).
Only about three examples of this formation have been noted in

the sahits, and four in the Brhmaas.
Sahasratam has been noted i n B . only.
Probably for pratam foremost, the th being due to the infiuence of
caturth, ^c.
Both pratham and trt y have one caseform each according to
the pronominal declension in the AV. : G. prathamsyas and L. tt
yasym.
From an older dvit second.
From an older trt third.
When used in the fractional sense of onefourth accented on the
first syllable : trya (AV.) ; similarly i n B . cturtha onefourth,
t t ya onethird.
2
107-109]
ORDINALS.
NUMERAL DERIVATIVES
1 1th e k - d a .
21st eka-vi.
34th catus-tri (B.).
40th c a t v r i .
48th a-eatvri.
52nd
61st
100th
1000th
103
d v p a c (B.).
eka-a- (B.).
ata-tam.
s a h a s r a t a m (B.).
NumeraI Derivatives.
1OS. A number of derivatives, chiefly adverbs, are formed
from the cardinals.
a. M uItipIicative adverbs : sakt onee (lit. one making) ;
dvs twice (Gk.
Lat. bis) ; t r s thr ice (Gk. r ^, Lat.
tris) ; c a t s four times (for catrs). Others are expressed
by the cardinal and the form k t vas times (probably makings
A . pl. of k t u) which is used as a separate word except i n
aak t vas (AV.) eight times ; e. g. d a k t vas (AV.) ten
times, b h u r i k t vas many times.
b. Adverbs of manner formed with the suffix d h :
d v d h in tuô ways or parts, t r d h and tredh , catur
dh , pacadh , oh , saptadh , aadh , navadh ,
sahasradh.
e. A few muItipIicative adjectives derived with the
suffixes a, taya, vaya meaning fold : t r a y threefold,
dvay twofold ; d a - t a y a tenfold ; c t u r - v a y a fourfold.
PRONOUNS
1O9. Pronouns differ from nouns both i n origin and
declension. They are derived from a small class of roots
with a demonstrative sense, and they have several distinct
peculiarities of inflexion. These peculiarities have i n
varying degrees been extended to several groups of adjectives.
104
DECLENSION
A.
[109
PersonaI Pronouns.
This class displays the greatest number of peculiarities :

they are for each person derived from several roots or
combinations of roots; they are specially irregular i n
inflexion ; they do not distinguish gender, nor to some
extent even number. Some resemble neuters i n form ;
a few have no apparent caseending ; i n two of them the
A . pl. m. does duty as I. also.
SINGULAR.
L
L
P URA .
N. ahm L
A . m m me
I. m y by me
D.
Ab.
G.
L.
t v m thou v a y m we
tv m thee
asm n us
tv
asm bhis by
by thee
tvy
us
mhyam
a
s
mbhyam
t
b
h
y
a
m
to
tome
mhya
thee
for us
mdfrom me
tvdfrom thee a s m d from
us
m m a of me
t v a of thee
asm k am
of us
myi in me
tv
in
in thee asm su
tvyi
us
asm
3
y u y m ye
yum n you
3
yumbhyam
for you
y u s m d jrom
you
ym k am
of you
y u m in you
Cp. Lat. mihi and tibi.

Only this, the normal form ( = tvi), is found in the RV. The
irregular tvyi appears i n the later sahits.
asmn and yum n are new formations according to the nominal
declension. The stems are compounds of the pronominal elements
a+sma and yu+sma. The Vs. twice has the distinctly f. new forma
tion yums.
asmkam and yusmkam are properly the A. n. s. of the posses
sives asmka our, yumka your.
asmsu is a new formation following the analogy of asm b his.
asm is also used as D.
Changed from original ym by the influence of vaym.
2
109110]
PERSONAL
PRONOUNS
105
I)ual. N . v m and a v m (B.) we tuô. A . av m (B.) us

two. A b . v - b h y a m (K.) and a v d (TS.) from us two.
G. avy-os (B.) of us two.
N . y u v m ye two. A . yuv m you two. I. y u v b h y a m
and yuv bhym by you two. A b . y u v d from you
two. G. y u v s and y u v y o s of you two.
1
a. The following unaccented forms, inadmissible at the beginning

of a sentence, are also used : sing. A . m, tv. D.G. me (Gk. ^ ) , te
(Gk. ro.), Du. A . D . G . nau (Gk. ^ ) , vm. P L A . D . G . nas (Lat. nos),
vas (Lat. vos).
b. The usual stems of these pronouns used i n derivation or as first
member of compounds are : ma, asma ; tva, yuva, yuma ; thtrs
asmadrh hating us ; tvyata presented by thee ; yuvay desiring you
two ; yusmaynt desiring you. But the forms mad, asmad, tvad occur
a few times as first member of compounds ; thus mtkta done by me ;
asmtsakhi having us as companions ; tvdyoni derived from thee.
4
B.
Demonstrative Pronouns.
110. The inflexion of these pronouns, as compared with

the nominal a declension, has the following peculiarities .
1. i n the sing. d is added instead of m i n the N . A . n. ;
the element sma appears between the root and the ending
in the D . A b . L . m. n., and sya i n the D . A b . G . L . I. ; i n
(instead of i) is the ending i n the L . m. n. 2. i n the pl.
the N . m. ends i n e instead of as ; the G . has s instead of n
before the ending am.
The stem t that (also he, she, it) may be taken as the type
for the inflexion of adjectival pronouns :
vm (probably abbreviated for v m ), occurring once i n the RV.,

seems to be the only N . du. form found i n the sahits.
The N . vm (B.) and A . vm ( K . B.) seem to have been the
normal forms judging by yuvm and yuv m .
yuvs occurs i n the R V . , yuvyos in the Ts.
me and te originally L., have come to be used as D. and G.
2
106
DECLENSION
SINGULAR.
MAsc.
N. ss
td
A. tm
I.
PLURAL.
FEM.
NEUT.
MAsc.
NEUT.
t (roi)
t
and
t n i
tna
td
t m
t n
tbhis, t i s
ty
D.
Ab.
G.
L.
[110
tsmai
tsmd
tsya
tsmin
ssmin
(rot^)
tbhyas
tsyai
tsys
tsys
tsym
tm
tsu
FEM.
ts
t s
tbhis
t bhyas
t sm
t su
DUAL.
N . A . m. t , t u , I. t , n. t .
m. n. t y o s .
I . A b . m. I. t bhym.
G.L.
The stem t is frequently used i n derivation, especially that of

adverbs, as tth thus ; the n. form td often appears as first member
of a compound ; e. g. tdapas accustomed to that work.
a. There are three other demonstratives derived from t :
1. et this here is inflected exactly like t . The forms
that occur are :
1 9
OntheSandhi of ss cp. 48 ; s, s, td = Gk. o, ro ; Gothic sa,

so, thata (Eng. that, Lat. istud),
tm, tm, td = Gk. ^ro^, r^, ro.
sometimes tn.
These forms have the normal ending e : = tsmae, tsye. I n
B . tsyai is substituted for the G. tsys.
The Chndogya Upaniad once has sasmd.
H omeric Gk. roo (for tosio),
ssmin occurs nine times i n the RV., tsmin twentytwo times.
'^ Cp. Lat. istorum.
Gk. ^ra^ (for rao^), cp. Lat. istrum.
The stem used in derivation and composition is eta ; e.g. et vant
so great, etd such. In B . etad is sometimes thus used : otadd
giving this, etanmya consisting of this.
2
10
m.
110111]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
107
Sing.
smai.
N. es (67, 48). A. etm. I. etna. D. et

Ab. etsmad. G. etsya.Du. N. et, etu.
P l . N . et. A . et n . I. e t b h i s , etis. D. e t b h y a s .
I. Sing. N . e. A . et m . I. e t y . L . etsym.Du. N .
e t . P l . ot s . A . et s . I. et b his. L . et s u.
n. Sing. N . etd.
P l . N . et , et n i.
2. t y is derived from t with the suffix y a and means

that. It is common i n the R V . , but rare in the later
Sahits.
Unlike t it is used adjectivally only, hardly
ever occurring without its substantive. It never begins
a sentence except when followed by the particles u , c i d ,
n, or s.
1
The forms occurring are :

m. Sing. N . sy. A . t y m . G. t y s y a . Du. N . ty .
P l . N . t y . A . ty n . I. t y b h i s .
I. Sing. N . sy . A . ty m . I. ty . G. tysyas.Du. N .
t y . P l . N . ty s . A . ty s .
n. Sing. t y d . P l . ty , ty n i.
3. A very rare derivative is t a k this little, which occurs
only twice in the R V . i n the two A . sing. forms m. t a k m ,
n. t a k d .
3
sim seems to have the sense of an emphatic demonstrative. The

forms occurring are^ sing. N . sims. V . sma. D. simsmai (n.).
Ab. simsmd. P l . sim.
Ill. In the inflexion of the demonstrative which i n the

N . s. i n . appears as a y m this here the two pronominal
1 It is also found a few times in B .

see 48, note 3.
It is generally given the meaning of every, all, but the above is the
more probable sense.
2
108
DECLENSION
1
roots i (which nearly always has a double ending) and a

are employed, the former i n the N . (except the m. s.) and A . ,
the latter i n all the other cases. The A . s. m. I. starts from
im (the A . of i), which appears i n the du. and p i . also, so
that all these cases have the appearance of being formed
from a stem i m .
2
SINGULAR.
MAsC
NEUT.
N . aym
A. imm
I.
D.
Ab.
G.
L.
PLURAL.
MAsC
im
im n
FEM.
idm
idm
iym
im m
ay
asyi
asy s
asy s
asy m
en
asmi
asm d
asy
asmn
NEUT.
im
FEM.
im n i
ebhs
ebhys
im s
im s
bhs
bhys
em
es
s m
s
DUAL.
N . A . m . im , u.
m. G . L . ays.
I.
im.
n. i m .
m. D . A b . bhy m .
These two roots are frequently used i n derivation ; e. g. tra here,

tha then ; id now, ih here, tara other.
From this stem is formed the adverb imth thus.
3 Here im is the A . of i , from which is also formed the A .f.m
and the n . id, both used as particles.
Also twice ena. en and the remaining oblique cases, when used
as nouns and unemphatic, may lose their accent.
The Ab., according to the nominal declension, d is used as a
conjunction.
Both asya and asmai may be accented sya and smai when
emphatic at the beginning of a Pda. The form imsya occurs once
in the RV. instead of asy ; and imasmai i n the A A . for asmai.
Instead of ay the form any occurs twice i n the R V . : it is the
only form from ana found i n the Sahits.
2
112]
DEMONSTRATIVE
PRONOUNS
109
112. The demonstrative corresponding to a y m employed

to express remoteness i n the sense of that there, you, and
having i n the N . s. the curious forms m. I. asu, n. ads,
uses throughout its inflexion the root a, but always i n an
extended form. The fundamental stem used i n every case
(except the N . s.) is am A . m. of a. This is extended by
the addition of the particle u to amu, which appears
throughout the sing. (with in A . I.) except the N . I n the
ph amu is the I. and am the in. stem (except the A.).
The forms occurring are :
1
m. Sing. N . asu. A . amm. L amna. D. a m

mai. Ab. a m m d . G . amya. L . a m m i n .
P l . am . A . am n . D. am bhyas. G. am m.
I. Sing. N . asu. A . amum. I. amuy .
D. a m
yai. G. amys.Du. N . amu.PI. N . am s.
A . amus.
n. Sing. N . ads.^ PI. N . amu.
4
a. The unaccented defective pronoun of the third person

ena (he, she, it) is declined in the A . of a l l numbers,
besides the I. s. and the G. du.
6
A . sing. m. enam, I. enam, n. enad.Du. m . enau,

I. ene.Pl. m. e n n , I. ens.
I. sing. enena. G. du. enos (RV.), enayos (AV.).
^. Another unaccented demonstrative pronoun restricted to the RV.
(excepting one form in the Av. and the TS.) is tva meaning one, many
This stem is used in derivation ; e.g. amtas thence, amtra there,

amth thus (B.).
H ere the pronominal root a seems to be compounded with sa
extended by the particle u : asu and asu.
This is the only example of sya being added to any but an a stem.
Used adverbially, with shifted accent.
H ere the neuter ad of the pronominal root a is extended with
the suffix as.
H ere we have the same e (L. of a) as in ka one, ev thus.
2
110
DECLENSION
[112113
a one, generally repeated i n the sense of one another. The n. tvad

meaning partly is also found i n B . The forms occurring are ..
sing. N . m. tvas, f. tv n. tvad. A . m. tvam. L m. tvena.
D. m. tvasmai, f. tvasyai.Pl. m. tve.
^. The pronoun av this occurs only i n the G. du. form avs i n
combination with vm meaning of you two being such (used like sa i n
s tvm thou as such).
The pronoun m a this occurs only once i n the A V . (also i n
the AB.) i n the formula mo hm asmi this am 1.
1
C.
Interrogative P r o n o u n .
113. The interrogative k who? which? what? used as

both substantive and adjective, is inflected exactly like t ,
excepting the alternative neuter form k m . which instead
of the pronominal d has the nominal m (never elsewhere
attached to a stem i n i). The forms occurring are :
m. Sing. k s . A . k m . I. k n a . D . k s m a i . A b .
ksmad.
G. k s y a . L . k s m i n . D u . N . k u .
L . ku.
I. k y . G . k s y s . P I . N .
P l . k . I. k b h i s .
f. Sing. N . k . A . k m.
k s. A . k s.
L . k su.
n. Sing. N . A . k d and k m . P I . N . k and k n i.
a. I n derivation the stems k i and k u as well as ka are used ; e. g.
kyant how great ? kha where ? kti how many ?
As first member of a compound kad occurs twice : katpay greatly
swelling, kdartha having what purpose ? k i m is similarly used a few
times i n the later Sahits and the Brhmaas; e.g. kikar
servant.
b. kya, an extended form of k, occurring i n the G. only, is found
i n combination with cid : kyasya cid of whomsoever.
3
From this pronoun are derived the I. and A b . adverbs (with

shifted accent) am at home and amdfrom near.
The N.s.m. is preserved as a petrified form i n nkis and mkis
no one, nothing.
3
relative frequency of kd and km is i n the RV. as two to
three.
9
ll-115] R E L A T I V E A N D R E F L E X I V E P R O N O U N S
Ill
D . Relative Pronoun.
114. The relative pronoun y who, which, what is declined
exactly like t . The forms occurring are :
1
m. Sing. N . ys. A . y m . I. y n and yna. D . y

smai. A b . y s m d .
G. y s y a . L . ysmin.
Du. N . y , y u . D . y bhyam.
G. yyos. L . yyos
and ys.
PI. N . y. A . y n . I. y b h i s and y i s . D . y b h y a s .
G. ym. L . y u .
I. Sing. N . y .
A . y m.
I. yya.
G. y s y a s .
L. ysym.
Du. N . y . G . L . yyos.
2
PI. N . y s. A . y s. I. y bhis. D. y bhyas.

sm. L . y su.
n. N . A . Sing. y d . D u . y . PI. y , y n i.
G. y
a. The stem of y is used to form derivatives ; e. g. yth as. It

also appears as first member of a compound i n yd which like. The
neuter yd is also once used thus i n the RV. : yt-kma desiring what ;
and a few times later, as yad-devaty having what deity (K.), yat-krn
doing what (B.).
b. A form of the relative extended with the diminutive suffix ka
yak who, occurs only in the sing. N . m. yaks, f . yak and the p l .
N . m. yak.
E.
Reflexive Pronouns.
4
115. a. The reflexive indeclinable substantive s v a y m

self is properly ûsed as a N . referring to all three persons.
Sometimes, however, its N . nature being forgotten, it is
1
yn is twice as common i n the R V . as yna, but the Pada text

always reads yna.
The Ab., formed according to the nominal declension, yd is used
as a conjunction.
yo's for yy0s like yuv6s for yuvy0s (p. 105, note 3).
Derived from sv with suffix am and interposed y (like aym
from a).
2
112
DECLENSION
[115116
used as an A . ; e. g. y u j i s v a y d h u r I have yoked myself

to the pole ; or as agreeing in sense with another case. It
occasionally means spontaneously.
b. tan body is used i n the RV. to express self in other
cases than the N . and i n all numbers.
The reflexive
pronoun sv and a possessive G. may be added ; e. g.
yjasva t a n v m worship thyself and yjasva t a n v t v a
s v m worship thine own self. The reflexive sense of t a n
has disappeared i n B .
^t. There are one or two instances in the RV. of the incipient use of
tmn soul i n a reflexive sense ; e. g. bla ddhna tmni putting
force into himself. The A . tm n am is frequently thus used i n the later
Sahits (though never i n the RV.) and in B .
c. sv own is a reflexive adjective referring to all three

persons and numbers. It is inflected like an ordinary
adjective (priy) in the RV. (except the two isolated
pronominal forms s v s m i n and svsys),
The forms
occurring are :
m. Sing. N . svs (Lat. suus). A . svm. I. s v n a and
svn. D. sv y a. A b . sv d . G. svsya. L . sv
and s v s m i n (Rv),
PI. N . sv s . A . sv n . I. s v b h i s and svis. D . sv
bhyas.
G. sv n m. L . svu.
I. Sing. N . sv (Lat. sua). A . sv m .
I. svy. D.
sv y ai. A b . sv y s. G. s v s y s (Rv). L . sv y m.
PI. N . sv s . A . sv s . I. sv b his. L . sv s u.
n. Sing. N . A . s v m (Lat. suum). P l . A . sv (Lat. sua).
^. As first member of compounds sv several times appears i n the
substantive (as well as the adj.) sense ; e. g. svyukta selfyoked.
svaym is similarly used in the Sahits ; e.g. svayaj selfborn.
F.
Possessive Pronouns.
110. Possessive pronouns are rare because the G. of the

personal pronoun is generally used to express the sense
which they convey.
116--117]
PRONOMINA
L
COMPOUNDS
113
a. The possessives of the first person are m m a k a and

m a m a k my and asm ka our. The forms occurring are :
Sing. D. m m a k y a . G. m m a k a s y a .
Sing. N . in. m m a k s . n. m m a k m . PI. G. m
nam.
Sing. N . A . n. asm k am.
I. asm k ena.
PI. N . m.
asm k sas. I. asm k ebhis.
1
The n. s. asm k am, by far the commonest of these forms, is used as

the G. pi. of the personal pronoun = of us (109).
3
b. The possessives of the second person are t v a k thy

(only D. pi. t v a k b h y a s ) , t v thy (only I. pl. I. tv bhis),
and yum ka your. Of the latter, three forms occur:
I. s. m. yum k ena, pl. I. yum k bhis, and the N . A . n.
yum k am used as the G. pi. of the second personal
pronoun of you.
c. Besides being used reflexively sv is fairly often
employed as a simple possessive, generally of the third
person (like Lat. suus), his, her, their, but also of the second,
thy, your, and of the first, my, our. The inflexion (115 c) is
the same i n both senses.
G.
P r o n o m i n a l Compounds and Derivatives.
117. W i t h - d i n the RV. and other Sahits, and

with d k a in the V S . are formed the following pronominal
compounds : d , tad , etd such, kd what like ?
yd what like ; d k a, etd k a such.
4
Both formed from the G. of the personal pronoun mma. There

also occurs once i n the RV. the derivative m kna my.
The VS. has once the N . s. smks our formed like mmak beside
mmaka.
Formed from the G. tva.
In the Brhmaas (B.) -da begins to appear : da, tda,
yd a.
N . s. m. kd .
w i t h the very anomalous L . s. yd min.
2
114
DECLENSION
[l7u9
a. With the suffix ka, conveying a diminutive or contemptuous

meaning, very rarely used derivatives are formed from the pronouns
t, y, s, and asu: tak that little (110. 3), yka who, which (114 b),
sak (only N . s. f. sak), asaku N . s. f. that little (Vs.).
b. With the comparative suffix tara derivatives are formed from i ,
k, y, and with the superlative suffix tama from the latter two
(cp. 120) : tara other, katar which of two^ yatar who or which of two ;
katam who or which of many ^ yatam who or which of many.
IIS. a. W i t h t i derivatives with a numerical sense are

formed from k , t , and y : k t i how many ^ (Lat. guot) ;
t t i so many (Lat. totidem) ; y t i as many. No inflected
forms of these words occur. They appear in the sense of
the N . A . pi. only.
b. W i t h yant expressing the quantitative meaning of
much derivatives are formed from i and k i : y a n t so much :
n. s. N . yat, pi. y n t i ; I. s. D. y a t y a i ; k y a n t how
much ? : sing. N . n. k y a t ; I. kyat.
D . m. k y a t e .
L . k y t i (for kyati).
e. W i t h vant are formed derivatives from personal pro
nouns with the sense of like, attached to ; and from others i n
the quantitative sense of great; thus tv vant like thee,
m vant like me, yuv vant devoted to you two (only D .
yuv v ate) ; yum vant belonging to you (only L . pi.
yum v atsu) ; et vant and t vant so great ; yavant as
great; vant so great (s. N . n. vat. D. m. n. vate.
G. vatas ; pl. A . m. vatas) ; k vant how far? (G. s.
k v atas).
Indefinite Pronouns.
119. a. The only simple pronoun which has an un
doubtedly indefinite sense is sama (unaccented) any, every.
The six forms that occur are : m. s. A . samam. D . samas
mai.
Ab. samasmd.
G . samasya.
L . samasmin.
PI. N . same.
119-1^0]
PRONOMINAL
ADJECTIVES
115
b. Compound indefinite pronouns are formed by combining

the particles ca, cana, or c i d with the interrogative k ;
thus k ca any, any one ; k c a n any one soever, every ;
k c i d any, some ; any one, some one.
P r o n o m i n a l Adjectives.
12O. Several adjectives derived from or allied i n mean
ing to pronouns, follow the pronominal declension (110)
altogether or i n part.
a. The adjectives that strictly adhere to the pronominal
type of inflexion are a n y other and the derivatives formed
with tara and tama from k and y . The specifically
pronominal cases of the latter that have been met with are :
Sing. N . n. k a t a r d , y a t a r d ; k a t a m d , y a t a m d .
D. k a t a m s m a i . G. I. k a t a m s y s . L . I. y a t a m s y m .
PI. N . m. k a t a m , y a t a m , y a t a r (K.). From t a r a occur i n
the Khaka Sahit m. D. s. itarasmai and N . pl. itare.
The forms of a n y that occur are :
m. Sing. N . a n y s . A . a n y m . . I. a n y n a . D . a n y
smai. G . a n y s y a . L . a n y s m i n . P I . N . a n y .
A . any n . I. a n y b h i s and a n y i s . D. a n y b h y a s .
G . a n y m . L . anyu.
I. Sing. N . any . A . any m . I. a n y y . D . a n y s y a i .
G. a n y s y s . L . a n y s y m . Du. N . any.PI. N .
any s.
A . any s.
I. any bhis.
G. any sm.
L . any su.
n. Sing. N . a n y d . D u . I. any bhym.PI. N . any .
b. v v a all, s r v a whole, k a one are p a r t i a l l y pronominal, differing only in taking m instead of d in the N . A . s. n.
Thus :
Sing. D. v v a s m a i .
A b . vvasmd. L . v v a s m i n .
1
The RV. has the nominal forms D. vvya, Ah. vvt, L . vve,
once each.
1
116
DECLENSION
[120
PI. N . vve. G. m. vvem. I. v v s m ; but

sing. N . n. vvam.
Sing. D. m. s r v a s m a i . I. s r v a s y a i . A b . m. s r v a s m a d .
PI. m. N . srve. G. srveam. I. s r v a s m ; but
sing. N . n. s r v a m .
Sing. G. I. k a s y s .
L . m. k a s m i n . PI. N . m. k e ;
but sing. N . n. k a m .
c. More than a dozen other adjectives, having pronominal
affinities i n form or meaning, occasionally have pronominal
caseforms (but always m instead of d i n the N . A . s. n.) :
1. Eight adjectives formed with the comparative suffixes
tara and ra, and the superlative suffix ma : t t a r a higher,
later :
Sing. A b . L . t t a r a s m d and t t a r a s m i n beside t t a r d
and
ttare.
L.
I.
ttarasym.
PI.
N.
ttare.
G.
ttare
am (K.).
p a r a , v a r a , p a r a lower: sing. L . aparasmin (K.).
P l . N . m. p a r e , v a r e , p a r e beside p a r s a s , v a r s a s ,
p a r s a s and p a r s .
avam lowest : L . s. f. a v a m s y m .
u p a m highest : L . s. I. u p a m s y m .
param
farthest:
sing.
I.
G.
paramsys.
L.
para
msyam. Pl. m. N. param (K.).
m a d h y a m middlemost : sing. I. L . m a d h y a m s y m .
2. Five other adjectives with a comparative or pronominal
sense :
para ulterior : sing. D. m. p r a s m a i . A b . m. p r a s m d .
L . m. p r a s m i n beside p r e . G. I. p r a s y s . PI. m. N .
p r e beside p r a s a s . G. p r e m .
p r va prior: sing. D. p r vasmai. A b . p r vasmd.
L . p r vasmin (K.), I. p r vasym. PI. N . m. p r ve (very
common) beside p r vsas (very rare). G. m. p r veam,
I. p r vsm.
1
The A V . once has ke as L . sing.
CONJUGATION
1^0121]
117
nma i other : sing. L. m. nmasmin. Pl.N. m. nme, but G. nem

nm (unaccented).
sv own (116c), otherwise following the nominal declension, has
once sing. G. f. svsyas and once L . n. svsmin.
samn similar, common has once sing. Ab. n. samnsmd beside
samn d .
3. Four adjectives, numerical i n form or meaning, have

occasional pronominal endings : p r a t h a m first has the
sing. G. I. p r a t h a m s y s ; tt y a third has sing. L . I.
tt y asym ; b h a y a of both kinds has pl. m. G. b h a y e m
and N . b h a y e beside b h a y s a s and b h a y s ; k v a l a
exclusive has once pl. N . m. k v a l e .
2
CHAPTER IV
CONJUGATION
121. Vedic verbs are inflected i n two voices, active and
middle. The middle forms may be employed in a passive
sense, except i n the present system, which has a special
passive stem inflected with the middle endings. Some
verbs are conjugated i n both active and middle, e. g. k t i
and k u t makes ; others i n one voice only, e. g. sti is ;
others partly in one, partly i n the other ; e. g. v r t a t e
turns, but perfect v a v r t a has turned.
a. The Vedic verb has i n each tense and mood three
numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural, all i n regular use,
Perhaps from n+ima not this.

Cp. 107, note 4.
ubh both is declined i n the Du. only : N.A. m. ubh , f. ubh.
I. uhn b hym. G. ubhyos.
2
118
CONJUGATION
[P2l122
with three persons i n each (except the imperative i n which

the first persons are wanting).
122. There are five tenses i n ordinary use, the present,
the imperfect, the perfect, the aorist, and the future. The
terms imperfect, perfect, aorist are here used i n a purely
formal sense, that is, as corresponding in formation to the
Greek tenses bearing those names. No Vedic tense has an
imperfect meaning, while the perfect sense is generally
expressed by the aorist.
a. Besides the indicative there are four moods, the
subjunctive, the injunctive, the optative, and the imperative,
all of which are formed from the stems of the present, the
perfect, and the aorist. The imperfect has no moods ; and
the only modal form occurring i n the future is the unique
subjunctive kariy s from k make.
c^. The subjunctive, very common i n the RV. and the A V . , is three
or four times as frequent as the optative ; the latter, comparatively
rare i n the sahits, occurs far oftener than the former i n the
Brhmaas. Both form stems with a special modal affix.
The suoj. adds a to the indicative stem : when the latter distin
guishes a strong and a weak stem, the a is attached to the former,
while it coalesces to with the final of a stems. Thus the pr. subj.
stem of duh milk is dha, of yuj join ynnja, but of bhu be bhv.
The opt. adds y or , which when strong and weak stems are dis
tinguished are attached to the latter. stems in a take throughout ;
others take i n the mid.,ya i n the act. ; thus the pr. opt. stem of bhu
is bhve ( = bhva) ; of duh and yuj, act. duhy, yujy , mid.
duh, yuj.
^/ The inj. is identical i n form with an unaugmented past tense
(impf., aor., plnp.). It is very common i n the R v but has almost
disappeared from the Brhmaas, except when used with the prohibi
tive particle m.
The imp v. has no modal affix, adding its endings direct to the tense
stem ; e. g. 2. s. pr. viddh know, pf. mumugdh release, aor. ru-dh hear.
In the 2. 3. du. and 2. pl. act. and mid. (ending i n tam, t m ; thm,
t m ; ta ; dhvam) it is identical with the inj.
b. Participles, active and middle, are formed from the

tense stem of the present, future, aorist, and perfect. There
122124]
H
T
E PRESENT SYSTEM
119
are also passive participles, present, perfect, and future ;

the first being formed from the passive stem i n ya the
other two from the root.
e. There are also gerunds, which are stereotyped cases
(chiefly instrumentais) of verbal nouns and having the value
of indeclinable active participles with a prevailingly past
sense ; e. g. gatv and gatv y a having gone.
d. There are about a dozen differently formed types of
infinitives, which are cases of verbal nouns made directly
or with a suffix from the root, and hardly ever connected
with a tense stem ; e. g. d h a m to kindle ; g n t a v i to go.
The Present System.

123. W h i l e the perfect, aorist, and future tenses add the
endings directly (or after inserting a sibilant) to the root,
the present group (that is, the present with its moods and
participles, and the imperfect) forms a special stem, which
is made i n eight different ways by primary verbs.
The E i g h t Classes.
124. These eight classes are divided into two conjuga
tions. In the first, which comprises the first, fourth, and
sixth classes, the present stem ends i n a and remains
unchanged throughout (like the a declension). The secondary
conjugations i n a (desideratives, intensives, causatives,
denominatives) as well as the future follow this conjugation
in their inflexion. The second or graded conjugation is
characterized by shift of accent between stem and ending,
accompanied by vowel gradation. It comprises the remain
ing five classes, i n which the terminations are added directly
to the final of the root or to the (graded) suffixes no or n,
and the stem is changeable, being either strong or weak.
CONJUGATION
120
[125127
A . F i r s t Conjugation.
125. 1. The first or B h class adds a to the last letter of
the root, which being accented takes Gua of a final vowel
(short or long) and of a short medial vowel followed by one
consonant ; e. g. j i conquer : j y a : bh be : b h v a ; b u d h
awake: b d h a .
2. The s i x t h or T u d class adds an accented to the root,
which being unaccented has no Gua. Before this a final
is changed to i r .
3. The fourth or D i v class adds y a to the last letter of
the root, which is accented ; e. g. nah bind : n h y a ; d i v
play : d v ya (cp. 15, 1 c).
1
B.
Second Conjugation.
126. The strong forms are :

1. The singular present and imperfect active ;
2. The whole subjunctive ;
3. The third person singular imperative active.
In these forms the vowel of the root or of the affix, being
accented, is strengthened ; while i n the weak forms it is
reduced because the terminations are accented.
a. I n the ninth class the accented form of the affix is n, the unac
cented n or n ; in the seventh they are respective1y n and n.
127. 1. The second or root class adds the terminations

directly to the root (in the subjunctive and optative with
the intervening modal suffix). The radical vowel i n the
strong forms is accented and takes Gua if possible (125, 1) ;
2
1 The weak form i n some instances assumed by the root points to

the ya having originally been accented (cp. 133 B 1),
Except i n the augmented (128 c) imperfect singular because the
augment is invariably accented.
2
127]
FORMATION OF PRESENT
STEM
121
e. g. from i go : sing. 1. mi, i , ti ; d v i hate : dvmi,

dvki d v i .
2. The t h i r d or reduplicating class adds the terminations
directly to the reduplicated root, which i n the strong forms
takes Gua i f possible. Contrary to analogy, the accent is
not, in the majority of verbs belonging to this class, on the
root i n the strong forms, but on the reduplicative syllable
(which is also accented i n the 3. pi. act. and mid.). Thus
h u sacrifice: Sing. 1. j u h m i , pi. l . j u h u m s ; b h bear:
Sing. 1. h b h a r m i , p l . 1. bibhms, 3. b b h r a t i .
3. The seventh or i n f i x i n g nasal class adds the termina
tions directly to the final consonant, before which n is
inserted i n the strong and n in the weak forms ; e. g. yuj
join : yunjmi yujms.
4. The fifth or n u class adds i n the strong forms the
accented syllable n , which i n the weak forms is reduced
to n u ; e. g. k make : k m i , kms.
1
a. Four roots ending in n have the appearance of being formed with

a suffix u, but this is probably due to the an of the root being reduced
to the sonant nasal ; thus from tan stretch tann (for tnnu), I n the
tenth Maala of the R V . the anomalous weak stem kuru appears
three times (beside the normal ku) and the strong stem karo i n
the A V . These stems gave rise to the eighth or u class of Sanskrit
grammar.
5. The n i n t h or n class adds to the root i n the strong

forms the accented syllable n , which i n the weak forms is
reduced to n before consonants and n before vowels. The
root shows a tendency to be weakened. Thus grabh seize :
gbh mi, pl. 1. gbhmsi and gbhms, 3. gbh
nti.
1
It is doubtless as a result of this accentuation that these verbs

lose the n of the endings i n these two forms : bbhrati, bbbrate.
The intensives conjugated in the active (172) follow this
class.
The u is dropped before the m of the I. pi. ind. act. and mid.
2
122
CONJUGATION
[128129
The Augment.
12S. The imperfect, pluperfect, aorist, and conditional
generally prefix to the stem the accented syllable a which
gives to those forms the sense of past time.
a. This augment sometimes appears lengthened before
the n , y , r, v of seven or eight roots : aor. na (na attain) ;
impf. yunak, aor. yukta, yuktm (yuj join) ; impf.
riak and aor. raik (ric leave) ; aor. var (v cover) ;
i m p f vi (v choose); impf. vak (vj turn), impI.
vidhyat (vyadh wound).
b. The augment contracts with the initial vowels i , u ,
to the Vddhi vowels a i , au, r ; e. g. i c h a t impI. of is
wish ; u n a t impf. of u d wet ; rta (Gk. ^p7ô) 3. s. aor.
mid. of go.
c. The augment is very often dropped : this is doubtless
a survival from the time when it was an independent particle
that could be dispensed with if the past sense was clear from
the context. I n the R v the unaugmented forms of past
tenses are much more than half as numerous as the augmented
ones. I n sense the forms that drop the augment are either
indicative or injunctive, these being about equal i n number
in the R V . About onethird of the injunctives i n the R V .
are used with the prohibitive particle m (Gk. p^), In the
A V . nearly a l l the unaugmented forms are injunctives, of
which fourfifths are used with m .
Reduplication.
129. Five verbal formations take reduplication : the
present stem of the third conjugational class, the perfect
(with the pluperfect), one kind of aorist, the desiderative,
and the intensive. Each of these has certain peculiarities,
which must be treated separately under the special rules of
reduplication (130, 135, 149, 170, 173). Common to all are
the following :
123
REDUPLICATION
129l30]
General Rules of Reduplication.

1. The first syllable of a root (i. e. that portion of it which
ends with a vowel) is reduplicated ; e. g. b u d h perceive :
bu-budh.
2. Aspirated letters are represented by the corresponding
unaspirated ; e. g. b h fear : h i - b h ; d h put : d a - d h .
3. Gutturals are represented by the corresponding palatals,
h hy j ; e. g. gam go : ja-gam ; k h a n dig : ca-khan ; han
smite: ja-ghan.
4. If the root begins with more than one consonant, the
first only is reduplicated ; e. g. k r a m stride : ca-kram.
5. I f a root begins with a sibilant followed by a hard
consonant, the latter is reduplicated ; e. g. s t h stand :
tasth ; skand leap : ca-skand. But svaj embrace : sa-svaj
(v is soft) ; s m i smile : si-mi (m is soft).
6. If the radical vowel, whether final or medial, is long,
it is shortened i n the reduplicative syllable; e.g. d give:
da-d ; r d h succeed : r a - r d h .
1
Special R u l e of R e d u p l i c a t i o n for the T h i r d Class.

13O. and are represented i n reduplication by i ;
e.g. b h bear: h - b h a r - t i ; p fill: p - p a r - t i . The root
vt turn is the only exception : va-vart(t)-i.
4
a. Thirteen roots also reduplicate a with i , while nine do so with a.
This is not always the case i n the reduplication of intensives

(173 b),
There are some exceptions to this rule in the reduplication of
intensives (173, 3).
This rule does not apply to intensives (173), nor for the most
part to the reduplicated aorist (149, 2), and i n the reduplicated perfect
it is subject to numerous exceptions (139, 9).
Three of these, p drink, stha stand, han slay, have permanently
gone over to the a conjugation, while ghr smell is beginning to do so.
2
124
CONJUGATION
[131
Terminations.
131. The following table gives the terminations, which
are on the whole the same for all verbs, of the present
system. The chief difference is i n the optative which is
characterized by e i n the first, and y and i n the second
conjugation. The present indicative has the primary (mi,
si, t i , ^:c), and the imperfect, the optative, and (with
some modifications) the imperative have the secondary
terminations (m, s, t, ^:c), while the subjunctive fluctuates
between the two. Of the other tenses the future takes the
primary, and the pluperfect and the aorist, with the
benedictive and the conditional, take the secondary termina
tions; while the perfect has i n the active (with many
variations) the secondary, and i n the middle the primary
endings.
The following distinctions between the two conjugations
should be noted. In the first or a conjugation (as i n the
a declension) the accent is never on the terminations, but
always on the same syllable of the stem (the root i n the
first and fourth, the affix i n the sixth class), which therefore
remains unchanged. On the other hand, i n the second
conjugation (as i n the declension of changeable stems) the
accent falls on the strong stem, which is reduced i n the weak
forms by the shifting of the accent to the endings. I n the
second conjugation therefore the endings are accented
except i n the strong forms (126). The same applies to the
unaugmented imperfect (128).
1
That is, coalescing with the final a of the stem ; e. g. bbvo

bhva.
That is, the modal affix shows vowel gradation (5 b).
9
l3l]
CONJUGATIONAL
ENDINGS
125
ACT1vE.
PREsENT.
IMPERFECT.
oPTAT1vE.
1st C0nj.
1. mi
2. si
yam
s
(a),1n^
3. ti
t
1
1. vas
2. thas
3. tas
va
tam
tm
1. masi,- mas
2. tha, thana
3. (a)-nti
va
tam
tm
ma
ma
ta, tana
ta
(a)-n, ur 7 yur
6
1MPv.
2nd conj.
ym
ys
ni,
a-si, a-s - tat
dhi, hi
a-ti, a-t tu
yt
yVa
ytam
ytm
-va
athas
a-tas
tam
tm
a-ma
a-tha
a-n
ta, tana
(a)-ntu
t
1
sUBJ.
yma
yta
yr
The final a of the stem i n the first conjugation is lengthened before

m or v : bhvmi bhvvas.
In the RV. masi is more than five times as common as mas, but i n
the A V . mas is rather commoner than masi.
The only example of the ending thana i n the a conjugation is
vda thana.
Reduplicated verbs and others treated as such drop the n i n the
3. pi. ind. pr. and impv. act. I n the whole second conj. the n is
dropped i n the 3. pl. pres. impf. impv. mid.
m i n the first (bhavam), am i n the second (dvesam).
There are no examples of this ending i n the a conjugation.
The ending ur is taken by nearly all the verbs of the redupli
cating class and by several of the root class.
These endings coalesce with the final a of the stem to eyam, es,
et, ^c.
Verbs of the a conjugation have normally no ending i n the
2. s. impv. ; but they not infrequently add t t , which occurs i n B .
also. I n the graded conjugation dhi. h i , t t are added to the weak
stem, and na i n some verbs of the ninth class : e. g. addh, u
dhi ; u-hi, pun-hi ; a-na ; vit-tt, kutt.
Only two examples occur i n the a conjugation : bhja-tana and
nhya-tana.
2
19
19
CONJUGATION
126
[131
MlDDLE.
1MPF.
PRESENT.
1. e
2. se
3. te
1. vahe
2. ethe (l),
the (2)
3. etc (1),
3
SUBJUNCT1VE.
ai
ths
ta
-ta
a-te, atai
-vahi
-vahai
ethm (1),
athm (2)
-y-thm
aithe
etham (1)
thm (2^
etm (1),
tm (2)
3
-y-tm
aite
etm (1)
tm (2)
-mahi
-mahai
-mahe
a-se, a-sai
sva
tm
m
mahi
2. dhve
dhvam
dhvam
a-dhvai
3. nte(l),
te (2)
nta (1),
ata (2)
-r-an
a-ntai
a-nta ^
te (2)
1. mahe
1
IMPERATIVE^
ya
-ths
vahi
OPTATIVE.
dhvam
ntm (1)
atm (2)
The final a of the first conjugation is lengthened before m and v.

This i combines with the final a of the first conjugation to e :
bhve.
In these forms e takes the place of the final a of the a conjugation.
This modal combines with the final a of the first conjugation to
e : bhveya, ^:c.
The RV. has ase only, the A V . and the Brhmaas asai only.
The form ate is almost exclusively used in the RV while atai
is the prevailing one in the A V . , and the only one later.
The ending antai occurs i n B . only.
The form in anta i n the a conjugation, where it is very common,
e. g. bhavanta, is an injunctive ; but i n the graded conjugation a
subj., e.g. kavanta (inj. kvata),
2
132]
CONJUGATIONAL ENDINGS
127
Paradigms.
132. Since the three classes of the first conjugation, as
well as all the secondary verbs the stems of which end i n a,
are inflected exactly alike, one paradigm w i l l suffice for all
of them. The injunctive is not given here because its forms
are identical with the unaugmented imperfect. Forms of
which no examples are found in the Sahits are added i n
square brackets.
1
1 A l l other conjugation^ stems ending i n a, the passive (154), the

s future (151), the a (141 a), the sa (147), and the reduplicated (149)
aor. are similarly inflected.
128
CONJUGATION
FIRST
[132
CONJUGATION.
F i r s t Class : b h be :
Present.
ACTIVE.
s1NGULAR.
DUAL.
1. b h v - m i
bhv-vas
2. b h v a - s i
3. b h v a - t i
bhva-thas
bhva-tas
PLURAL.
bhv-asi
bhv-mas
bhva-tha
bhva-nti
Imperfect.
1. -bhava-m
2. -bhava-s
3. - b h a v a - t
[-bhav-va]
-bhava-tam
-bhava-tm
-bhavma
-bhava-ta
-bhavan
Imperative.
2. b h v a
bhva-tt
3. b h v a - t u
bhva-tam
bhva-ta
bhva-tm
bhva-ntu
subjunctive.
1.
bhv-ni
bhva
2. b h v a - s i
bhva-s
3. b h v a - t i
bhva-t
bhva-va
bhva-ma
bhva-thas
bhva-tha
bhv-tas
bhva-n
optative.
1.
bhv-eyam
2. b h v - e s
3. b h v - e t
[bhv-eva]
I bhv-etam]
bhv-etam
Participle.
b h v - a n t , I. -
bhv-ema
[bhv-eta]
bhv-eyr
FIRST CLASS
132]
PIR^
129
OoNÛÂôN.
Present stem bhv-a.

M1DDLE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
bhv-e
bhva-se
bhva-te
DUAL.
PLURAL.
bhv-vahe
bhv-mahe
[bhv-ethe]
bhv-ete
bhva-dhve
bhva-nte
Imperfect.
-bhav-e
-bhava-ths
-bhava-ta
[-bhav-vahi]
-bhav-ethm
-bhav-etm
bhva-sva
bhva-tm
bhv-ethm
bhv-etm
-bhav-mahi]
bhava-dhvam]
bhavanta
Imperative.
bhva-dhvam
bhva-ntm
subjunctive.
bhv-ai
bhva-se
bhva-sai (AV.)
bhv-te
bhv-tai
bhv-vahai
bhv-mahai
bhv-aithe
[bhva-dhve]
bhv-aite
[bhva-nte]
optative.
bhv-eya
[bhv-eths]
bhveta
hhv-evahi
bhv-eyathm]
bhv-eytam]
Participle.
b h v a - m n a , I. a
bhv-emahi
hhv-edhvam]
bhv-ern]
CONJUGATION
130
SECOND
1132
CONJUGATION.
Second Class ^. i go : Present stem , I.

AGT1VE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
1. mi
DUAL.
[ivs]
2.
iths
3.
ti
its
PLURAL.
imsi
ims
ith
ithna
ynti
Imperfect.
1. yam
2. is
3. it
[iva]
itam
itm
ima
ita
itana
yan
Imperative.
2. ih,
it t
itm
it
itna
3.
it m
yntu
tu
Subjunctive.
1. y n i
2.
3.
y
yasi
yas
yati
yat
yva
yma
yathas
yatha
yatas
yan
optative.
1. iyam
2. iy s
3. iy t
iy va
iy tam
iy tm
Participle.
y n t , I. yat
iy ma
iy ta
iyr
132]
SECOND
CLASS
131
SECOND CONJUGATION .
b r u speak : Present stem b r v , h r .

M1DDLE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
DUAL.
PLURAL.
bruv
[brvhe]
brmhe
br
bruv t he
brdhv
brt
bruv
bruv t e
bruvte
Imperfect.
[bruvi]
brths
brta
brvahi]
bruvthm]
| bruvtm]
[brmahi]
brdhvam
bruvata
Imperative.
brsv
[bruvthm]
brdhvm
brt m
[bruv t m]
bruvtm
subjunctive.
brvai
brvvahai
brvase
brvaithe
brvate
brvaite
brvamahai
[brvadhve]
brvanta
optative.
bruvy
[bruvth s ]
bruvt
[bruvvhi]
[bruvy t hm]
[bruvytm]
Participle.
b r u v , I.
bruvmhi
[bruvdhvm]
[bruvrn]
132
CONJUGATION
[13:
T h i r d Class ^ b h bear :
ACTIVE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
1. b b h a r m i
2.
3.
bbhari
bbharti
DUAL.
[bibhvs]
bibhths
hibhts
PLURAL.
bibhmsi
bibhms
bibhth
bbhrati
Imperfect.
1. b i b h a r a m
2. b i b h a r (28)
[hibhva]
bibhtam
bibhma
bibhta
bibhtana
bibhran
bibharur
3.
b i b h a r (28)
bibhtm
2.
bibhh
bibhrt t
bibhtm
bibht
hibhna
3.
bbhartu
bibht m
bbhratu
Imperative.
Subjunctive.
1. b b h a r i
2. bbharas
3. b b h a r a t
[bbharva]
bbharathas
[bbharatas]
1. hibhy m
2. hibhy s
3. hibhy t
[bibhy va]
[bibhy tam]
bibhy tm
bbharma
[bbharatha]
bbharan
optative.
Participle.
b b h r a t , I. h b h r a t
hibhy ma
[bibhy ta]
bibhyr
132]
H
T IRD CLASS
133
Present stem b b h a r , b i b h .
M1DDLE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
DUAL.
PLURAL.
bbhre
bibhvhe
hbhmhe
bibhr
bibhrt
bibhrthe
bbhrte
bibhdhv
bbhrate
Imperfect.
[bibhri]
bibhths
bibhrta
bibhvahi]
[bibhrthm]
bibhmahi]
bibhdhvam]
[bibhrtm]
bibhrata
Imperative.
bibhv
bbhrtham
bibhrt m
[bbhrtm]
bibhrdhvm
bbhratm
Subjunctive.
bbharai]
bibharase
bbharate
bbharvahai
[bbharaithe]
[bbharaite]
bibharmahai
[bbharadhve]
bbharanta
optative.
bbhrya
[bibhrths]
bbhrta
[bbhrvahi]
[bbhrythm]
[bbhrytm]
Participle.
b i b h r a , f.
bbhrmahi
[bbhrdhvam]
bbhrran
134
CONJUGATION
[132
F i f t h Class : k make :
AcT1VE.
Present.
sINGULAR.
1. k m i
2.
3.
ki
kti
DUAL.
[kvs]
kuths
kuts
PLURAL.
kmsi
kms
kuth
kvnti
Imperfect.
1. kavam
2. kos
3. kot
[kva]
kutam
kutm
[kma]
kuta
kvan
Imperative.
kuh
k
knt t
3. [ k t u ]
kutm
2.
kut m
kut
kta
ktana
kvntu
Subjunctive.
1. ^ k v
kvni
2. k v a s
3. k r n v a t
kvva
kvma
kvathas]
krnvatas ]
kvatha
krnvan
optative.
1. ku.y m
2. [kuy s]
3. kuy t
[kuy va]
[kuy tam]
[kuy tm]
Participle.
k v n t , f. kvat
kuy ma
[kuy ta]
[kuyr]
11]
H
FIFT
CL ASS
135
Present stem k , ku.

M1DDLE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
DUAL.
PLURAL.
kv
[kvhe]
kmhe
ku
(kut
(kv
kv t he
[kv t e]
[kudhv]
kvte
Imperfect.
[kvi]
kuths
kuta
kvahi]
kvthm]
kvtm]
[kmahi]
kudhvam
kvata
Imperative.
kuv
kv t hm
kut m
[kv t m ]
kudhvm
kvtm
Subjunctive.
kvai
kvvahai
kvase
kvate
knvaithe
kvaite
kvmahai
[kvadhve]
kvanta
optative.
[kvy]
[kvth s ]
kvt
[kvvhi]
[kvy t hm]
[kvy t m]
Participle.
k v n , I.
[kvmhi]
[kvdhvm]
[knvrn]
136
CONJUGATION
[13:^
Seventh C l a s s :
yujjoin:
ACTIVE.
Present.
DUAL.
sINGULAR.
1. yunajmi
2.
3.
y u n k i (63, 67)
y u n k t i (63)
yujvs]
yukths]
yukts]
PLURAL.
yujms
[yukth]
yujnti
Imperfect.
1. [ y u n a j a m ]
2. y u n a k (63, 61)
3. y u n a k (63, 61)
[yujva]
yuktam
[yuktm]
[yujma]
[yukta]
yujan
Imperative.
2.
y u d h (10 a)
3.
yunktu
y u t m (10 a) y u t
y u n k t a , tana
yut m
yujntu
Subjunctive.
1. [ y u n j n i ]
2.
3.
yunjas
yunjat
yunajva
[yunjathas]
yunjatas
yunajma
[yunjatha]
yunjan
optative.
1. [yujy m ]
2. [yujy s]
3. yujy t
[yujy va]
[yujy tam]
[yujy tm]
Participle.
yujnt, f. yujat
[yujyama]
[yujy ta]
[yujyr]
132]
SEVENTH
CLASS
137
Present stem : y u n j , y u j .
M1DDLE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
yuj
yuk
yukt
DUAL.
[yujvhe]
yuj t he
yuj t e
PLURAL.
[yujmhe]
yugdhv
yujte
Imperfect.
yuji]
yukths]
yukta]
yujvahi]
[yujthm]
[yujtm]
[yujmahi]
[yugdhvam]
yujata
Imperative.
y u k v (63, 67) yuj t hm
yugdhvm
yut m
yujtm
[yuj t m]
Subjunctive.
[yunjai]
[yunjase]
yunjate
[yunjvahai]
[yunjaithe]
[yunjaite]
yunjmahai
[yunjadhve]
[yunjanta]
optative.
[yujy]
[yujth s ]
yujt
[yujvhi]
[yujy t hm]
[yujy t m]
Participle.
yujn, I.
[yujmhi]
[yujdhvm]
[yujrn]
138
CONJUGATION
[132
N i n t h Class : grabh seize :

ACTIVE.
Present.
DUAL.
s1NGULAR.
1.
gbhami
2.
gbhsi
gbhths
3.
gbh ti
gbhts
PLURAL.
[gbhvs]
gbhmsi
gbhms
gbhth
gbhthna
gbhnti
Imperfect.
1.
2.
3.
gbhm
gbhs
gbht
[gbhva]
gbhtam
[gbhtm]
[gbhma]
gbhta
gbhan
Imperative.
2.
gbhh
3.
gbht t
gbh
gbhtu
gbhtm
gbht
gbhtna
gbht m
gbhntu
Subjunctive.
1.
2.
3.
grbhn n i
gbh s
gbh t
gbh ti
[gbh va]
[gbh thas]
[gbh tas]
gbh ma
gbh tha
gbh n
optative.
1. gbhyam
2. gbhy s
3. gbhyat
[gbhy va]
[ gbhy tam]
[ gbhy tm]
[gbhy ma]
[gbhyata]
[gbhyr]
Participle.
gbhnt, I. gbhat .
NINTH
132]
CLASS
139
Present stem gbh , gbh gbh.

M1DDLE.
Present.
s1NGULAR.
DUAL.
gbh
[gbhvhe]
gbh
[gbh t he]
gbht
[gbh t e]
PLURAL.
gbhmhe
[gbhdhv]
gbhte
Imperfect.
gbhi
[gbhths]
gbhta
gbhvahi]
^gbhtham]
^gbhtm]
gbhmahi
[gbhdhvam |
gbhata
Imperative.
gbhv
[gbh t hm]
gbhdhvm
gbht m
[gbh t m]
gbhtm
Subjunctive.
[gbhi]
[gbh se]
[gbh te]
gbh vahai
[gbhithe]
[gbhite]
[gbhy^
[gbhthas]
gbht
[gbhvhi]
[gbhmhi]
[gbhy t hm] [gbhdhvm]
gbhy t m] [gbhrn]
gbh mahai
[gbh dhve]
[gbh nta]
optative.
Participle.
gbhn, f.
CONJUGATION
140
[133
Irregularities of the Present Stem.

First
Conjugation.
133. A . F i r s t or B h Class. 1. The radical vowel is

lengthened in guh hide and in k r a m stride (in the act. only) :
guha, kr m ati (but mid. k r m a t e ) ; h consider takes
Gua : ha ; k p lament does not take Gua : k p a.
2. gam go, y a m restrain, y u separate form their present
stems with cha (Gk. o^): gcha (Gk. l.ôô), yeha,
ycha.
3. a. The four roots p drink, s t h stand, sac aceompany,
sad sit form present stems that originally belonged to the
reduplicating class : p b a (Lat. bibo) ; tha (to.r^t, LaI.
sisto); s c a (for ss(a)ca) ; s d a (for ss(a)da ; Lat. sdo).
b. Four stems are transfers from the fifth or n u class,
being either used beside or having entirely superseded the
simpler original stems : nvati (from i send) beside inti ;
j n v a t i (from j i quieken) beside j i n i ; hnvati (from
h i impel) beside h i n t i ; p n v a fatten, doubtless originally
p n u (p).
4. da bite and sanj hang lose their nasal : d-a, sj-a.
5. The ending tat (besides being regularly used i n the
2. s. impv. by twelve verbs) is exceptionally used for the
3. s. in gchatt and s m r a - t t . Only one example occurs,
in this class, of the 2. pl. impv. act. ending tana: bhja
tana ; and one of dhva (for dhvam) in the 2. pi. mid. :
yja-dhva.
1
Instead of taking Gua.

But uh remov e remains unchanged (125, 1).
Against 125, 1.
A reminiscence of the reduplicative origin of this stem is the loss
of the nasal in the 3. pl. pres. sc-ati and 3. pl. inj. mid. sac-ata.
2
183-134] I R R E G U L A R I T I E S O F P R E S E N T S Y S T E M 141
B. F o u r t h or v a Class.
1. The radical syllable is
reduced i n seven verbs : spa see loses its initial : p - y a ;
v y a d h pierce takes Samprasraa : v d h y a ; is shortened
i n d h suck : dhya ; m exchange : m y a ; v weave :
Vya ; Vy envelope : v y y a ; h v call : h v y a .
2. Final sometimes becomes both r and r : j waste
away : j r ya and j r ya ( A Y ) ; t cross : t r ya and t r ya ;
p fill becomes p r ya only (because of its initial labial).
3. r a m be weary lengthens its vowel: r m ya ; i n B .
tam faint and m a d be exhilarated do the same : t m ya,
m d ya.
C. S i x t h Class. 1. The radical vowel is nasalized i n
eight verbs : k t cut : knt ; tp be pleased : t m p ;
p i adorn : p i - ; mue r elease : m u c ; l i p smear :
l i m p ; l u p break : l u m p ; v i d find: v i n d ; sic sprinkle :
sic. Three other roots, t u d thr ust, d h make fir m, u b h
shine have occasional nasalized forms.
2. Four roots form their present stem with the suffix cha
(cp. A 2) : is wish : i-ch ; go : -ch ; p r a ask : p - c h ;
vas shine : u - c h . The root v r a c cut, which seems to be
formed with c, takes Samprasraa : vc-.
3. Three roots i n , k scatter, g swallow, t cross, form
the present stems k i r - , gir-, t i r - (beside tr-a).
1
^. Beside the normal use of the imperative suffix t t for the 2. s. in

m-tt, vitt, vhtt suvtt, it also appears for the 3. s. in
vi-tt.
I34.
A . Second or Root Class.
I. The root is irregularly strengthened i n the following

verbs :
a. k u whet, y u unite, n u and stu praise take V d d h i
instead of Gua i n the strong forms before terminations
with samprasraa and loss of . Cp. Lat. prec-or and po(rc)-sco,
and Old German frag-en . ask ' and for-scon (forschen).
Cp. vras-ka cutting, past participle vk cut, and v k a wolf.
1
142
CONJUGATION
[134
beginning with consonants ; e. g. s t u m i , staut, but

stavam.
b. mj wipe takes Vddhi i n the strong forms : m r jmi,
m r i, but mjms, mjnti.
e. lie mid. takes Gua and accents the radical syllable
throughout its weak forms : e. g. s. 1. 3. y-e, 2. -e
(^^rat), It has the additional irregularity of inserting r
before the endings i n the 3. pi. pr., impv., impf. : -r-ate,
-ratm, -e-r-an.
i go, bru speak, stu praise, han slay before the ending of the 2. pi.
impv. act. have the alternative forms -ta and tanabrvtana,st6ta,
hntana. B r u has the same irregularity i n the 2. pk impf. bravta
and bravtana.
2. The root is irregularly weakened i n the following

verbs :
a. v a desire takes Sa1nprasraa i n the weak forms :
L pi. u-msi, part. u-n, but 1. s. v-mi.
b. as be drops its initial a in the optative and all the weak
forms of the pr. and impv. ; e. g. opt. sy t would be ;
pr. sms we are, snti (Lat. sunt) they are ; impv. du. 2.
stm, pi. 2. st, 3. sntu. The 2. s. impv. preserves the
vowel (in an altered form) i n edh (for azdh, A v . zd).
I n the impf it inserts before the endings of the 2. 3. s. :
ss, st (beside s = st).
e. h a n slay i n weak forms loses its n before terminations
beginning with consonants (except m , y , v), as h a t h , but
h n t i . I n the 3. pi. pr., impv., impf., and part., the a is
syncopated and h reverts to the original guttural g h :
g h n n t i , g h n n t u , ghnan ; g h n n t . The 2. s. impv.
is j a h (for jhah), with palatalized initial instead of
ghah.
i I n B . r u cry, su impel, sku tear, snu distil have the same peculiarity :
rauti sauti, skauti, snautr.
114] I R R E G U L A R I T I E S O F T H E S E C O N D S T E M
143
3. A vowel or semivowel is irregularly inserted i n the

following verbs :
a. The roots an breathe, r u d weep, vam vomit, vas blow,
svap sleep insert i before a l l terminations beginning with
a consonant, except in the 2. 3. s. impf., where they insert ;
e. g. niti, nt ; avamt ; vas-i-ti.
b. The roots praise and rule add i i n some forms of
the 2. s. and pi. m i d . : iva; -ie (beside ke),
i-dhve. Occasional forms (2. s. impv.) with connecting i
from other roots also occur: jan-i-va be born, vas-i-va
elothe, nath-ihi pierce, stan-i-hi thunder.
e. The root b r speak inserts i n the strong forms
before terminations beginning with consonants : b r v - - m i ,
-bravt; am injure inserts before consonants; thus
a m - - t i , am--va, m - - t (TS.).
4. W i t h regard to the endings :
a. The root s order loses the n i n the 3. pi. act. and
mid., and in the part. : s-ate, a s - a t u , s at.
b. The root d u h milk is very anomalous i n its endings.
The irregular forms are the following: act. impI. 3. s.
d u h a t beside dhok, 3. pi. d u h r a n beside d u h a n
and d u h r ; opt. 3. s. d u h y t (for duhy t ), 3. pl.
d u h y n (for d u h y r ) . Mid. pr. ind. 3. pl. d u h r and
duhrate beside the regular d u h a t ; impv. 3. s. duh m ,
3. pl. duhr m and d u h r t m ; part. d g h n a .
e. Roots ending in take u r instead of an in the 3. pi. impI.
act. ; e.g. pprotect : pur. A few roots ending in consonants
show the same irregularity ; e. g. t v i be stirred : tviur.
1
^. The verbs rule, duh milk, vid ^nd, lie frequently, and eit
observe, bru speak rarely, take e instead of to i n the 3. s. pr. mid. : -e,
duh- vid-, ye ; oit, bruv.
^. I n the A V . and B. subj. forms with instead of a are not un
common ; e. g. ys, sat, brvthas, hntha, dn.
3
2
3
But with irregular accent, as also rihat they lick.

In the A V . the 3. s. impv. mid. is similarly formed in y-m.
This irregularity occurs in B . also.
In B . subj. forms with primary endings are very rare.
144
CONJUGATION
[134
B . T h i r d or Reduplicating Class.
1. Roots ending i n drop the radical vowel before
terminations beginning with vowels ; e. g. m measure :
1. s. mm-e, 3. pi. m m - a t e .
a. The of m measure, m bellow, r give, sharpen,
ha go away is in weak forms usually changed to before con
sonants (cp. 5 e) : mmte ; rarths ; i-msi ; jhte.
b. da give, d h place, the two commonest verbs i n this
class, use dad and dadh as their stems in all weak forms :
d d m a h e , d a d h m s i . When the aspiration of dadh is
lost before t, th s it is thrown back on the initial : d h a t t ,
d h a t t h , d h a t s v . The 2. s. impv. act. is d e h (for
dazdh) beside d a d d h and datt t ; and d h e h (for
dhazdh) beside dhatt t .
2. The root vyac takes Samprasraa, e. g. 3. du. pr.
v i v i k t s ; hvar be crooked makes some forms with
Samprasraa and then reduplicates with u : e.g. j u h r t h s ,
2. s. inj. mid.
3. bhas chew, sac accompany, has laugh syncopate the
radical vowel i n weak forms ; thus b p s a t i 3 pl. ind. pr.
(but babhasat 3. s. subj.); s-cati 3. pl. ind. pr.,
s-c-ata 3. pl. inj. ; j-kat (for ja-gh(a)s-at) pr. part.
1
^. The roots go, d give, dh put, p cross, y u separate, sharpen, hu

sacrifice have several forms with a strong vowel i n the 2. impv. act. s.
yu-yo-dh, i-dh (beside i--h); du. yuytam (beside yuyu
tm); pl. yarta, ddata and ddtana, ddhta and ddh
tana, ppartana, yuyta and yuytana juhta and juhtana.
d, dn, h leave, have similar strong forms i n the 2. pi. impf. : da
dta, dadhta, jahtana.
^. There are numerous transfers from this to other classes. The
roots p drink, sth stand, han stride form such stems according to the
a conjugation exclusively, pba, tha, jghna (cp. 133 A . 3 a) ; while
ghr smell, bhas chew, m bellow, r give, sac accompany occasionally us
the a stems jghra, hpsa, mma, rra, sca. The roots da give and
dh put also make some forms from their weak stems according to the
1
But 2. s. impv. act. rar-sva (AV.).
134]
I R R E G U L A R I T I E S OF P R E S E N T S Y S T E M
145
a conjugation, as 3. s. pr. mid. ddate, 3. p i . act. ddhanti, 3. pl.

impv. ddhantu. The former, dad, has even an incipient tendency
to become a root ; thus it forms the past part. pass. datt given.
C. F i f t h or N u Class. 1. The u of the suffix is dropped
before the m of the 1. pl. ind. act. and mid., as k m s
kmhe.
2. W h e n n u is preceded by a consonant its u becomes u V
before vowel endings ; e. g. 3. p i . pr. a - n u v - n t i (but
su-nv-nti).
3. r u hear forms (by dissimilation) the stem u , and
v cover (with interchange of vowel and semivowel) r u
beside the regular v u .
4. Beside the regular and very frequent present stem
k u (from k make) there begins to appear i n the tenth
Maala of the R v the very anomalous k u r u .
The strong
form of this stem, k a r , which has the further anomaly of
Gua i n the root, first appears i n the A v .
1
a. The four roots ending i n n, tan stretch, man think, van win, san
gain, have the appearance of forming their stem with the suffix u, as
tanu. These (with three later roots) form a separate (eighth) class
according to the H indu grammarians. But the a of these present
stems i n reality probably represents the sonant nasal, = t^nu. This
group was joined by kuru, the late and anomalous present stem of
kr make (cp. C 4).
^. Five stems of this class, inu, u jinu, pinu, hinu, have
come to be used frequently as secondary roots forming present stems
according to the a conjugation : nva va, jnva, pnva, hnva.
v. In the 3. pi. pr. mid. six verbs of this class take the ending re
with connecting vowel i : invir, vir pinvir, rv-i-r,
sunvi-r, ninv-ir.
4
After the preposition pari around this stem prefixes an unoriginal

s : pari-kvnti they adorn.
Twice i n the 2. s. impv. kuru and once in the I. pl. pr. ind.
kur-mas.
But the forms made from ku are still six times as common i n
the A V . as those from kar6, kuru, which are the only stems used in B .
- Like duh-re i n the root class.
2
146
CONJUGATION
[134-135
^. In the impv. the 2. s. act. has the ending h i , as uh three

times as often in the RV. as the form without ending, as u ; i n the
A V . it occurs only about one-sixth as often as the latter ; i n B . it has
almost disappeared. In the R V . the ending dhi also occurs i n udh. The ending tat occurs i n ku-tt, hinu-tat, kuru-tt. In the
2. du. are found the strong forms kro-tam, hin0-tam ; and in the 2. p i .
k-ta and k-tana, r-ta and tana, sunta and suntana,
hin5ta and hintana ; tant^ and karta.
D . Infixing Nasal Class. 1. aj anoint, b h a j break,

his injure drop their nasal before inserting na : as
a n k t i , b h a n k t i , hinsti.
2. t h crush infixes n i n the strong forms ; e. g.
t h i (69 e).
E . N i n t h or N Class. 1. The three roots j overpower,
j hasten, p purify shorten their vowel before the affix :
jin mi, jun si, pun ti.
2. grabh seize and its later form grah take Samprasraa :
gbh mi, gh mi (AV.).
3. j know and the four roots which i n forms outside
the present system appear with a nasal, bandh bind, manth
shake, skambh make firm, stambh prop, drop their nasal :
jn ti, badhn ti, mathn ti, skabhn ti, stabhn ti.
4. Four roots ending i n consonants, a eat, grah seize,
bandh bind, stambh prop, have the peculiar ending ana i n
the 2. s. impv. act. : a-n, gh, b a d h n , s t a b h n .
p jill and m crush make, beside the regular stems p and
m, the transfer stems, according to the a conjugation, p
and m, from which several forms occur.
The Perfect Tense.

135. This tense is formed by reduplication. Like the
present, it has, besides an indicative, the subjunctive,
injunctive, optative, and imperative moods, as well as
participles, and an augmented form, the pluperfect. It is
very common, being formed by nearly 300 verbs i n the
Sahits.
THE PERFECT
135136]
147
Special Rules of Reduplication.

1. and (= ar) and (= al) always reduplicate with a
(cp. 139, 9) ; e. g. k do : cak ; t cross : tat ; k p be
adapted: c k p ; go: ar ( aar).
2. Initial a or becomes a ; e. g. an breathe : n ;
p obtain : p . The long vowels and remain unchanged
( = i and u) ; e.g. move: 1. s. ; h consider:
3. s. h .
3. Roots beginning with i and u contract i + i to and
u + u to except i n the sing. act., where the reduplicative
syllable is separated from the strong radical syllable by its
own semivowel : e. g. i go : 2. s. iytha : uc be pleased :
2. s. mid. ci, but 3. S. act. uvca.
4. Roots containing y a or v a and liable to Samprasraa
in other forms (such as the past part. pass.) reduplicate
with i and u respectively. There are four such with y a :
tyaj forsake, yaj sacrifice, vyac extend, syand move on:
tityaj, iyaj, Vivyac, s i y a n d ; and five with v a : v a c
speak, vad speak, vap strew, vah carry, svap sleep: uvac,
uvad, uvap, uvah, suvap. On the other hand the
three roots y a m stretch, van win, vas wear have the full
reduplication y a or Va throughout : yayam, vavan,
vavas.
1
136. The singular perfect active is strong (like the sing.

pr. and impf. act.), the root being accented ; the remaining
forms are weak, the terminations being accented. The
endings are the following :
ACTIVE.
sING.
1. a
2. tha
3. a
1
DUAL
[v]
thur
tur
M1DDLE.
PLUR.
s1NG.
DUAL
PLUR.
[vhe]
the
te
mhe
dhv
r
vac has two forms with the f u l l reduplication : 3. s. act. vav c a

and 2. s. mid. vavak.
148
CONJUGATION
[136
a. Terminations beginning with initial consonants are as

a rule added directly to the stem ; mahe is invariably so
added. The endings tha, ma, se, re are nearly always
added direct to stems ending i n vowels ; thus from da give :
dadatha ; j i conquer : jigtha ; n lead : n i n t h a ; su
press : suum ; h call : j u h r ; k make : cakrtha,
cakm, cak, but c a k r i r . The same endings tha,
ma, se, re are added directly to roots ending in consonants,
if the final syllable of the stem is prosodically short, but
with connecting i if it is long ; e. g. t a t n t h a ; j a g a n m ,
jagbhrn, y u y u j m ; vivits ; c k p r , t a t a s r
y u y u j r , v i v i d r ; but uvcitha, c i m , p a p t i m ;
jir.
1
b. Before terminations beginning with vowels (op. 137, 1 a)

1 . preceded by one consonant become y, if preceded by
more than one, i y ; e. g. b h fear : b i b h y t u r ; r i resort :
iriy-.
2. ordinarily become uv ; e. g. y u join : y u y u v ; r u
hear : u r u v - ; swell : u v - .
3. becomes r, becomes i r ; e. g. k make : c a k r - ,
c a k r - ; t eross : t i t i r - r ; st strew : tistir.
4
The Strong Stem.

1. Short vowels followed by a single consonant take Gua
throughout the singular active ; e. g. d i point : di-d-a ;
uc be wont : uv-c-a ; k t eut : cakrta ; but j i n v quicken :
jijinvthur.
1 Roots in always add re with connecting i .
The final radical vowel in weak forms is reduced to i , e. g. from
dh put, dadhidhve. This reduced vowel in the very common verbs
d and dh was probably the startingpoint for the use of i as a con
necting vowel in other verbs.
This is due to the rhythmic rule that the stem may not have two
prosodically short vowels in successive syllables. Cp. p. 155, note 2.
But h call: j u h v ; bh be: babh v a; s bring forth: sas v a.
2
T H E STRONG STEM
136137]
149
1
2. Final vowels take vddhi i n the 3. s. ; e. g. n lead :

nin y a ; r u hear : u-r v a ; k make : cak r a.
3. Medial a followed by a single consonant takes vddhi
in the 3. s. ; e. g. h a n strike : jagh n a, but tak fashion
tataka.
4. Roots ending i n take the anomalous ending a u i n
the I. and 3. s. act. ; e. g. d h put : d a d h u . The only
exception is the root p r fill, which once forms the 3. s.
papr beside the regular p a p r u .
1
The W e a k Stem.
137. 1. I n roots containing the vowels , , the r a d i c a l
syllable remains unchanged except by Sandhi ; e. g. yuj
join : y u y u j m ; v i d find : vivid ; k make: cakm.
a. Before terminations beginning with vowels, and , i f
preceded by one consonant become y and r, if by more than
one, i y and ar ; while and regularly become uv and i r ;
e. g. j i conquer : jigyr ; b h fear : h i b h y r ; k make :
c a k r r ; r i resort : iriy- ; y u join : y u - y u v - ; r u
hear : u - r u v - ; swell : - u v - ; t cross : t i - t i r - r ;
st strew : tistir-.
2. I n roots containing a medial a or final the radical
syllable is weakened.
a. About a dozen roots i n which a is preceded and
followed by a single consonant (e. g. pat) and which
reduplicate the initial consonant unchanged (this excludes
roots beginning with aspirates, gutturals, and for the most
part v) contract the two syllables to one containing the
diphthong e (cp. Lat. fac-io, fec-i). They are the following :
1
The I. sing. never takes vddhi i n the RV. and Av. I n an

Upaniad and a s t r a cakra occurs as 1. sing. and i n a stra jigya
(ji) also.
This vowel spread from contracted forms like sa-zd (Av. hazd) weak
perfect stem of sad sit (az becoming e ; cp. 134, 2 b and 133 A 1).
2
150
CONJUGATION
[1^7
tap heat, dabh harm, nam bend, pac cook, pat fly, yat
stretch, y a m extend, rabh grasp, labh take, a k be able,
ap curse, sap serve. Examples are : pat : p e t - t u r ; a k :
ek-r.
The two roots tan stretch and sac follow join this class i n
the A V .
b. Four roots with medial a but initial guttural, syncopate
their vowel : k h a n dig : cakhn ; gam go : jagm ; ghas
eat : jak ; han smite : jaghn.
Six other roots, though conforming to the conditions
described above (2 a), syncopate the a instead of contracting :
jan beget : jaj ; t a n str etch : tatn ; p a n admir e : papn ;
man think : mamn ; van win : vavn ; sac follow : sac.
^. pat jly both contracts and syncopates in the RV. : pet and pa-pt.
c. Eight roots containing the syllables y a , va, r a take

Samprasraa : yaj sacrifice, vac and v a d speak, vap strew,
vas dwell, vah carry, svap sleep, grabh and grah seize ;
e. g. su-up, jagbh and ja-gh. I n the first six, as they
reduplicate with i or u, the result is a contraction to and .
Thus yaj : 1j ( i-ij) ; vac : c ( u-uc).
d. A few roots with medial a and penultimate nasal, drop
the latter: k r a n d cry out: c a - k r a d ; tas shake: ta-tas ;
skambh prop: ca-skabh ( A Y ) ; stambh prop: ta-stabh.
e. Roots ending i n reduce it to i before consonants
and drop it before vowels ; e. g. d h place : d a d h i - m ;
dadh-r.
2
In the wk. perfect of yat and yam the contraction is based on the
combination or the full reduplicative syllable and the radical syllable
with Samprasraa : yet ----- ya-it, y em ---- ya-im.
From yaj occurs one form according to the contracting class (2 a) :
yej-.
2
138]
P A R A D I G M S OF T H E P E R F E C T
151
Paradigms of the Reduplicated Perfect.

13S. 1. t u d strike : strong stem t u t d ; weak tutud.
ACTlvE.
s1NGULAR.
1. tutda
2. t u t d i t h a
3. t u t d a
DUAL.
[tutudv]
tutudthur
tutudtur
PLURAL.
tutudm
tutud
tutudr
MIDDLE.
1.
2.
3.
tutud
tututs
tutud
[tutudvhe]
tutud t he
tutud t e
tutudmhe
[tutuddhv]
tutudr
2. k do: strong stem c a k r , cak r ; weak cak, cakr.

AcnvE.
1. c a k r a
2. e a k r t h a
3.
cak r a
1. c a k r
2. c k
3. oakr
[cakv]
eakrthur
cakrtur
cakm
cakr
cakrr
M1DDLE.
[cakyhe]
cakr t he
cakr t e
cakmhe
cakdhv
cakrir
3. dha place: strong stem dadha ; weak dadh, dadhi.

ACTIVE.
1. [ d a d h u ]
2. dadh tha
3. d a d h u
[dadhiv]
dadhthur
c.adhtur
dadhim
dadh
dadhr
1.
2.
3.
M1DDLE.
[dadhivhe]
dadh t he
dadh t e
dadhimhe
dadhidhv
dadhir
dadh
dadhis
dadh
Lat. tutud.
^ The only example of this form is dadhidhv.
CONJUGATION
152
[138
4. n lead : strong stem n i n , n i n i ; weak nin.

ACTIVE.
s1NGULAR.
1. mnaya
2.
3.
nintha
nin y a
DUAL.
[ninv]
ninythur
ninytur
PLURAL.
ninm
niny
ninyr
M1DDLE.
1.
2.
3.
niny
nin
niny
[ninvhe]
niny t he
niny t e
ninmhe
nindhv
ninr
5. stu praise : strong stem tu, tuu ; weak tuu.

ACT1vE.
1.
2.
3.
tuva
tutha
tu v a
[tuuv]
tuuvthur
tuuvtur
tuum
tuuv
tuuvr
MIDDLE.
1. tuuv
2. tuu
3. t u s t u v
[tuuvhe]
tuuv t he
tuuv t e
tuumhe
tuudhv
tustuvir
6. tap heat : strong stem t a t p , tatap ; weak tep.

ACTIVE.
1. t a t p a
2. t a t p t h a
3.
tat p a
[tepiv]
tepthur
teptur
tepim
tep
tepr
MIDDLE.
1.
2.
3.
tep
tepi
tep
[tepivhe]
tep t he
tep t e
[tepimhe]
[tepidhv]
tepir
138-l39]
P A R A D I G M S OF T H E P E R F E C T
153
7. gam go : strong stem j a g m , jagam ; weak jagm.

ACT1VE.
s1NGULAR.
1. j a g m a
2. j a g n t h a
3.
jag m a
DUAL.
[jaganv]
jagmthur
jagmtur
PLURAL.
jaganm
jagm
jagmr
MIDDLE.
1. jagm
2. jagmi
3. jagm
[jaganyhe]
jagm t he
jagm t e
jaganmhe
jagmidhv
jagmir
8. vac speak : strong stem u v c , uv c ; weak c .

ACT1vE.
1. uvca
2. u v k t h a
3.
uv c a
[civ]
cthur
ctur
cim
c
cr
M1DDLE.
1.
2.
3.
c
ci
c
[civhe]
c t he
[c t e]
[cimhe^
[cidhv^
cir
Irregu1arities.
I 3 9 . 1. bhaj share, though beginning with an aspirate,
follows the analogy of the contracting perfects with e
(137, 2 a) ; e. g. babhaja : bhej.
bandh bind, after
dropping its nasal, does the same ; e. g. b a b n d h a :
b e d h r (Av.).
2. yam guide, van win, vas wear have the full reduplica
tion throughout (135, 4) ; yam takes Samprasraa of the
radical syllable: y a y m a : y e m ( = yaime) ; v a n syn
copates its a : vav n a, vavn ; vas retains its radical
syllable un weakened throughout: vvase (cp. 139, 9).
154
CONJUGATION
[139
3. v i d know forms an unreduplicated perfect with present

meaning: 1. vda I know (o7â, German weiss), 2. v t t h a
(olo.â ; weisst), 3. vda (o^ ; weiss) ; pi. 1. v i d m (toû;
wissen), 2. vid, 3. v i d r .
a. A few isolated unreduplicated forms from about six other roots
occur: takthur; skambhthur and skambhr ; cettur ; yam
tur and yamr ; nindim ; arhir.
4. The initial of c i gather, c i observe, cit perceive, j i conquer,

hau kill reverts to the original guttural in the radical syllable :
3. s. act. cik y a, cikta, jig y a jagh n a. b h bcar
almost invariably reduplicates with j in the R V : j a b h r t h a ,
jabh r a, j a b h r r ; j a b h r , jabhri jabhrir ;
but only once with b : b a b h r .
5. ah say is defective, forming only the 3. s. and pl. : h a
and h r . The two additional forms 2. s. ttha, 3. du.
h t u r occur in the Brhmaas.
6. Five roots beginning with a prosodically long a re
duplicate with n : a attain, aj anoint, ardh thrive, arc
praise, arh deserve. Only the first two make several forms.
Here the radical nasal is repeated with the initial vowel :
s. 3. na (Gk. ^^-a) ; pl. 1. nsm, 2. n-a-,
3. n - a - r ; mid. s. 3. n-a- ; s. 3. nja, mid. s. 1.
naj, pl. 3. najr. The analogy spread from these to
the roots which have no nasal : pi. 3. n c r , n d h r ,
n h r ; mid. s. 3. n c , ndh.
1
7. b h be has the double irregularity of reduplicating

with a and retaining its throughout (cp. Gk. 7r^vao^) :
sing. I. babh va (Gk. 7r^^vâ). 2. b a b h t h a and
babh vitha. 3. babh va.
Du. 2. b a b h v t h u r .
3. h a b h v t u r . PI. 1. b a b h v i m . 2. babhv.
3. babhuvr.
In a Stra occurs the 2. pf. mid. n-a-adhve.
139-140]
I R R E G U L A R I T I E S OF T H E P E R F E C T
155
s bring forth has the same peculiarities i n sa-s-v-a,

the only perfect form of this root occurring.
8. c y u stir reduplicates ci-cyu (beside cu-cyu) and d y u t
shine similarly di-dyut. This was due to the vocalic
pronunciation of the y : c i u , diut.
9. The reduplicative vowel is lengthened in more than
thirty perfect stems ; e. g. k a n be pleased : c - k a n ; g wake :
j - g ; k p be adapted: c - k p ; d h think: d -d h ; t u be
strong: t - t u ; swell: -u.
a. In the Mantra portion of the Sahits there once occurs a peri
phrastic perfect form with the reduplicated perfect of k make govern
ing the acc. of a fem. substantive in derived from a secondary
(causative) verbal stem. This form is gamay cakra (AV.) he
caused to go (lit. made a causing to go). In the Brhmaa parts of the
later sahits (TS., MS K . ) such periphrastic forms are occasionally
met with, and they become more frequent i n the regular Brhmaas.
Moods of the Perfect.

I 4 O . Modal forms of the perfect are of rare occurrence i n
the Sanihits except the R V .
1. The subjunctive is normally formed by adding a to
the strong perfect stem accented on the radical syllable.
In the active the secondary endings are the more usual ;
when the primary endings are used the reduplicative syllable
is i n several forms accented. I n about a dozen forms the
weak stem is used. Middle forms, of which only seven or
3
The root lie also reduplicates with a i n the part. aayn.

These three, b h , su, , are the only roots with an i or u vowel that
reduplicate with a.
Here the radical vowel itself is shortened. The quantitative form
of the stem is subject to the rule that it may not contain two prosodi
cally short vowels (except i n the I. s. act.). Hence sah reduplicates
either as s-sah or sa-sh (in a weak form).
Cp. the accentuation of the reduplicating class in the present
system.
1
156
CONJUGATION
[140
eight occur, are almost restricted to the 3. sing. Examples

are :
Act. s. 1. anaj (aj anoint) ; 2. tatnas (tan stretch),
b u b d h a s (budh wake), p i p r y a s (pr please) ; jjos
asi (jus enjoy) ; cikitas (cit observe), mumucas (muc
release). 3. ciketat, j a g h n a t (han smite), t a t n a t ,
tuvat ( s t u praise), pipryat; d-de-a-ti (di
point), b - b o d h - a - t i , m-moc-ati ; mu-muc-a-t, vi-vid-a-t
(vidfind).
Du. 2. ci-ket-a-thas, j-jo-a-thas. PI. 1. t a - t n - - m a .
2. ju-jo-a-tha. 3. ta-tn-a-n,
M i d . s. 3. t a - t p - a - t e , j-jo-a-te.
P l . 1. an-s-mahai.
2. The injunctive occurs in hardly a dozen forms, a few
i n the sing. act., the rest in the 3. pi. mid. ; e.g. s. 2. a-s
( = a - s - s : s order). 3. d-dhot ( d h shake), su-sro-t
(sruflow) ; mid. pi. 3. tatna-nta (cp. 140, 6).
3. The optative is formed by adding the accented modal
suffix combined with the endings to the weak perfect stem.
The active forms are much commoner than the middle.
Examples are :
1
A c t . s. I. n-ay m , jagamy m , riricy m , va

vty m . 2. babhuy s , vavty s .
3. anajy t , ja
gamy t , vavty t , babhy I .
Du. 2. jagamy t am. P l . 1. vavty ma. 3. jagam
y r , vavtyr.
M i d . s. 1. vavty. 2. vvdhth s . 3. vavtt.
P l . 1. vavtmhi.
3
a. There also occurs one mid. precative form ssahshs

overcome).
1
(sah
In these three forms the of the reduplicative syllable n is

shortened as if the indicative contained an augment.
Identical i n form with the unaugmented pluperfect (140, 6).
From a attain, with the long reduplicative vowel retained.
Cp. 139, 6.
2
l40]
PERFECT
OP TATIvE
157
4. The imperative perfect is formed like that of the

present reduplicating class, the radical syllable being weak
except in the 3. s. act., where it is strong. Nearly all the
forms occurring, which number about twenty, are active.
Examples are :
A c t . s. 2. c i - k i d - d h (cit), d i - d i - h (di), m u mugdh (muc), a--dhi (s).
3. babh tu.
mumktu.
Du. 2. mumuktam, vavktam (vj twist). P l . 2.
didiana ( di), vavttana.
M i d . s. 2. vavtsv. PI. 2. v a v d d h v m .
1
Participle.
5. Both active and middle forms of the perfect participle
are common. It is formed from the weak perfect stem,
with the accent on the suffix, as eakv s, c a k r .
If, i n the active form, the stem is reduced to a monosyllable,
the suffix is nearly always added with the connecting vowel i ,
but not when the stem is unreduplicated ; e. g. paptiv s
(Gk. 7r^7rra^), but vidv s (Gk. ^ ^ ) , Examples are :
A c t . jaganv s (gam), jagbhv s ( g r a b h ) ,
jigv s ( ji), jjuv s3 (j), tasthiv s (sth),
babhv s (Gk. 7 r ^ v ^ ) , ririkv s (ric), vavt
v s, vvdhv s, ssahv s, suup v s ( svap) ;
yiv s (i), iv s (vas dwell); d-v s (d
worship), shv s ( sah).
M i d . najan ( aj), n - a - n ( a), j-n ( yaj),
c - n (vac), j a - g m - n (gam), t i - s t i r - (st), tep n (tap), p a - s p a - n (spa), b h e j - n (bhaj),
3
1
2
3
Cp. Gk. 1^-1^-^, 2. pl. ^1^-r^ (1^

ru hear).
with unchanged as i n strong forms elsewhere (139, 7).
With long reduplicative vowel.
158
CONJUGATION
[140-14l
y e m - a n ( y a m ) , v - v d h - n , a - a y - n (), i-riy (ri), si-miy (smi), su-up- (svap),

s e h - n (sah).
Pluperfect.
6. Corresponding to the imperfect there is an augmented
form of the perfect called the pluperfect. The strong stem
is used i n the singular active, the weak elsewhere. The
secondary endings only are used ; i n the 3. p l u r always
appears i n the active and i r a n i n the middle. The s and t
of the 2. and 3. s. are i n some forms preserved by an
interposed .
There are also several forms made with
thematic a in this tense. The augment is often dropped, as
in other past tenses. The total number of pluperfect forms
occurring is about sixty. Examples are :
A c t . s. I. -cacak-am, -jagrabh-am, tuav-am;
cakar-am, ciket-am (cit), 2. jagan (= -jagam-s) ;
na-nam-as ; -vive--s ( vi). 3. -jagan ( = - j a g a m - t ) ,
a-ciket ( cit) ; r - r a n (= r r a n - t : r a n rejoice) ; -jagrabh-t ; -cikit-a-t and -ciket-a-t ; tastambh-a-t.
Du. 2. - m u - m u k - t a m ; mu-muk-tam.
3. -vva-t m (va desire).
P l . 2. -jagan-ta ; - c u c y a v - - t a n a . 3. - c u c y a v - u r .
M i d . s. 1. -urav-i. 3. d i d i - a ( d i ) . PI. 3. -cakr
iran, -jagm-iran, - p e c - i r a n ; -vavt-ran, -sasg-ram
(sj).
There are also several transfer forms as from
a stems ; e. g. titvia-nta, c a k p - - n t a , d-dh-a-nta.
1
Aorist.
141. This tense is of very common occurrence i n the
Vedas, being formed from more that 450 roots. It is an
1 Two forms take ran only instead of iran. There are also several
transfer forms in anta.
with reversion of the palatal to original guttural, and ending
ram for ran.
2
AORIST
141]
159
augmented tense, taking the secondary endings and forming

moods and participles. It is distinguished from the imperfect
by having no corresponding present and by difference of
meaning. There are two types of aorist. The first or
sigmatic aorist is formed by inserting s, with or without an
added a, between the root and the endings. It is taken by
more than 200 roots. The second aorist adds the endings
to the simple or the reduplicated root either directly or with
tile connecting vowel a. It is taken by over 250 roots.
There are four forms of the first Aorist, and three of the
second. Upwards of 50 roots take more than one form.
One verb, b u d h wake, has forms from five varieties of this
tense.
F i r s t Aorist.
a. The stem of the first form is made by adding to the
augmented root the suffix sa. It is inflected like an imperfect
of the sixth or class of the first conjugation, the s being
accented in unaugmented forms. It is taken i n the Sahits
by only ten roots containing one of the vowels i , u , , and
en ding in one of the consonants j , , , or h, all of which
phonetically become k before s. These roots are : mj wipe,
yaj sacrifice, vj twist ; k r u cry out, m and sp touch ;
d v i hate ; guh hide, d u h milk, r u h ascend. I n the indicative
no dual forms are found ; and i n the mid. only the 3. s. and
pi. are met with. The only moods occurring are the
injunctive and the imperative, with altogether fewer than
a dozen forms. This form of the aorist corresponds to the
Greek First Aorist (e. g. ^-^t^, Lat. dixi-t). The augment,
as in other past tenses, is sometimes dropped.
1
In B. nine additional roots take the sa aorist : k drag, di point,

dih smear, d see, druh be hostile, pis crush, mih mingere. vi enter, vh
tear ; and in s. l i h lick.
The stem of this aorist therefore always ends i n ka.
1
CONJUGATION
160
[141-143
Indicative. A c t . s. 1. v k a m . 2. d r u k a s (B.),
dhukas.
3.
krukat,
ghukat,
dukat
and
dhuk
at,
mkat
(m),
rukat,
spkat.
Pl.
1.
mk
ma
(mj),
rukma.
3.
dhukan;
dukan
and
dhukan.
M i d . s. 3. d h u k a t a ; dukata and dhukata. PI. 3.
m k a n t a ( mj).
In the injunctive only the following forms occur :
A c t . s. 2. d u k s , m k s (m). 3. d v i k t . PI. 2.
mkata ( m).
M i d . s. 3. d u k t a and d h u k t a , d v i k t a . P l . 3.
dhuknta.
In the imperative only three forms occur :
A c t . du. 2. m k t a m (mj). 3. y a k t m .
M i d . s. 2. dhuksva.
1
142. The other three forms of the First Aorist are made
by adding to the augmented root the suffixes s, is, si
respectively.
They are inflected like imperfects of the
second or graded conjugation. The sis form is used i n the
act. only (excepting three optative forms) and is taken by
not more than six roots. The other two are very common,
being formed from nearly 300 roots in V . and B . taken
together.
Second or s form.
143. This form of the aorist is taken by at least 135
roots i n V . and B . In addition to the indicative it forms
all the moods and a participle.
Indicative.
1. The radical vowel as a rule takes V d d h i (a being
lengthened) i n the active. I n the middle, excepting final
and u (which take Gua) the radical vowel remains un
1
On these forms without initial aspiration cp. 62a.
143]
FIRST AORIST
161
changed. The only point in which the inflexion differs

from that of the imperfect of the graded conjugation is that
the 3. pl. act. invariably ends i n ur. I n the active, the
endings s and t of the 2. 3. s. disappear and the tense sign
also, unless the root ends in a vowel ; e. g. -har -har-s-t,
but -h-s = hst. The A v . and TS., however, less
often than not, insert a connecting before these endings,
thus preserving both the latter and the s of the tense stem ;
e.g. -naik---t (nij wash). The forms of the indicative
actually occurring would, if made from b h bear i n the
active, and from b u d h wake i n the middle, be as follows :
ACTIVE.
s1NGULAR.
1. -bhr--am
2. - b h r
3. bhr
DUAL.
[-bhr-va]
-bhr-am
bhrstm
PLURAL.
-bhr-ma
-bhr-a
-bhr--ur
M1DDLE.
DUAL.
s1NGULAR.
1. bhut-s-i (62 a)
[-bhutsvahi]
2. -bud-dhas (62 b) - b h u t - s - a t h m
3. - b u d - d h a (62 b)
-bhut-s-tm
PLURAL.
-bhut-s-mahi
- b h u d - d h v a m (62 a)
-bhut-s-ata
The middle voice, as exemplified by a root ending in u ,

stu praise, is inflected as follows :
Sing. 1. a-sto--I. 2. -sto-hs. 3. sto-a. Du. 1.
[-sto--vahi].
2. [ - s t o - - t h m ] .
3. -sto--tm.
P l . 1. -sto--mahi. 2. -sto-hvam (66 B 2 b). 3. sto
-ata.
1
The RV. and K . have no forms with the inserted ; while i n B .

the chief forms without it are adrk (d see) and ay (yaj sacrifice) ;
also bhais (bh) = bhaiss, which while losing the s ending pre
serves the appearance of a 2. sing.
162
CONJUGATION
1
2. The subjunctive is common i n the R V . i n active

forms, but not i n the middle. The root regularly takes
Gua throughout (active and middle). The primary endings
are frequent. The forms occurring, i f made from stu praise,
would be :
A c t . sing. 1. s t i . 2. stasi, stas. 3. s t
ati, stat.
Du. 2. statnas.
3. statas.
PI. 1. stma. 2. statha. 3. stan.
M i d . sing. 1. stai. 2. stase. 3. state.
Du. 2. stthe (for staithe). PI. 3. stante.
3. Ijunctive forms are fairly common. W h e n normal
they are of course identical with the unaugmented indicative.
But the sing. 1. act. is irregular i n never taking Vddhi :
all the forms of it that occur either have Gua, as stoam,
jeam (ji); or lengthen the radical vowel, as y a m
(yu separate) ; or substitute e for in roots ending in , as
yeam (y go), geam (g go), stheam (sth stand).
The latter irregularity also appears i n pl. 1 : jema
gema, dema (d give), beside the normal yauma
(yu separate).
4. The optative occurs i n the middle only, the 2. 3. s.
always having the precative s (with one exception). The
forms actually occurring are :
Sing. 1. di1y (d cut), bhaky (bhaj divide),
m a s y (man think), m u k y (muc release), rsy
(r give), sky (Av), sty (st strew). 2. m a
sh s ^ (man think). 3. dara (d tear), bhak
t a (SY), masa, mka (mc injure). Du. 2.
2
subjunctives of this aor. are very rare in B. except yakat ( yaj)

and vakat (vah).
With radical reduced to i : cp. 5c. similarly dhiya (dh)
in B .
3 W i t h an reduced to a ( sonant nasal).
From sah overcome, with radical vowel lengthened.
Anusvra for n (66 A 2).
^ Without the precative s.
2
143144]
MOODS OF T H E S A O R I S T
163
t r s t h m (tra protect). P I . 1. bhakmhi, mas

m h i , vasmhi and v a s m h i (van win), sak
m h i (sac follow), d h u k m h i (duh milk). 3. m a
srata.
5. Only six imperative forms occur, and four of these are
transfers (with thematic a).
They are: Act. s. 2. nea
(n lead) and para (p take across). M i d . s. 2. s k va
(sah).
3. r s a t m .
D u . 2. r s t h m .
PI. 3.
rsantm.
6. Only two or three forms of the active participle
occur : dkat and dhkat (dah burn), skat (sah).
2
About a dozen stems, irregularly formed by adding s to

the root with an intermediate a and taking the regular
ending n a , may be accounted middle s aorist participles ;
e. g. m a n d a s n rejoicing, y a m a s n being driven.
Irregularities of the s form.

1 4 4 . 1. Before the Suffix s, (a) final radical n (as well
as m) becomes Anusvra (66 A 2), as masata ( man),
vasmhi ( v a n ) ; (b) s becomes t in the verb vas
dwell and possibly also i n vas shine: vtss^ (AV.) thou
hast dwelt and v t ( vasst) has shone ( A v ) ,
2. The R V . has one example of an incipient tendency to
preserve the s and t of the 2. 3. s. in 2. s. ys ( ayajss)
beside the phonetically regular form of the 3. s. y
(= yajst). The A V . has three or four examples of this :
s. 2. s r s (=srajss: sj); 3. -rai-t ( -rai-s-t :
For tr-s-ythm.
With Anusvra for n (66 A 2).
W i t h an reduced to a (= sonant nasal).
Without initial aspiration : cp. 62 a and 156 a.
see 66 B 1. I n an Upaniad the 2. du. appears as -vstam, the
aor. suffix s having been lost without affecting the radical s.
1
164
CONJUGATION
[144
r i ) ; hait ( = h a i s t : h i ) ; v t ( avasst:
vas shine). The later Sahits here frequently preserve
these endings by inserting before them: s. 2. rtss
(rdh), vtss (vas dwell); 3. tst (tan),
naikt (nij), tpst (tap), bhait (bh),
vkt (vah), hst, hvrt ( h v a r ) .
1
a. The ending dhvam (before which the s of the aor. is lost) becomes
nvam when the s would have been cerebralized (66^B 2) : sto
hvam ( = stozhvam) is the only example.
3. The roots d give and d cut reduce the radical vowel

to i in dii, diy ; gam, man, v a n lose their nasal i n
gasmahi, m a s y , vasmhi (beside vasmhi) ;
while sah lengthens its vowel i n ski, s k i ; s k
m a ; s k y a ; s k va.
4. The roots sj emit and pc mix take metathesis in the
act.: s. 2. s r s ( = srk), 3. s r k ; prk. Du. 2.
sram.
5. The following are the forms occurring i n the 3. s. ind.
act. in which (a) the ending t is lost: jais (ji), prs,
hs ; (b) both the tensesign s and the ending t are lost :
krn (krand cry out), kr (kar flow), cait (cit
perceive), c h n (chand seem), tn (tan stretch), t s r
(tsar approach stealthily), d y a u t (dyut shine), d h k (dah
burn), p r k (pc mix), p r (prach ask), b h r (bh),
^y (yaj sacrifice), y n (yam guide), r a u t (rudh
obstruct), v (vah convey), v t (vas shine), -vait (vit
be bright), s y n (syand move on), s r k (sj emit), svr
(svar sound), hr (h take), raik (ric leave).
6. After a consonant other than n , m , r the tense sign s
is dropped before t, th, and dh ; e. g. b h a k t a (beside
bhaki) ; mukths (beside muki).
2
But the t may i n this instance represent the changed final radical
s : 144, 1 (b), There are a few additional examples in B. : ajait
(beside ajais anâjait : ji) ; acait (ci); nait (n),
And even the final consonant of the root when there are two (28),
2
145]
IS A O R I S T
T h i r d or i form.
1 4 5 . About 145 roots take this aorist i n v and B . It

differs from the s aorist merely in adding the s with the
connecting vowel i , which changes it to (67).
Indicative.
1. The radical vowel as a rule takes G u a throughout ;
but i n the active a final vowel takes vddhi and a medial
vowel is sometimes lengthened. The endings are the same
as those of the s aorist except that the 2. 3. s. end in is
(= is) and i t ( ist), This aorist has all the moods, but
no participle. Middle forms are not common and very few
occur except in the 2. 3. sing.
The normal forms occurring, if made from k r a m stride,
would be:
A c t . sing. 1. kramiam. 2. k r a m i s . 3. k r a m i t .
Du. 3. kramiam. P l . 1. kramima. 3. k r a m
iur.
M i d . sing. 1. k r a m i i . 2. k r a m i h s . 3. k r a m
ia. Du. 3. k r a m i t m . P l . 3. kramiata.
2. Subjunctive forms are rare except in the 2. 3. s. act.
Examples are :
Act. sing. 1. d v i i . 2. vias, k n ias. 3. k r
iat, bdhiat. P l . 3. snian.
M i d . pl. 1. y c imahe. 3. snianta.
3. Injunctive are commoner than subjunctive forms.
They occur most frequently in the 2. 3. s. and plur.
Examples are :
A c t . sing. 1. s-i-am (as praise). 2. vis (av
favour), t r is (t cross), ydhis (yudh fight), s v is (s
generate). 3. -it (a eat), t r it. D u . 2. t r iam, m r d h
iam (mdh neglect). P l . 1. rmima. 2. v d h i a
and vdhiana. 3. jriur (j waste away).
M i d . sing. 1. r d hii ( r d h succeed). 2. mrithas
166
CONJUGATION
[145146
(m not heed), 3. pvia (p purify). PI. 1. v y t h i

mahi (vyath waver),
4. Optative forms arc rare, occurring i n the middle only.
The 2. 3. s. take the precative s. Examples are :
Sing. 1. edhiy (edh thrive). 2. modith s (mud
rejoice). 3. jani. Du. 1. sahivhi. P I . t r i
mhi.
5. Imperative forms are rare, occurring i n the active only.
Sing. 2. avih. 3. aviu. Du. 2. avim. 3. av
i m . P l . 2. avina.
a. The radical medial a is lengthened in kan enjoy, car move, das
waste, mad exhilarate, stan thunder, svan sound, and optionally i n vad
speak, ran rejoice, san gain, sah prevail; while the radical syllable
appears i n a reduced or unstrengthened form in the opt. s. 1. mid. of
gam and ruc shine : gmiy and rucisy.
b. The root grabh seize takes the connecting vowel (as it does i n
other verbal forms) instead of i , as grabhma.
c. In s. 1. ind. act. the ending im appears instead of iam in the
three forms kramm, grabhm, and vadh-m, doubtless owing to
the analogy of the 2. 3. s. in s, t. In B. is also found agrahaiam
(grah).
F o u r t h or s i form.
I46. This form differs from the preceding one simply i n
prefixing an additional s to the suffix. Only seven verbs
ending i n a n , or m, g sing, j know, p y fill up, y go,
h leave, van win, r a m rejoice, take this aorist. The total
number of forms occurring is under twenty ; and middle
forms are found i n the optative only. The forms occurring
are :
1. Indicative. Sing. 1. ysiam. Du. 3. y s i
m . PI. 2. ysia. 3. gsiur, ysiur.
2. Subjunctive. Sing. 3. g siat, y sat.
1
In B . also occurs dhy think, besides forms in st from dr sleep,

v blow, h v call.
l46147]
SIS F O R M OF T H E F I R S T A O R I S T
167
1
3. Optative. Sing. 1. vasiy. 2. ysih s ,

P l . 1. pysimahi.
4. Injunctive. Sing. 1. rasi.am. Du. 2. hsiam.
3. hsim. P l . 2. hsia. 3. hsiur.
5. Imperative. Du. 2. ysim. P l . 2. ys.
Second Aorist.
1 4 7 . This aorist resembles an imperfect formed directly

from the root, the terminations being added with or without
the connecting vowel a.
The first form is like an imperfect of the accented class
(125, 2), the stem being formed by adding a to the un
modified root.^ It corresponds to the second aorist of the
first conjugation in Greek. It is taken, in v . and B .
together, by nearly eighty roots, chiefly with a medial vowel.
Middle forms are rare.
1. Indicative. The forms actually occurring would, if
made from v i d find, be as follows : ^
A c t . sing. 1. v i d a m . 2. vidas. 3. vidat. Du. 1.
vidva. P l . 1. v i d m a . 2. v i d a t a . 3. v i d a n .
M i d . sing. 1. vide. 2. v i d a t h s . 3. v i d a t a . Du. 1.
v i d v a h i . 3. v i d e t m . P l . 1 . v i d m a h I . 3. v i d a n t a .
2. The subjunctive forms from the same root would be :
Act. sing. 2. vid s i, vid s . 3. vid t i, vid t . Du. 1.
vid v a. 2. vid t has. 3. vid t as. P l . 1. vid m a. 2. vid
tha, vid t hana.
M i d . sing. 3. vid t e. P l . 1. vid m ahe.
3. The injunctive forms from v i d would be :
A c t . sing. 1. v i d m . 2. v i d s . 3. vidt. P l . 3. v i d n .
M i d . sing. 3. v i d t a . P l . 1. vid m ahi. 3. v i d n t a .
4. The optative is rare i n V . , but not infrequent i n B .
1
With precative s.
With 1 for i .
3 Three roots with , however, show forms with Gua (147 a 2 and c).
2
168
CONJUGATION
[147-148
It is almost restricted to the active. The forms from v i d

would be :
A c t . sing. 1. v i d y a m . 2. vids. 3. vidt. PI. 1.
vidma.
M i d . sing. 1. vidya. PI. 1. v i d m a h i . There also occurs
one precative form, s. 3. v i d a (AV.).
5. Imperative forms are rare and almost restricted to the
active. Those made by sad sit are :
Sing. 2. sad. 3. s a d t u . Du. 2. s a d t a m . 3. s a d t m .
P l . 2. s a d t a , s a d t a n a . 3. s a d n t u .
Mid. p i . 2. sadadhvam. 3. s a d a n t m .
6. Rather more than a dozen examples of the participle,
taking active and middle together, occur : e. g. t p - n t ,
uent ; guhmna, ucmna.
Irregularities.
a. Several roots form transfer stems according to this instead of the
root form, chiefly by reducing the radical syllable.
1. khy see, vy envelope, hv call shorten their to a : khyat,
vyat, hvat; d give, dhput, stha stand occasionally do the same,
in the forms dat ; dhat (Sv.) and dhat; sthat (Av.); s
order shortens to i ; e. g. 3. s. inj. at, pari. int.
2. k make and gam go form a few transfers from the root class in
the Av., retaining the strong radical vowel : -kar-a-t, -gam-a-t,
gaman.
b. The root is reduced by the loss of its nasal i n krand cry out, tas
shake, dhvas scatter, bhra fall, randh make subject, srasfall; e.g.
3. sing. tasat; pi. dhvasn ; subj. pl. 1. radhma ; inj. sing. 1.
radham ; 2. kradas ; 3. bhraat.
c. The root takes Gna in go, d see, sjlow ; e. g. r-anta (unaug
mented 3. pl. ind. mid.) ; dr-am (s. 1. inj., but pi. 3. inj. dn, opt.
1. s. dyam, p l . dma); srat (unaugmented 3. s.).
Second F o r m . Root Aorist.

1 4 S . This form of the simple aorist is taken by about
100 roots i n v., and about 25 others i n B., the commonest
being those with medial a (about 30). It corresponds to
148]
ROOT A O R I S T
the second aorist of the second conjugation in Greek.

inflected in both active and middle.
169
It is
Indicative.
1. The root is strong in the sing. act., but weak elsewhere.
Roots ending in vowels, however, tend to retain the strong
vowel throughout the active except the 3. pl. Those ending
in regularly retain that vowel throughout the ind. act.
except in 3. pl. where it is dropped before ur, which is
always the ending in these verbs. I n the 3. pl. mid. the
ending ran is more than twice as common as ata ; ram as
well as ran is taken by three roots.
a. The forms occurring from roots ending i n a, if made
from sth, would be :
A c t . sing. 1. - s t h - m (^-o.r^), 2. -sth-s. 3. -sth-t
(^-o^), Du. 2. -sth-tam. 3. -sth-tm. P l . 1. - s t h - m a
(^rpû),
2. sthta. 3. -sth-ur.
M i d . sing. 2. -sthi-ths (^r-0^),
3. -sthi-ta. PI. 1.
-sthimahi. 3. -sthi-ran.
b. Roots in take Gua throughout the ind. act. except
the 3. pl. The forms from k would be :
A c t . sing. 1. - k a r - a m . 2. -kar. 3. - k a r . Du. 2.
kartam. 3. - k a r - t m . P l . 1. -kar-ma. 2. kar-ta.
3. kran.
M i d . sing. 1. -kr-i. 2. - k - t h s . 3. -k-ta. Du. 1.
-k-vahi.
3. ktm.
P l . 1. -k-mahi.
2. -kdhvam. 3. -kr-ata.
c. b h be retains its throughout (as i n the perfect),
interposing v between it and a following a :
Act. 1. -bhuv-am. 2. bhs. 3. - b h - t (^-^v).
Du. 2. - b h - t a m .
3. bhtm.
P l . 1. - b h - m a
(^v-û),
2. - b h - t a and bh-tana. 3. - b h u - v - a n .
d. The following are forms of the 2. 3. s. act. i n which
l W i t h split ; i n the later language a-bhv-am.
170
CONJUGATION
[148
the endings s and t are lost : 2. kar, gan ( = gams),

ghas, var (v cover), spar (sp win) ; with lengthened
augment : na (na attain), var (v cover), vas (vas
shine). 3. kar k r a n (kram stride), gan,^ ghas,
cet (cit observe), tan, d a r (d pierce), b h e t (bhid
pierce), b h r (bhrj shine), m o k (1nuc release), m y a k
(myak be situated), vart (vt turn), star ; with lengthened
augment: na, var (v eover), vas^ (vas shine) ; without
augment : v a r k (vj twist), skan (skand leap).
e. I n the 3. pi. act. and mid. roots with medial a are
syncopated : kan ( = g h a s a n ) , gman ( = g a m a n ) ;
gmata (= gamata), t n a t a (= tanata) ; but in
the 2. 3. s. mid. they lose their nasal: gathas, gata,
mata (but 1. du. ganvahi, pl. ganmahi).
f Final is in the mid. ind. reduced to i , and before m
also to ; e. g. 2. diths, s t h i t h s .
3. dhita
( ^ r o ) , P l . 1. d h i m a h i (TS.) and d ma hi (VS.),
dhmahi.
g. In the 3. s. ind. ghas is reduced to g : gdha (=ghasta)^;
while go takes Gua: r t a (unaugmented) and r t a
(^pro), 3. pl. rata.
h. The forms taking ran i n 3. pl. mid. are : kpran,
gbhran, jusran, -d-ran, - p a d - r a n , - b u d h - r a n ,
-yuj-ran, -vas-ran (vas shine), -vi-ran, -vt-ran,
-sg-ran,^ -sthi-ran, spdh-ran ; with ram : d-ram,
b u d h r a m , sgram.^
1
For na-s, the phonetic result of which should have been

nak (63b).
For vass, vast. These forms have by an oversight been
omitted in ^ 499 of my Vedic arammar.
3 For kramt, gamt.
For
na-t.
For varj-t.
For skand-t.
By syncopation gh-s-ta ; loss of s between consonants (66 B 2 a)
gh-ta, and loss of aspiration, which is thrown forward on the t and
renders it sonant (62 b).
3 W i t h reversion to the original guttural.
1
148]
MOODS OF T H E ROOT A O R I S T
171
2. The subjunctive is common, nearly 100 forms being

met with. The forms occurring, if made from k would be :
A c t . sing. 1. k r and k r i . 2. k r a s i and k r a s .
3. k r a t i and k r a t . Du. 2. k r a t h a s . 3. k r a t a s .
PI. 1. k r m a . 3. k r a n t i , k r a n .
M i d . sing. 2. krase. 3. k r a t e . PI. 1. k r a m a h e
and krmahai. 3. k r a n t a .
3. The injunctive is fairly frequent, nearly sixty forms of
it being met with. Examples are :
A c t . sing. 1. karam, d a r - a m , bhuvam, bhoj-am.
2. jes, b h - s , b h - s (bh fear), dhak (dagh reach), bhet
(bhid split), rok (ruj break). 3. b h - t , re-t (ri), nak
and na (na attain). PI. 1. dagh-ma, b h - m a ; ched-ma,
ho-ma (h call). 3. b h v - a n , vr-an (v cover) ; k r a m u r
dur (d give), d h r (dh put).
M i d . sing. I. na-i (na = n a attain). 2. n u t t h s
(nud push), mth s (m die), mhs (m neglect), r i k
t h s (ric leave). 3. arta ( go), aa (a attain), v i k - t a
(vij tremble), v-ta (v choose). P L 1. dhmahi (dh put).
4. More than forty optative forms are met with. Examples
are :
A c t . sing. 1. a - y m (a obtain), vjy m , dey m (da
give). 2. a-y s , dhy s , gamy s , jey s , bhy s .
1
3. b h y t (AV.). PI. 1. a-y m a, dhy m a, kriy m a,

bhy m a, sthey m a. 3. a - y r (a attain), d h e - y r .
M i d . sing. 1. a-y. 3. ar--t ( go). P l . 1. a--mhi,
i d h - - m h i (idh kindle), n a - - m h i (na reach).
6
The root is weak in the isolated forms dhat, bhuvat, rv-a-t.

The weak root appears once in the form idh-a-t. The weak root
also appears once in the 2. du. form dhthe.
This may, however, be an irregular a aorist : cp. 147 c.
For dagh-s.
With strong radical vowel.
The RV. has no forms of the 3. s. in yt, but only precatives i n
vas (= ys-t),
1
172
CONJUGATION
[14:^
a. There are also about thirty precative forms (made from

about twenty roots in the Sahits), all of which except two
are active. Examples are :
A c t . sing. 1. bhy s am. 3. ays ( = a-y s t), gam
y s , daghy s , pey s (p drink),
bhys.
Du. 2.
bhuystam.
P l . 1. kriy s ma. 2.
bhysta.
M i d . s. 3. pada, muca.
5. Over ninety forms of the imperative occur, all but
about twelve being active. Several forms i n the 2. persons
act. have a strong root, which is then usually accented.
Examples are :
A c t . s. 2. k d h gadh (gam), p r d h (pfill), b o d h ,
y d h i (yudh fight), a g - d h (ak be able) ; gah (gam go),
mahi (m measure), shi (s bind). 3. g n t u (gam go),
dh tu bhu.tu, rtu.
Du. 2. k - t m and kar-tam (Av), g a - t m and g a n - t m ,
d - t a m , dhak-tam (dagh reach), b h - t m , var-tam (v
cover), v o - h m (vah carry), rutm. 3. g a n t m , p t a m ,
voh m . PI. 2. k t a and krta, gata and g n t a , bht,
y n t a , r u - t a and r-ta ; k r - t a n a , g n - t a n a , dhtana,
b h - t a n a . 3. g m - a n t u , d h n t u , r u v - a n t u .
M i d . s. 2. kv dhiv ( d h put), y u k v (yuj join) ;
accented on the root : m t s v a , y k v a (yaj sacrifice), r sva
vsva (van win), skva (sac follow). P l . 2. k d h v a m
vohvam.
6. Of the participle only seven or eight examples occur
i n the active, but nearly forty in the middle. Examples are :
A c t . d h n t , k r n t , g m n t , sth n t.
M i d . a r , i d h n , k r , d -na and d-an,
b u d h - n , bhiy-n, v r - (v cover), u b h - n and
u m - b h n s u v n (always to be pronounced svn) and
svn (SV).
1
Formed from both bhu be (for bhudh) and budh awake (for
bddhi instead of buddh).
For ynddhf (through y5ddhi),
2
149]
REDUPLICATED
FORM
173
T h i r d or Reduplicated F o r m .
1 4 9 . This aorist is formed from nearly ninety verbs i n
the Sahits and from nearly thirty more in the Brahmaas.
Though (with a few slight exceptions) unconnected i n form
with the causative, it has come to be connected with the
causative in sense, having a causative meaning when the
corresponding verb in aya has that meaning. The character
istic feature of this aorist is the almost invariable quantitative
sequence of a long reduplicative and a short radical vowel
( .^). I n order to bring about this rhythm, the reduplicative
vowel (unless it becomes long by position) is lengthened, if
the radical vowel is (or is made) prosodically short. W i t h
this view the radical vowel is shortened i n v bellow, s d h
succeed, h be hostile and, by dropping the nasal, i n k r a n d
cry out, jambh crush, randh subject, syand flow, sras fall.
The stem of the great majority of forms is made with a
thematic a. But about a dozen roots ending i n vowels
(, i , , ) and svap sleep make occasional forms from stems
without thematic a, the inflexion then being like that of an
imperfect of the reduplicating class (127, 2). A medial
radical vowel remains unchanged or is weakened, but a final
vowel takes Gua. A l l the moods occur, but no participle.
a. The vowels , are represented in the reduplicative
syllable by i .
b. The vowel of the reduplicative syllable, unless already
long by position, is lengthened.
1. The forms of the indicative actually occurring would,
if made from j a n beget, be as follows :
Act. s. 1. jjanam. 2. jjanas. 3. jjanat. Du. 2.
jjanatam. PI. 1. jjanma. 2. jjanata. 3. jjanan.
M i d . s. 3. jjanata. PI. 2. jjanadhvam. 3. jjananta.
174
CONJUGATION
[149
The following are examples :

A c t . s. 1. n n a a m (na be lost), ckam (k drag),
p i p l a v a m (B.), p p a r a m (p pass). 2. c i - k r a d - a s ,
b b h u v a s ; sivapas; without thematic a : -jgar (g
swallow and g waken) ; sivap. 3. ckpat, c u c y a v a t (K.),
jhiat (h), d i d y u t a t , b b u d h a t , v v a a t (v),
v-vdhat, siyadat ( syand) ; b b h a y a t , i n a t h a t (nath
pierce); without thematic a : iret (ri), -sinat.
P l . 3. v v a a n (v), s i s r a s a n (sras), sadan
( s a d ) ; b b h a j u r (B.).
M i d . s. 3. v v a r a t a (v eover). P l . 2. vvdhadhvam.
3. b b h a y a n t a , v v a a n t a (v), siyadanta.
2. The subjunctive is rare, only about a dozen forms
occurring, all active except one. Examples are :
A c t . s. 1. r r a d h . 2. t t a p s i . 3. c k p t i , p i s p a t i ,
s a d h t i ( sdh), P l . 1. r r a m m a , s a d h m a .
3. Injunctive forms are fairly common, more than fifty
occurring in the active, but only five i n the middle.
Examples are :
A c t . s. 1. cukrudham, d d h a r a m (dh hold). 2. eikipas,
pispas, r r a d h a s , sadhas. 3. cucyavat, d d h a r a t ,
m m a y a t (m bellow), sivadat (svad sweeten).
D u . 2. jihvaratam. P l . 2. r r a d h a t a .
3. r r a m a n ,
u u c a n (uc shine). 3. sapanta (sap serve).
4. The optative forms number hardly a dozen, being
made from only three roots, mostly from vac speak, the rest
from c y u stir and r i hurt. They are :
Act. s. I. v o c y a m . 2. rries, vocs. 3. voct.
D u . 2. voctam. PI. 1. vocma. 3. vocyur.
M i d . s. L vocya. PI. 1. c u c y u v - - m a h i , i v o c m a h i .
3. cucyavrata. There is also the 3. s. mid. precative
form rri---a.
1
i Without thematic a.
149-l50] MOODS OF T H E R E D U P L I C A T E D A O R I S T
175
5. H ardly more than a dozen imperative forms occur, all

of them active. These are :
Sing. 2. v o c a t t .
3. vocatu.
D u . 2. j i g t m (g waken), d i d h t m , vocatam. P l . 2.
jig-t,
didht,
paptata, vocata, s u d t a (AV.),
3. p p u r a n t u (p fill), i r a t h a n t u .
1
Irregularities.
a. I. The reduplicative syllable of dyut shine has i : didyutat ;
that of am injure repeats the whole root : mamat ( amamat) ;
while it is left short i n jigrtm, jigt (beside jgar), didhtm,
didht (beside ddharat), and i n the isolated inj. didpas for
d d i p a s (dip shine).
2. The radical syllable suffers contraction or syncopation (as i n the
weak forms of the perfect) i n the three verbs na be lost, vac speak, and
pat fall; thus -nes-at (-- -nana-at), -voc-at (---- -va-uc-at : cp.
Gk. ^-^7r-o-^) and paptat. H aving all had the reduplicative vowel
of the perfect (while the regular aorist reduplicative appears i n
the alternative forms -nna-at and ppatat), they were probably
pluperfects i n origin. But they have come to be aorists as is shown
by their meaning and by the occurrence of modal forms (as vocatu,
^c., and paptata).
3. The initial of the suffix is retained from the causative stems
jnpaya, sthpaya, hpaya, bhaya, arpaya, jpaya (ji),
The radical vowel is reduced to i in the first four, while the redupli
cative vowel comes after instead of before the radical vowel in the
fifth : thus jijipat ; tihipat ; jhipas ; bbhias, bbhi
aths ; arpipam ; jjapata (VS.).
2
Benedictive or Precative.
15O. This is a form of the optative which adds an s
after the modal suffix and which is made almost exclusively
from aorist stems. I n the R V . it occurs i n the 1. 3. s. and
1
Without thematic a.
Cp. its perfect reduplication : 139, 8.
^' Cp. the perfect reduplication of roots with a + nasal (139, 6).
H ere the p of the suffix is not only retained, but reduplicated.
The causative of j i conquer from which this aor. is formed, would
normally have been jyaya. In B. also occurs the form jjipata.
2
176
CONJUGATION
[150-l5l
1. pl. active, and i n the 2. 3. s. mid. The endings together

with the modal suffix are :
A c t . s. 1. ysam. 3. y s (= yss) ; pl. 1. ysma.
M i d . s. 2. hs. 3. a.
a. The only perfect precative occurring is the 2. s. mid. :
ssahh s .
b. Of the root aorist nearly thirty precatives are met with
in the Sahits. They occur i n the act. 1. 3. s., 2. du.,
1. 2. pl. ; mid. 3. s. (see 148, 4 a). The a aorist and the
reduplicated aor. have one precative form each i n the 3. s.
mid. (147, 4 and 149, 4). I n the s aorist four precative
forms occur i n the 2. and 3. s. mid. (see 143, 4).
Simple F u t u r e .
151. The Stem is formed by adding the suffix s y or
(rather less frequently with connecting i) iy to the root.
A s the future sense is often expressed by the subjunctive
and sometimes also by the indicative, the future tense is not
common i n the R v , being formed from only sixteen roots,
while the A v makes it from about thirtytwo others, and
the T S . forms it from over sixty roots. In V. and B . taken
together over one hundred form the future i n sya and over
eighty that i n iya. The only derivative verbs that form
the future (always with iya) are causatives, of which four
stems appear, two i n the RV. and two i n the A v Roots
ending i n always take isya, whereas those ending in other
vowels generally take sya.
a. Final vowels and prosodically short medial vowels take
Gua, final a and medial a remaining unchanged ; e. g.
j i conquer : jey ; n lead : ney ; d give : d a s y ;
m i h shed water : meky ; yuj join : y o k y ; k t cut :
k a r t s y ; dah burn : dhaky ; bandh bind : bhantsy ;
b h be : bhaviy ; s flow : sariy ; v t turn : vart
iy.
151152]
SIMPLE
FUTURE
177
a. Causatives, which always take iya, retain the present stem,

dropping only the final a ; thus dhrayiy (dh support); vsayiy
(vas wear) ; dayiy (dus spoil) ; vrayiy (v cover).
b. The inflexion of the future is like that of the present of

the first conjugation (bhvmi). Middle forms occur i n the
sing. only. The forms met with, if made from k do,
would be :
Act. s. 1. kariy m i. 2. kariysi. 3. kariyti.
Du. 2. k a r i y t h a s . 3. k a r i y t a s . PI. 1. kariy
mas, masi. 2. k a r i y t h a . 3. k a r i y n t i .
Mid. s. I. k a r i y . 2. k a r i y s e . 3. k a r i y t e .
1. Only one subjunctive, the 2. s. act. kariy s has
been met with in V . , and one other, 1. du. mid., notsyva
hai (nud push) i n B .
2. More than twenty participles occur, of which only four
are mid. Examples are :
Act. k a r i y n t , d h a k y n t ( d a h ) ; mid. yaky
m a (yaj), staviyma (stu).
Irregularities.
c. In su bring forth the future stem is formed with unchanged final
vowel, which is moreover accented : sya ; while the medial a of sah
is lengthened : sky.
Periphrastic F u t u r e .
I 5 2 . There is no certain example of this form of the
future i n the Sahits. But such a phrase as anvgant
y a j p a t i r vo t r a (TS., VS.) the sacrificer is following after
you here may be an example of its incipient use.
In B . this future is taken by nearly thirty roots. It is made by
using the N . s. of an agent noun i n t (180), to which the present of
the verb as be is added i n the 1. 2. persons, while i n the 3. persons du.
and pi. the N . du. and pi. appear. The use of this tenseform is
1
The forerunners i n V . of this new tenseformation i n B . are the

agent nouns i n t which, generally accented on the root, are used
participially governing an acc. and may be employed predicatively
with or without the copula ; e. g. dt y vnit maghm (iii. 13^) who
gives and wins bounty.
178
[152154
CONJUGATION
almost limited to the active, only a few isolated examples being

found in the middle. Forms occurring, if made from bh be, would
be : Act. sing. I. bhavit s mi ; 3. bhavit . Pf. 1. bhavit s mas ; 3.
bhavit r as. Mid. sing. I. 2. bhavit s e. Pf. I. bhavit s mahe.
Conditional.
have.
isyat
153. This is a past tense of the future meaning would

Only one example occurs in the Sahits : bhar
(RV. ii. 30 ) was going to bear off. This form is
very rare B . also, except in the B. where it is found
more than fifty times.
2
Passive.
1 5 4 . The passive, which takes the terminations of the
middle, differs from the latter only in the forms made from
the present stem and in the 3. s. aor. From the middle of
verbs of the fourth class it differs in accent only : n h y a t e
binds : n a h y t e is bound.
The stem is formed by adding accented y to the root,
which appears in its weak form.
1. Final mostly becomes ; e. g. d give : d y ; but it
also remains ; e. g. j know : j y .
2. Final i and u are lengthened ; e.g. j i conquer: j y t e ;
r u hear: r - y - t e .
3. F i n a l becomes r i ; e. g. k make : k r i - y - t e .
4. Final becomes r ; e. g. crush: r - y - t e .
5. Roots ending in a consonant preceded by a nasal, lose
the nasal; e.g. aj anoint: a j - y - t e ; bandh bind: badhy - t e ; bhaj break : b h a j - y - t e ; v a c move crookedly : vacya-te ; as praise : as-y-te.
1
The only two roots in which r is preceded by two consonants and

which form a passive are str strew and smr remember. Their passives do
not occur in the Sahits, but in B. are found str1.y-te and smar-y-te.
The passive of pfll does not occur in the Sahits, but in B. it is
pur-y-te (the being preceded by a labial).
2
PASSIVE
154155]
179
6. Roots liable to Samprasraa (17 note 1) take it ; e. g.

vac speak : u c y t e ; vad speak : u d y t e ; vah carry :
u h y t e ; grah seize : g h y t e .
a. Derivative verbs i n aya (causatives) drop the suffix while retain
ing the strong radical vowel. Only one such stem has been noted in
the sabits : bhjyte is caused to share (from bhajya causative of
bhaj share).
a. The forms of the present indicative passive occurring,

if made from h eall, would be :
Sing. 1. h y .
2. hyse.
3. hyte.
D u . 3.
hyte. PI. 1. hy mahe. 3. h y n t e .
b. A s regards the moods only two certain subjunctive
forms (s. 3. uhy te, bhriy te) and one injunctive (s. 3.
s y a t a : s bring forth) occur. No optative forms occur
in the R v or Av.
There are, however, nearly thirty
imperative forms occurring i n the 2. 3. s. pl. These forms,
illustrated by h call, are : s. 2. h y s v a . 3. h y t m .
PI. 2. h y d h v a m . 3. h y n t m .
c. Of the participle over forty examples occur ; e. g. h
y a m n a being called. Of the imperfect only about eight
forms have been noted, occurring only i n the 3. s. and pi. :
hyata and h y a n t a .
1
Irregularities.
2
d. tan stretch forms its passive from t : t y t e . Similarly jan

beget becomes j yate is born, which, however, i n form belongs to the
radically accented fourth class. mriyte dies ( mr) and dhriyto
(dh) is steadfast, while passive i n form, are intransitive i n sense.
A o r i s t Passive.
155. Outside the present system the passive has no
special finite form except i n the 3. sing. aor. This is a
peculiar middle form (made from about fortyfive roots i n
1
But they are met with in the Brhmaas.

In B. khyte is formed from khan dig.
180
CONJUGATION
[155-156
the Sahits) which is used with a predominantly passive

meaning. When it is formed from verbs with a neuter sense,
like gam go, that sense remains unchanged (as in the past
passive participle). It is a 3. s. ind. in which the augmented
root takes the ending i . The characteristic feature of this
form is the strengthening of the root as compared with other
middle forms ; e. g. - k r - i beside - k r - i (1. s. mid.).
Prosodically short medial i , u , take Gua, and medial a is
normally lengthened ; final i , u , take Vddhi, while final
interposes a y before the ending. The accent of unaug
mented forms is always on the root. Examples are :
-ved-i (vid find), -bodh-i (budh wake), dari (d see),
-vc-i (vac speak); -sry-i (ri resort), stvi (stu
praise), - k r - i (k do), -dh-y-i (dh put).
More than twenty unaugmented forms are also used
injunctively ; e. g. r v i let be heard.
Irregularities.
a. I. The medial a is not lengthened in jani, the unaugmented
jni (beside jni), and vahi.
2. From the denominative stem jrayaplay the lover the unique form
jrayyi let him be embraced is formed.
PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, A N D INFINITIVE.

I.
A c t i v e Participles.
156. The stem of the present (except the reduplicating

class), the future, and the aorist active participle is formed
with the suffix ant. The strong stem may be obtained by
dropping the i of the 3. pi. ind. act. ; e. g. b h v a n t , k i p
n t , s y a n t ; d u h n t , k v n t , bhindnt, p r n t .
1
About a dozen more are found i n B .

On the declension of participles in ant see 85 ; en the formation
of their fem. stems, 95 a.
2
1^6157]
PARTICIPLES
181
Stems of the reduplicating class do not distinguish strong

forms because they drop the n : e.g. j h v a t (3. pl.
jhvati).
The strong stem of the future participle may similarly be
obtained by dropping the i of the 3. pi. act. : bhaviynt,
kariynt.
The active participle is formed by the root aorist, the
a aorist, and the s aorist, from the unaugmented tense stem
in the latter two ; e. g. vidnt, skant (sah prevail) ; and
from the weakened or unmodified root i n the former ; e. g.
d h n t , k r n t (k make), g m n t (gam go), p n t (pa
drink),
a. Irregularities. In the pres. part. the initial a of as be and the
medial a of han slay are lost : snt (3. pi. snti), ghnnt (3. pi. ghn
nti); while the n of the suffix is lost in d -at worshipping and sat
(3. pl. sati), The n is also lost in the s aor. part. of dah burn :
dksat and dhkat. Whether it was also lost in skat the part.
of the same aor. from sah prevail, is uncertain because it is only met
with i n a weak ease.
157. The reduplicated perfect participIe is formed

from the weak (but uncontracted or unsyncopated) stem to
which the suffix vs is directly added. There are more
than fifty such stems. Examples are: cakv s, jagan
v s (gam go), t a s t a b h v s (stambh prop), tasthiv s
(sth stand), dad-v s, dadv s (d give), babhv s,
vavtv s, sasav s (san gain), suupv s (svap
sleep).
a. Some halfdozen of these participles are formed by
adding the suffix with connecting i to the reduplicated stem
contracted to a single syllable : yiv s (i go) ; iv s
(vas dwell) ; okiv s (uc be pleased) ; paptiv s (pat
fall) ; sac-i-v s (sac follow) ; in the later Sahits also
2
Both d and s belong to the root, and not the reduplicating

class.
With strong radical vowel and reversion to the original guttural.
1
182
CONJUGATION
[157158
jakiv s (ghas eat). The only certain example of a perf.

part. adding the suffix with connecting i to the fully
reduplicated stem is vivi-i-v s (TS.).
b. A few perfect participles are formed by attaching v s
to the unreduplicated stem : d-v s worshipping, vidvs
knowing, snv s prevailing, and perhaps k h i d v s ^
oppressing. Similarly formed is mhv s bountiful, though
the root does not occur in independent use. Three un
reduplicated roots take connecting i in the later Sahits :
d-i-v s (SV.) wor shipping, vi-i-v s (AV.) entering,
varjiv s (AV.) having twisted.
4
a. Irregularities.In seven stems the palatal reverts to the original

guttural : cikitv s (cit), jigv s (ji), ririkv s (ric),
rurukv s (ruc), vivikv s (vic), uuk-v s (uc), 0 k - i vs (uc). The radical vowel is strong i n dadv s (AV.), oki
vs, shvs ; while the reduplieative vowel is long in ssah
vs and uu-v s ().
II.
M i d d l e and Passive Participles.
I 5 S . The participles of the future middle, of the present

passive, and the present middle of the a conjugation are
formed by adding the suffix m n a to the stem (which
always ends i n a); e.g. fut. mid. y a k y m a ( y a j ) ;
pres. pass. k r i y m a ( k ) ; pres. mid. yjamna.
a. Verbs of the second conjugation add the suffix n a to
the weak stem i n the pres. mid. ; e.g. b r u v ( h r ) ,
j h v a n a (hu), r u n d h n ( r u d h ) , k v n (k),
punn (p).
a. There are several irregularities i n the formation of the middle
participles of the root class. I. The root as sit optionally takes the
anomalous suffix na : sna beside sn. 2. The final of the root
1
jak syncopated for jagh(a)s.

In B. are also found dad-i-vs and cichid-i-vs.
3 Occurring only i n the voc. khidvas.
Presupposed by the fem. varju^1.
2
158-160]
PERFECT PARTICIPLES
183
duh milk optionally reverts to the original guttural : dgh-na beside

the regular dh-ana. 3. A few roots take Gua : oh-an (h),
yodh-n (yudh), y-na (), stavn (stu). 4. several of
these participles optionally accent the radical syllable instead of the
final vowel of the suffix ; e. g. vdana beside vidan.
1 5 9 . The Perfect M i d d l e P a r t i c i p l e is formed by adding
the suffix n to the weak form of the stem as it appears
before the ending of the 3. pl. mid. re (ire, rire). It is
common, more than eighty examples occurring. The follow
ing are some of them : a n a j n (aj), nan ( a),
r - (), jn (yaj), c - n (vac), c a k r -
(k), c i k i t - n (cit), j a g m - n ( g a m ) , t a s t h - n
( s t h ) , t i s t i r - ( s t ) , t e p - n ( t a p ) , p a p - n (p
drink), p a s p a - n ( s p a ) , b h e j - n (bhaj), y e m - n
( yam), 1ebh-n (labh), v v a s - n (vas wear and dwell),
s i r i y - (ri), s i m i y - ( s m i ) , suup (svap),
a. Irregularities. 1. This participle of lie has the double anomaly
of reduplicating with a and of strengthening the radical syllable :
aay-n. 2. The root sah prevail adds the suffix to a reduplicated as
well as to a contracted stem : ssah-n and seh-n. 3. The radical
vowel of kam love and am labour is not syncopated : cakam-an and
aam-n. 4. Four of these participles have the intensive accent on
the reduplicative syllable: tutuj-na-, uujna, uuv-na (),
and ad-na (ad prevail).
1
1 6 0 . The Perfect Passive P a r t i c i p l e is formed by adding,

in the great majority of instances, the suffix t (with or
without connecting i) or, far less commonly, the suffix n
(directly) to the root.
Cp. a similar irregularity of i n 134, 1 b.
Also normally, but less frequently, accented ttujn.
3 Cp. the Gk. perf. mid. part. ^â^^ô^.
The first three cannot be accounted intensives because they have
not the intensive reduplicative vowel (173, 1). Though the redupli
cative vowel of ad-na may be that of either perfect or intensive,
the occurrence of the perf. form adr beside it favours the view
that it is a perf. participle.
1
184
CONJUGATIONS
[160
1. n, which is taken by primary verbs only, is attached

to the (unweakened) root, which ends i n a long vowel or one
of the consonants d and (rarely) c or j . Before this suffix,
i and u remain unchanged ; remains or is reduced to or i ;
becomes r or (generally when a labial precedes) r ; d is
assimilated to n ; e and j revert to the original guttural.
Thus l cling : l-n ; d burn : dn ; d r sleep : d r - ;
d divide : d i - n ; h leave : hn ; g swallow : g r - ;
m erush : m r - ; j waste away : j r - ; b h i d split :
bhinn ; skand leap : s k a n - n ; v r a c eut up : v k - ;
ruj break : rug-.
a. Several roots take alternative forms i n ta : nun-n and nut-t
(nud) ; vin-n and vit-t (vid jind) ; san-n. and sat-t (sad sit) ;
-n and -t (y coagulate) ; p jill : pr- and purt ; crush :
r and ur-t ; pc mur : -prg-a and prkt.
b. The final palatal of pre muc, vrac cut up and ruj break reverts to
the guttural (cp. 160, 1).
2. When t is added direct the root tends to appear i n its

weak form : verbs liable to Samprasraa take it ; a medial
or final nasal is lost ; is often reduced to or i ; y some
times to . Examples are : y t , jit, bht s t u t ,
hut, k t ; na ( n a be lost), s i k t (sic), y u k t
(yuj), g h (guh), d u g d h ( d u h ) , s (sj) ;
i (yaj), v i d d h ( v y a d h ) , u k t (vac), h
( v a h ) , s u p t (svap), p ( p r a c h ) ; a k t (aj),
tat ( t a n ) , gat ( g a m ) ; pt (pa drink), sthit
( s t h ) ; vt (vy),
1
a. The root dh put is doubly weakened i n hit beside dhita.

Medial is reduced to i in is- (s order). Syncopation and loss of
s appear i n -g-dha eaten (ghas),
b. Excepting the occurrence of the normal form data in the com
pound tvdta given by thee, d give regularly uses the weak pres.
3
1 W i t h cerebralization and aspiration of the suffix, loss of the radical

final and lengthening of the radical vowel (cp. 62, 69 c).
With the same changes as in guh after vaht has been reduced
by Samprasraa to uh.t.
3 ^ ^ ^7^
7
2
160161]
PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
185
stem dad i n forming its past passive participle : datt. The latter is
further reduced to tta i n devatt given by the gods, and when com
bined with certain prepositions : vytta opened, prtta given away,
prttta given back. The same syncopation appears i n the compound
participle of d divide : vatta cut otf:
c. One root i n an and three or four in am retain the nasal and
lengthen the vowel : dhvan sound : dhvant ; kram stride : krnt ;
am be quiet : n-t ; ram be weary : rn-t ; dham blow has tile
irregular dhm-t and dham-i-t.
d. A few- roots i n an have : khan dig : kb-t ; jan be born : ja-t ;
van win : -v-ta ; san gain : st.
1
3. i-ta is taken by a considerable number of roots ending

not only i n conjunct consonants or i n single consonants
difficult to combine with t, but also i n simple consonants,
especially sibilants, which present no such difficulty. The
root is not weakened (excepting four instances of Sampra
sraa). Secondary verbs (almost without exception causa
tives) take ita exclusively (after dropping aya).
Examples are : n i n d - i t , r a k - i t ; g r a t h - i t , it,
car-it, jv-it ; p a t - i t , p a n - i t ; k u p - i t , s t a b h - i t ;
mu-it ; a r p - i t (arp-ya cause to go), cod-it (cod-ya
set in nation).
a. The roots taking Samprasraa are: grabh and grah
seize: g b h - - t a n d gh--t(Av);^ v a k increase: u k - i t ;
vad speak : u d - i t ; r a t h slacken : t h - i t .
2
I 6 I . There is once found i n the A V . a perfect passive

participle extended with the possessive suffix vant, which
gives it the sense of a perfect participle active : a i t - v a n t
having eaten.
Representing the long sonant nasal.
Only one perfect participle passive has been noted from a desidera
tive : mmsit called in question, and one from a denominative :
bhmit enraged.
I n B . japaya, causative of j know, forms its part. without con
necting i : japt.
Usually (and abnormally) accented rpita.
With for i as in some other forms from this root.
This type of participle hardly occurs even i n the Brhmaas.
1
186
CONJUGATION
[l62
1 6 2 . The F u t u r e Passive P a r t i c i p l e is i n the R v formed

with four suffixes : one with the primary suffix ya, which is
common, the rest with the secondary suffixes y y a , n y a ,
and tva, each of which occurs about a dozen times. I n the
A v . there begin to be used two other gerundives, formed
with t a v y and anya, each occurring twice. A l l these
participles correspond in sense to the Lat. gerundive
in ndus.
1. In the RV. about forty examples of the gerundive i n
y a occur, and about twenty more i n the A v . The suffix is
nearly always to be read as ia, which accounts for the
treatment before it of final radical vowels. The root, being
accented, appears i n a strong form excepting a few examples
which have the short radical vowel i , u, or .
a. Final coalesces with the initial of ia to o, between which and

the following a a phonetic y is interposed : da give : dya ( ^ d iya)
to be given.
b. Final , , regularly take Gua or Vddhi, the final element
of which always appears as y, v, r, as before a vowel ; e. g. l cling :
lyya ; nu praise : nvya ; bhu be : bhvya and bhvy future ;
hu call : hvya ; v choose : vrya.
c. Medial i , u, r, if followed by a single consonant, may take Gua
and a may be lengtlêned ; e. g. dvi : dvsya hateful ; yudh : ydhya
to be subdued ; rdh : rdhya to be accomplished ; mrj : mrjya to be
purified ; vac : vcya to be said ; but also ghya to be concealed ; dhry
to be assailed ; sdya to be seated.
d. A final short vowel sometimes remains unchanged, a t being
then interposed : tya to be gone ; rtya to be heard ; ktya to be
made ; cark tya to be praised.
2. The suffix yya, nearly always to be read yia, is

almost restricted to the RV. ; e. g. pan y ya to be admired ;
vid y ya to be found ; rav- y ya glorious. It is sometimes
attached to secondary stems ; to a causative : panay y ya
admirable, sphay y ya desirable; to a desiderative : d i
dhi y ya to be eoneiliated ( dh) ; to an intensive : vitan
tas y ya to be hastened.
3. n y a (generally to be read nia) is attached to the root,
162-163]
GERUNDIVE
187
which remains unaltered except when it ends i n a vowel:

thus d v i - y a malignant, y u d h - n y a to be combatted, d n y a worthy to be seen ; but v r - e y a choiceworthy (v choose).
It is once added to an aor. stem : y a - s - n y a to be guided
( yam), Secondary verbs also take this suffix ; desideratives :
d i d k - y a worthy to be seen, u r y a deserving to be
heard; intensives: marmjnya to be glorified, vavdh
nya to be glorified ; denominatives : s a p a r y a to be
adored.
4. tva, almost restricted to the R V . and generally to be
read tua, is added to the strong form of the root, which is
accented. Thus k r t v a to be made, h t v a to be driven on
(hi), stva to be pressed ( su), v k t v a to be said; with
connecting i : snitva to be won ; with connecting :
bhvtva future.
5. The only two examples i n V . (both occurring i n A V . )
of the gerundive i n t a v y , which i n both cases is added
with connecting i , are j a n i t a v y to be born and hisi
tavy to be injured.
6. The only examples of the gerundive i n a n y a (both
appearing in the Av) are upajvan y a to be subsisted on
and mantra y a worthy to be addressed.
2
III.
G e r u n d or Indeclinable P a r t i c i p l e .
I 6 3 . More than 120 examples of the gerund occur i n

the R V . and A V . It expresses an action which accompanies
or more often precedes that of the finite verb. It is formed
with the three suffixes tv , tv , tv y a (all old cases of stems
1
A few examples occur i n the Brahmaas : jtva (ji conquer),

sn tva (sn bathe), hntva (han slay).
W i t h instead of 1.
This gerundive has become not Uncommon i n B . , where it is
formed not only from the root, but from secondary stems.
I n B . nearly a dozen examples have been met with.
2
188
CONJUGATION
[163
i n t u which is also used to form infinitives) attached to the

simple root.
1. The form i n tv , which is almost restricted to the RV.,
is the commonest of the three i n that Sahit, where fifteen
examples occur. It probably represents an old locative of
stems i n t u . It is as a rule added directly to the root,
which has the same form as i n the perf. pass. participle
in ta. Examples are : ktv having made, gatv having
gone, guhv having hidden, bhtv having become, v k t v
having overthrown (vj), hitv having abandoned (h),
There are two forms i n which the suffix is added with the
connecting vowel i : janitv having produced and skabhitv
having propped.
2. The suffix tv (an old inst. sing. of a verbal noun i n tu)
is taken by nine roots i n the R v and about thirty more i n
the A v . The root has the same form as before the ta of the
perf. pass. participle. The forms occurring i n the RV. are :
ptv (pa drink), bhittv having shattered, bhtv having
become, mitv having formed (m), yuktv having yoked,
Vtv having covered, srutv having heard, htv having
slain, hitv having abandoned. Some of the forms from the
AV. are : iv having sacrificed (yaj), jagdhv having
devoured (jak), trtv having crossed (t), thv
having shattered ( th), dattv having given ( d), paktv
having cooked (pac), baddhv having bound ( b a n d h ) ,
bhaktv having divided (bhaj), rhv having ascended
( r u h ) , vv having cut up (vrac), suptv having
slept ( svap) ; three take the connecting vowel i : cyitv
noting ( c y ) , hisitv having injured, ghtv having
seized ; a few also are formed from secondary stems i n aya
(which is retained) ; e. g. kalpayitv having arranged.
3. The rarest gerund is that i n tv y a, which is formed
1
This gerundive is not found i n the A V . , but it has not entirely

disappeared i n the Brahmanas.
163164]
GERUND
189
from only eight roots i n the RV. : gatv y a having gone,

jagdhv y a having devoured, dattv y a having given, d
v y a having seen, bhaktv y a having attained, y u k t v y a
having yoked, hatv y a having slain, hitv y a having aban
doned ; three more of these gerunds appear i n the Yajurveda :
ktv y a having done, tatv y a having stretehed, vtv y a
having covered.
1
I 6 4 . When the verb is compounded the suffix is regularly

either y a or ty . I n at least twothirds of such forms the
vowel of the suffix is long i n the RV. The root is always
accented.
1. y is added (but never with i) to the root, which has
the same form as before t v , except that final and am
remain unchanged. Nearly forty roots i n the R v and
about thirty more i n the AV. form these compound gerunds.
Examples from the RV. are : cy bending ( = ac), abhy
p y a having enveloped ( v a p ) , a b h i k r m y a approaching,
abhigury graciously accepting (g sing), sag b hy
gathering, nic y y fearing, viturya driving forth ( t),
d ya taking, atid v ya playing higher, a nud -ya looking
along, a r b h y a grasping, nidy having sat down ; from
a causative stem : pr r pya setting in motion ( p r a r p a y a ) ,
Examples from the AV. are: u d h y a having carried up
(vah), sag r ya swallowing up (g), u p a d d y a
putting in (d), sabhuya combining, utthaya arising
(sth), sas v ya having sewed; from a causative stem :
vibhajya having apportioned (bhaj).
a. Three roots are found in the RV. compounded with adverbs or
substantives : punard ya giving back, mithaspdhya vying together,
karag h ya seizing bythce^r, padagrhya grasping by the foot, hasta
ghya grasping bythehand.
This gerund occurs twice in the A V . and about half a dozen times
in B. It is once formed from a causative stem i n the B. : sp-ayi
tvya (spa),
CONJUGATION
190
[165167
165. 2. ty (nearly always with long vowel i n the RV.)

is added instead of y to compound verbs ending i n a short
vowel ; e. g. ty having come (i), abhijtya having
conquered, d ty regarding, a p a m t y a having borrowed,
u p a - r t y a having overheard ; with adverbial or nominal
prefix: arak ty having made ready, a k h k h a l k t y a
shouting, namask tya (AV.) paying homage.
1
a. The analogy of these verbs is followed by some roots ending in

n or m preceded by a, which drop the nasal as i n the perf. pass. part. :
vihty having driven away (han), gty having come (gam),
udytya (AV.) lifting up (yam).
166. The accusative in am of certain verbal nouns,

though not yet construed like a gerund i n the Sahits, is
not infrequently so construed in the Brhmaas and Stras.
Before the suffix, the root (which is almost always com
pounded) appears in the form it assumes before the i of the
3. s. aor. pass. (155) ; e. g. k h s a m - - l m b h - a m taking
hold of a branch (B.); m a h n g m abhisas r am running
together around a great snake (B.).
Iv.
Infinitive.
I ^ 7 . The infinitive, all the forms of which are old cases

of verbal nouns, acc., dat., abl.-gen., or loc., is very frequent,
occurring about 700 times i n the R V . Only the acc. and
dat. forms are common, but the datives outnumber the acc.
in the proportion of 12 to 1 in the RV. and 3 to 1 i n
the A V . It is a remarkable fact that the infinitive in t u m ,
the only form surviving i n Sanskrit, occurs not more than
five times in the R v , while the dative infinitive, which in
the R v is more than seven times as common as all the
rest put together, has already for the most part disappeared
in the Brhmaas.
1
2
Sometimes not original but reduced from a long vowel.

H ere m i is reduced from ma measure.
167]
INFINITIVE
191
a. The infinitive is as a rule formed from the root, not being

connected with any tense stems or ever showing the distinctions of
voice. The forms i n dhyai, se and sni are, however, not infrequently
connected with a present stem ; that i n dhyai is once formed from
a perfect stem, and is also i n several instances taken by causative
stems. The forms i n dhyai and tavi are at once recognizable as
infinitives by their abnormal enings ; that i n sni, though it has an
ordinary caseending, by its isolated stemformation. The acc. inf.
in tum and am and the abl. gen. inf. show their infinitive character
by their power of combining with prepositions and their verbal
construction. some infinitives, however, cannot be distinguished
from ordinary cases of verbal nouns : they are not to be regarded as
genuine infinitives unless they are isolated case forms or have a verbal
construction.
1. Dative
Infinitive.
This infinitive ends i n e, which with the final of a root

or stem combines to ai. It is formed from :
a. roots, about sixty forms occurring. About a dozen are
formed from roots ending i n long vowels and from one i n i ,
all of them (except an alternative form of b h ) being com
pounded with prefixes ; e. g. p a r d i to give up, p r a h y
to send ( h i ) ; mye to diminish (m), b h v and b h u v
to be ; t r e to cross.
The rest are from roots ending i n consonants. About
a dozen are uncompounded, as m a h to be glad, m i h to
shed water, bhj to enjoy, d- to see. B u t the compounded
forms are commoner ; e. g. g r b h e to seize, d h e to kindle,
n d e to thrust, p c he to ask, v c e to speak, v d h e
to pierce, s y d e to flow.^
3
The only daf. inf. in ordinary use in B. is that in tavi. Otherwise

only five or six i n e (see note 6) ; two i n tave, vitave and str
tave, and one in dhyai, s hyai to conquer ( sah) have been noted i n B .
Loc infinitives have disappeared.
Except rad-dh to trust and pra-m to form, which drop the . ^
With Samprasraa.
W i t h lengthened vowel.
W i t h loss of nasal (syand).
I n B . have been noted half a dozen infinitives i n e from roots
2
192
CONJUGATION
[167
b. verbal nouns derived with nine different suffixes.

These i n the aggregate are more numerous.
1. Some twenty-five are datives of stems i n as ; e. g.
y-as-e to go, ck-as-e to see, earse to fare, puy-s-e
to thrive, bhiy-s-e to fear, riy-s-e to be resplendent.
2. Five or six datives of stems i n i are found i n the RV.,
and one or two i n other Sahits ; t u j - y e to breed, d-y-e
to see, mahy-e to rejoiee, yudhy-e to fight, sanye to
win ; ghaye to seize (K.), c i t y e to understand (vS.).
3. Four or five are datives of stems i n t i : iy-e to
refresh, pty-e to drink, vtye to enjoy, saty-e
to win.
4. More than thirty are datives of stems i n t u (added to
the gunated root, sometimes with connecting i) ; e. g.
t t a v e to eat, tav-e to go, tave to weave ( = v),
krtav-e to make, gntav-e to go, p tave to drink, bhr
tave to bear away, yave to sacrifice, vktav-e to speak,
Vstav-e to shine, vhav-e to convey ( v a h ) ; vitav-e
to refresh, critav-e tofi^re,svitav-e to bring forth (s),
srvitav-e to flow (sru), hvitav-e to eall ( h ) ;
jv tave to live, strtav-e (AV.) to lay lolv (st).
5. More than a dozen are datives of stems i n tava (which
is added like t u to the gunated root) and have the peculiarity
of being douhiy accented ; e. g. tavi to go, tavi to
weave, g n t a v i to go, p tavi to drink, m n t a v i to think,
srtavi to flow ; ymitavi to guide, s r v i t a v i to
flow.
1
ending i n consonants, all but one being compounded : d- (TS.) to

see, pratidh e to withstand (TS.), pramrad to crush (B.), -rbh-e
to take hold (B.), sde to sit upon (AB.), atispe to glide over (MS.).
A n these except pramrad occur i n the R V .
Which is generally accented, but about half a dozen examples
accent the root.
The only examples of this infinitive noted in B . are vitave and
strtave.
1
DATIVE
167]
INFINITIVE
193
a. This infinitive is still i n regular use i n B . , where the following

examples have been noted : tavi and y t avi to go, krtavi to do,
ddyitavi to fly away, drgdhavi to plot, mntavi to think, mnthi
tavi to rule, strtavi to lay low, ticaritavi to transgress, netavi to
bring, nrastavi to throw out, pristartavi to strew around, s
hvayitavi to call together.
6. There is only one certain example of a dative infinitive

from a stem i n t y : ityi to go.
7. More than thirtyfive are datives (almost restricted to
the R v ) of stems i n d h y , which is added to verbal stems
ending i n a (generally accented) ; e. g. i y d h y a i to go (i),
g m a d h y a i to go, c a r d h y a i to fare, a y - d h y a i to lie
(), s t a v - d h y a i to praise ( s t u ) ; p i b - d h y a i to drink
( p), p - d h y a i to fill ( p), h u v - d h y a i to call ( h ) ;
v v d h - d h y a i to strengthen ; n a y d h y a i to cause to
disappear, v a r t a y d h y a i to cause to turn.
1
a. Only one of these infinitives has been noted i n B . : s hyai to

conquer (sah). In the TS. occurs one example ending i n o instead
of ai : gamdhyo to go.
8. Five are datives of stems in man : tr mae to protect,

d mane to give (Gk. ôpûat), dhrmae to support,
b h r m a e to preserve, vidmne (Gk. ^pûat) to know.
9. Three are datives of stems in van : turve to over
come (t), dvne (Gk. ôvuat = ôfûat) to give, dhr
vae to injure.
4
2. Accusative
Infinitive.
This infinitive is formed in two ways.

a. One of them (of which more than a dozen examples
occur in the RV. besides several others in the Av.) is made
with am added to the weak form of the root, which nearly
1
The last three are made from regular present stems.

From the reduplicated perfect stem.
From the causative stem, from which about ten such infinitives
are formed.
W i t h interchange of vowel and semivowel : r v. Cp. 171, 2.
2
194
CONJUGATION
[167
always ends i n a consonant (except d h , m , t) ; e. g.

s a m d h a m to kindle, samp c ham to ask, rbham
to
reach, a r h a m to mount, bham to shine ; p r a t r a m
to prolong (t), pratidh m to place upon, p r a m y a m to
neglect (m).
b. The second form which is made from stems i n t u
( = Lat. supine) is much less common than the datives from
the same stems. Only five examples occur i n the RV. and
about as many others in the A v ; R V . : t u m to weave, d
t u m to give (Lat. datum), p r u m to ask, p r b h a r t u m
to present, a n u p r v o h u m to advance ; A V . : t t u m to eat,
k r t u m to make, d r u m to see, y c itum to ask,
s p r d h i t u m to contend with ; K . , V S . : k h n i t u m to dig.
a. The ace inf. has become nearly twice as frequent as the dat. i n B .
The form in am is not unusual, while that in tum is quite common.
3. A b l a t i v e Genitive Infinitive.
This infinitive is rare, fewer than twenty examples occur
ring i n the Sahits. It is rather of the nature of a verbal
noun than a genuine infinitive. Like the ace infinitive it
is formed i n two ways : from a radical (consonant) stem and
from a verbal noun in tu. It thus ends either i n as or tos ;
and as each of these endings represents both the abl. and
the gen., the cases can only be distinguished syntactically.
a. The as form has the abl. sense almost exclusively.
There are six examples of .it in the R V . : t d as being
pierced, a v a p d a s falling down, samp c as coming in con
tact, abhi-r-as binding, abhi-vs-as blowing, ati-kd-as
leaping across. There seems to be one certain example of
the gen. : ni-m-as to wink.
b. Of the tos form the R V . has six examples i n the abl.
sense : -tos and g n - t o s going, j n - i - t o s being born,
n - d h a - t o s putting down, rtos being shattered, stos
pressing, h n t o s being struck. Three examples in the gen.
sense are : k r t o s doing, d tos giving, ytos warding off.
a. The abl. gen. inf. has become as common as the dat. i n B.
167-168]
LOCATIVE
INFINITIVE
195
4. Locative Infinitive.
This form of the infinitive is rare; hardly more than
a dozen examples occur even i f several doubtful forms are
included.
a. Five or six are locatives of radical stems : v y - - i at
the dawning, sack-i on beholding, d- and sad -i
on seeing, b u d h - at the waking. A s these forms, however,
have nothing distinctive of the infinitive and govern the
genitive only, they are rather to be regarded as ordinary
locatives of verbal nouns.
b. From a stem i n tar are formed d h a r - t r - i to support
and v i - d h a r t r - i to bestow ; it is, however, doubtful whether
these forms are genuine infinitives.
e. The R V . has eight locatives from stems i n san, with
a genuine infinitive sense: ne--i to lead, par-i to
pass, a b h i - b h - - i to aid, u-i to swell, sak--i
to abide ( s a c ) ; with connecting : t a r - - - i ; from
present stems : gi to sing, st---i to spread.
DERIVATIVE
I.
VERBS.
Causatives.
I 6 S . This is by far the commonest of the secondary

conjugations, being formed from more than two hundred
roots i n the Sahits and from about a hundred additional
ones i n the Brhmaas. Of about 150 causative stems
in the RV., however, at least one-third have not a causative,
but an iterative sense. The whole formation may indeed
originally have had an iterative meaning. This perhaps
explains how an iterative formation, the reduplicated aorist,
specially attached itself to the causative. The same root
occasionally forms both the iterative and the causative, as
p a t - y a - t i flies about and p t - y a t i causes to fly beside the
simple verb p t a - t i flies.
196
CONJUGATION
[168
The causative is formed by adding the suffix y a to the

root, which is usually strengthened.
1. Initial or medial i , u , , (if not long by position) take
Gua ; e. g. v i d know : v e d - y a causc to know ; k r u d h be
angry: k r o d h - y a enrage; d dissolve (intr.): a r d - y a
destroy ; tp be pleased : t a r p - y a delight ; k i p be adapted :
k a l p - y a arrange.
a. Several roots, mostly lacking the causative meaning,
leave the radical vowel unchanged ; e. g. rue shine : r u c - y a ,
id. (but r o c - y a illumine).
b. Initial or medial a (if not long by position) is lengthened
in about thirty roots; e.g. am be injurious: m - y a suffer
injury ; n a be lost : n - y a destroy.
a. In the following roots the a optionally remains short in the

causative : gam go, das waste away, dhvan disappear, pat jly mad be
exhilarated, ram rest ; thus pat jly : patya jly about, once ca^se to jly,
and pat ya cause to jly.
^. I n about twentyfive roots the a always remains short, the
causative meaning being mostly absent ; e. g. dam control : damya
id. ; jan beget : janya id.
e. Final i , , take Gua or Vddhi ; e. g. k i possess :

k a y y a cause to dwell securely ; c y u waver : c y v y a
shake ; b h be : bhvya eause to become ; g h drip : g h r
y a cause to drip ; r u hear, j waste away, and s flow have
Gua as well as V d d h i : r a v - y a and r v - y a cause to
hear ; j a r y a and jrya wear out, s a r y a and s r y a
cause toflow; d pierce has Gua only : d a r y a shatter.
d. Roots ending i n a add p y a ; e. g. d h put : d h p y a
cause to put.
e. The causative retains the suffix throughout the conju
gation even outside the present system. Its inflexion is
identical with that of the primary verbs of the first conju
1
The only example of a causative from a root in final i (except the

irregular jpya from j i conquer and rpya from ri resort).
As to other roots taking paya see 'Irregularities', 2.
2
CAUSATIVE
168]
197
2
gation (132). Subjunctive, imperative, injunctive, imperfect,

and present participle forms are common ; but the optative
is very rare i n the active and does not occur at all i n the
middle. Only four future forms occur i n the R v and the
A v . : d a y i y m i I shall spoil, d h r a y i y t i will support,
vsayiyse thou wilt adorn thyself, v r a y i y t e will shield.
In the perfect only one periphrastic form (139, 9 a) occurs :
gamay c a k r a (AV.). Reduplicated aorist forms are
connected with only six causative stems (p. 175, a. 3). There
are also three is aorists formed from the causative stem:
vyathays from v y a t h y a disturb ; ailayt from ilya
guiet down ; d h v a n a y t from d h v a n y a envelope.
f Of nominal derivatives the following are examples :
a pres. pass. part. bhjymna ; a few perf. pass. parti
ciples : ghrit smeared, codit impelled, ve-i-t caused to
enter; a few gerundives in y y a (162, 2) : t r a y a y y y a to be
guarded; panay y ya admirable; sphay y ya desirable;
ten infinitives in dhyai : n a y d h y a i to destroy, &c.
(p. 193, 7) ; four gerunds i n the A v : arpayitv having
delivered up, kalpayitv having arranged, sdayitv having
set down, srasayitv letting fall.
3
Irregularities.
1. Three causatives in the AV. shorten the before paya : japya
cause to know, ra-pya cook, sna-pya bathe beside sn-pya (RV.).
2. Four roots i n vowels other than a, that is, in o r i , take paya;
r go : ar-pya cause to go ; k i dwell : ke-pya cause to dwell (beside
1
The only du. mid. form occurring is 3. mdyaite ; and the only
mid. form in ai (except 1. du.) in the RV. is mdaydhvai.
The 2. s. in tt occurs in both v. and B. ; and from v cover occurs
the unique 2. pl. varaya-dhvt i n K .
In B. such forms are still uncommon except in the B., where
they are numerous.
In B. desideratives are formed from about a dozen causative
stems ; e.g. di-drpay-ia desire to cause to run.
2
198
CONJUGATION
[168-169
kay-ya) ; j i conquer and ri resort substitute for i : j-pya cause to

conquer, r-pya raise.
3 The root bh fear forms the quite anomalous causative stem
bh--ya frighten .
4. The roots p drink and py swell add aya with interposed y :
pay-ya cause to drink and pyy-ya fill up. This is probably to be
explained by the assumption that the original form of these roots was
p ai and pyai.
5. The vowel of grabh grasp is weakened by samprasraa : gbh-ya
grasp ; while that of dus spoil is lengthened : du-ya, id. The
root p fill, owing to its initial labial, forms its causative with medial
u for : pr-ya fulfil.
1
II.
Desideratives.
1 6 9 . The desiderative, which is the least common of the

secondary conjugations, is formed from the root with an
accented reduplicative syllable and the suffix sa. This sa is
never added with a connecting i in the R v , nor, with the
single exception of p-pat-ia, i n the Av., j-jv-i-a i n the
V S . , and j - g a m - i - a i n the TS. The desiderative is formed
from fewer than sixty roots i n the Sahits and from more
than thirty additional ones i n B . It is inflected like verbs
of the first conjugation (132).
The accent being on the reduplicative syllable, the root as
a rule remains unchanged ; e. g. da give : d-da-sa desire to
give ; b h i d cleave : b - b h i t - s a ; n lead : n-na ; guh hide :
j - g u k - a (62 a, 69 a) ; bh be : b - b h u - a ; d see : d dk-a.
But
1. final i and u are lengthened, and becomes r ; e. g.
j i conquer: j g - a ; r u hear: - r - a ; k make: c
kr-a.
2. final a is i n three roots reduced (cp. 171, 3) to and in
1
In B. the root ruh rise, even though ending in a consonant, takes

paya after dropping its h : ro-paya raise (beside roh- ya).
In B . about a dozen other roots form their desiderative stem
thus ; e. g. ci-kram-1.sa, ji-graha, vi-vid-i-a (vid know), ê.
2
16917l]
DESIDERATIVES
199
one to i : g go: j g a (SV.) ; p a drink: p p a (beside

p p a s a ) ; h go forth : j h a ; dha put : d d h i a (beside
dhtsa).
Special R u l e of R e d u p l i c a t i o n .
170. The characteristic reduplicative vowel is i , which
appears i n a l l stems except those formed from roots contain
ing (which reduplicate with u) ; e. g. j y ovepower :
j-jyasa; m i s mix: m m i k a ; p r love: p p r a ; v t turn:
vvtsa ; but guh hide: j g u k a ; b h be : b b h a .
Irregularities.
171. 1. Five roots with medial a followed by m or n lengthen the
vowel : gam go : jgsa ; han smite : jghsa (66 A 2) ; man
think lengthens the reduplicative vowel also : mmsa (66 A 2) ;
van win and san gain drop the nasal : vvsa and sssa.
2. dhv injure, after interchange of semivowel and vowel to u r
lengthens its u : ddhura. Cp. p. 193, note 4.
3. H a i f a dozen roots containing or a shorten the radical syllable
by a kind of syncopation : d give and d h put lose their vowel :
dtsa ( = dd[a]sa) beside ddasa ; dbtsa ( = ddh[]sa)
beside ddhia ; dabh harm, labh take, ak be able, sah prevail lose
their initial radical consonant and their vowel : d-p-sa ( = d [ d a ] b h sa), l p - s a (--- l[la]bh-sa), k-a (= [a]ka), ska with
lengthened reduplicative vowel ( s[sa]ksa).
1
a. p obtain and ^dh thrive (treated as ardh) contract the redupli

cated i with the radical initial to : psa (= psa) and rrtsa
( ardhsa).
4. I n c i note, cit perceive, j i conquer, han slay, the radical initial
reverts to the original guttural : cksa, ckitsa jfga, j
ghsa.
Also dhpsa in B.
Also lpsa in B .
In B . are similarly formed dhka (dah burn), pitsa (pad go),
ripsa (rabh grasp).
2
200
CONJUGATION
[17l
5. ghas eat changes its final s to t (66 B 1) : j-ght-sa (Av.) be

hungry.
6. Three roots reduplicate with a long vowel: tur cross (= t) :
tu-tur-a ; bdh oppress : b-bhatsa ; man think : m-m-sa. On
the other hand the reduplicative syllable is reduced i n the desiderative
f yaj saeri/ice and na attain by loss of the initial consonant : -yak-a
(for yyak-a) and -nak-sa (for n-naka). In one form from p
obtain the reduplication is dropped altogether : ap-santa.
1
a. The two roots with initial vowel a eat and edh increase form their
desiderative stem with the reduplicative vowel in the second syllable :
a-i-i-a (B.) and ed-idh-i-a (vs.).
I n the inflexion of the desiderative all the moods of the

present system, besides the imperfect, are represented,
though not fully ; and of present participles more than
twenty-five examples are met with. The forms occurring,
if made from v-v-sa desire to win, would be :
Present i n d . act. sing. 1. vvsmi.
2. v v s a s i .
3. v v s a t i .
D u . 2. v i v s a t h a s . 3. v v s a t a s .
PI. 1.
v v s m a s . 3. v v s a n t i .
Mid. sing. 1. vvse.
2. vvsase.
3. v v s a t e .
P l . 1. v v s m a h e . 3. v v s a n t e .
Subj. act. sing. 1. vvsni. 3. v v s t . P l . 3. v v s n .
Inj. act. sing. 3. vvsaI. M i d . pl. 3. v v s a n t a .
Opt.
act.
sing.
1.
vvseyam.
3.
vvset.
PI.
I.
vvse
ma. Mid. sing. 1. vvseya.
I m p v . act. sing. 2. vvsa and v v s a t t . 3. v v s a t u .
Du. 2. v v s a t a m .
3. v v s a t m .
P l . 2. vvsata.
3. v v a s a n t u .
P a r t . act. v v a s a n t . M id. v v a s a m n a .
Impf. act. sing. 2. vivsas.
3. vivsat.
PI. 3.
vivsan.
With shortening of the radical vowel.

With lengthening of the radical vowel.
DESIDERATIvES
171172]
201
1
a. Outside the present system only two desiderative verbal forms

have been met with, two i aorists in the A V . : cikitss and
rtss.
Three participial forms have also been noted : the perf.
pass. part. mmsit3 and the gerundives didrkya worthy to be
seen and urya worthy to be heard. Finally, over a dozen verbal
adjectives formed with u from the desiderative stem occur i n the RV.,
e. g. iyak wishing to sacrifice. They have the value of a pres. part.
governing a case.
4
III.
Intensives (Frequentatives).
172. These verbs are meant to convey intensification or

frequent repetition of the action expressed by the simple
root. They are common, being formed from over ninety
roots i n the Sahits, and about twentyfive others i n the
Brahmaas. The formation is restricted to roots with
initial consonants, nor is it ever applied to derivative verbs.
The stem, of which a peculiar form of strong reduplication
is characteristic, has two forms. The primary type, which
is by far the commonest, adds the personal endings imme
diately to the reduplicated stem (accented on the first syllable
in strong forms : App. III. 12 e). It is inflected, i n both
active and middle, like a verb of the third or reduplicated
class (132) ; e. g. nij wash : 3. sing. n n e k t i . The secondary
form, which is rare, adds accented y i n the same way as
the passive (154) to the reduplicated stem. It is conjugated
in the middle only, like the passive ; e. g. vij tremble :
vevijyte trembles violently.
1
In B . periphrastic perfect forms from five or six desiderative

stems have been noted.
In B. is aorists from half a dozen desiderative stems occur ; e. g.
aipst aipsima, ajighss, ammsihs. One or two
simple and periphrastic futures also occur i n B as titikiyate (tij
be sharp), didkit r as (d see).
In B . also jijyuit (jv live), dhk-i-t (dah burn), uru-i-t
(r hear).
In B . also lpsi-tavya (labh take), didnys-i-tavy (dhy think),
jijnsy (jn know). ^
2
202
CONJUGATION
[172173
a. The primary intensive optionally inserts between the

root and terminations beginning with consonants. This
is found i n the 1. 3. s. ind. act. and the 2. 3. s. impv. and
impI. act. ; e. g. ind. c k a--mi, c k a--ti ; impv. 2. c a k a -hI. 3. j h a v - - t n ; impI. 3. johavt.

1 7 3 . I. Radical and are reduplicated with the respective
Gua vowels e and o ; e. g. d i point : d e - d i ; n lead :
n e - n ; u c shine : o-uc ; n u praise : no-nu ; b h be :
ho-bh.
2. Radical a and are reduplicated i n two ways :
a. More than a dozen roots with medial a (ending i n
mutes or sibilants, and one i n m) as well as three with
final r, reduplicate with a : k shine : c - k a ; pat fall :
p - p a t ; gam go : jagam ; g wake : j g ; d split : dad ;
d h hold : d a d h ; also c a l stir : ccal.
b. A l l ether roots containing (d and d h also alter
natively) and those with medial a followed by r, 1, or a
nasal, reduplicate with ar, al, an or am ; e. g. k com
memorate : cark and carkir ; k drag : cark ; d
split : dard and dardir (beside dd) ; d h hold : dardn
(beside ddh) ; h be excited : jarh ; car move : carcar ;
phar scatter : parphar ; c a l stir : calcal (beside ccal) ;
gam go : jangam (beside jagam); j a m b h chew up : j a j a b h ;
d a bite : d a n - d a ; tan thunder : tastan (66 A 2).
3. Over twenty roots with final or penultimate nasal,
or , interpose an (or i i f the vowel would be long by
position) between the reduplicative syllable and the root ;
e. g. gam go : gan-i-gam (but gan-i-gm-at) ; han slay :
ghan-ghan ; k r a n d cry out : kan-i-krand and kan-i-krad ;
s k a n d leap : kan-i-kand and can-i-kad ; b h bear : bhar
- b h ; v t turn : var--vt ; n u praise : nav-nu ; d h shake :
dav-i-dhv ; d y u t shine : dav-i-dyut.
174]
INTENSIVES
203
1.rreûlaritie^.
174. The radical vowel is shortened i n roots with medial : k
shine : c-ka ; bdh oppress : b-badh ; v bellow : v-va. In a few
roots containing or r the radical syllable varies ; thus gr swallow :
jargur and jalgul ; car move : carcur beside carcar ; t cross : tar
tur beside tartar.
a. The root go reduplicates with al : alar (dissimilation) ; gh
plunge, with a nasal: j a g a h ; bdh oppress, with its final mute:
badbadh (beside bbadh) ; bh bear and bhur quiver, with a palatal :
jarbhr, jarbhur ; bhur and gur greet reduplicate u with a : jarbhur,
jargur.
b. Roots with initial guttural, if interposing before the root,
reduplicate with the same guttural ; thus krand cry out : kanikrand ;
gam go : gangam ; han (for ghan) slay : ghanghan ; k make has
both karikr and carik ; skand leap has both kaniskand and
canikad.
1
A . The forms of the p r i m a r y type that occur, i f made

from nij wash, would be the following :
1. P r e s . i n d . act. sing. 1. n n e j m i , nnejmi.
2. n
neki. 3. n n e k t i n n e j t i . Du. 2. n e n i k t h s . 3. ne
n i k t s . PI. 1. n e n i j m s , n e n i j m s i .
3. nnijati.
3
Mid. sing. 1. nenij.

3. n e n i k t .
Du. 3. nnijte.
PI. 3. n n i j a t e .
2. Subj. act. sing. 1. n n i j n i . 2. n n i j a s . 3. n n i j
aI.
Du. 1. nnijva.
PI. 1. nnijma.
3. n n i j a n .
M i d . du. 3. n n i j a i t e .
P l . 3. n n i j a n t a .
6
In B . also jajapyte (jap mutter). H ere also vah carry re

duplicates with n (together with interposed ) though there is no
trace of a nasal i n the root : vanvnyte.
This is the only example of such reduplication.
This root shows the same peculiarity in the perfect (139, 4).
The intensive of this root occurs only i n the participle karikrt
and carikrt.
The only form occurring in this person has the interposed i and
strong radical syllable : tartarthas.
The only form actually occurring in this person is jaghnni
(accented like the subj. of the reduplicating present).
9
3
204
CONJUGATION
[174
3. Opt. No certain forms occur in the R v and only two

active forms i n other Sahits: sing. 3. veviyt (Av.),
pl. 1. jagyma (vS., MS., TS.), j g r i y m a (TS.). The
3. s. mid. nenijta occurs in K .
4. I m p v . About twenty active (but no middle) forms
occur. Made from j g these would be : sing. 2. jghi,
j g a r h i , jgt t . 3. j g artu, j g artu. Du. 2. j g
t m . 3. jgt m . PI. 2. jgt.
5. Of the participle over forty stems occur, about twothirds
of them being active. Examples are: act. k n i k r a d a t ,
c k i t a t , jghanat, j g rat, d r d r a t , n n adat, rruv
at ; mid. j r b h u r a , d n d a - n a , y y u v - n a (yu join),
srsr-a.
6. Impf. Fewer than thirty forms of this tense occur,
only three of them being middle. Examples of the persons
occurring are :
A c t . sing. 1. -cka-am.
2. jgar.
3. dardar,
varvar, johavt; d v i d y o t , nvnot. Du. 2.
dardtam.
P l . 1. marmjm.
3. carkur,
dardirur, n o n a v u r .
M i d . sing. 3. dedia, nannata. PI. 3. mrmjata.
1
a. Outside the present system few intensive forms occur. There

are four act. perfect intensives with present sense : sing. 1. jgara.
3. jg r a (^7^vo^), davidhva (dh shake), nnava (nu praise); also
dodrva (dru run : Ts.), yoyva (yu separate : MS.), lel y a (l be
unsteady.. MS.). There is besides the perf. part. jagv s. A causa
tive intensive appears once in the participial form varvarjyant
twisting about.
4
In B. occurs the 2. s. mid. form nenikva ( nij),

The RV. has no impv. forms with interposed , but the A V . and
Vs. have a few in the 2. 3. s., as cka--hi johav--tu. A few
examples occur in B . also.
From nam bend, with loss of nasal (a = sonant nasal), for -nannan-ta.
In B . also occur the causative stems from intensives jgarya
and ddhr-ya (dh hold).
2
174175]
INTENSIVES
205
B . The forms of the secondary type, which is indis

tinguishable from a passive i n form, number only about
a dozen. They occur only i n the 2. 3. s. and 3. pi. ind. pres.,
besides a few participles. They are :
Pres. i n d . sing. 2. cokyse (sku tear). 3. d e d i y-te, neny-te, marmj-yte, r e r i h - y - t e , vevij-yte,
v e v - y t e (v enjoy). P l . 3. t a r t r - y n t e (t), marmjynte.
P a r t . c a r c r - y - m a (car), n e n - y - m n a , marmjy-mna.
Iv.
Denominatives.
175. These verbs, inflected like those of the a conjugation

(132), are derived, almost exclusively with the suffix ya,
from nouns, to which they express some such relation as
' be or act like ', treat as , ' turn into ', or ' use as ', ' wish for .
More than a hundred denominative stems occur in the RV.
and about fifty i n the Av. The suffix is normally accented,
but a certain number of undoubted denominatives, such as
m a n t r - y a utter a prayer, a r t h - y a make an objeet of, desire,
have the causative accent, thus forming a connecting link
between the regular denominatives and the causatives.
A . Before the suffix y a :
1. final i and u are lengthened ; e. g. kavy be wise
(kavi), r a y - y desire wealth (ray) ; j-y be straight
(j) ; v a s - y desire wealth (vsu) ; a t r - y play the
enemy (tru), be hostile.
2. final a usually remains unchanged, but is often length
ened ; it is sometimes changed to ; and even dropped ;
2
Denominatives are less common i n B. ; thus the A B . has hardly

twenty, and the B. about a dozen.
. Except artiy act like an enemy, be hostile beside arty and
janiy seek a wife beside jany ; gtuy set in motion (gt),
In the Pada text the 1 is usually, the is always, written short.
2
206
CONJUGATION
[175
e. g. j a r a - y treat like a lover, d e v a - y serve the gods, tya

act according to sacred order; a v - y desire horses, t y
observe sacred order (beside tya), y a j y sacrifice ;
a d h v a r y perform the sacrifice (adhvar), p u t r y desire
a son (putr), r a t h y drive in a car (rtha) ; a d h v a r y
perform sacrifice (beside adhvary), taviy be mighty
(tavi : beside taviy),
3. final a remains unchanged ; e. g. g o p y aet as herdsman,
proteet, p t a n a y fight. Final o, in the only example
occurring, becomes av : gavy desire cows.
4. Consonant stems, the commonest being those i n as,
nearly always remain unchanged ; e. g. bhiajy play the
physician, heal ; u k a y act like a bull (ukn) ; v a d h a r y
hurl a bolt (vdhar) ; s u m a n a s y be gracious (sumnas) ;
taruy engage in fight (trus).
2
a. A few denominative forms are made without a suffix, direct

from nominal stems, but nearly always beside regular denominatives
i n y ; e. g. bhiskti from bhij act as physician beside bhisajy ;
and the forms taruema, taruante, taruanta (from trua
conqueror) beside tarns y.
Inflexion.
PI.
1.
ynti.
B . A l l the tenses, moods, and participles of the present

system are represented. If made from n a m a s y pay homage
the forms occurring would be :
1. Pres. i n d . act. sing. 1. namasy m i. 2. n a m a s y s i .
3. n a m a s y t i .
Du. 2. n a m a s y t h a s .
3. n a m a s y t a s .
namasymasi,
mas.
2.
namasytha.
3.
namas
Mid. sing. 1. n a m a s y .
2. n a m a s y s e .
3. n a m a s y t e .
W i t h causative accent.
The Pada text i n this and nearly every example has Iy.
the sahit text of the A V . has putriy.
The may also be dropped : ptany fight against.
2
Even
207
DENOMINATIVES
175]
Du.
2.
namasythe.
3.
namasyte.
PI.
1.
namasy
mahe. 3. namasynte.
2. Subj. act. sing. 1. namasy. 2. namasys. 3. na
masyt. Du. 3. namasytas. PI. 3. namasyn.
Mid. sing. 2. namasy s e. 3. namasy t e.
3. Inj. act. sing. 2. n a m a s y s . P l . 3. n a m a s y n .
4. o p t . act. Sing. 2. n a m a s y s . 3. n a m a s y t . PI. 1.
namasyma.
Mid. sing. 3. n a m a s y t a .
5. I m p v . act. sing. 2. n a m a s y . 3. n a m a s y t u . Du. 2.
namasytam.
3.
namasytm.
PI.
2.
namasyta.
3.
na
masyntu.
Mid. sing. 2. n a m a s y s v a .
PI. 2. n a m a s y d h v a m .
3. n a m a s y n t a m .
6. P a r t . act. n a m a s y n t . M i d . n a m a s y m a n a .
7. ImpI. act. sing. 2. n a m a s y a s . 3. n a m a s y a t . Du. 3.
n a m a s y t a m . PI. 3. n a m a s y a n .
Mid. sing. 3. n a m a s y a t a . Du. 2. n a m a s y e t h m . P l . 3.
namasyanta.
a. The only finite forms occurring outside the present
system are four aorists. Two are injunctives :
s. n a y s
(RV.) from n a y a leave unfulfilled (na) ; 2. pl. p p ayia
(TS.) from papaya lead into evil (papa) ; and two indicatives :
3. s. s a p a r y a i t (AV.) has worshipped (an irregular form,
probably = s a p a r y t ) ; 3. pl. vyiata (VS.) they
have accepted. The TS. has also the three fut. participles
k a y i y n t about to scratch, m e g h y i y n t about to be
cloudy, k a y - i y n t about to drip, with the corresponding
perf. pass. part. k a y i t , m e g h i t , k i t .
1
In B . also occurs the is aor. syt has murmured.

In B . also occurs the future gopy-iyati.
In B . there are also a few other past pass. participles and a few
gerunds.
2
CHAPTER V
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
Prepositions.
I 7 6 . Two classes of prepositions have to be distinguished.
The first comprises the genuine or adverbial prepositions.
These are words with a local sense which, primarily used to
modify the meaning of verbs, came to be connected inde
pendently with the cases governed by the verbs thus
modified. They show no signs of derivation from inflexional
forms or (except t i r s and p u r s ) forms made with adverbial
suffixes.
The second class has been called adnominal
prepositions because they are not compounded with verbs,
but govern cases of nouns only. They almost invariably
end i n case terminations or adverbial suffixes.
1. A d v e r b i a l Prepositions.
There are fourteen or (if s m is included) fifteen genuine
prepositions which, when used independently of verbs,
define the local meaning of cases. They are almost entirely
restricted to employment with the acc., loc., and abl. A s
their connexion with the abl. is only secondary, the genuine
prepositions appear to have been originally connected with
the acc. and loc. only. A s a rule these prepositions follow,
but also often precede, their case.
I. The accusative is exclusively taken by c h a towards,
ti beyond, n u after, a b h towards, p r t i (Gk. 7rpori) against,
and t i r s across (cp. LaI. trans).
a. p r i (Gk. 7r^pi) around takes the acc. primarily, but
secondarily and more frequently the abl. i n the sense of
from (around).
176177]
PREPOSITIONS
209
b. p a to (with verbs of motion) takes the acc. primarily,

and less frequently the loc. in the sense of beside, upon, at.
2. The locative is exclusively taken by p i (Gk. ^7ri) upon
and primarily by d h i upon, a n t r (Lat. inter) between, on,
in, at, to, p u r s before.
a. dhi takes the abl. secondarily and less commonly in the sense
offrom (upon).
b. The last three secondarily take both abl. and ace. ; purs does
so without change of meaning.
antr with abl. means from (within) ; with acc., between.
a with ace. means to, expressing the goal with verbs of motion.
With the abl., if following, it means from (on) ; if preceding, up to.
1
3. The ablative seems to he used once or twice indepen

dently with va in the sense of down from.
2. A d n o m i n a l Prepositions.
177. These prepositions, being adverbs i n origin, govern
oblique cases (except the dat.) independently. Several of
them govern the genitive and the instrumental, cases that
are practically never connected with the genuine prepositions
in the SahitS. I n the following list these prepositions
are grouped under the cases which they accompany :
1. A c c . : a d n s below (also with abl. or gen.), antar
between, a b h t a s around, u p r i above, beyond, p a r s beyond
(also with abl., more often inst.), p a r t a s around (AV.),
s a n i t r apart from.
2. Instr. : s a h with, s k m with, s u m d with, s m d
with ; a v s below (also abl.), p a r s outside (also acc. and abl.).
3. A b I . : a d h s below (also acc. and gen.), a v s down from
3
It sometimes also precedes the abl. i n this sense.

This is almost the only use of in B . ; in C. it means both from
and up to.
In B . several adverbial instrumentais expressing situation or
direction govern the acc. : ntarea between, varea below, prea
beyond ; ttarea to the north of, dkiena to the south of.
2
210
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[l77l78
(also instr.), r far from (also gen.), r t without, p a r s apart

from (also acc. and inst.), pur before, b a h i r d h from out,
s a n u t r far from.
4. Gen. : p u r s t d in front of.
5. L o c . : sc (in assoeiation) with, beside, at, in.
1
A d v e r b i a l Caseforms.
179. Many easeforms of nominal and pronominal stems,
often not otherwise in use, are employed as adverbs.
Examples of all the eases appear with adverbial function.
1. N o m . : p r a t h a m m firstly, dvit y am secondly. Such
adverbs were originally used i n apposition to the verbal
action.
2. A c c . : these adverbs find their explanation i n various
meanings of the case. They represent (a) the cognate acc. ;
e. g. bhuyas more, and comparatives in taram added to
verbal prefixes, as v i t a r m (kram) (stride) more widely;
(b) the appositional ace ; e. g. n m a by name, r p m in form,
s a t y m truly ; (e) the acc. of direction ; e. g. g r a m (i) (go)
to the front of, before, s t a m (gam) (go) home ; (d) the acc. of
distance and time ; e. g. d r m a long way off, far ; n k t a m
by night, s y m in the evening, n i t y m constantly, p r vam
formerly.
a. There are also some acc. adverbs derived from obsolete nominal
stems, as ram sufficiently, nnm now ; others from pronominal
stems, as ads there, idm here, now, km why yd when.
3. Instr. : adverbs with the ending of this case (sometimes

pl.) are formed from substantives, adjectives, and pronouns.
They usually express manner or accompanying circumstances,
as s h a s forcibly, n v y a s a anew, en in this way ; also not
l I n B . the gen. is governed by this adverb as well as by parastd
after; e. g. sktasya purastt before the hymn ; savatsarasya paras tt
after a year.
178179]
ADVERBS
211
infrequently extension of space or time, as g r e a in front,

a k t b h i s by night, drva by day.
a. The substantive instrumentais are chiefly formed from feminines
in not otherwise used, as tay in the right way, naktay by night.
b. The adjective instrumentais are formed from stems i n a and
a few i n c ; e. g. ucc and uccis on high, pac behind, madny in the
midst, nais slowly ; prc forwards. There are also several anomalous
feminines from stes i n u and one or two i n ; e. g. u-y- swiftly,
raghuy rapidly, sdhuy straight, urviy f ar.
c. The pronominal instrumentais are formed from stems i n a and
one i n u ; e. g. an thus, am at home, ay thus, kay how ubhay in
both ways ; amuy in that way.
4. Dat. : the adverbial use of the dat. is rare : apar y a

for the future (from p a r a later), v r y a according to wish
(vra choice).
5. A b l . : these adverbs are seldom formed from substan
tives, as ar t from a distance, s t from near; or from
pronouns, am t from near, t then, t t thus, y t as far as ;
but they are fairly often formed from adjectives, as uttar t
from the north, dr t from afar, pac t from behind, s a n t
from of old, sak t visibly.
6. Gen. : such adverbs are very rare : a k t s by night,
vstos in the morning.
7. L o c . : g r e in front, astamk at home, k near, r
afur, t without, d u r afar ; apar u in future.
Adverbs formed w i t h
Suffixes.
179. The suffixes more or less commonly used i n the

formation of adverbs may be grouped under the senses
expressed by the instr., abl., and loc. cases.
1. Instr. : t h forms adverbs of manner especially from
pronominal stems : th and more commonly (with short
ened vowel) t h a then, itth thus, i m t h a in this manner,
kath how ?, t t h a thus, yth in which manner, a n y t h a
otherwise, v i v - t h a in every way ; r d h v - t h upwards,
212
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[l79
p r v t h formerly, p r a t n t h as of old ; tnth regularly,

n m t h by name ; evth just as.
a. tham is similarly used in itthm thus and kathm how
d h forms adverbs of manner from numerals or cognate

words : ekadh singly, d v d h in two ways, katidh how
many times, purudh variously, bahudh and v i v - d h
in many ways, ava-dh again and again. I t also forms
adverbs from a few nouns, adverbs, and pronouns : p r i y a
dh kindly, mitradh in a friendly way ; bahirdh outward ;
d h then, addh (thus =) truly. The same suffix, with
its vowel shortened, forms sadha (in one way =) together,
which appears as the first member of several compounds,
and as an independent word assumes the form of s a h with.
^. The suffix ha probably also represents original d h i n ih here
(Prakrit idha), kha where ? viv-ha and vivh always, samaha
in some way or other.
va, expressing similarity of manner, forms the two adverbs

iva like, as, and ev (often ev) thus. v a m appears i n
evm thus, the later form of ev.
vat forms adverbs meaning like from substantives and
adjectives ; e. g. manuvt like Manu ; puravt, pr
vavt, pratnavt as of old.
as forms adverbs of manner with a distributive sense :
ata-s by hundreds, s a h a s r a - s by thousands, reis in
rows ; t u - s season by season, d e v a - s to each of the gods,
p a r v a - s joint by joint, m a n m a - s each as he is minded.
s forms two or three multiplicative adverbs : dv-s twice,
t r - s thriee. It also appears i n a few other adverbs : a d h - s
below, av-s downwards; d y - s (from d y u day) i n anyed y - s next day and ubhayadys on both days.
2. A b l . : tas forms adverbs i n the ablative sense from
pronouns, nouns, and prepositions ; e. g. -tas hence, a m - t a s
thenee, i-ts from here, m a t - t s from me ; d a k i a - t s from
the right, htts from the heart ; a b h - t a s around, p a r - t a s
179180]
ADvERBS
213
round about. These adverbs are sometimes equivalent to

ablatives ; e. g. t o bh y as more than that.
t t (an old abl. of ta that) forms adverbs with an abl.
sense (sometimes merging into the loc.) ; e. g. a d h s t t
below ; r t tt from afar ; pae tt from behind ; p u r s t t
in or from the front ; pr k tt from the front.
3. L o c . : as forms adverbs chiefly of a local or temporal
sense : t i r s aeross, p a r s beyond, p u r s before ; sadvas
and s a d y s today, v-s to-morrow, h y - s yesterday ; also
m i t h - s wrongly.
t r or tra forms adverbs with a local sense, mostly from
pronominal or cognate stems : -tra here, a n y - t r a elsewhere,
v i v t r a everywhere; asmatr among us, satr in one
place, dakiatr on the right, p u r u t r in many places,
bahutr amongst many ; devatr among the gods, martya
tr among mortals, ayu-tr on a couch.
a. These adverbs are sometimes used as equivalents of locatives,
e. g. hsta dakiatr in the right hand.
d forms adverbs of time almost exclusively from pro

nominal roots : id now, kad when ? tad then, yada at
what time, sd and sarvada always.
^. dam occurs beside d in sdam always ; and dnm an extended
form of da, i n idnm now, tad nm then, viva-d nm always.
^. There are also various miscellaneous adverbs, mostly of obscure
origin, formed with other suffixes of rare occurrence ; e. g. pur
before, mthu wrongly.
Conjunctive and A d v e r b i a l Particles.

I S O . ag emphasizes a preceding word (sometimes
separated from it by short particles like h and m ) i n such
a way as to express that the action especially or exclusively
applies to that word, just, only, else ; e. g. y a n g just he
who ; y d ag just when, just because ; t v m ag thou only ;
k m ag how else, why else ?
214
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
a. In B . ag never has this meaning ; but it sometimes there begins

a sentence with an adhortative sense, accentuating the verb : ag no
yaj vyckva pray explain the sacrifice to us (MS.).
t r a sometimes occurs as the correlative to y d when ;

e. g. vve yd asy rayanta dev, pr vo tra sum
nm aym when all the gods shall rejoice in it, then may I
obtain your favours.
tha, a collateral form of dha, occurs chiefly i n the more
recent hymns of the R V . , and entirely supplants the older
doublet i n the later Vedas. Connecting sentences and
clauses it expresses a temporal or logical sequence. It may
generally be translated by (and) then, (and) so ; when there
is a contrast, especially after a negative, it is equivalent to
but. It often corresponds to a y d when or h since, as, i n
the antecedent clause. W i t h very few exceptions t h a begins
the sentence or clause. Examples are : m a r d b h i r , i n d r a ,
s a k h y te astu, them v v p t an j a y s i befriends
with the Maruts, O Indra, then thou shalt win all these battles
(viii. 96 ) ; h u v v m , t h a m ( = m ) gatam I call you,
so come to me (viii. 10 ) ; y d d d e v r sahisa may ,
ath b havat k v a l a s m o asya when he had overcome the
godless wiles, Soma became exclusively his (vii. 98^) ; m k ir
nean,
mk
rian,
mk
s
ri
kvae,
thri
bhir gahi let none be lost, let none suffer harm, none incur
fracture in a pit, but come back with them uninjured (vI. 547).
From B . : p t i n me p n a r y u v a k u r u t a m , t h a
v a v a k y a m i make my husband young again, then I shall
tell you (B.) ; a h d u r g h n t ^ i t y , t h a k s t v m i t i
I am called the slayer in danger, but who are you ? (TS.).
7
a. tha is also occasionally used after gerunds (which are equivalent

to an antecedent clause) : subhgyam asyai dattvaya^,tha^,stam v
pretana having wished her luck, then go home (x. 85 3). This use is
common i n B., where it also occurs after present participles and
locatives absolute.
b. tha i n the sense of also connects substantives, but this use
3
represents an abridged sentence ; e.g. im smso dhi turve,
18^
CONJUNCTIVE A N D ADVBL. PARTICLES
21^
ydau, im kveu vm tha these Somas are beside Turvaa, beside

Yadu, (they are) also beside the Kavas for you (viii. 9 ). From B. : id
h pit ^ ev^,gr 'tha putr 'tha putra for here first comes the father, then
the son, then the grandson (B.).
c. I n B. tha also connects the verbs of a compound relative clause :
ysya pit pitmah pya syd, tha t n n prpnuy t whose
father and grandfather are pious, but who cannot attain to this (TS.).
14
t h o ( = t h a u) generally means and also, moreover:

a r v a v t o n a gahy t h o , a k r a , p a r v t a come to us from
near, and also, O mighty one, from afar (ill. 37 ). From B . :
sm inddha n a k h b h y o 'tho l m a b h y a he kindles
himself completely up to his nails and also his hair (^B.).
11
a. I n B. thc sometimes has the sense of but also, e. g. t vi dv

bhavata . . . tho pi tr i syu there are two of them, but there may also
be three (sB.),
d h a occurs i n the RV. only, and almost exclusively, as

compared with t h a , i n the earlier hymns. Like the latter
it means then, expressing both a temporal and a logical
sequence ; when there is a contrast, but. d h a . . . d h a both...
and ; d h a dvit and that particularly ; d h a n just now ;
now at last ; and even ; d h a sma especially then. Unlike
t h a it is never used with u .
p i meaning also, even generally precedes the word it
emphasizes: y gop p i t huve he who is the herdsman,
him too I call (x. 19 ) ; a d h r b p s a d a g n r n v y a t i ,
p n a r y n t r u r p i Agni tires not of chewing plants,
returning even to the young ones (viii. 437). From B . : t d
d h a i t d p y v i d v s a h u even those who do not know
say this (B .) ; ady p i even today (AB.).
4
ram is an adverb meaning suitably, in readiness. Some

times used like an adjective, it is construed with the dative ;
e. g. tvan ay ptave smo astu, ram mnase yuv
bhym such let this Soma be (for you) to drink, according to (your)
mind for you two (i. 108 ) ; s s mai^ram it is ready for him.
In combination with k it means serve, prepare (anything)
2
216
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
for, with gam, serve, with b h , accrue (to any one) suitably or
sufficiently, always taking the dative.
a. lam, the form in which the preceding word appears i n B., is there
often similarly used ; e. g. s nlam huty sa nla bhakya it
was not jit for offering, nor fit for consuming (B.).
h a i n the R V . and A V . emphasizes a preceding word

whether it he verb, substantive, pronoun, adjective, adverb,
or preposition. Its sense may generally be expressed by
surely, certainly, indeed, just, or merely by stress. It also
appears after other emphasizing particles such as d , g h d ,
u t , m . Examples of its use are: kv h a where pray?
(x. 5l ) ; nha not at all (i. 147 ) ; ysyha akr svan
eu ryati in the pressings of whomsoever the mighty one
rejoices (x. 43^),
2
In B. this use of ha is still found. But here it generally occurs i n

the first of two slightly antithetical sentences, the verb of the first
being then nearly always accented, while the antithesis in the second
sentence is either not expressed at all, or is indicated by the particles
tha, u or t ; e.g. prcy ha devbhyo yaj vhaty arv c
manuyan avati turned away it takes the sacrifice to the gods ; turned hithe
it advances men (B.). Sometimes (in MS. and Ts.) ha is thus used
with the first of two v's ; e. g. ksya v h ed v bhavit ksya v
this will tomorrow belong either to the one or the other (MS.).
(otherwise a preposition) appears i n V . fairly often

emphasizing, in the sense of completeness, words expressive
of number or degree, or sometimes even ordinary adjectives
and substantives ; e. g. t r r d i v three times each day
(I. 142^) ; k vo vritha , n a r a who is the very mightiest
of you, heroes? (i. 37 ); p r b o d h a y p r a d h i j a r
sasat m i v a awake the wise man, just as a lover a sleeping
maiden (I. 134 ),
d (originally an abl. of the pronoun a from or after
that) is used as an adverb expressing sequence of time ^
thereupon, then, often as a correlative to y d , y a d a or y d i
when, sometimes to the relative when equivalent to those
conjunctions : y a d d y u k t a h a r t a s a d h s t h a d d r t r
6
1So]
217
vsas tanute as soon as he has yoked his steeds from their stall,
then night spreads her garment (i. 115 ); d h y viv
b h v a n b h y v a r d h a t a , d r d a s j y t i v h n i r tanot
now (who =) when he surpassed all beings, then the charioteer
overspread the two worlds with light (ii. 17),
4
a. It sometimes connects words and clauses in the sense of and,

moreover : asu ca y na urvr^ d im tanv mma that jield of ours
and this my body (viii. 9l ) ; yd, indra, han prathamaj m hnm, n
mynm min prt my when, O Indra, thou didst slay the firstborn
of the serpents and then didst bring to nought the wiles of the wily (I. 32 ),
b. It is sometimes used with interrogatives, when it means then,
pray : k m d matra sakhym how mighty then is the friendship ^
(iv. 23 ),
c. Unless used with interrogatives, d almost invariably begins
6
the Pada.
d. d is often followed by d when it means just then, then at once,
then more than ever.
t i thus is used with verbs of speaking and thinking,

which have sometimes to be supplied. The particle generally
concludes the Speech and is followed by the verb : y n d r y a
s u n v m a ^ t i ^ h a who says ' we will press Soma for Indra
(iv. 25 ) ; n n d r o a s t i ^ t i n m a u t v a aha ' Indra does not
exist one and another says (viii. 100^), Less commonly the
verb precedes : j y e h h a camas dv k a r a ^ t i the eldest
said ' I will make two cups ' (iv. 33 ), Very rarely both t i and
the verb precede the speech: v p c h a d t i m t r a , k
ugr he asked his mother, ' who are the strong ones? (viii. 77 ).
The verb is occasionally omitted : t v d u h i t r v a h a t
k o t i ^ t i ^ i d v v a bhvana s m eti 'Tva prepares
a wedding for his daughter (thinking) thus this whole world
comes together (x. 17 ). Thus a principal sentence as direct
speech is used with t i where i n other languages a subordinate
sentence would be employed.
4
1. I n B. the use of ti is much the same, only that ti regularly follows

and seems seldom to be omitted ; the verbs of saying and thinking,
too, with which it is employed, are more numerous : t t h ^ i t i dev
abruvan 'yes', said the gods (B.),
218
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[180
2. There are i n B . also some additional uses :

a. Very often the quotation is only an appellative that may be
expressed by inverted commas : ys tv ^td dev dity ti^,acksate
whom they call thus .. the divine dityas' (^B.),
b. Sometimes i t i is used at the end of an enumeration to express
that it forms a wellknown aggregate : etad v a i ira samddha
yasmin pro vk caku rotram i t i th^t is a complete head in which
are breath, speech, eye, ear (KB.).
c. The particle is also often used i n a special sense with reference
to a ritual act to indicate how it is done : ti^,gre kati^tha^ti^,
tha iti^tha^ti^tha^,ti (B.) so he first draws the furrow, then so, then
so, then so, then so (-^ as you see).
d. sometimes a conjunction is introduced before the quotation
that ends with ti, but without changing the construction : s rtm
abravd yth srvsv ev sam v ad vsni^ti (Ms.) he swore (that)
1 will dwell with all equally ( that he would).
itth primarily means so : g n t n n . . y t h pur ^

itth as before, so come ye now (i. 397) ; s a t y m itth truly so
(vlii. 33^), Secondarily it comes to mean (just so as it
should be=) truly : k t i ^ a s m a i v r i v o y i t t h ^ n d r y a
s m a m u s a t s u n t i he (Indra) gives ease to him that truly
presses Soma for Indra who desires it (iv. 24^). I n this sense
the word is sometimes used like an adjective : ittha skhi
bhyah for (those who are truly =) true friends (iii. 32 ).
d (n. of the pren. stem i , Lat. id) is a very common
particle i n the R v , is much less frequent i n the A V . , and
is comparatively rare i n B. It emphasizes preceding words
of all kinds, including the finite verb (which it accents), and
may usually be rendered by just or stress only, sometimes
by even ; e. g. t d n n k t a t d d d v m h y a m h u
this is what they tell me by night, this by day (i. 24 ^) ; sy m a
i d n d r a s y a r m a i may we be in Indra's care (i. 4 ) ; d h a
s m no m a g h a v a carkt d t then especially think of us,
O Bounteous One (i. 104^) ; sad r a d y sad r d u v
alike to-day, alike even to-morrow (i. 123^). W h e n the verb is
16
I n classical Sanskrit i d survives only in the compound particle

ced if = ca-id.
180]
219
compound, the particle regularly follows the preposition,

not the verb itself: u l k h a l a s u t n m v a ^ d v , i n d r a ,
jalgula gulp eagerly down, O Indra, the drops shed by the
mortar (i. 28 ).
1
a. In B . the particle is similarly used : n t t sady nysmai ti

diet he should not assign (just those -^) the same (cows) to another on the
same day (B.) ; ttha^,n nun t d s a now thus it came to pass (B.).
iva is an enclitic particle with two uses :

1. It means as if, as, like i n abbreviated similes i n appo
sition, never introducing a clause like y t h . It follows
the word with which comparison is made ; i f the comparison
consists of several words, the particle generally follows the
first, less commonly the second. The comparison is usually
complete, but not infrequently it is only partially expressed.
This employment of i v a is very common i n V . , but com
paratively rare i n B . Examples of this use are: d u r c i t
sn tad iv t i rocase even though far away, thou shinest
brightly as if near at hand (i. 947) ; t t p a d p a y a n t i
divtva c k u r tatam they see that step like an eyefixedin
heaven (I. 22^ ) ; s n a pit ^ iva s n v e g n e s p y a n
bhava as such be accessible to us, O Agni, as a father to his son
(I. I ) ; d v o no t i nv ^ iva p r a y a take us across our foes
as [across the ocean] in a ship (i. 97 ) ; t b h r j n a
parighya tihati samudra i v a b h m i m with these he ke^s
embracing the king, as the sea the earth (AB.).
2. I t modifies a statement not intended to be understood
in its strict sense, meaning as it were. It chiefly follows
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions or verbs. This use of i v a is
rare i n V . , but very common i n B . Examples are : i h ^ i v a
ve I hear close at hand as it were (i. 37 ) ; t d , i n d r a ,
pr^,iva v r y cakartha that heroic deed, O Indra, thou didst
perform (as it were ) ûite preeminently (I. 1037) ; y p r^,iva
n y a s i who (as it were ) almost losest thyself (i. 146 ) ;
y d i t n n ^ i v a h r y a t h a if ye are not ûite pleased with that
(i. lei ). From B . : t s m t s b a b h r u k i v a hence he (is as
9
220
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
it were) may be called brown (^B.) ; rebhatiîva he seems to

chatter (AB.) ; t n na s r v a i v a ^ a b h i p r padyeta not exactly
every one should have access to that (B.) ; u p r i ^ i v a v i t d
y d r d h v n b he above may be called what is higher than
the navel (B.).
m (an old enclitic acc. of the pron. root i) occurs in v .
only, and is almost restricted to the R V .
1. It is generally employed as an acc. sing. of all genders
= him, her, it, sometimes even as an acc. du. or pi. It either
takes the place of a noun, or prepares for a following noun,
or is accompanied by other pronouns (tm, y m , enam,
e n n ) ; e. g. g a c h a n t i ^ m v a s they come to him with aid
(I. 85 ) ; ^m m ve bhara bring him, the swift, to the
swift (i. 47) ; t m h i n v a n t i d h t y a him devotions impel
(i. 144 ) ; y d m e n n u a t abhy v a r t (vii. 103 )
when it has rained upon them that longed (for rain).
2. m also appears as a generalizing particle with relatives
(whoever), with y d (whenever), with interrogatives (who
pray ?), with k c a n (nothing at all) ; e. g. y bhvanti
j y a whatever conflicts take place (vii. 32 ) ; k v y k t
n r a who, pray, are the radiant men ? (vii. 56 ).
u is an enclitic particle, often written where the metre
requires or favours a long syllable, especially i n the second
syllable of a Pda, before a single consonant. It often
appears contracted to o (cp. 24) with a preceding a or
(mostly the final of particles or prepositions, also of the
pron. e, sometimes of verbal forms). It has two main
uses i n the RV. :
1. It is employed deictically with verbs and pronouns.
a. W i t h verbs it expresses the immediate commencement
of an action : with a present now, already ; with a past
tense = just ; with an imperative, injunctive, or optative
used i n an impv. sense at once ; s is here very often
added, being = instantly. When the verb is accom
panied by a preposition, the particle regularly follows the
11
17
180]
221
latter. Examples of its use are : d u t y j a t v e d a s a

d e v vahanti k e t v a his beams now bear aloft the god that
knows all creatures (i. 50 ) ; b h d u bh the light has just
arisen (i. 46 ) ; t p a ^ u v g n e n t a r n a m t r n burn
instantly, O Agni, our neighbouring foes (iii. 18 ).
1
19
^. This use of u with verbal forms does not seem to be found i n B .
b. It emphasizes deictic pronouns, which may then be

rendered by stress, and interrogative pronouns, when it may
be translated by pray ; e. g. a y m u te, sarasvati, vsiho
dv r v t s y a subhage v y v a this Vasiha has opened
for thee, O bountiful Sarasvat, the two doors of sacrifice (vii. 95 ) ;
k u r a v a t who, pray, will hear ? (iv. 43 ),
6
a. I n B . this use is very rare with deictic pronouns, but not

infrequent with interrogatives ; e. g. idm u no bnaviyati ydi no
jeynti this at least will remain to us, i^ they conquer us (Ts. ) ; km u s
yajna yajeta y gam iva yaj n duht what sort of sacrifice,
pray, would he ojrerifhe were not to milk out the sacrifice like a cow ^ (MS.).
2. The particle u is used anaphorically to connect sen

tences, when a word (usually the first) is repeated i n the
second, i n the sense of also ; e. g. t r r n k t a y t h s , t r r
u, a v i n , d v thrice by night ye come, thrice also, O Avins,
by day (i. 34 ) ; t v trt t v m u no v d h b h thou be
our protector, thou, too, be for our increase (i. 178 ), The
repeated word need not always have the same form : y no
dvy d h a r a ss pada, y m u dvims t m u pr
j a h t u may he who hates us fall downward; whom also we hate,
him too let his breath forsake (iii. 53 ). The u sometimes
appears i n both sentences, sometimes i n the first only:
v a y m u t v d v s u t , v a y n k t a h a v m a h e we
call thee by day to the pressed Soma, we also by night (viii. 64^).
a. I t is sometimes used without referring back definitely,
but simply adding some similar quality or activity with
reference to the same thing = and also, and ; e. g. s d e v
devn prti paprathe pth, vvd u t paribhr brh
maas pti he, the god, has extended himself widely to the gods,
and he, Lord of Prayer, embraces all this universe (ii. 24 ).
2
21
11
222
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[180
b. It also, i n the same sentence, expresses a contrast on

the contrary, or, more frequently, with the demonstrative t
corresponding to the relative y again, in return ; e. g.
s t r y a sat s t n u me p u s h u those who are women,
them on the contrary they speak of to me (as) men (i. 164 ) ;
y a d h v a r u h t . . t m u n m o b h i r k u d h v a m him
who is priest at sacrifices, in return bring hither with devotions
(i. 77 ).
16
a. I n B . the anaphoric use is common, prevailing chiefly i n the

B. ; e.g. tsmd v ndro 'bibhet, tsmd u tvbibhet of that
Indra was afraid, ofthat also Tva was afraid (MS.).
a. The demonstrative here often refers back with u to previous
statements : uto pacvattm ev bhavati : p kt0 yaj, p kta
pa, pacartva savatsarsya : eû pacvattsya sampt :
but it is also divided into ^tive parts .. the sacri/ice isfive/old,cattle are five
the seasons of the year arefive.. this is the sum of what is divided into five
parts (B.). similarly used are the phrases t d u ha smha with
reference to this he used to say, td u hovca with reference to this he said
td u t t h n k u r y t that one should not do thus.
^. A slight contrast is expressed by u i n the second sentence :
ydi nan t i pitdevaty bhavati, ydy v an t i de van ty anti
if he does not eat, he becomes a worshipper of the ânes, but if he does eat,
eats before the gods (B.).
^. Used i n combination with k m , u expresses a climax in the
second clause how much more : manuya n nv pastram ichnti,
km n dev y nvvasnam even men wish for something spread out,
how much more the gods whose is a new dwelling (TS.).
u t i n the R V . means and, connecting two or more words

or sentences.
a. The particle commonly couples two words ; e. g. y h . .
pthiv m u t dy m k o ddh r a who alone has supported
heaven and earth (i. 154 ), W h e n there is an enumeration
of more than two objects, u t comes after the last ; e. g.
d i t e , m t r a , v r u a ^ u t O Aditi, Mitra, and Varua
(il. 27 ). When a word is repeated from the beginning of
a clause, ut (like u) follows the repeated word : tr sau
bhagatv trr ut rvsi na thrice (grant) us prosperity
and thricefume(I. 34 ),
4
14
180]
CONJUNCTIVE A N D A D V B L . PARTICLES
223
b. When u t connects a sentence with a preceding one, it

is placed at the beginning : etngne brhma vvdhas
va . . ut pr ney abh vsyo asmn with this prayer,
O Agni, strengthen thyself, and lead us onward to greater
fortune (I. 3 l ^ .
c. u t . . . u t means both... and; u t v or; u t v a . . . u t
v either.. .or; e.g. u t ^ i d n m b h g a v a n t a s y a m a ^ u t
p r a p i t v u t m d h y e h n m both now may we be fortunate
and at eventide and at midday (i. 41 ) ; samudr d u t v a
divs p r i from the ocean or from heaven (I. 47 ) ; y a po
divy u t v a s r v a n t i k h a n t m a either the waters that are
celestial or thatflowin channels (i. 49 ).
1
a. I n B. ut does not mean and, but also, even, emphasizing the

assertion generally and not (like pi) a single notion i n the sentence :
ut yciît s ur bhvati j v aty ev even when his breath is gone, he still
liv^s (Ts.). Even when preceding a substantive u t seems to refer to
the whole statement : u t mtsya ev mtsya gilati it is also the case
that one jish devours another (B.).
^. With the optative u t expresses that an action might after all
take place : u t ^ e v cid devn abh bhavema after all we might thus
overcome the gods (B.).
b. ut. ..ut i n B. (as well as in V.) means both. ..and: u t tva
ut pava ti bruyt he should say both the seasons and the animals' (B.).
ut is regularly the first word i n the sentence except that km
or forms of t or y precede it : tsmd u t bahur apar bhavati
therefore eên though rich he becomes cattleless (B.).
u t ( = u t u) i n the R V . means and also: u t no asy

uso j u t a h and may he also be pleased with us this
morning (i. 13l ),
6
a. I n B. u t has the sense of but also or also : havan y e hav si

rapayeyu . . . u t g r hapatya ev rapayanti they should cook the
oblation on the havan^ya jire, but they also cook it on the orhapatya (B.).
ev has two uses i n the R V . and the A V . :

1. A t the beginning of sentences or clauses it means thus,
referring either to what precedes or follows ; e. g. ev g nir
g t a m e b h i r astoa thus Agni has been praised by the
Gotamas (i. 77 ) ; e v t m h u r : i n d r a k o vibhakt
thus they speak of him : Indra is the one dispenser (vii. 26 ).
5
224
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
It often appears as the correlative of ytha as : yth n

p u r v a m p a r o j h t y , ev , d h t a r , yi k a l p a y a i a m
as the later abandons not the earlier, so, Creator, arrange their
lives (x. 18 ). W i t h the impv. e v so, then : ev vandasva
v r u a b h n t a m (viii. 42) then praise the lofty Varua
(who has done these great deeds).
5
2. A s an emphasizing particle following the word on

which stress is laid, e v may be variously rendered just,
ûite, alone, &c., or by stress ; e. g. t m e v him only ;
k a e v ûite alone ; t r a i v just here ; s v a y m e v ûite
spontaneously, j t e v scarcely born, n ^ e v not at all.
a. I n B . the first of the above uses has entirely disappeared (evm

here taking the place of ev), while the second is extremely common.
The particle follows all kinds of words requiring emphasis for any
reason ; this is especially the case when a word is repeated ; e. g.
ym gre gnf hotr y a pr v ata, s pr d hanvad, y dvit y a
pr v ata, s p r ^ e v ^ a d h a n v a t the Agni whom theyfirstchose for the
priesthood, perished ; he whom they chose the second time, likewise pe
(B.). when two notions are connected by way of contrast or other
wise, ev may follow either the first or the second ; e. g. amu.m ev
dev up y an, imm sur (B.) the gods inherited that world (heaven),
the Asuras this one (the earth) ; smo yum k a, vg evasm k am (let)
soma (be) yours, Vac ours (B.).
e v m thus occurs only once i n the RV. (as correlative to
y t h a as) and i n the A v . not at a l l with y t h , but only as
an adverb with the verb v i d know : y e v vidy t he who
may possess such knowledge.
In B . evm is very common, having two uses :

1. It is correlative to yth as, being often accompanied by a form
of the same verb as the latter ; e. g. y t h vi parjnya svi
vrsaty, ev yaj yjamnya varati as Parjanya rains heavily, so
the sacrifice rains for the sacrificer (Ts.). w h e n the second verb is
omitted, yth. ..evm is equivalent to iva ; e.g. t dev abhy
sjyanta yth vtti vetsymn evm the gods rushed up like those
wishing to obtain property (B.),
2. It accompanies verbs as an adverb, especially i n the very
frequent phrase y ev vda he who possesses such knowledge ; u t ^
ev cin n labheran atter all they willthusnot touch it (B.).
l80]
225
k a m appears both as an accented and an unaccented

particle. The former use is found i n both V . and B . , the
latter in the R v only.
1. a. k m as an adv. with the full meaning well (equivalent
to the Vedic sm) appears i n B . only ; e. g. k m me 'sat
may it be well with me (B.); it also occurs i n a negative
form : k a bhavati he fares not well (TS.).
b. k m has the same meaning attenuated after datives
(generally at the end of a Pda) either of persons = for the
benefit of (dat. commodi) or of abstract nouns (final dative) ;
e. g. y u v m e t cakrathu s n d h u u p l a v taugry y a
k m ye two hare placed that ship in the waters for the benefit of
the son of Tugra (i. 182^) ; tv dev s o am t ya k
papu thee the gods hare drunk for the love of immortality
(ix. 106^) ; s a m n m ajy jate u b h k m (vii. 57 ) with
the same hue they adorn themselves in order to shine (well),
From B . : k s m a i k m a g n i h o t r h y a t a t i for whose
benefit is the Agnihotra offered? (MS.) ; tjase k p r m
ijyate for the sake of splendour the full moon sacrifice is
offered (MS.).
2. The unaccented k a m occurs i n the R V . only excepting
one independent passage of the A v It always appears as
an enclitic following the particles n , s, h . It means
willingly, gladly, indeed, but the sense is generally so attenu
ated as to be untranslatable. n k a m appears with the inj.,
impv., subj., ind., also i n relative clauses ; e.g. so n k a m
ajro v r d h ea be unaging and grow (x. 50^), s k a m
appears with the imperative only : t h s k a , magha
van, m p r g pray stand still, bounteous god, go not
further (ill. 53 ). h k a m generally appears with the ind.
(occasionally omitted), sometimes with impv. or subj. :
r j h k a b h v a n a n m abhir for he indeed is the king
^vho rules over beings (I. 98 ).
k m (n. of k = k) has two uses. I n the first place it
means why ^ e. g. k m u r h a k yviho na jagan
3
226
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[180
1
why has the best, why has the youngest come to us ^ (i. 161 ).
It is also a simple interrogative particle (equivalent to a
mark of interrogation) ; e. g. k me h a v y m h n o
jueta would he, free from anger, enjoy an oblation of mine ?
(vil. 86 ) ; k rjasa en p a r a n y d sti is there anything
else beyond the welkin ^ ( A v . v. 11 ).
2
a. In B . km is similarly used. With following u it here adds

a climax in a second sentence how much more (see u) ; with following
ut and the optative it means why after all ; e. g. km u t tvareran
why, after all, should they hasten? (B.).
kla, an uncommon particle i n v , meaning indeed,

certainly, strongly emphasizes (in R v and Av) the preceding
word (noun, pronoun, adjective, and the negative n) ; e. g.
s v d k l a ^ a y m (vi. 47 ) sweet, indeed, is this (Soma) ;
tad t n t r u n k l vivitse then thou didst find no foe at
all (I. 32 ).
1
a. I n B . the use is similar; e.g. kipr kla^, struta (B.)

quickly, then, spread (the barhis). But here kla usually follows other
particles, vi or (ha) vv : e vi kla havo y m a this, indeed, is
the course of the sacrifice (B.) ; tava ha vva kila bhagava idam Sir,
this belongs to you only (AB.).
k u v d , a pronominal interrogative particle, introduces

sentences which, though apparently independent, are treated
as dependent, since the verb (except twice in the R V . ) is
regularly accented. This use seems to have arisen from the
particle's having been employed as an elliptical expression of
doubt such as might be rendered by ' I wonder (whether) ' ;
e. g. t m , i n d r a , m d a m gahi k u v n n v sya t p v a
come, Indra, to this carouse (to see) whether you shall enjoy it
(iii. 42 ) ; k u v t s m a s y a p m t i have I, indeed, drunk
Soma (x. 119 ) = (I wonder) whether I have drunk Soma.
2
a. I n B . kuvd is similarly used ; e. g. kuvn me putrm vadht

has he actually killed my son^ (B.) ; kuvt ts m ste does he indeed sit
silent^ (B.),
180]
CONJUNCTIvE A N D A D V B L . P A R T I C L E S
227
k h I u indeed, in truth, does not occur at a l l i n the A v ,

and only once i n the RV., where it emphasizes an imperative :
m i t r k u d h v a k h I u pray, conclude friendship (x. 34 ),
14
a. In B . the particle is common. It is rarely used alone, but often

with other particles.
a. It appears alone with the impv., subj., or ind. ; e. g. tra khlu
ramata here, pray, remain (B.) ; dhnvat khlu s y maddevatym
agnm ddhtai he indeed shall prosper who shall establish a fire conse
crated to me (TS.); asmkm evîd khlu bhvanam to us alone
indeed this world belongs (B.).
b. After the particles u or tho and before or after vi it emphasizes
the word preceding the combined particles; e.g. td u khlu mah
yaj bhavati thus, indeed, the great sacrifice arises (B.).
a. tho kblu is used either to express an (usually preferred)
alternative = or else, or rather, but surely rather ; or to introduce an
objection ; e. g. vaivadevm t i bryd, tho khlu aindrm ti
bryt 'for all gods' one should say, or else one should say for Indra'
(TS.) ; dkitena satyam eva vaditavyam ; atho khalv hu : ko
'shati manuya sarva satya vaditum i t i an initiated man should
speak the truth only ; now they make the objection .. ' what man can speak the
whole truths' (AB.).
vi khlu can only be distinguished from vi alone as an
emphatic vf. But khlu vi i n the Ts. and A B . has the special use
of introducing a second causal protasis after a first beginning with
simple vi, the conclusion then following with ev ; e. g. prjpaty
vi prua ; praj p ati khlu vi tsya veda : praj p atim ev
svna bhgadheyna upa dhvati now man comes from Prajapati; again
Prajpati knows about him .. so he approaches Prajpati with the portion (of
the sacrifice) belonging to him (TS.). This use occasionally occurs even
though the preceding clause does not begin with vi.
gha is an enclitic particle, almost restricted to the R V .
Generally occupying the second place i n the Pda, it is w i t h
few exceptions metrically lengthened to gha. It emphasizes
the preceding word, which is nearly always either the
negative n , or a pronoun (demonstrative or personal), or a
verbal preposition, the meaning being variously rendered by
just, only, very, or merely stress. It emphasizes a noun only
twice and a verb only once i n the R V . : tt y e gha s v a n e
at least at the third Soma libation (I. 161^) ; u n t i gha t
am t sa e t t those immortals desire this (x. 10^),
228
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[180
ca (Gk. T^, Lat. -ûe) and is an enclitic conjunction used

to connect both words and sentences. It regularly follows
an accented word, and when it adds a clause, the first word
of that clause.
1. ca connects substantives (including pronouns and
numerals) and adverbs ; e. g. m i t r huve v r u a ca
I invoke Mitra and Varua (i. 2 ) ; m a g h v n o v a y ca
the patrons and we (I. 73^) ; a t m k a ea a hundred and
one (i. 117 ^) ; ady n n ca today and now (i. 13 ),
I n a few passages (but never i n B.) the ca follows the first
word instead of the second : n k t ca . . u s night and
morning (i. 737).
7
a. ca...ca are used much in the same way; e.g. girya ca dyv
ca bh m the mountains and heavenandearth (i. 6 l ) ; div ca gm
ca of heaven and of earth (i. 37 ) ; asm ca t.m ca us and them (if. I ) ;
nva ca navat ca nine and ninety (I. 32 ) ; ca pr ca crantam
moving hither and away (i. 164 ).
Similarly in B . : dev ca^sur ca gods and Asuras (B.) ; a
ca tr i ca at n i sixty and three hundred ; purstc ca^;upric ca
from before and from behind.
^. ca...ca sometimes also express a contrast : nkt ca cakrr us
vrpe : kr ca vram aru ca s dhu they have made
night and morning of different aspect : they have put together the black co
and the ruddy (f. 73 ).
similarly in B . : ubhya grmy ca^ray ca juhoti he
sacritic^s both : what is tame and what is wild (MS.).
14
16
31
a. A peculiar use of ca in the R V . is to add a second

vocative i n the form of a nominative ; e. g. v y av n d r a
ca . . y t a m O Vyu and Indra, eome (i. 2^).
b. Another peculiar use of ca, both i n V . and B . , is to
add one noun (nearly always in the nom.) to another which
has to be supplied ; e. g. y d n d r a ca d d v a h e when we
two, (I) and Indra, receive (viii. 34 ^) ; n d r a ca s m a
pibata, bhaspate do ye, (thou), O Bhaspati, and Indra,
drink (iv. 50 ).
From B . : t b h aspti c a ^ a n v v a i t m they two, (he) and
Bhaspati, followed them (TS.) ; tat saj kjin y a ca
1
180]
229
vadati so he pronounces harmony (between it) and the black

antelope skin (B.).
a. I n B. ca is used to add a single word at the end of a sentence in
the sense of and (so did) ; e. g. rmea ha sma vi td dev jayanti
yd es jyyam sa^saya ca by penance the gods were wont to win what
was to be won by them, and so did the seers (B. ).
c. ca following the interrogative k , or the relative y

and the interrogative k combined, gives them an indefinite
sense: k ca or y k ca any one, whoever (cp. 119 b),
2. ca also connects both principal sentences and relative
clauses : d e v b h i r y h i y k i ca come with the gods and
sacrifice (i. 14 ) ; y v y r y ca n n vyuch n that
have shone forth and that shall now shine forth (i. 113 ) ;
y ^smn d v i y ca v a y d v i m who hates us and
whom we hate (B.),
a. ca...ca connect sentences to express a contrast by
means of parallel verbal forms which are either identical or
at least appear i n the same number and person, the first
verb being then always accented : p r ca y n t i p n a r
ca^tanti they go away and come again (I. 123 ).
1
10
12
a. I n B . the use of ca...ca is similar; e. g. vats caûpvasjty

ukh c a ^ d h i rayati he admits the calf and puts the pot on the fire (Ts.).
The rule of accentuation applies even when the second verb is
omitted : agnye ca hav pariddti gpty asyi ca pthivyi
he delivers the oblation for protection to Fire and to this Earth (B.). This
connecting use is particularly common i n parallel abridged relative
sentences : srvn pa n n dadhire y ca grmy y ca^ray
they laid down all animals, those that are tame and those that are wild (B.).
3. ca is used a few times i n V . i n the sense of if with the

subjunctive or the indicative: n d r a ca m y t i no, n
na pac d a g h n a a t if Indra be gracious to us, no
calamity will hereafter befall us (ii. 41 ); im ca v c a
p r a t i h r y a t h , naro, v v d vm vo a n a v a t if ye
graciously accept this song, O heroes, it will obtain all goods
from you (i. 40 ).
can, properly meaning not even, is most usually employed
11
230
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[180
after a negative ; e. g. tt y am asya n k i r dadharati,

v y a c a n p a t y a n t a p a t a t r a no one dares approach
his third (step), not even the winged birds though they fly
(i. 155 ), From its use i n such supplementary clauses,
where i t may also be translated by even, the latter sense
comes to be the natural or even necessary one after a negative
in a single clause sentence ; e. g. y s m d t n s d h y a t i
yaj v i p a c t a c a n without whom the sacrifice does not
succeed [not] even of the wise man (i. 187) ; n d r a n mahn
pthiv c a n p r t i even the earth is not equal to Indra in
greatness (i. 81 ). A s one of the two negatives is superfluous
in a single clause sentence, c a n alone occasionally does
duty for the negative: m a h c a n tv p r ulk y a
deyam not even for a great reward would I give thee away
(viii. I ),
a. I n a few passages, even when there is no accompanying
negative, c a n throwing off its own negative sense, means
even, also: a h c a n t t s r b h i r n a y m I too would
aeûire this with the patrons (vi. 267) ; d h c a n r d
dadhati therefore also they believe (i. 55 ).
^
5
a. I n B . can appears only after a negative i n single clause

sentences, in which n can means not even ; e. g. n haina saptnas
trama can strute no enemy fells him even though desiring to fell
him (B.).
b. c a n gives the interrogative an indefinite sense : k

c a n any one, n k c a n no one (cp. 119 b).
Cid is an enclitic particle very frequently used to emphasize
the preceding word. It has two senses:
1. expressing that the statement is not to be expected
in regard to the word emphasized : even ; e. g. d h c i d
rujo g v y a m r v m even the firm cowstall thou hast broken
through (iii. 32 ), This sense is, however, sometimes so
attenuated as to be capable of being rendered by stress only ;
e. g. t v c i n n a m y a i b o d h i svadh be thou attentive
to our endeavour (iv. 3 ).
10
180]
231
2. generalizing any, every, all ; e. g. k t c i d n a

p r mumugdhy a s m t (i. 24 ) remove from us any (every,
all) sin committed (by us). Similarly, with interrogatives
any, with relatives ever ; thus k c i d any one : t i k
cid em any one (= every one) hears them (I. 37 ^) ; sun
vdbhyo randhay k cid avratm subject every impious
man to those that press Soma (i. 132 ); n or m k c i d (not
any =) no one ; k a d c i d ever at any time or always ; y
eid whoever ; y c c i d if ever ; y t h c i d as ever.
9
a. In B. the only use that survives is the generalizing sense with

interrogative pronouns ---- any, some ; e. g. tha k oid ha then he
says to some one (B.) ; yt te k cid bravt what any one said to
you (B.).
c d (= ca d) if occurs only three times i n the RV., but

later becomes commoner. I n the R V . and AV. it is found
with the ind. pres. and aor. ; in the A v it also occurs once
with the opt. Thus : v c d u c h n t y , asvin, u s a, p r
v b r h m a i k r avo bharante when the Dawns shine forth,
0 Avins, the singers offer prayers to you (vii. 72 ) ; b r a h m
cd d h s t a m g r a h t s ev p t i r ekadh if a Brahman
has taken her hand, he alone is her husband ( A v . v. 17^) ; t i
m a n v t a y c i t v a s e d ena y c eyu thus one would
think who has been requested, if they were to request a cow of
him (Av. x i i . 4 ^),
4
a. I n B. ed is used with the ind. pres., aor., fut. and with the opt. ;
e. g. ta cd ev niti nsya yaj vyathate if he does not go away
from there, his sacrifice does not fail (MS.) ; s hovca triyaturya
cn mm bbhaja tryam ev trhi v nrukta vadiyat t i
he said if they have given me only onefourth each time, then Vac will speak
distinctly only to the extent of onefourth ' (B.) ; t cn me n vivksyasi,
murdh te v patiyati if you cannot explain this (riddle) to me, your head
will burst (B.) ; et cd anysm anubry s tta ev te ra
chindym if you were to tell this to another, I would strike off your head (B. ).
t t a s occurs in the RV. several times adverbially in the

local sense of the ablative thence ; e. g. t t o v i p r
vavte thence the poison has turned away. It also, but very
232
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
rarely, has the temporal sense of thereupon, then ; e. g.

y a j i r t h a r v p r a t h a m p a t h s tate, t t a s r y o . .
jani with sacrifices Atharvan first extended the paths, then the
sun was born (i. 83^).
a. I n B., on the other hand, the temporal sense of thereupon is extremely
common. H ere it also often appears at the beginning of a sentence
connected with a preceding one i n the sense of therefore, consequently ;
e. g. s yajm ev, yajap t ri pr vivea; tto h a i n n ekatur
nfrhantum it entered in^ the sacrifice itsef, into the sacrificial vessels;
consequently those two were unable to expel it (B.).
t t h occurs in the R v i n the sense of so, thus; e.g.

t t h a t such is the rule (i. 83 ^). It also appears as a
correlative (though less often than ev) to y t h a ; e. g.
yav vasya s u n v a t s t t h u y t h o r t r e listen
to the sacrificing Syvva as thou didst listen to A tri (viii. 367).
1
a. I n B. the use is similar ; e. g. t t h ^ n nn t d sa so, indeed,

it came to pass (B.) ; as correlative (though less often than evm) to
yth : n vi t t h ^ a b h d yth^masi it has not come about as I had
thought (B.).
b. ttho (= t t h ^ u ) occurs in B., meaning and in the same way, but

so ; e. g. ttho evttare n vapet and in the same way he should assign
the last two (TS.) ; s yd daki prava syt, kipr ha yjamno
^m lokm iyt, t t h 0 ha yjamno jyg jvati if it (the altar) were
sloping to the south, the sacrificer would quickly go to yonder world, but th
(as it is) the sacrificer lives a long time (B.).
t d is often used adverbially in the RV. It then has three

different senses :
1. It frequently means then as correlative to y d when ;
e. g. yj j y ath v t r a h t y y a t t pthiv m aprathaya
when thou wast born for the rtrafight, thou didst spread out
the earth (viii. 89^).
2. It is also often used in the sense of thither (acc. of the
goal) ; e. g. t d t t v yukt h r a y o vahantu thither let the
yoked bays waft thee (ill. 53 ).
3. Occasionally it has the sense of therefore ; e. g. t d vo
deva abruvan, t d va gamam that the gods said to you,
4
180]
CONJUNCTIvE A N D A D V B L . P A R T I C L E S
233
therefore I have come to you (i. 161 ) ; p r t d v u stavate

v r y ^ a therefore Yiu is praised for his heroism (i. 154 ).
2
a. I n B . td has four different adverbial uses :

1. as a correlative to y d (when, inasmuch as) = thereby, and to
ytra (where) there ; e. g. yn nv v r j nam abhisuvnti, t t t
ghnanti now when they press the king (soma), they kill him thereby (B.) ;
ytrny adhayo ml y anti t d et mdamn vardhante where
other plants wither, it (the wheat) grows merrily (B.).
2. i n the sense of thereupon, then ; e. g. thaîtith sm t d
augh gant , t n m n v am upaklpyaûpssai now in such and
such a year a flood win then come, then having built a ship you shall turn
to me (B.).
3. constantly with reference to a preceding statement i n the sense

of as to that, thereby, thus ; e. g. yajm ev t d dev up y an the gods
thus obtained the sacrifice (B.) ; tt td avakptm ev yd brhma
'rjany syt so it is quite suitable that a Brahman should be without
a king (B.) ; t d hu as to that they say ; td u tt now as to this (B.).
4. before yd with reference to a preceding statement to add an
explanation, and may be rendered by that is to say, now ; e. g. t d
yd es ett tpati tna e ukr now, inasmuch as he burns here,
therefore he is bright (B.). similarly i n the phrase t d yt tth that is
to say, why it is so (is as follows)
the reason for this is as follows (sB.),
t r h i at that time, then, occurs only once i n the R v , but

several times i n the A V . : n m t y r sd am t a n
t r h i there was not death nor immortality then (x. 129 ). I n
the A V . the word appears as correlative to y d when, and
in B . to y t r a , y d , y d , y r h i when, and y d i if; e. g.
r a k s i v ena tarhy 1abhante y a r h i n a j y a t e the
Rakases then seize him when (the fire) does not arise (AB.) ;
y d i v tvjo 'Iok b h v a n t y a l o k u t r h i y j a m n a
if the priest is without a place, the sacrificer is then also without
a place (B.),
t s m d therefore is not found as an adverb i n the RV.,
but occurs several times as such in the A V . , and is constantly
so used in B . A s correlative to y d because it appears once
in the A v and is very common i n B . ; e. g. y d v i t d
v r u a g h t b h y a k m b h a v a t t s m a t k y (MS.)
because those who were seized by Varua felt well, therefore it is
called kaya (body).
2
INDECLINABLE WORDS
234
[180
t , though accented, never commences a sentence or Pda.

It has two uses :
1. I t is an emphasizing particle. I n the RV., where it
occurs nearly fifty times, it seems to be restricted to this
sense.
a. I n about twothirds of its occurrences t emphasizes
an exhortation i n the 2. pers. impv. (rarely the 3. pers., or
the subj. i n an impv. sense) pray, then; e.g. tv t a , n
d a t a pray come, sit you down (i. 5 ) ; n te d u r param
c i d rjsy, t p r y h i h r i b h y m even the highest
spaces are not far to thee ; come hither, then, with thy two bays
(iii. 30 ).
b. I n several passages t emphasizes assertions (generally
following the demonstrative t) in the sense of surely, indeed ;
e. g. t t tv s y a that surely is his work (iii. 30 ).
2. It is an adversative particle meaning but. This is its
sense i n the only passage of the Av. i n which it occurs, and
is its only meaning i n B . ; e.g. cak r a b h a d r m a s m b h y a m
a t m n e t p a n a t s he has done what is good for us, but
painful to himself (Av. iv. 18 ) ; t d e v v d i t o r n tv
e v k r t a v i that one should know thus, but not do thus (MS.).
W i t h h a or n i n the preceding clause, it expresses the
sense it is true... but; e.g. t d h a t vco, 'ny tv
v t a s t h t i this indeed is what they say, but the established
practice is different therefrom (B.).
1
12
tna occurs i n B . as an adverb correlative to yd because ; e. g. yd

gramysya n ^ n t i tna grmy n va runddhe because he does not
eat any tame animal, therefore he gains tame animals for himself (MS.).
tv v (compounded of t v v ), a particle sometimes occurring
in B . , does not perceptibly differ i n sense from vv (q.v.); e.g.
tryo ha tvv pavo medhy there are just three kinds of animals
unfit for sacrifice (B.).
tvi (compounded of t vi) is sometimes found i n B . meaning
but indeed.
dvit , a particle occurring about thirty times, is restricted

to the RV. There can be no doubt that it is an old instru
180]
235
mental, etymologically meaning doubly. This sense taken

either literally = in two ways, or figuratively = emphatically,
especially, more than ever, seems to suit all the passages i n
which the word occurs ; e. g. b h a r d v j a y a ^ v a dhukata
dvit d h e n ca v i v d o h a s a m a ca v i v b h o j a s a m
on Bharadvja do ye (Maruts) milk down doubly, both the
allmilking cow and allnourishing food (VI. 48 ) ; r j dev n m
u t m r t y n dvit bhuvad r a y i p t ray m as king of
gods and mortals may he be doubly lord of riches (ix. 97 ) ;
dvit y v t r a h n t a m o v i d n d r a a t k r a t u p a no
h r i b h i s u t m may he who above all is known as the best
Vtraslayer, Indra Satakratu, (come) to our pressed Soma
with his bays (viii. 93 ) ; gav m e sakhy k u t a dvit
(x. 48^) in the search for the cows he especially concluded friend
ship (with me).
13
24
32
a. The word occurs several times with dha, meaning and that too
doubly or especially, e. g. v td vocer dha dvit explain this, and (do so)
particularly (i. 132 ),
3
n has two senses i n V . (but only the first of the two

in B . ) :
1. A s a negative particle meaning not it denies an assertion,
appearing in principal sentences with the ind. of all tenses,
with the subj., the opt., the inj. (in the sense of a fut.), but
not w i t h the impv. ; it is also employed i n relative and
conjunctional clauses. It negatives either the assertion of
the whole sentence (when it appears as near the beginning
as possible, i n V . even before the relative) or only the
assertion of the verb. It can only be used i n a sentence
which contains a finite verb or i n which one is to be supplied.
There seems to be no undoubted example of its negativing
any word (such as a participle or adjective) other than the
verb. The employment of this negative n is much the
same i n B . as i n V .
a. A verb (such as asti is) has often to be supplied with this
negative in simple sentences, especially with the gerundive, the
23.3
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
infinitive, or a dative equivalent to an infinitive ; e. g. tn n sr

kyam that (is) not to be troubled about (MS.) ; n y vrya who (is) not
for hindering = who is irresistible (i. 143 ). Or the verb has to be
supplied i n a second sentence from the first ; e. g. n k t a m pa
tishate, n prt he worships at night, (he does) not (worship) in the
morning (TS.).
b. Two negatives express a strong positive ; e. g. n h pavo n
bhujantifor cattle always eat (MS.).
5
2. n is used i n V . (very commonly in R V . , comparatively

rarely i n A V . , but never in B.) as a particle of comparison,
exactly like i v a as, like. This meaning seems to be derived
from not as negativing the predicate of a thing to which it
properly belongs ; e. g. he (neighs), not a horse neighs
' he, though not a horse, neighs = ' he neighs like a horse '.
This n , being i n sense closely connected with the preceding
word, never coalesces i n pronunciation (though it does i n the
written Sandhi) with a following vowel, whereas n not
generally does. This n always follows the word of com
parison to which it belongs ; or i f the simile consists of
several words, the n generally follows the first word, less
commonly the second ; e. g. ar n n n e m p r i t b a b h v a
he surrounds them as the felly the spokes (i. 32 ^) ; pakv
k h n like a branch with ripe fruit (I. 8^).
1
a. When the object compared is addressed in the vec. (which is

sometimes to be supplied), the object with which it is compared is
sometimes also put in the voc. agreeing with it by attraction ; e. g.
o n ubhra bhar like brilliant Dawn, (0 sacrificer) bring (I. 57 ) ;
ve n citre, arui like a brilliant mare, O ruddy Daum (I. 30 ).
b. When the object compared is not expressed, n means as it were ;
e. g. iv b hir n smyamnbhir gat he has come with gracious smiling
women as it were (i. 79 ).
c. n sometimes interchanges with iva ; e. g. rtha n tova
ttsinya as a carpenter (fashions) a car for him who desires it (i. 6 l ) ,
3
21
n k i s (not any one) is found in V . only, being almost

restricted to the R V . , where it frequently occurs. It properly
1
N . sing. of interrogative k (Lat. quis) of which the n. km is in

regular use (cp. 113).
L80]
237
means no one ; e. g. n k i r indra t v d t t a r a no one,

O Indra, is superior to thee (iv. 30 ) ; y t h a k m n k i r
ucchiy t ai that none of the worms shall be left ( A v i i . 31 ).
Losing its N . sense, it comes to be used, though less often,
as a strong negative adverb meaning not at all, never ; e. g.
y s y a r m a n n k i r dev v r y a n t e n m r t in whose
protection gods never hinder him nor mortals (iv. 17 ). Cp.
m k is.
n k m occurs only twice i n one hymn of the R v i n the
sense of a strong negative adverb = not at all, never : n a k m
n d r o n k a r t a v e Indra ean never be subdued (viii. 78^).
n n u occurs only twice i n theRV.where it has the sense
of a strong negative by no means, never. I n B . it occurs
a few times as an interrogative expecting assent ( = nonne),
not?; e.g. n n u u r u m a have we not heard? (B.),
na-h, as the compounded form of n h , occurs only i n v. ,
where it sometimes has the sense of fur not ; e. g. n a h t v
t r u starate for no foe strikes thee down (i. 129 ). More
commonly it emphatically negatives a statement as something
well known certainly not, by no means, as appears most
clearly at the beginning of a hymn ; e. g. n a h v o s t y
a r b h a k , d v s a not one of you, O gods, is small (viii. 30 ).
1
19
a. This compounded form never occurs i n B . , where n h i alone is

found. On the other hand, n h seems never to occur i n V .
n m a is Used adverbially i n the following two senses :

1. by name ; e.g. s h a r u t n d r o n m a d e v that god
famous as Indra by name (if. 20^) ; k n m aâsi who art thou
by name ? (VS. v i i . 29). 2. namely, indeed, verily ; e. g. jasro
g h a r m h a v r asmi n m a I am constant heat, namely the
oblation (iii. 267) ; m d h u r n d r a n m a d e v t a they
have placed me among the gods verily as Indra (x. 49 ).
2
Probably because the N . has no longer an independent existence

coupled with the fact that the pronoun k has gone out of use except
in the one form km.
Probably A . n. of nkis with lengthened vowel.
2
238
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
n or n u means 1. now; e.g. s nv tyate he is now

implored (I. 145 ) ; n d r a s y a n vry i p r vocam I will
now proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra (i. 32 ) ; yj nv,
i n d r a , te h r yoke now ( at once), O Indra, thy two bays
(i. 82 ) ; uv s o uch c ca n (i. 48 ) Dawn has shone (in
the past) and she shall shine now ( = henceforth) ; asm b hir
u n p r a t i c k y ^ a b h t to us she has just now become visible
(I. 113 ). 2. still: p y e m a n s r yam u c c r a n t a m we
would still see the sun rising (vi. 52^) ; mah n n d r a p a r
ca n great is Indra and still more (i. 8^). 3. pray with
interrogatives : kad n v n t r v r u e b h u v n i when, pray
( = at last), shall I be in (communion with) Varua (vii. 86),
4. ever w|th relatives : y n k v a i whatever (deeds)
I shall accomplish (i. 165 ). 5. ever, at all with negatives :
n ^ a s y a vart n tarut nv sti there is none at all to
obstruct, none to overcome him (vi. 66^). 6. with c i d it means
(a) even now, still ; e. g. n c i d d a d h i v a me g r a even now
take to thyself my songs (i. 10^) ; daasy no, maghavan, n
cit favour us still, Bountiful one (viii. 46 ) ; (b) never ; e. g.
n c i d d h p a r i m a m n t h e asm n for never have ye despised
us (vii. 93 ),
1
11
11
a. The senses of n found in B. are the following :

1. Now actually in affirmative sentences, often correcting a previous
statement ; e. g. nirdao nv abhd, yajasva m^,anena now he is actually
more than ten days old : sacrifice him to me (AB.). 2. then, pray, in exhor
tions with the subj., the impv., or ma with the inj., e.g. raddhdevo
vi mnur : v n vedva Manu is godfearing; let us two then try h
(B.); m nu me pr hr pray, do not strike at me (B.). When
tha follows such sentences, n may be translated byfirst: nirdao
nv astv, atha tv yajai let him (the victim) first be more than ten days ol
then I will sacrifice him to you (AB.). 3. pray, in questions with or withou
an interrogative ; e. g. kv nu vur abht what, pray, has become of
Viu ? (B.) ; tv n khlu no brhmiho 'si are you, pray, indeed
the wisest of us^ (B.). 4. now, after ti followed by tha ne:rt: iti nu
prva paa1am, athottaram this now is thefirstsection ; next follows the

1
2
Never begins a sentence.

Often begins a sentence.
180]
239
second (AB.). 5. indeed, i n the first of two antithetical clauses, when

the second is introduced with t or km u ; e. g. y nv v jts
tsmai bruyd, n tv v srvasm iva he may indeed tell it to him who
is known to him, but not to any and every one (B. ).
n u n m now has three uses i n the RV. :

1. W i t h the ind. pres. it means now as opposed to formerly
or in future (an opposition often expressed by pur before
and a p a r m after) ; e. g. n n n m s t i n v there is no
now and no tomorrow (i. 170 ).
It is a few times used with the perfect i n combination
with pur to express that an action has taken place i n the
past and still takes place ; e. g. pur n n ca s t u t y a
p a s p d h r n d r e formerly and now the praises of
seers have striven to Indra (VI. 34 ).
2. W i t h the subj., impv., opt., or inj., it expresses that an
action is to take place at once ; e. g. v i n n m u e h t she
shall now shine forth (I. 124 ) ; p r n n p r v a n d h u r a s
stut y h i praised advanee now with laden ear (i. 82 ),
W i t h the perfect it is a few times used i n the R v to
express that an action has just been completed ; e. g. p a
n n yuyuje h r he has just yoked his two bay steeds
(viii. 4 ).
3. It occurs sometimes with interrogatives pray ; e. g.
kad n n te d e m a when, pray, may we serve thee?
(vii. 29 ),
1
11
11
a. In B . none of these uses seem to survive, while the new sense of

certainly, assuredly (perhaps once already i n the AV.) has appeared ;
e.g. tath n nun td sajust so assuredly it came to pass (B.).
n d ( = n d and not treated as a compound by the

Padapaha) has two uses in both v. and B . : 1. sometimes
as an emphatic negative, certainly not ; e. g. a n y n t s r r
hate b h r i d v a t t a r a no other patron indeed is accounted
more liberal (viii. 5 ^) ; ha vadmi nt tvm I am speak
ing, not thou (vii. 38 ) ; nd nuhta prnmi I certainly
do not eat it before it is invoked (B.). 2. much more commonly
as introducing a final clause in order that not with the subj.
3
240
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[1so
(= Lat. ne) ; e. g. v y c h , duhitar divo, n t t v t p t i

s r a shine forth, daughter of the sky, lest the sun scorch thee
(v. 79 ) ; n n m r u d r h i n s a t lest Rudra injure me (B.).
In B . the verb may also be i n the inj. : n d i d bahirdh
yaj d b h v a t lest it be outside the sacrifice (B.).
9
a. nvi ( n vi as analysed by the Padapha of the Ts.) occurs not

infrequently i n B. in the sense of indeed ; e. g. ti nv etd br h maam
udyate such indeed is the Brh^naa that is told (B.).
m is the prohibitive negative (Gk. ,u^) regularly used

with the injunctive. It is never used with the impv. ; with
the opt. only in the single form bhujema (RV.) ; and with
the subj. only once (B.) ; e. g. m no v a d n slay us not
(i. 104^) ; m h t h abhy asm n be not enraged against us
(viii. 2 ),
19
a. A n interrogative following m in a few cases receives an indefi

nite sense in the RV. ; e. g. m ksmai dhatam abhy mitre na
deliver us not to any foe (i. 120^).
m kis (not any one, Gk. ,a^rt^), occurring about a dozen

times i n the R v , to which it is restricted, is used in pro
hibitive sentences with the injunetive i n two senses :
1. no one : m k is t o k s y a no riat may no one of our
offspring be injured (viii. 67 ).
2. more often an emphatic negative by no means, never :
m k ir dev n m p a b h be not at all away from the gods
(x. 11 ). Cp. n k i s .
m km, used as an emphatic prohibitive particle with
the injunctive, occurs only i n two passages of the RV. :
m k m s ri kvae let none suffer fracture in a pit
(vi. 517),
y t r a is employed i n two main senses : 1. usually as
a relative adverb, meaning wher e, but sometimes whither ,
e. g. yaj . . n r o y t r a d e v a y v o m d a n t i wher e pious
men rejoice in sacr ifice (vii. 97 ) ; y t r a r t h e n a g c h a t h a
whither ye go with your car (i. 22 ), The correlative is
generally t t r a , sometimes t r a or t d .
11
180]
CONJUNCTIVE AND A D v B L. PARTICL ES
241
a. Occasionally as equivalent to the locative of the relative ; e. g.

gba t gacbn ttar yug n i ytra jmya krvann jmi those
later generations will come in which those who are akin will do what befits not
kinsmen (x. 10 ^).
1
2. not infrequently as a temporal conjunction, when, i n

both V. and B. ; e. g. y t r a p r sud s am vatam when ye
helped Suds (vii. 83^), I n V. d h a , t r a , t d appear as
correlatives ; e. g. y t r a u r s a s t a n v v i t a n v a t . . d h a
s m yacha t a n v t n e ca e h a r d when the heroes strain
themselves (in battle) . . then especially bestow protection on us
and our sons (vi. 46 ^). In B. t d is generally the correlative,
Sometimes t t a s ; e. g. t y t r a dev g h n a s , t n
m i t r m abruvan when the gods killed him, they said to
Mitra (B.).
y t h has two distinct uses i n both v. and B. :
1. as a relative adverb meaning as; e.g. n n y t h
pur now as before (I. 397) ; y t h v a y m u m s i t t k d h i
as we wish that do (x. 38) ; y t h v i p u r u j r yaty e v m
agnir hito j r y a t i as a man grows old, so fire when it has
been laid grows old (TS.). When there is a correlative i n the
R v , it is usually ev, sometimes t t h ; i n B. usually
evm, sometimes t t h .
2. as a conjunction meaning in order that, so that, intro
ducing a posterior clause, generally with the subj., rarely
the opt. ; e. g. h a v k u v a s u b h g o y t h ^ s a s i prepare
the oblation that thou mayest be successful (ii. 26) ; d a v y a
v m a h ^vsi, y t h b h v e m a m h e n g (vii. 97)
we crave divine aids that we may appear sinless to the gracious
god ; t a t h me k u r u y a t h ^ a h a m i m s e n j a y n i
arrange it so for me that I may conquer this army (AB.) ;
t t h a i v h o t a v y y t h ^ a g n m vyavey t it must be
poured so that it should divide the fire (B.).
1
a. In theRV.after verbs of knowing or saying ytha introduces an

explanation = how ; e. g. ks td bryad anudy ytha^,bhavat who
could tell us this, (viz.) how the gift was^ (x. 135 ). Occasionally it is
used thus even without such verbs : n pramye savitr divyasya.
5
242
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
td yth vva bhvana dhrayiyti that (power) of the divine

Savit (is not to ----- ) will not decay, (viz.) that he will support the whole worl
(iv. 54 ).
4
y d (n. of the relative y) is used i n four distinct senses :

1. that, expanding the meaning of a word i n the preceding
principal clause ; e. g. g t d , indra, te vo y d d h s i
v t r m I praise this mighty deed of thine that thou slayest
Vtra (viii. 62^); k m ga s a , varua, j y h a y t
stot r a jghsasi s k h y a m , what has been thechiefguilt,
O Varua, that thou wichest to slay thy praiser (who is) thy
friend ? (vii. 86). This use is not common i n v.
4
a. yad is similarly employed i n B . with reference to a preceding

td (often omitted) ; e. g. td yt pyas r t i : vtr vi sma
st that ( the reason why) he miês Soma with milk (is) this : Vtra
was Soma (B.). This use is also found i n B . after certain verbs :
va ka1pate it is suitable, t sahate is able, ichti desires, ynkt bhavati
is intent on^ vda knows, and var it is possible ; e. g. n h td avakl
pate yd bryt for it is not suitable that he should say (B.).
2. when with the ind. pres., imp., perf., aor., fut., and
with the subj. ; e. g. y d dha y n ti m r u t a s ha
bruvate when the Maruts go along, they speak together (i. 37 ) ;
k m apayo y t te bh r g a c h a t whom didst thou see when
fear came upon thee ? (i. 32 ) ; n d r a ca y d y u y u d h t e
hi ca, m a g h v v jigye when Indra and the serpent fought,
the bountiful god conquered (i. 32 ) ; c i t r y d b h r bright
when he has shone forth (i. 66^) ; tigm y d anir p t t i ,
d h a no bodhi gop when the sharp bolt shall fly, then be
our protector (iv. 16 7). It also occurs rarely i n anacolutha
with the pres. part. and the past pass. part. much as i n
English; e.g. p c a n t i te vabh n , tsi t y n
maghavan, h y m n a they roast bulls for thê, thou eatest
of them, O bounteous one, when being called (x. 28 ),
13
14
13
a. In B. yd occurs with the sense of when with the pres., fut., and
aor and in the sense of whenever or while with the impf.
3. if used with the ind. pres. , the subj., or the opt. ; e. g.
l80]
243
yd, i n d r a , d a n y g v h y s e , y h i tuyam if,

O Indra, thou art called above or below, come quickly (viii. 65 ) ;
yd rdhvs th drviîh dhattd y d v kya
if thou shalt stand upright, bestow treasures here, or if thou shalt
lie (iii. 8 ), The opt. is used when it is assumed that the
condition w i l l not be fulfilled ; e. g. y d , ague, sy m a h
t v , t v v g h sy a h m , s y e saty i h ^ a
if, O Agni, I were thou, or if thou wert I, thy prayers here
would be fulfilled (viii. 44 ).
1
23
a. In B. yd is used with the opt. as i n V . (while with ydi the ful

filment of the condition is usually assumed) and with the conditional ;
s yd bhdyeta^ r tim arched yjamna if it were to break, the
sacrificer would fall into misfortune (Ts.) ; yd ev n^vakyo murdh
te vy patiyat if thou hadst not spoken thus, thy head would have fallen to
pieces (B.).
4. in order that, i n posterior clauses, with the subj., very

rarely with the opt. in V . ; e. g. vaha d e v t t i r d h o
y d a d y d i v y yjsi bring hither the host of the gods that
thou mayest adore the divine throng (iii. 19 ) ; y n n n m
ay g t i , m i t r s y a y y path that I may now
obtain refuge, I would go on Mitra's path (v. 64 ),
4
a. In B. this use of yd is very rare, occurring only a few times

with the subj. ; e. g. t t pr p uhi y t te pr v t am apipdytai
obtain thou this, that thy breath may pass into the wind (B.).
y a d when is used i n V. and B . with the ind. perf., impf.,

pres., and with the subj. ; with the aor. ind. and the inj. i n
V only ; and with the fut. and opt. i n B . only. The
correlative word (when there is one) is i n V . d, t h a , d h a ,
t d , t r h i ; i n B . t h a and t r h i .
1. yad is most commonly used i n the R V . with the aor.
ind., when as the beginning of the action is emphasized,
the sense is as soon as ; e. g. y a d d d e v r sahia may ,
t h a ^ a b h a v a t k v a l a smo asya as soon as he had overcome
the ungodly wiles, then Soma became his exclusively (vii. 98 ) ;
a b h ganti r d ho yad te m r t o n u b h g a m na they
5
244
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[180
praise thy wealth as soon as the mortal has obtained thy reward
(x. 7 ). When the principal clause contains a historical
tense, the aor. with yad has the value of a pluperfect.
2
a. The injunetive is found only once with yad in theRV.: yad

mhya d d haro bhgm, indra, d n my kavo vry i when
thou shalt have secured for me my share, O Indra, then thou shalt perfo
heroic deeds with my help (viii. 100 ).
1
2. a. with the impf. and perf. ; e. g. yad vus tr i

pad v i c a k r a m , yad surya d i v . . d h r a y a , d t te
h r vavakatu when Viu took his three steps, when thou
didst fix the sun in the sky, then thy two bays grew in strength
(viii. 12-7. ) ; t s y a yad m r m a ^ g a c h a n n thaâceat
as soon as they touched his weak spot, he quivered (MS.) ; s
y a d ^ b h y m a n v c a ^ t h a ^ a s y a t d n d r a ra ci
cheda as soon as he had told them, Indra cut his head off (B.).
b. with the pres. ind. : yad s a t y k u t m a n y m
n d r o , v v a d h bhayate jad a s m t when Indra
shows his true anger, all that is firm, trembling, is afraid of him
(iv. 17 ) ; y a d v a i p a u r n i r d a o bhavaty atha sa
medhyo bhavati as soon as the victim is more than ten days
old, it becomesfitfor sacrifice (AB.) ; s yad k e a m a r
v p a t y t h a s n t i when he has cut off his hair and beard, he
bathes (^B.).
c. with the subj. (here = future perfect) : yad t
k v o ' t h a ^ m ena p r h i u t t pit b hya when thou
shalt have made him done, then deliver him to the fathers (X. 16 ) ;
yad t m a t i v r d h , t h a k a r u khtv t s y ma
b i b h a r s i when I shall have grown too big for it, you shall,
having dug a pit, keep me in it (B.).
30
3. a. with the fut. : yadaiva hot paridhsyaty atha pn prati

mokymi when the Hot shall have concluded, I shall tighten the cords (AB
b. with the opt. : s yad sagrm jyed thaâindrgn n r
vapet as soon as he may have won a battle, he should sacrifice to Indra and
Agni (Ms.).
y d i if (sometimes when with a past tense) is found with
perf. and impI. i n v only; with the ind. pres., aor., fuI.,
180]
245
and with the subj. in V . and B . ; and with the opt. in B .

only.
1. W i t h the perf. used historically and with the impf.
y d i means when, the verb then having the force of a
pluperfect ; e. g. d a s t a m b h t s a m d h n k am a g n r y d i
bh g ubhya p r i m t a r v havyav h a s a m d h Agni
supported the vault with fuel when Matarisvan from the Bhgus
had kindled the oblationbearer (iii. 5 ) ; y d i s a h s r a
mahi n g h a , d t ta i n d r i y m h i p r vvdhe
when thou hadst eaten a thousand bulls, thy might grew great
(viii. 128). But when the perf. has the pres. perf. sense,
y d i has its ordinary meaning of if: gr h ir jagr h a y d i
v a i t d ena, t s y , i n d r g n , p r m u m u k t a m enam or if
illness has seized him, from that release him, Indra and Agni
(x. 161 ).
2. a. with the pres. : y d m n t h a n t i b h b h i r v
rocate when they rub with their arms, he shines (iii. 29^) ;
ady m u r y a y d i ytudh n o s m i today I would die, if I
am a sorcerer (vii. 104 ^) ; y d i n an t i pitdevatyo
bhavati if he does not eat, he becomes dedicated to the
Manes (B.).
b. with the aor. : y d 1 n t r p a s v s . . s t h i t a ,
a d h v a r y r modate if the sister (coming) from the mother has
approached, the priest rejoices (ii. 5^) ; ydy haêna pr
cam
cair,
yth
prea
snya
phato
'nndyam
u p h r e t if you have piled it frontways, it is as if one handed
food from behind to one sitting with avertedface(B.).
c. with the fut. : y d y ev k a r i y t h a , s k d e v i r
yajyso bhaviyatha if ye will act thus, ye shall become
objects of worship together with the gods (i. 161^) ; y d i v
i m m abhimasy k n y nnam k a r i y e if I shall plot
against him, I shall procure less food (B.).
d. with the subj. : yjma dev n y d i a k n v m a we
will worship the gods, if we shall be able (i. 27 ) ; y d i s t m a
m m a r v a d , asm k am n d r a m n d a v a . . mandantu
10
13
246
INDECLINABLE WORDS
[180
if he shall hear my song of praise, let our drops gladden Indra

(viii. I ) ; y d i t v a ^ e t t p n a r b r v a t a s , t v b r t t
if they two shall say that to thee again, do thou say (B.).
15
a. W i t h the opt. ydi is (excepting one occurrence in the Sv.)

found i n B. only, where this use is very common. Here a case is
usually supposed with a rule applicable to it i n the principal clause ;
e. g. yadi na aknuyt, so 'gnaye puroa nir vapet if he should not
be able to do it, he should ojer a cake to Agni (AB.).
3. after the verb v i d know, y d i is used in the sense of

whether i n one passage of the R V . (x. 1297) and often i n B . ;
e. g. h n t a na k o v t t u y d i h a t v v t r j v ati v come,
let one of us find out whether rtra is dead or whether he is
alive (B.).
a. ydi v is not only used after a preceding ydi i n the sense of
or if, but also alone i n the sense of or, nearly always without a verb ;
e. g. s ag veda ydi v n vda he alone knows or he docs not know
(x. 129 ) ; y vhanti atm v ydi v sapt whom a hundred
horses draw, or seven (Av. x i i i . 2 ) ; ydi v.îtrath or conversely (B.).
yrhi (at the time) when occurs only in B where it is used with the
pres. or past ind., and with the opt. It has almost invariably trhi or
etrhi then as a correlative ; e. g. s trhy ev jyate yrhy agnm
dhatt he is born at the moment when he lays his fire (MS.) ; yrhi praj
kdha nigcheyus trhi navartra yajeta when his people should
suffer from hunger, he should sacrifice with the rite of nine nights (Ts.).
ysmd does not occur as a conjunction i n v., but it sometimes
appears as such in B. meaning why ; e. g. tha ysmt samia
yaji nma now (follows the reason) why they are called Samiayajus
7
(B.),
y d (an old abl. of y) is found in V . only. It is used

with the indicative pres. or past, and with the subj. W i t h
the ind. it means as far as in the R V . ; e. g. r c m a s i y d
ev v i d m t t t v mah n tam (vi. 21 ) we praise thee, the
great, as far as we know (how to) ; it seems to mean since i n
the A V . : y kiyan pthiv y d j y a t a who ruled the
earth since it arose ( A v x i i . 1 7), W i t h the subj. y d means
as long as ; e. g. a n n u k t y m a p u n c a k r a y t s r ym s
m i t h u c c r t a he has once for all done what is inimitable
as long as sun and moon alternately shall rise (x. 68 ).
6
10
180]
247
y v at already appears i n V . as an adverb meaning as far

as, as long as, an extension of its acc. use ; e. g. y v ad
dy v pthiv t v ad t t t (x. 1148) as for as heaven and earth,
so far it (extends) ; j u h m i h a v y y v ad e I offer
oblation as long as I am able (iii. 18 ) ; jto vi t v a t p r u o
y v ad a g n n ^ d h a t t man is so long unborn, as he does
not lay his fire (MS.).
v or is employed much i n the same way as ca and.
It is enclitic, following the word to which it belongs ; and
it connects words, clauses, or sentences ; e. g. t a gahi
div v rocan d d h i come from here or from the shining
realm of heaven (i. 6 ) ; yasya b h r y gaur v yamau
janayet whose wife or cow bears twins (AB.) ; p r t i y
s s am n v a t i , ukth v y abhig t i who promotes the law
or welcomes songs of praise (i. 547).
3
a. v ... v is frequently used i n the same way ; e.g. kt v yt te

cakm vid v that we have offered to thee according to our power or
knowledge (i. 3 l ) ; nkta v h dv v vrati for it rains by night
or by day (Ts.) ; yd vâhm abhidudrha yd v ep ut^ntam
what evil I have plotted or what I have sworn falsely (I. 2.^ ),
b. But v ... v also mean either ... or. When they contrast two
principal sentences i n this sense, implying exclusive alternatives, the
verb of the first is accented even when the second is incomplete ;
e. g. haye v tn praddtu sma v dadhatu nrrter upsthe let
Soma either deliver them to the serpent or place them in the lap of dissolution
(vii. 104 ) ; t d v jaju td va n jajau she either agreed to it or did
not agree to it (sB.) ; tsya v tv mna ich s v tva either do thou
seek his heart, or he thine (x. 10 ).
vv (doubtless a contraction of two particles) is found i n B . only.
It emphasizes the preceding word i n the sense of certainly, just, being
particularly frequent in the first of two correlated clauses ; e. g. es
vv s 'gnr ity hu that is certainly the same Agni, they say (Ts.).
18
14
vi is an emphasizing particIe meaning truly, indeed.

1. I n the R v this particle occurs only i n 28 passages,
in all but three of which it follows the first word of
the sentence ; e. g. b h a d r v i v r a vate truly they
make a good choice (x. 164^) ; t i va t i me m n a so, indeed,
so is my mind (x. 119 ); n v i s t r i n i sakhy n i santi
1
248
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
15
there are, indeed, no friendships with lvomen (x. 95 ). The

stress is laid on the whole sentence, not on any particular
word. The particle is often followed by u (v u) without
any perceptible change of meaning.
a. In the A v . the use is similar except that here the particle often
appears after a demonstrative or a relative ; e. g. tsmd vi s pr
bhavat therefore, indeed, he perished (xii. 4^ ) ; y vi t vidyt pratyk
a s v ady mahd vadet whoever may know them plainly, he, verily,
may speak aloud today (xi. 8^).
9
2. I n B . v i usually occupies the same position, but often

yields the second place to c d , h , k h I u , and of course
always to the enclitics i v a , u , ca, sma, ha. When t h o
begins a sentence v i occupies the second place.
Here the use of v i i n the first sentence of a narrative is
typical ; e. g. y m o v amriyata : t dev yamy y m a m
p b r u v a n Yama died : the gods (then) dissuaded Yam from
(thinking of) Yama (MS.).
a. The particle often appears in the concluding sentence i n discus
sions ; e. g. tsmd v pa pa sprati that is, indeed, why he sips
water (B.).
b. It is very often placed after the first word of a sentence that
gives the reason for the one that follows ; e. g. raddh d evo vi
mnur : v n vedva now Manu is godfearing : we two will
therefore ascertain (B.). w h e n vi is used i n this way the clause
containing it is often equivalent to a parenthetical one ; e. g. t
vym abruvan (ay vi vyr y 'y pvate) vyo tvm id
viddhi^ti they said to Vyu (now Vyu is he who blows), Vyu, ascertain
this (B.). I n this sense vi is especially frequent i n periods of
three clauses, when that with vi contains the reason, and that with
ev the conclusion ; e. g. t et b his tanu.bhi sm abhavan ; pavo
vi dev n a priy s tanv : pabhir va sm abhavan they were
together with these bodies ; now animals are the bodies dear to the gods .
were therefore together with animals (Ms.).
c. The differences between the use of vi and of ev i n B. are the
following : vi coming after the first word emphasizes the whole
sentence, while ev emphasizes a particular word in any part of the
sentence ; vi follows the first word of a sentence beginning a narrative, ev never does ; i n a period vi is typical i n the clause stating
a reason, ev i n that expressing the conclusion.
180]
CONJUNCTIvE AND A D v B L. PARTICL ES
249
s is often used pleonastically before relatives i n B . ; e. g.

s y no v c a v y h t m i t h u n n a n ^ a n u n i k r m t ,
s s r v a p r j a y t a i he who shall not follow the word
uttered by us with (another of) the corresponding gender, he shall
lose everything (B.). This use led to s being employed in
a formulaic way not only pleonastically but also without
reference to gender or number ; e. g. t s y a t n i sr i p r
eicheda. s y t somap n am sa t t a k a p j a l a s m
abhavat he struck off his heads. Now that which had been
Somadrinking, from that arose the francoline partridge (B.) ;
s y d i n v i n d n t i k m d r i y e r a n now if they do not find
it, why should they mind? (B.).
sm is an. enclitic particle restricted to the RV. Originally
the acc. sing. of a pronoun, related to s as k m to k , it is
generally used (much like m) as an ace. of a l l numbers and
genders in the third personhim, her, it, them, representing
a substantive (which sometimes follows) and frequently
placed between a preposition and its verb, occasionally also
after a relative ; e. g. p r i nayanti they lead him around
(L 95); p r s m d i t y asjat the ditya made them (the
streams) toflow(ii. 28 ) ; n v t r s y a m r m a i vjram
n d r o a p p a t a t Indra has caused it, his bolt, to fall on Vtra's
vital spot (viii. 1007) ; y s m k v a n t m a s e vip c e,
t s r y a m whom they created to disperse the darkness, that
sun (iv. 13 ).
4
a. sm sometimes gives the relative the sense of ever ; e. g. yt sm

ga cakm, irthas tt whatever sin we have committed, remove that
(V.857).
s, su well, used asseveratively thoroughly,fully,verity

and always referring to the verb, is almost restricted as an
independent particle to the Sahits, being common i n the
RV., but rare i n the others ; e. g. jusva su no a d h v a r m
thoroughly enjoy our sacrifice (iii. 24) ; n m a s te homage
verily (be) to thee (vS. xii. 63) ; jar s gacha go safely to
old age (AV. xix. 24.),
250
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
a. With preceding u the particle means right well : im u rudh

gra hear these songs right well (i. 26 ) ; vidm v asya mtram we
know full well his mother (Av. i . 2^).
b. With preceding m it = by no means, not at all, never ; e. g. m s
tv . . . asmn n rraman let none by any means keep thee from us
(vif. 32 ).
c. s kam is used like the simple s except that it appears with the
impv. only ; e.g. tihata . . . s kam stand quite still (I. 191^).
5
sma, an enclitic, slightly emphasizing particle, has two

senses i n the R V . :
1. It generally emphasizes :
a. demonstrative or personal pronouns, relatives, or nouns,
and may be rendered by just, especially, or simply by stress ;
e. g. t s y a sma prvit bhava be his helper (i. 12^) ; s
r u d h i y s m p t ansu k s u cit . . . r ai sv s n i t
hear thou, who especially in all battles with heroes dost win the
light (i. 129 ).
b. the verb, which or (if it is compounded) the preposition
of which it follows (generally at the beginning of the sen
tence) ; e. g. smsi m v a y m em we are indeed theirs
(f. 37 ) ; s m r t h a tihasi thou mountest indeed upon
thy ear (i. 51 ), The verb is i n the present ind. or the
impv., rarely the perf ; it appears to have been accented
before sma judging by the only example (vI. 44 ^) i n which
it is not the first word i n the sentence (App. I I I , 19 A ) .
e. adverbs and particles ; e. g. u t sma and especially ; n
sma and m sma by no means.
2
15
12
a. In the Av. these emphasizing uses are similar; but in B. they

have entirely disappeared.
2. In a few instances sma occurs in the R V . before pur

with the pres. ind. to express that an action has habitually
taken place i n the past down to the present time ; e. g. y
s m pur g t y n t i who have always aided = who aids now
and formerly did so (i. 169^).
a. This use is not found i n the AV., but has become extremely
common i n B., where sma is always preceded by ha. The meaning
l^0]
251
here expressed is that something habitually took place i n the past

(but does not as i n theRV.include the present) ; e. g. n ha sma vi
pura^,agnr aparauvka dahati formerly Agni used not to burn what
was not lopped ojf with the aê (Ts.).

b. Much more frequently, however, pur is left out and the
particles ha sma, from their frequent association with it, assume its
meaning ; e. g. t ha sma yd dev surn. jyanti, tto ha sma^,ev^,
enn pnar upttihanti as often as the gods defeated the Asuras, the
latter always opposed them again (B.). This use of ha sma is very
common with the present perfect ha ; e. g. etd dha sma v ha
nrad with regard to this Ndrada used to say (MS.). Other tenses than
the present with ha sma are found i n the A B . where, i n two or
three passages, the perf. and the impf. are used with them i n the
same sense.
svid is an enclitic particle emphasizing the first word of

a sentence, usually an interrogative pronoun or adverb.
It may generally be translated by pray ; e. g. k s v i d v k
nhito m d h y e rasa what tree, pray, was that which
stood in the midst of the sea? (i. 1827). I n one passage of the
R v this particle gives the interrogative an indefinite mean
ing : mt p u t r s y a c r a t a k v a svit the mother of the son
that wanders who knows where (x. 34 ). Very rarely (in
double questions) the partic1e appears without an inter
rogative : s t i svin n v r y t t ta, i n d r a , n svid asti :
t d tutn v voea is this thy heroic deed, O Indra, or is it
not : that deelare in due season (vi. 18^),
10
a. I n a few instances svid appears i n noninterrogative sentences :

tvy ha svid yuj vaym abh mo,vajasatayewith thee as companion
we are equipped for the obtainment of booty (viii. 102 ).
b. The employment of svid in B . is similar ; e. g. km u vid t
'dhi vra variyamahe what boon, pray, beyond this shall we choose ?
(MS.) ; tv svin no brhmiho 'si artthou,pray, the most learned of
us ^ (B.) ; yd greu juhti t t svid agnu juhoti what he pours
on the coals, that itself he pours on the fire (Ms.).
3
ha, an enclitic partic1e occurring after all words capable

of beginning a sentence, has a slightly emphasizing and
asseverative force. It is probably identical i n origin with
gha, but unlike that particle hardly ever (only twice) appears
252
INDECLINABLE
WORDS
[180
in the R V . with its vowel lengthened. It is common in the

R V . , occurring after personal, demonstrative, interrogative,
and relative pronouns, nouns, verbs, verbal prepositions, and
adverbs.
a. In B. the use of this particle varies i n frequency: it is com

paratively rare i n the TS., where it generally appears with sma or
with perfects; while i n the B. it is extremely frequent. It lays
stress on the first word of sentences so as to emphasize the connexion
or to mark a new or important step i n the narrative ; e. g. i t i
marmjyeta : jarasa ha cakumn bhavati ya eva veda with
these words he should wipe (his eyes) : so till old age he who knows this becom
possessed of vision (AB.).
b. It is very often used after the first word of a story with or
without vi. It appears predominantly with the perfect i n those
parts of the B. and the A B . that narrate with the perfect, mostly
with verbs of speaking. Thus sa haûvca appears here, while so
bravt is said elsewhere.
h n t a occurs three times i n the R V . as an interjection in

exhortations ; e. g. y j m a h a i y a j y n h n t a dev n come,
we will worship the adorable gods (x. 53).
a. It is similarly used in B. : hanta.îma yaja sambharma
well, we will prepare the sacrifice (AB.).
h, i n origin probably an emphasizing particle, is used

throughout as a subordinating conjunction which regularly
throws the accent on the verb. It nearly always follows
the first word of the sentence, or the second when the first
two are closely connected. In v. it is used in two ways :
1. i n indicative sentences (the verb having sometimes to
be supplied) to express the reason (like yap), meaning either
for, if the clause containing it follows, or because, since, if it
precedes ; e. g. b l a dhehi tan u no, t v h balad
si bestow strength on our bodies, for thou art a giverofstrength
(iii. 53 ^); ruv n o h de dev s , t n vaha sinee
the gods give ear to the pious man, bring them hither (i. 45 ),
2. i n exhortative sentences, mostly with the impv., as an
emphatic particle = pray, indeed ; e. g. y u k v h k e n
h r pray harness thy two long-maned bay steeds (i. 10^),
1
180l8l]
PARTICLES.
INTERJECTIONS
253
a. In B. three uses of h may be distinguished :

1. it expresses the reason, as i n the first use i n V . , only that the
clause containing h always follows ( for only), and the verb is
much ofteuer omitted than expressed ; e. g. td ndro 'mucyata, dev
h s from that Indra freed himsîf, for he (is) a god (fI.), The particle
vi is often added to strengthen h ; e. g. vjro h v pa for water is
indeed a thunderbolt (B.).
2. it is sometimes employed to emphasize an interrogative = pray ;
e. g. kath h kariysi how, pray, wilt thou do ^t ^ (B.).
3. it expresses assent i n answers after a word repeated from
a preceding question ; e. g. t m eva tv payasi^.ti ; t h . do you
see him^' Tes, (I see) him (B.).
a. In B., when h appears in the relative clause of a period explain

ing a previous statement, the verb of the principal clause (to which h
properly applies) is sometimes irregularly unaccented; e.g. id
h yad vraty thaâdhayo j ayante for, when it rains here, then the
plants spring u^7 (B. ).
1 S I . A certain number of words having the nature of

interjections occur in the Santhitas. They are of two kinds,
being either exclamations or imitative sounds.
a. The exclamations are : b ( R V ) truly, bata (RV.)
alasl h n t a eome, used exhortatively with the subjunctive
and h a y come before vocatives; h r u k and h u r k (RV)
away 1 h i ( A v ) ho
b. Interjections of the onomatopoetic type are : k i k i r a
(RV.) used with k make the sound kikir tear to tatters ;
k i k k i (TS.) used in invocations ; cic (RV.) whiz^ (of an
arrow), used with k make a whizzing sound ; p h ( A v . , VS.)
crash/ p h l ( A v ) splash l bI (Av) dash/ b h k ( A v . )
bang l l (AV.) clap 1
CHAPTER VI
NOMINAL STEM FORMATION A N D COMPOUNDS
A.
N o m i n a l Stems.
1S2. Declinable stems, though they often consist of the

bare root (either verbal or pronominal), are chiefly formed by
means of suffixes added to roots. These suffixes are of two
kinds : primary, or those added directly to roots (which
may at the same time be compounded with verbal prefixes) ;
and secondary, or those added to stems already ending in
a suffix and to pronominal roots (which are thus treated as
primary stems).
1. P r i m a r y Derivatives as a rule show the root in its
strong form ; e. g. v d a m. knowledge (vid know) ; sraa
n. running ( s ) ; k r making ( k ) ; g r b h m. seizer
(grabh). I n meaning they may be divided into the two
classes of abstract action nouns (cognate in sense to infinitives)
and concrete agent nouns (cognate i n sense to participles)
used as adjectives or substantives ; e. g. m a t I. thought
(man think) ; yodn, m.fighter(yudh fight). Other meanings
are only modifications of these two ; e. g. d n a (= d ^ ana)
n. act of giving, then gift.
a. W h e n the bare root is used as a declinable stem, it
usually remains unchanged ; e. g. d m. giver, b h d f.
destroyer, y j m. companion, sp m. spy, v d h adj. strengthen
ing. Roots ending in i or u take a determinative t ; e. g.
mt I. pillar, stt I. praise. The root may appear in a
reduplicated form ; e. g. e i k t wise, j g singing aloud.
b. Several primary nominal suffixes connected with the
verbal system have already been sufficiently dealt with, viz.
those of the pres. and fut. participles : ant (85 ; 156), n a
182]
PRIMARV NOMINAL
STEMS
255
and m n a (158) ; of the perf. act. part. : vas (89 ; 157) ;

of the perf. pass. part. : ta and na (160) ; of the gerundive :
ya, y y a , enya, tva, t a v y and an y a (162). The forma
tion of stems to which the primary suffixes of the com
parative and superlative, y s and iha, are added has
also been explained (88 ; 103, 2). Of the rest the following
in alphabetical order are the most usual and important :
a : e. g. b h g m. share (bhaj) ; megh m. cloud (mih
discharge water); cod m. instigator ( c u d ) ; srga m.
emission (sj); n y m. leader (n), priy pleasing
( p r ) ; h a v m. invoeation ( h ) ; j r m. lover (j);
vevij guich (vij dart), earcar furextending. The sub
stantives are almost exclusively m. ; but yug n. (Gk.
^vyo^ ; Lat. jugum).
an : in. agent nouns and about a dozen defective n. stems ;
e. g. ukn m. ox, m r d h n m. head, r j an m. king ;
san n. blood, h a n n. day, u d n n. water, dhan
n. udder.
a n a : n. action nouns: bhjana n. enjoyment (bhuj),
s d ana n. seat ( sad) ; k r a a n. deed (k) ; h v a n a n.
invocation ( h ) ; bhvana n. being (bh), vjna n.
enclosure ; also m. agent nouns : e. g. kara active, m d
ana gladdening (mad), sagmana assembling ; t u r a
speeding.
ana : I. action nouns : jara old age, ya woman,
v a d h n slaughter. This is also the I. form of adjectives in
ana ; e. g. t u r speeding.
ani : I. action nouns, and m. I. agent nouns ; e. g. a r i
I. firestick, v a r t a n I. track ; cara active ; r u r u k i
willing to destroy (from des. stem of ruj destroy).
1
The second part, ya, of this suffix is secondary (182, 2), but the
whole is employed as a primary suffix (162, 5). The first part, tav is
probably derrved from the old infinitive ending tave (p. 192, 4).
The second half of this suffix, ya is secondary, but the whole is
employed as a primary suffix (162, 6).
2
256
NOMINAL STEM FORMATION
[182
as : n. action nouns (with accented root) and agent nouns

(with accented suffix) ; e. g. p a s n. work (LaI. opus), aps
active ; rkas n. demon, raks m. id.
a : I. action nouns (from roots and secondary conjugation
stems) ; e. g. nind blame ; jig desire to win ; gamay
causing to go ; ava-y- desire for horses.
i : action nouns (nearly always I.) ; agent nouns (adj. and
subst.) ; and a few neuters of obscure origin ; e. g. k I.
tillage, j m. I. contest; c k r i active (k), ci bright;
p m. hand ; ki n. eye, s t h i n. bone, d d h i n. sour
milk.
is : n. action nouns (mostly with concrete sense) ; e. g.
a r c s flame, j y t i s light, mis raw flesh, b a r h s straw.
u : agent nouns, adj. and subst. (mostly m., but several
I. and n.) ; e. g. t a n thin (Lat. tenuis) ; bh m. arm
(Gk. 7ri^v^), p d m. foot ; h n u I. jaw ; j n u n. knee
(Gk. ^youv).
U n a : adj. and m. n. subst. ; e.g. trua young, d h a r a
supporting, m. n. support, m i t h u n forming a pair, i n . couple ;
v r u a m. a god, a k - u n m. bird.
us : n. action nouns and m. agent nouns ; e. g. d h n u s
n. bow ; j a y s victorious ; v a n s m. assailant.
u : I., mostly corresponding to m. and n. i n u ; e. g. tan
body ; dhan . sandbank (n. d h n u ) ; independently formed :
camu dich, vadhu bride.
k a (rare as a primary, but very common as a secondary
suffix) : adj. and m. subst. : -ka dry ; t - k a m. garment,
l-ka m. eall, stok m. drop ; v c-i-ka m . scorpion.
t a : besides ordinarily forming perf. pass. participles,
appears, i n a more general sense, as the suffix of a few
adjectives and of substantives with concrete meaning ; e. g.
t- rough, t cold ; d - t m. messenger, grta m.
car-seat, m r - t a m. mortal, h s - t a m. hand ; gh-t n. ghee,
n k - t a n. night ; with connecting i : s-i-ta black, pal-i-t
grey, rh-i-ta red.
P R I M A R V N O M I N A L STEMS
257
t i : chiefly f. action nouns ; e. g. i desire, t aid

(av), krt praise (k commemorate), r t gift; i
offering, gti motion, d ti gift ; d d hiti devotion (dh
think) ; ahat distress, mati indigence. It also forms
some twenty agent nouns used either as adjectives or as
m. substantives ; e. g. r t willing to give, v i eager ;
j n t m. relative, d ti m. skin, dhu.ti m. shaker, m i
m. fist, spti m. steed, abhi m. helper (but a b h i
I. help) ; m a t i poor, arat m. servant, v k t i m.
murderer.
t u : chiefly forms the stem of dat., abl.gen., and ace.
infinitives; e.g. d tu : D. d tave and d t avi ; A b . G .
d tos ; A . d tum ; also a few independent action nouns
and still fewer agent nouns : tu m. weft (v weave), t n t u
m. thread ; a k t m. ray (aj anoint), t m. season, j a n t
in. creature; vstu I. morning (vas shine); v s tu n. abode
(vas dwell : Gk. ao^rv).
t : agent nouns, often used participially governing an acc.
(when the root is generally accented) ; e. g. gnt going to
(acc.), but kart m. doer, ya sacrificer (yaj), u
ploughing bull ; less commonly with connecting vowel :
codit instigator, savit stimulator ; mart destroyer ;
t r u t winning, tarut m . conqueror ; vart protector ;
m a n t and manot inventor. This suffix also forms
several names of relationship ; e. g. pit m. father, mt
f. mother (101).
tnu forms more than a dozen agent nouns, mostly adj. ;
e. g. k t n active ; p y a t n reviling ; m d a y i t n intoxi
cating, s t a n a y i t n m. thunder.
tra : agent nouns, a few of them adjectives, the rest nearly
all n. substantives, expressing the instrument or means;
1
This word when the final number of a compound is reduced by

syncope to tti : bhgatti f. gift of fortune, maghtti f. receipt of bounty,
vsutti f. receipt of wealth.
258
11^2
e. g. j i t r a victorious, yjatra adorable ; k t r a n. field,

p tra n. cup, vstra n. garment; khanitra n. shovel.
There are also a few masculines, as dra tusk (da
bite), m n - t r a prayer, m i - t r friend (but n. friendship).
t r : occurs a few times as the I. form of the preceding :
-r goad (a reach), m tr measure (Gk. ^rpo^).
tha : action nouns, more often m. than n. ; e. g. gth m.
song, bhth m. offering, r t h a m. ear, h t h a , in. slaughter ;
r t h a n. goal, u k t h n. saying (vac), t r t h n. ford
( t cross), r i k t h n. inheritance ( r i c ) ; with connecting
vowel : u c t h a n. praise, s t a v t h a m. praise.
t h : occurs a few times as the I. form of tha : k h
course, g th song, n th trick.
na : besides ordinarily forming peri. pass. participles
(160, 1) appears as the suffix of a number of adjectives (I. n)
and substantives, the latter mostly m., a few n. ; e. g. u
hot, k black, n a g n naked ; b u d h n in. bottom, yaj
m. sacrifice, v r a m. colour; par n. wing, vasn n. price.
n a : as the I. form of na makes a few substantives : t
thirst, d h n cow, sn missile, sth post.
n i : in. and f. action and agent nouns (some of the latter
adj.): y n i m. receptacle, j r i I. heat; p -ni speckled,
pre loving ( pr), b h u r i excited ; agn m. fire, v h n i
m. draught animal.
n u : action and agent nouns (including some adjectives),
nearly always m. ; e. g. kep m. jerk, b h n m. light,
s n m. son; d h e n f. cow; dnu. n. drop (m. f. demon).
m a : adj. and (almost exclusively m.) substantives; e.g.
j i n m oblique, ag-m mighty ; i d h - m m. fuel, g h a r - m
m. heat, s t - m a m. praise, hi-m m. cold; b l - m a n. chip;
h - m I. winter.
man : action nouns (very numerous), most of which are n.
1
rtha occurs often in theRV.,but appears only three times (in

Maala X) as a m . ; in the later language it is m. only.
182]
PRIMARV NOMINAL
STEMS
259
accented on the root, whi1e a good many are m. accented on

the suffix ; e. g. jman n. course (Lat. agmen), n man
n. name (Lat. nomen), bh man n. world, s-man n. praise
(Lat. car-men) ; jniman n. birth ; v r - - m a n n. expanse ;
b h - m n m. abundance, v i d - m n in. knowledge, p r a t h - i - m n
m. breadth ; also a few rare1y used m. agent nouns, mostly
accented on the suffix ; e. g. v a d - m n m. speaker, s a d - m n
m. sitter; - m a n m. stone (Gk. a^ôu) ; j m a n victorious ;
some of these differ i n accent only from corresponding n.
action nouns (cp. as): d m n m. giver: d man n. gift;
d h a r - 1 n n m. ordainer : d h r m a n n. ordinance ; b r a h m n
m. priest : b r h m a n n. worship ; s a d m n m. sitter : s d
man n. seat.
m i : adj. and in. (also one I.) subst. : j m related ; r
m m. wave, r a s m m. ray ; bh mi I. earth.
m : a few I. substantives : bh m earth, lak-1n sign,
srm tube.
y u : a few adjectives and m. substantives : yjyu pious,
s u n d h y pure, s h y u strong ; m a n y m. anger, mt
y m. death ; d s y u m. enemy, y u m. enemy.
r a : many adjectives, mostly accented on the suffix ; e. g.
u g r mighty, p a t a r flying, ajir swift ; g d hra greedy ;
vipra inspired ; also severa1 substantives of different genders
(I. r) ; e. g. k u r m. razor, v a m r m . ant ; k h a d i r m.
a tree; jra i n . field (Gk. vpo^), vjra in. thunderbolt,
sura m. hero ; abhr n. cloud, kr n. milk ; gra n.
point, r n d h r a n. hollow ; rra n. body ; dh r I. stream,
sr I. intoxicating liguor.
r i : adj. and m. I. subst. ; e. g. bhuri abundant, v d h r i
emasculated ; j s u r i exhausted ; ghri m. foot, s r m.
patron; -ri f. edge, sri I. dawn; agri I. finger.
r u : adj. and a few n. substantives : cru dear (Lat.
carus), bhr timid ; p a t r u flying ; vand ru praising ;
sanru obtaining ; -ru n. tear, m - r u n. beard.
va : adj. and (mostly m.) substantives ; e. g. r d h - v
260
[182
(Gk. op0o^), p a k v ripe, p r va preceding, srva all (Lat.

salvus); -va m. horse (Lat. eq-uu-s), sruv m. ladle; m
v I. disease.
v a n : adj. and subst. (mostly m., few n.) ; e.g.
kvan
praising, k t van active, yjvan sacrificing ; d h v a n m.
road, gr van m. stone ; p r v a n n. joint.
sa : adj. and subst. (all genders) ; e. g. g t sa adroit,
p k dappled ( p e ) ; mahi mighty; j rushing;
aru red ; t s a m. fountain, d r a p s m. drop, prua
m. man ; p r a n. rubbish ; man f. devotion.
snu : adj. (from root or cans. stem) ; e. g. j i victorious ;
v a d h a s n murderous ; cari wandering ; m d a y i
intoxicating.
2. Secondary nominal Suffixes.
The great majority of these form adjectives with the
general sense of relating to or connected with.
a : forms a large number of adjectives expressing the
sense of relation to or connexion with the primitive word ;
many of them have in the m. become appellatives and in
the n. abstract nouns. The first syllable i n the great
majority of instances is strengthened with vddhi (the I.
then always takes ) ; e. g. m r uta relating to the Maruts
(mart) ; d i v a divine (dev god); p r thiva earthly (pthiv
earth) ; m n a v belonging to man (mnu), in. human being ;
t n va belonging to the body (tan ) ; darj- n. battle of
the ten kings (daa-rjan) ; m g hona n. bountifulness (magh
van bountiful); without vddhi : bheaj adj. healing, n.
medicine; s a k h y n. friendship (skhi friend); h o t r n. office
of priest (ht).
: forms the I. of adjectives which in m. and n. end in a ;
e. g. n v I., n v a m. n. new ; p r i y I., p r i y m. n. dear ;
gat I., gat m. n. gone.
n : forms the I. of names of male beings in a, or I.
personifications ; e. g. indr wife of Indra, m u d g a l a n
182]
SECONDARV
NOMINAL SUFFIXES
261
wife of Mudgala ; aray nymph of the Forest (raya) ;

rj n Strength (rj strength).
y a n a : forms m. patronymics with initial Vddhi ; e. g.
k v y a n a descendant of Kava.
i : forms m. patronymics, with initial Vddhi, from
nouns in a ; e. g. p u r u k u t s i descendant of Purukutsa ;
s varai descendant of Savaraa. Similarly formed is
s r athi m. charioteer (from s a r t h a driving on the same
chariot).
i n : forms numerous adjectives, i n the sense of possessing,
almost exclusively from stems i n a ; e. g. a r k n praising
(ark praise); from other stems: arein radiant (arcbeam),
varmin clad in armour (vrman) ; irregularly formed :
r e t n abounding in seed (rtas), h i r a n adorned with gold
(hiraya).
i y a (= y a after conjunct consonants): forms adjectives of
relation ; e. g. a b h r i y derived from the clouds (abhr),
i n d r i y belonging to Indra, s a m u d r y a oceanic.
: forms the I. of m. stems made with suffixes ending i n
consonants (95), or with t (101 e), and often of stems i n u
(98 c) or in a (always when formed with Vddhi) ; e. g.
adat eating, avitr protectress, pthv broad (pth),
dev goddess (dev). Cp. 107.
na : forms adjectives, chiefly expressive of direction,
from the weak stem of derivatives i n a c ; e. g. arvc n a
turned towards (arvc hitherward) ; also others expressing
the general sense of relation ; e. g. vivajan-na (AV.) con
taining all kinds of people.
ya : forms general adjectives, chiefly i n the later Sahits ;
e. g. ghamedh y a relating to the domestic sacrifice, parvat
ya mountainous ; navan y a used for the oblation (hvana),
as a m. sacrificial fire (AV.).
eya: forms m. patronymics as well as a few general
adjectives ; e.g. d i t e y m. son of Aditi ; p u r u e y a
relating to man (prua).
262
[182
k a : forms adjectives and diminutives ; e. g. n t a k a

making an end (nta), d r a k distant, mmaka my ; p d a
k a in. little foot, rjak in. kinglet; with Vddhi and con
necting i : v s antika belonging to the spring (vasant). The
I. of some of the diminutives is formed with i k ; e. g.
kumrik I. little girl ( k u m r a k m. little boy).
tana and (its syncopated form) tna : form adjectives with
a temporal sense from adverbs and prepositions ; e. g.
n tana and n tna present (n now) ; s a n t n a and
s a n t n a eternal (sn from of old) ; p r a t n ancient (pr
before).
tama : forms superlatives (from nominal stems and the
prep. d ) and ordinals ; e. g. p u r u t m a very many ; u t t a m
highest ; a t a - t a m hundredth.
tara : forms comparatives from adjectives, substantives,
and the prep. d : t a v s t a r a stronger ; ratn tara better
charioteer ; t t a r a higher.
t : forms abstract I. substantives with the sense conveyed
by the English suffixes ship and ness ; e. g. b a n d h t
relationship, vast wealthiness; d e v t divinity, p u r u
t human nature.
t t i and (less often) t t : form abstract I. substantives
(like t) ; e. g. j y e n t t i superiority, s a r v t t i complete
welfare (Lat. salutti) ; devtt divine service, s a r v t t
completeness (Lat. salutdt).
tya : forms a few substantives and adjectives from adverbs
and prepositions : am tyam. companion (am at home); pa
tya n. offspring ; n t y a constant, n y a foreign (ns out).
t v : forms n. abstract substantives (like t) ; e. g. amta
t v n. immortality, maghavattv liberality.
tvana (= tvana): forms n. abstract substantives (nearly
all of them duplicates of others i n tva) ; e.g. j a n i t v a n
wifehood, s a k h i t v a n friendship.
t h a : forms a few ordinals as well as adjectives (from
pronominal stems) with a general numerical sense ; e. g.
l82]
SECONDARV NOMINAL SUFFIXES
263
c a t u r t h fourth, s a p t t h a seventh ; k a t i t h the how

manieth ?
n : forms the I. of p t i lord and of paru knotty, as well
as of several adjectives in ta denoting colours ; thus ptn
mistress (Gk. ^roruta), pru a river ; variegated (ta),
In a few of the colour adjectives n is substituted for the
final a, while k takes the place of t ; e. g. s i k n i black
(sita).
bha : forms m. names of animals ; thus abh and
vabh bull ; g a r d a b h and r s a b h a ass.
m a : forms superlatives (partly from prepositions) and
a few ordinals ; e. g. avam lowest ; m a d h y a m middle
most; nava1n ninth (Lat. novimus), daam tenth (Lat.
decimus),
mant : forms adjectives i n the sense of possessing from
substantives (except stems i n a) ; e. g. a s n i m a n t possessing
the thunderbolt, k r t u m a n t powerful ; g m a n t rich in cows,
ekumant possessed of eyes.
maya : forms adjectives (I. ) i n the sense of consisting of;
e. g. m a n a s m y a spiritual, m n m y a made of clay (md).
mna : forms a few n. abstracts from nouns or particles :
d y u m n brightness, s u m n welfare.
y a : forms adjectives of relation, in. patronymics and n.
abstracts. Most of the latter two classes take Vddhi of the
first syllable, but only about onefourth of the adjectives do
so ; e. g. paav-y relating to cattle (pa) ; d i t y m. son of
Aditi ; t a u g r y m. son of Tugra, but also t g r y a ; dhipa
tya n. lordship (dhipati overlord).
ra : forms comparatives (from prepositions) and ordinary
nouns, mostly adjectives ; e. g. v a r a lower ; d h m r grey
( d h m smoke) ; r a t h i r riding in a car (rtha).
l a : forms adjectives and a few m. diminutives ; e. g.
kapiI (monkeycoloured) brown, b a h u I abundant; val
m. little man, i-Ia m. little child.
vat : forms a few I. abstract substantives, almost exclu-
264
NOMINAL STEM
FORMATION
[182-183
sively from prepositions, expressing local position ; e. g.

u d - v t height, ni-vt depth.
van : forms adjectives in the sense of possessing and a few
m. substantives ; e. g. m a g h - v a n bountiful, ru-vn
obedient, s a m d - v a n warlike ; t h a r - v a n m. fire-priest.
vaut : forms adjectives, from every kind of nominal stem,
in the sense of possessing ; e. g. v-vant and v a - v a n t
owning horses ; s k h i v a n t having friends ; vuvant accom
panied by Viu ; rmavant hairy ; p y a s v a n t containing
milk. Some of these derivatives, especially those formed from
pronominal stems, have the sense of resembling ; e. g.
m vant like me ; n v n t manly. From this sense is derived
the use of the n. ace. as an adv. of comparison ; e. g. manu
v t like Manus.
v i n : forms adjectives from stems ending in a (which is
lengthened), a, and as ; e. g. u b h a y v n partaking of both
(ubhya), arvn obedient to the goad, yaas-vn glorious.
Exceptionally formed are dnadvn bold (dht) and
vgvn eloquent (vc).
a : forms adjectives and m. substantives, sometimes
without change of meaning ; e. g. ta-a variegated (ta id.),
y u v a - youthful ( y v a n id.), r o m a - hairy (rman hair) ;
aku- m. hook, kal-a m. jar.
1 S 3 . The above lists of suffices practically supply the
rules of gender for the Vedic noun. These may be
summarized as follows :
Speaking generally, bare roots as stems, if action nouns,
are I., if agent nouns, m.
Derivative stems i n , , are f. ; stems in a, t, n may be
m. or n. ; stems in i and u may be of any gender.
a. Feminine are all stems formed with the suffixes , .
; t, tt t t i , t i , t r .
2
1 Except .seven m. stems in ; see 100, I b.

But when stems in ti appear as agent nouns they are m., and
m. f. as adjectives.
2
GENDER.
183-184]
COMPOUNDS
265
b. Neuter are all stems formed with is, tva, tvana, and,
unless adjectives or agent nouns, those formed with ana,
as, us.
c. Masculine are (in so far as not used adjectivally) all
stems formed with the suffixes y u , v a ; y a n a , i , k a ,
bha, l a .
d. Masc. or fem. are stems formed with the suffixes n i ,
nu, m i , t ; also stems formed with the bare root.
c. Masc. or neut. are stems formed with the suffixes a,
ta, tna, na una, ma, ya, r a , tya, tra, tu, an, man, van ;
also adjectives formed with i n , v i n , n a , y a , tana, tama,
tara, maya, mant, vant.
f. Masc., fem., neut. are stems formed with i or u.
1
B . Compounds.
I S 4 . I . v e r b a l Compounds are formed by combining
roots with twenty prepositions and a few adverbs. The
compound verb (which, however, i n finite forms is actually
compounded only in subordinate clauses when the preposition
immediately precedes the verb) is conjugated like the simple
verb. Thus gam go combines with sam together to sagm
go together, unite; 3. s. sagchati. The compound root
can be used to form nominal stems by means of the primary
suffixes enumerated above (182, 1) ; e. g. sagam m.
union.
a. The prepositions which are compounded with roots are
the following: c h a towards, t i beyond, d h i upon, n u
after, a n t r between, p a away, p i on, a b h against, va
down, near, d up, n down, into, n s out, p r away,
6
When they are of course m. as well as n.

When they are m.
In patronymics.
stems in tr are always m. when they are agent nouns.
These when used as adj. are occasionally neuter.
The preposition reverses the sense of verbs of going or giving ;
e. g. gm come, d take.
2
4
5
266
vERBAL
COMP OUNDS
[184
p a r i around, p r forth, p r t i towards, v asunder, sm

together.
b. A few adverbs are also compounded with a limited
number of verbs :
r a m at hand is combined with k = serve (dat), prepare
(acc.) ; with gam = serve ; with b h = serve, conduce to
(dat.).
vis openly is combined with as, b h and k only ; with
the two former it means become visible, appear; e.g. vis
s n t i being manifest ; v i r agnir abhavat Agni became
manifest ; with k it means make visible, e. g. v karta
make manifest.
t i r s aside is combined with b h be and d h put only ;
e. g. m t i r b h t may it not disappear.
p u r s in front is combined with k do and d h put only ;
e. g. k t u r a t h p u r may he place (our) car in the
forefront.
rd, an old word meaning heart (Gk. âpt^-ia and ^pa^-i^,
Lat. cord-), having acquired the character of an adverb, is
once combined with k and often with d h put in the sense
of put faith in, credit ( LaI. credo for cred-do), but is nearly
always separated from the verb by other words ; e. g. r d
asmai dhatta believe in him ; r d v i v v r y k d h i entrust
all boons (to us).
p r d r (before the door) begins to appear in the A V . in
combination with b h become manifest, appear.
c. A few substantives, after assuming an adverbial charac
ter, appear compounded, like verbal prefixes, with participial
forms in the A V . These are: s t a m home with i go:
astaynt setting, astameynt about to set, s t a m i t a
set ; n m a s obeisance with the gerund of k make : nam.as
k t ya doing homage.
1
1
2
In the B. and later tirs is also combined with k do.

This word is still a substantive in tl1e RV.
184-18.^]
VERBAL
COMPOUNDS
267
In the R V . a few substantives designating parts of the

body are compounded with the gerund of grah seize : kara
g h ya seizing by the ear, pdag h ya seizing by the foot,
hastag h ya grasping by the hand.
d. The interjection h is compounded with k in the sense
of utter the sound h, murmur ; e. g. hikvat lowing.
There are also a few reduplicated interjectional words,
mostly onomatopoetic and nearly always ending in , that
appear compounded with b h and k : aIaIbhvant sound
ing merrily ; j a j a n b h v a n t sparkling ; maIm.albhvant
glittering ; b h a r b h a r b h a v a t became confounded ; b i b i b
b h v a n t crackling ; k i k i r k u tear to tatters ; mama
karam I have crushed; masmas k u r u and msms k u r u
crush ; a k h k h a l k t y a croaking.
a. The latter compound is the only example in the RV. of
appearing instead of before k or bh. The Av. has vt kta
n. a disease (from vta wind).
I I . N o m i n a l Compounds.
1 S 5 . From the IndoEuropean period the Vedic language
has inherited the power of combining two or more words
into one treated like a simple word as regards accent,
inflexion, and construction. Both i n the frequency and i n
the length of compounds the Vedic language resembles the
Greek of Homer. I n the R V . and the A V . no compounds
of more than three independent members are met with, and
those in which three occur are rare, such as p r v a k m a
k t van fulfilling former wishes.
The two characteristic features of a compound are unity
of accent and employment of the uninflected stem i n the
first member (or members) ; but there are exceptions to
both these rules. Occasionally tmesis of a compound occurs.
Chiefly in dual compounds, as dyva ha km heaven and earth ;

also in a few others, as nr v sam, for nr-sam. It takes
place only when the compound is doubly accented.
268
NOMINAL
COMPOUNDS
[185-186
The Sandhi between the members is, moreover, sometimes

different from that between words i n a sentence.
a. The gender of compounds, if they end i n substantives,
is with few exceptions that of the last member ; the gender
of collectives is always neuter. The number in compounds
depends on the sense ; that in collectives is always singular.
When the word appearing as the first member has two
stems, the weak stem is used ; when it has three, the middle
stem (73 a). In substantive compounds the last member
retains, as a rule, its gender, form, and inflexion ; while in
adjectival compounds the gender and inflexion of the last
member are of course variable.
b. Classification. Vedic compounds may be divided into
three main classes according to their syntactical relations :
1. Coordinatives, or those i n which the members are
coordinated ; 2. Determinatives, or those in which the
first member determines or limits the sense of the last ;
3. Possessives, or adjectives the general meaning of which
implies possession (as b a h v a n n possessing much food). To
these must be added, in order to classify Vedic compounds
exhaustively, three lesser groups : 4. Governing com
pounds, or adjectives i n which the first member governs the
last i n sense (as k a y d v r a ruling men) ; 5. Syntactical
compounds, or irregular formations arising from the juxta
position of two words in a sentence ; 6. Iteratives, or
repeated words treated as compounds in the Sahits
inasmuch as they have only one accent and a special meaning
when thus combined.
1. Coordinative (Dvandva) ^ Compounds.
1 S 6 . These consist of two substantives, far less commonly
adjectives, connected in sense with ' and .
1
This term applied to coordinatives by the later H indu gram

marians, means pair or couple.
LSc]
COORDINATIVES
269
A 1. The most numerous group (about threefourths of all

the Dvandvas) i n the Rigveda comprises those compounds
(nearly always names of deities) in which each member is
dual in form and has a separate accent ; e. g. m i t r v r u
Mitra and Varua; m t r p i t r mother and father ; dy v
pthiv heaven and earth. In the R v the two duals are often
separated, as in the line n k t b a r h i s a d a t m u s
let Night and Dawn seat themselves upon the litter. The proper
genitive of such compounds is e. g. m i t r y o r v r u a y o .
But as these coordinate duals early came to be regarded as
a unit, the commonest ending of the first member, that of
the N . A . , came to be retained unaltered in the other cases :
G. mitr vruayo, I. m i t r v r u b h y m . A further
step towards unification is taken in a minority of cases in
which the first member loses its accent and the last syllable
of the final member (irrespectively of its original accent)
receives the acute, as s r y c a n d r a m s sun and moon
(candrmas), The last stage in the Rigveda appears in
four examples in which the first member assumes the stem
form, e. g. i n d r a v y u Indra and Vyu. In the later Sa
hits and in B. this is the prevailing type in new formations,
e. g. dakakratu m. will and understanding (TB.).
2. Another type is represented by the pIural Dvandvas
which express pairs of groups. These show the stemform
in the first member and the accent on the final syllable of
the last. The only examples i n the RV. occur in Book X ;
e.g. ahortr i^ days and nights, ajvyas goats (aj) and
^heep (vi) ; but in the later SanIhits this type becoes
quite general, e. g. b h a d r a p p (Av.), the good and the bad.
1
Cp. Latin suovetaarilia, a later type representing three groups.

This Dvandva shows a double irregularity : the gender of the first
member has prevailed over that of the second, and the f. stem rtr
has been changed to rtra.
several of the cardinal numerals are old Dvandvas, e. g. dv
daa twelve (two and ten), dva being an old dual ; tryo-daa thirteen
(three and ten).
2
270
NOMINAL
COMPOUNDS
[186-187
3. There occur i n the Sahits a few singular Dvandvas

which express a collective sense and are always neuter, and
accent the final syllable ; e. g. i - p r t r n what has been
offered or given ; kta.âktm (AV.) what has been done and
not done ; k e a - m a r n. hair and beard (AV.) ; bhadra
p p m (AV.) good and evil ; samiayajs (VS.) sacrifice and
sacrificial formula.
B . DvandvaS consisting of adjectives are rare. They are
of three types :
1. The adjectives designate colours, their combination
expressing a mixture of the two, as nlalohit dark blue
and red = dark red.
2. They express a contrast, as u t k l a n i k l (VS.) going
uphill and downhill.
3. They are used with dual substantives to express that
each is an attribute of one unit of the kind, as padbhy
dakiasavy b hym (AV.) with the two feet, the right and
the left.
a. The old dual Dvandvas (A 1) are frequently represented
by elliptical duals which put one of a pair in the dual to
express both, as dy v = heaven and earth ; mitr Mitra
and Varua ; p i t r = father and mother ; m t r = mother
and father, parents.
1
2. Determinatives.
1S7. This numerous class of compounds comprises two
groups. I n the larger group (2 a) the first member has the
value of a substantive dependent, i n the sense of an oblique
ease, on the second, which may be either a verbal noun or
an ordinary substantive. This may be called the dependent
determinative group (named Tatpurusa by the later H indu
grammarians). In the other group (2 b) the final member,
1
2
Cf. the Greek ,^^ô ^.

Originally doubtless i p rt , dual in both members.
DETERMINATIvES
271
if an ordinary substantive, is described adjectivally, or, i f

a verbal noun, adverbially, by the first member. This may
be called the descriptive determinative group (called Karma
dhraya by the later Hindu grammarians).
2 a. Dependent (Tatpurua) Determinatives.
A . The first member (substantive or pronoun) may have
the sense (and often even the form) of any oblique case.
When it has an ace., inst., abb, or loc. sense, the final
member is mostly a verbal noun ; when it has a daI. or
gen. sense, it is always an ordinary noun. The compound
may be a substantive or an adjective, according as the last
member is one or the other.
1. In acc. dependents the final member is always a verbal
noun ; e. g. h a v i r - d eating the oblation ; go-ghn cow-slaying,
a v a - h a y urging on steeds; devam d ana exhilarating
the gods; g a r a g r (Av.) having swallowed poison ; b h r i
d v a n giving much ; b h a d r a v d n uttering an auspicious cry ;
v j asti I. act of winning booty; v t r a h t y a n. act of
slaying Vtra.
2. Inst. : indrap t ama most drunk by Indra ; agni
d a g d h burnt with fire ; d e v t t a 7 given by the gods ; aritra
p r a a , adj. crossing with oars ; tan ubhra shining (with=)
in body ; balavijy to be recognized by his strength.
1
The subdivision ending in verbal nouns may be called verbal

dependents .
Examples of this sense are very rare. The final member is an
ordinary adjective or substantive.
The final member of genitive dependents is always an ordinary
substantive. ^
The subdivision ending i n ordinary substantives may be called
' nominal dependents '.
Cf. Greek lôâô^ horsetaming.
A n example of the rare use of a past pass. part. in a transitive
sense.
7 ttafordatta(l6O,2b).
2
272
NOMINAL
COMPOUNDS
[187
3. Dat. : vakmar j asatya faithful to the ordainers of

hymns ; v i v - a m b h salutary for all.
4. AbI. : goj produced from cows ; t v r a s t pressed
from the fermenting mass.
5. Gen. (the commonest sense) : r j a p u t r king's son ;
vi-pti lord of the elan; devakilbi m. off nee against the
gods ; d r u p a d n. post of wood.
6. Loc. : h a r j t a ( A Y ) born in the day ; u d a p l u t ( A Y )
swimming in the water ; p u r u b h being in many places ;
bandnukit dwelling among relatives.
a. I n their first member many dependent compounds
retain the caseending, most commonly the acc., often the
loc., but the rest rarely. Sing. endings (ace. and inst.) may
express a plur. sense. Plur. endings (ace and loc) some
times occur, but du. endings never in these compounds.
The ace. generally expresses the object of a transitive
verb. The form i n am is, i n the R V , the rule before the
verbal nouns kara making, caya collecting, jaya conquer
ing, tara overcoming, dara cleaving, bhara bearing, ruja
breaking, sani winning, saha overwhelming ; e. g. abhaya
kar
procuring
security,
dhanajay
winning
booty,
pur
adar.
destroying
forts,
sutabhar
reeeiving
pressed
Soma ; it also occurs before other verbal nouns, not infre
quently before such as begin with vowels ; e. g. d h i y a d h
devout, vivam-inv all-moving, v a m - i i seeking horses.
A n example of a cognate acc. is u b h a - y moving in
brilliance, and of an adverbial acc, ugra-pay (AV.)
looking fiercely. Examples of an ace pi. ending are k-citk a r doing all manner of things ; p v a - i i desiring kine.
1
A n example of an Objective genitive.

H ere the genitive expresses the material.
^ The singular acc. form with plural sense.
Also im i n pui-bhar bringing prosperity and hari-bhar
bearing the tawny (bolt).
This and vam-ii are Tatpurusa possessives (l89, 2).
2
DEPENDENT
187]
DETERMINATIVES
273
Inst. : girv d h rejoicing in song ; n e i t a driven by

dogs (n) ; vidman p as working (aps) with wisdom
(vidmn) ; k u d n m r (AV.) m. death by hunger ; vc
stena thief by speech, secretly injuring by words.
Dat. : the only example seems to be found i n the loose
syntactical compound d s y a v e v k a wolf to the Dasyu, used
as a proper name.
1
A b l . : divoj produced from heaven ; d i v o r e shining

from the sky.
Gen. : very common before p t i husband or lord, as gns
p t i husband of a divine woman ; j s p t i lord of a family ;
b r h m a a s p t i lord of prayer.
It also occurs in the
proper names d v o d s a servant of heaven and n a - p a
Dog's-tail.
3
L o c . : common i n the R v before agent nouns formed

from the simple root ; e. g. diviyj worshipping in heaven ;
ratheh standing on a ear ; also before several formed
with a ; e. g. d i v i k a y dwelling in heaven. There are also
several examples of plurals, as apsu.d dwelling in the
waters; g o u y d h fighting in (=fur)kine; ntsvs piercing
the heart. The singular also occurs a few times before an
ordinary adj. or subst., as m d e r a g h u qûiek in exhilaration ;
svapneduvapny (AV.) n. evil dream in sleep.
a. If a root forms the last member of a Tatpurua, final long
vowels (a,i,u) undergo no change, while short vowels (I.u ) usually
add a determinative t ; e. g. agrep drinkingfirst; yajan leading the
4
singular ending with plural sense.

A rare example of an inst. with an ordinary substantive as final .
member.
3 By the false analogy of these words are also formed from a stems
taspati lord of pious works and rthaspti lord of the car. Dmpati
lord of the house probably = dmspati.
Radical a, as a shortened form of , often appears as a final,
hciefiy i n the later sahits, as agreg going in front, nama.dh (Av.)
namegiving.
2
274
^187-188
sacrifice ; raja-.-u. king-creating ; but divi-k-t dwelling in heaven ; somast Soma-pressing ; jyoti-k-t light-creating. There is, however, no t
added in vanar-g forest-roaming.
1
2 b. Descriptive ( K a r r n a d h r a y a )
Compounds.
1SS. This class of Determinatives is comparatively rare

in the Sahits. The last member is generally an ordinary
substantive, but is sometimes a verbal or an ordinary
adjective. The relation of the first member to the last is
appositional, attributive, or adverbial. It is expressed in
three ways :
1. ^ B y a Substantive. If followed by a subst., it has an
attributive sense equivalent to an adj. expressing sex or
a compound nature; e.g. purua-mg (VS.) m. (man=)
male antelope ; l k a - y t u m. owl demon, i . e. demon in
form of an owl ; p u r u a - v y g h r (VS.) m. man-tiger, a kind
of demon ; va-kapi m. man-ape.
If followed by a verbal adj., the preceding snbst. is usually
appositional i n sense ; e. g. na-k t acting as a ruler ;
s t m a t a a fashioned as a hymn of praise. But sometimes
it is adverbial ; e. g. tvj sacrificing. in season = regularly ;
s r g a t a k t a speeding with a rush.
a. Before a verbal noun a substantive sometimes implies a com
parison ; e. g. dhravk sounding like a stream, yen-juta speeding like
an eagle. Similarly before an ordinary adjective : kababhru (vS.)
reddish like a parrot.
2. B y an Adjective. If followed by an ordinary subst.,

the adj. has the usual attributive sense ; e. g. candrm s
m. (bright) moon ; k a - a k u n (AV.) m. raven (lit. black
1
Final u sometimes appears as a shortened form of u in some

Tatpurusas, as dn-j inspiring the mind; puru-bh appearing in many
places.
This is the term applied to this class of compounds by the later
Hindu grammarians.
2
M
KAR ADHRAYA COM POUNDS
188]
275
bird) ; nava-jvr m. new pain ; m a h - g r m ^ m. great host ;

y v a y a t - s a k h m. protecting friend. Sometimes the qualify
ing adj. indicates a part of what the last member expresses ;
e. g. adnara-kah (VS.) m. lower (part of the) neck ;
a r d h a - d e v m. demi-god ; p r v h m. forenoon ; mad h y - d i n a m. midday.
If followed by a verbal noun, the preceding adj. is adverbial
in sense ; e. g. u - p t v a n swift-flying, i . e. flying swiftly ;
uhman swiftly-speeding ; sanaj born of old (= sn) ;
satyayj sacrificing truly ( = satym), dvij (AV.) born
twice. Similarly before ordinary adjectives : v i v - c a n d r a
all-glittering ; h r i - c a n d r a glittering yellow ; tryarua
(AV.) ruddy in three places.
3
a. A t the end of Karmadhrayas the final n of an stems is dropped'^

in ekav (AV.) m. only bull, mahvr (Av.) m. great bull, bha
drh (Av.) n. auspicious day.
9
3. B y an A d v e r b (inclusive of particles and prepositions) :

a k a y d r h injuring wrongly ; a m u t r a b h y a (AV.) n.
state of being there ; ev r a quite (ev) ready (ra) ; p n a r
nava renewing itself; p u n a r b h arising again; puroy v an
going before ; p u r h i t a placed in front ; s a t m a h a t equally
(sats) great; s a t y m u g r a truly mighty; s y a b h a v
As first member of Karmadbrayas (and Babuvrhis) maht

appears as mah ; but the Av. has mahatk great section.
H ere skhi friend becomes sakha. Cf. 189, 4d and 189 A. 2 a.
H ere ban day is syncopated and extended with a ; also in apar
h (Av.) afternoon, nyhna (Av.) decline of day.
W i t h caseending retained i n the first member.
^' The sense is rather appositional i n purvap drinking (as) first,
vamjata born as one dear, i . e. dear by nature.
Cf. Gk. ^l^7r^r,^ swiftflying.
H ere the cardinals are used for the numeral adverbs dvs^
tris.
^' This is much commoner in Bahuvrhis (189, 4).
Also in aah (Av) m. period of six days (189, 4).
2
276
NOMINAL STEM
FORMATION
[188189
( A v ) m. becoming evening; p a c I . d o (vS.) m. later part

of the evening; i d v a t s a r ( A v ) m . the present year; pur
a g n i (VS^) m. fire in front; sud giving willingly; d u
va unfavourable ; a m t r a m. nonfriend, enemy ; suvasan
n. fair garment ; t i k a excessively dark ; p r a p t in.
great grandson ; a d h i r j m. supreme king ; p r v r a m.
great hero ; savatsar m. full year.
1
3. Possessive (Bahuvrhi) Compounds.

1 S 9 . These compounds are secondary adjectives. They
are determinatives (generally Karmadharayas), ending i n
substantives, which have been transformed into adjectives
agreeing in gender, number, and case with another substan
tive expressed or understood. The transformation is accom
panied by a shift of accent from the final member to the
first. The term ' possessive ' is probably the most appropriate
as applied to these compounds, for it expresses their general
meaning i n the vast majority of cases ; in a few instances
the more comprehensive sense of ' connected with is required
to indicate the relation between the substantive and the
Bahuvrhi compound agreeing with i t ; e.g. viva-nara
belonging to all men. Possessives are of two kinds :
1. K a r m a d h r a y a Possessives, in which the first member
is an attributive adj. (including participles), an appositional
subst., or an adverb (including particles and prepositions) :
e. g. u g r - b h u powerful-armed ; h a t - m t whose mother has
been slain ; r a d - v a t s a having a shining calf; v a - p a r a
horse-winged, i . e. whose wings are horses ; n d r a - a t r u having
Indra as a foe ; r j p u t r a having kings as sons ; h r a y a
nemi whose fellies are (made of) gold ; a pad eightfooted,
d v i p d twofooted ; itth dh having such thought, devout ;
p u r o r a t h whose car is in front ; vgrva wrynecked ;
2
H ere the adverbs preceding ordinary substantives are
Gk. b^r^-7roc^.
Lat. biped.
adjectives.
189]
H
B AH
UVRI I
COMPOUNDS
277
a n u d r waterless ; a p d footless ; k y a v a causing a bad

harvest ; d u p d illfooted ; supar beautifulwinged.
a. In some possessives based on appositional Karmadhrayas a
comparison of the first with the final member is implied ; e. g. varjya
(Av) whose rain is (like) butter ; vk-kea whose trees are (like) hair,
tree-haired ^ wooded (mountain).
b. The superlatives jyha chief and rha best, the comparative
bhuyas more, and pra higher, are used substantively as final member
of possessives : ndra-jyeha having Indra as chief, yam-reha (Av.)
of whom Yama is best, sthibhuys (AV.) having bone as its chief
part ^chieflybone, avaraspar (VS.) in which the lower is higher, topsyturvy.
2
2. I n T a t p u r u a Possessives the first member most

commonly has a gen., not infrequentIy a loc., but rarely an
inst. or ace. sense. The easeending is i n several instances
retained. Examples are: r y s k m a having a desire for
wealth ; d i v y o n i having (his) origin in heaven ; b h s k e t u
recognizable by light ; t v k m a having a desireforthee.
a. I n possessives based on gen. Tatpuruas, the first member often
implies a comparison, but never with a caseending ; as agntejas
(Av.) having the brightness offire,firebright; kagrva bearnecked ;
gvapus cowshaped ; mnojava having the swiftness of thought, swift as
thought ; mayuraroman having the plumes of peacocks.
b. When a loc. sense is intended, parts of the body appear as the
last member; e.g. aru-mukh (Av.) having tears on her face, tear
faced ; ghrtprha having butter on his back, butter backed ; p t rahasta
(Av.) having a vessel in his hand ; maigrv having pearls on the neck ;
mdhujihva having honey on his tongue ; vjrabhu having a bolt on
his arm.
3. Bahuvrhis come to be used substantively, when the
noun with which they agree is dropped : thus supar
fairwinged, i n . bird. Of this use there are three appli
cations :
a. These compounds very frequently appear as m., some
times as I., proper names, the adjectival sense often not
1
Gk. a^vôs.
H ere the s of the nom. survives from the use of the two words in
syntactical juxtaposition. Cp. the later paraspara and anyo.^nya.
2
278
NOMINAL STEM
FORMATION
occurring at all. Thus b h d u k t h a adj. having great praise,

m. a seer ; b h d d i v a adj. dwelling in high heaven, m. a seer,
I. bhaddiv a goddess ; m. as names only, P r i y m e d h a
(to whom sacrifice is dear) and V m d e v a (to whom the gods
are dear).
b. They appear not infrequently as n. substantives with
an abstract (sometimes a collective) sense, especially when
the first member is the privative particle a or an, or the
adjective s r v a all; e.g. a n a p a t y , adj. . childless (Av),
n. childlessness ; s a r v a v e d a s ( A v ) n. whole property ;
n i k i l b i n. deliverance from sin ; m t b a n d h (Av.) n.
maternal kinship.
e. W i t h numerals, from d v i two upwards, as their first
member, they form sing. neuters (always ending i n ac
cented ) with a collective sense ; e. g. t r i y u g n. period of
three lives ; d v i r j (Av.) n. battle of two kings ; d a g u l
n. length of ten fingers (4 d),
4. The final member of Bahuvrhis is liable to various
changes tending to make it end i n a.
1
a. The n of several words in an, krman, dh m an, n m an, prvan,

van, sakthn, is frequently dropped in ordinary Bahuvrhis, and that
of han i n numeral collectives ; e. g. viv-karma performing all work,
priy-dhma occupying desirable places, chando-nm (vs.) named metre,
metrical, vi-parva jointless, dvi-v (vs.) having two bulls, lomasaktha (vS.) having hairy thighs ; a-ah (Av.) m. period of six days.
b. The suffixes a and ya are frequently added, and sometimes ka ;
e. g. catur-ak four-eyed, su-gv-a havingfinecows, anydar-ya born
from another womb (udra), da-ms-ya ten months old, mdhuhastya
honeyhanded, trymbaka having three mothers, vmanyuka (Av.)free
from anger, akarka (TS.) earless.
c. The suffix i n (possessing) is sometimes pleonastically added :
mahhastn having large hands, kunakhn (Av.) having bad nails,
3
Except those formed with ah ^y which are m as aah m.

series of six days.
But this word retains its n in seven compounds i n the RV.
But also vivkarman.
But aparvn and v aparvan.
2
l^]
BAHUVRIHI
COMPOUNDS
279
yao-bhag-n (vs.) rich in glory, sa-rath-n (vS.) riding in the same

chariot.
d. a is substituted for i in kav-sakh having a niggard for a friend,
and i n daagul n. length of ten fingers (agli). On the other hand,
i is substituted for a i n some compounds of gandh smell, and i n
a few others: dhmgandhi smelling of smoke, krrdhi (Av.)
attaining success (rdha) in agriculture, prtyardhi to whom the half
(rdha) belongs.
e. In the f. of Bahuvrhis pti husband or lord, instead of remaining
unchanged, takes the f. form of the subst. (ptni wife) i n dspatn
having a demon as faster, devpatn having a god as a husband, va
patn ruled by a mighty one, surapatn having a hero as a husband.
1
4.
G o v e r n i n g Compounds.
1 S 9 A . I n this class, which embraces a considerable

number of compounds, the first member, being either a
preposition or a verbal noun, governs the last i n sense.
They resemble Bahuvrihis in f o r m as well as i n their
adjectival character.
1. I n the prepositional group, i n which about twenty
examples occur i n the R V . , the first member is a preposition
capable of governing a case ; e. g. a t i r t r lasting overnight ;
a n u k m according to wish ; apathi and p a t h being on
the way ; p a r o m t r going beyond measure, excessive.
2
a. Like Bahuvrhis, compounds of this type may become substan

tives ; e. g. upnas adj. being on a wagon, n. (Av.) space on a wagon.
o. The final member, when it does not end i n a, adds the suffix a,
and ya sometimes even when it already ends i n a ; e.g. nupatha
going along the road, adhaspad being under the feet, parka (Av.)
away from the eye (k), purogav m. leader (going before the cows) ;
1
Otherwise sakhi remains unchanged i n both Bahuvr1his and

Karmadhrayas (but 188, 2) in theRV.; op. 189, 2 a.
But the meaning is entirely different ; for in the prepositional
class the first member has the sense of a prep. (not an adj), and i n
the verbal class, it has a transitive (not an intransitive) sense. In
the latter class the final syllable of a part. is always accented (but
in Bahuvrhis only when that is the natural accent).
H ere rtr night becomes rtra, as i n the Dvandva ahortr n.
day and night.
2
280
NOMINAL
STEM FORMATION
[189
dhi-gart-ya being on the car-seat (grta), anta-parav-y (VS.) being

between the ribs (pru), pamsya (Av.) occurring every month (msa),
tirahnya (being beyond a day), belonging to the day (han) before
yesterday.
2. I n the verbally governing class the first member is an
agent noun or an action noun governing the last member as
an object. W i t h a single exception they never add a suffix.
Three types (in a l l of which examples of proper names
occur) may be distinguished.
1
a. I n the commonest type, which is almost restricted to the RV.,

the first member is a participle ending in t formed from transitive
present stems i n a, , or ya ; e. g. rdhdvra increasing goods, tard
dveas overcoming (trat) foes, dhraytkavi supporting the wise, man
daytsakha gladdening his friend. The following are used as proper
names: r d h d r a y (increasing wealth), j a m d a g n i (going to Agni),
bhardvja (carrying off the prize).
b. Only three or four examples occur of a second type, i n which the
first member consists of a simple present stem (probably representing
an imperative) : radvasu dispensing wealth, iknar helping men;
as the name of a man : tras.dasyu (terrify the foe).
c. some half dozen examples occur in the RV. of a third type, in
which the first member is an actionnoun i n t i : d t ivra giving
treasures, vtrdhas enjoying the oblation, v.dyav causing the sky to
rain ; as tlIe name of a man : pigu m. (rearing kine),
2
5.
Syntactical Compounds.
I S 9 B . A certain number of irregular compounds
are
formed i n a manner differing from that of any of the four

classes described above.
They may be treated as a class,
since all of them have been produced by the same cause:

frequent syntactical juxtaposition i n a sentence.
ik-nar- ; see below, note 6.
rdht aor. part. of dh increase.
^ sakhi friend becomes sakha in two other governing compounds :
dravayt-sakha speeding his friend and rvayt- sakha making his
friend famous. Cf. 188, 2, note 2.
jamat is a palatalized form of an aor. part. of gam go.
I n this and the following example tile a of rad and ika is
metrically lengthened.
H ere the stem of the final member is extended with a.
1
189]
SYNTACTICAL COMPOUNDS
281
a. The relative adverb y d (a nominally formed abl.) in so

far as has come to be compounded with a superlative i n the
adj. y c c h r e h the best possible (lit. in so far as best), and
with a gerundive i n the adv. y d r d h y m as quickly as
possible (lit. in so Jar as attainable).
b. The initial words of a text begin to be compounded
in the later Sahits as a substantive to designate that text.
Thus y e y a j m a h (VS.) m., used i n the N . pi., means the
text beginning with the words y y j m a h e .
e. Several subst. or adj. compounds have resulted from
phrases consisting of two words i n juxtaposition. Thus
a h a m u t t a r (AV.) n. dispute for precedence (from a h m
t t a r a I am higher) ; m a m a s a t y n. dispute as to owner
ship (from m m a s a t y m it is certainly mine) ; m - p a y
( A v ) designation of an aphrodisiac plant (from m p a y a
look at me) ; k u v t - s a some one (from k u v t s is it he ?) ;
na-sana (voc.) rapacious (from a h s a n I will obtain) ;
aha-prv eager to be first (from a h p r v I should
be first) ; k i - t v (VS.) asking garrulously (from k t v m
what are you doing ?).
6. Iterative Compounds.
1 S 9 C. Substantives, adjectives, pronouns, numerals,
adverbs, and prepositions are often repeated. They are then
treated as compounds, the second member losing its accent
and the two words being written in the Pada text with the
Avagraha between them, as i n other compounds. This class
resembles other compounds in having a single accent, but
differs from them i n having not the stem but the fully
inflected form of nominal words i n the first member.
In the R V . the iteratives number over 140, rather more
than half of them being substantives. The sense conveyed
by the repetition is frequency, or constant succession i n
time, or distribution in space. Examples of the various
kinds of iteratives are the following :
282

1
[l89
a. Substantives: h a r - a h a r , div-dive, d y v i - d y a v i
every day, m s - m s i month after month ; gh-ghe, d m e dame, vi-vie in every house ; g d - a g t from every
limb ; di-dia (AV.) from every quarter ; yajsyayaja
sya of every sacrifice ; prvaiparvai in every joint ;
a g n m a g n i m (duvasyata), (worship) Agni again and again ;
n n a m a n n a m (AV.) food in perpetuity.
b. Adjectives: p n y a p a n y a . . s m a m Soma who is
again and again to be praised ; p r c p r c p r a d a m
each eastern direction ; t t a r m u t t a r s m m (AV.) each
following year.
c. Pronouns : t v t v a m a h a r y a t h thou didst ever
rejoice ; y d y a d y m i whatever I ask ; t t t a d . . dadhe he
always bestows that.^
d. Numerals : p c a p a c a five each time ; s a p t s a p t a
(tredh three times) seven in each ease ( = 21),
e. A d v e r b s : y t h y a t h as in each case; ady d y
v - v a on each to-day, on each to-morrow.
f. Prepositions : the four which are found used thus are
p a , p r , p r , s m ; e. g. p r - p r a . . a s y a t e it is ever
proclaimed.
g. The only example of a verbal form occurring as an
iterative is p b a - p i b a drink, drink. Otherwise a repeated
verb is treated independently ; e. g. s t u h stuhi praise, praise.
2
har-divi day after day, is a kind of mixed iterative.

For div-divi and vis-vii, owing to the influence of tl1e frequent
loc. i n e from a stems.
I n the B. such words are repeated with v : y v ad v yvad v
and yatam v yatame v.
Such iteratives led to the formation of regular compounds i n B. :
kaeka (AV.): kaika (B.); dv dv (RV.): dvandvm (MS.)
in twos, dvandv pair (B.).
In a few instances repeated adverbs are not treated as compounds,
both words being accented : n n now, now ; ihh (Av.) here, here,
but always ihha i n RV.
In the B. also occurs yjasva-yajasva.
1
CHAPTER VII
O U T L I N E S OF S Y N T A X
1 9 0 . H aving in the preceding parts of the present
grammar dealt with single words in their phonetic, their
derivative, and their inflexional aspects, we now turn to
their treatment in syntax, which regards their arrangement
and mutual meaning when they are combined to form a
sentence, which is the expression of a connected and definite
unit of thought. The parts of which the sentence may
consist are either inflected words : the noun (substantive
and adjective) and the verb, the participle which shares the
nature of both, and the pronoun ; or uninflected words :
prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions. A comparison of
the syntax of the R V . with that of classical Sanskrit shows
(1) that the use of the middle voice, the tenses, the moods,
the inflected participles, the infinitives, and the genuine
prepositions is much fuller and more living i n the former,
while (2) that of the passive voice and of indeclinable par
ticiples is much less developed, that of absolute cases and of
adverbial prepositions with caseendings is only incipient,
and that of periphrastic verbal forms is nonexistent. The
later Santhits and the Brhmaas exhibit a gradual transition
by restriction or loss i n the former group and by g r o w h i n
the latter to the condition of things prevailing in classical
Sanskrit.
The Order of W o r d s .
191. Since metrical considerations largely interfere with
the ordinary position of words in the Sahits, the normal
order is best represented by the prose of the Brhmaas,
284
[191
and as it there appears is, moreover, doubtless the original

one.
The general rule is that the subject begins the sentence
and the verb ends it, the remaining members coming
between.
a. The subject begins the sentence ; e. g. va katry
ya bal haranti the peasants pay tribute to the prince (B.).
It may, however, be preceded by a particle like u t or
occasionally by any other member of the sentence intended
to be strongly emphasized ; e. g. p r a y j i r v i dev
s v a r g l o k m y a n by means of the Prayjas the gods went
to the heavenly world (B.).
b. The verb occasionally moves to the beginning of the
sentence when it is strongly emphasized ; e. g. y n t i v pa
t y d i t y , t i c a n d r m , y n t i n k a t r i the waters
move, the sun moves, the moon moves, the stars move (B.).
A predicative noun with the copula (which may be omitted)
being equivalent to a verb, naturally occupies the same
position ; e. g. srve ha v i dev g r e sad s u all the
gods in the beginning were similar (B.); m i t r v i iv
dev n m Mitra, indeed, is the kindly one among the gods (TS.).
Nevertheless the predicative noun, being emphatic, is as a
rule the first word i n the sentence ; e. g. m r t y ha v gre
dev s u the gods were originally mortals (B.) ; p r u o v i
y a j the sacrifice (is) a man (B.).
e. A s regards the cases, the acc. is placed immediately
before the verb ; e. g. c h n d s i yukt n i d e v b h y o yaj
vahanti the metres, when they are yoked, take the sacrifice to
the gods (B.). Adverbs and indeclinable participles occupy
a similar position. Occasionally such words move to the
beginning ; e. g. d i v v i s m a sd, t h a ^ i h dev in
heaven was Soma, but here the gods (B.).
d. The apposition, including patronymics and participles,
follows the word which it explains or defines ; e. g. smo
rj Soma, the King. A participle, i n its proper sense, i f
O R D E R OF W O R D S
191]
285
emphatic may be placed at the beginning ; e. g. s v a p n t a

v i d k i t r k s i jighsanti it is when he sleeps that
the Rakâses seek to slay the initiated man (TS.).
e. The attribute, whether adjective or genitive, precedes
its substantive ; e. g. h i r a y y e n a r t h e n a with golden ear
(I. 35 ) ; dev n h t the priest of the gods. Only when
adjectives are used i n apposition, especially as epithets of
the gods, do they follow ; e. g. mitr y a saty y a to Mitra,
the true (TS.). Also adjectives designating the colours of
certain animals, especially horses and cows, are found after
the subst. The subst. belonging to a gen. is placed before
the latter only when it is emphatic.
f The preposition belonging to a verb precedes it, always
in B . , generally i n V . , where, however, it also sometimes
follows ; e. g. j y e m a s y u d n sp d ha we would conquer
our foes in battle (I. 8 ). The preposition as a rule imme
diately precedes the verb, but is often also separated from it
by one or more words ; e. g. s y aka m a g h v ^ a d a t t a
the Bounteous One seized his missile (i. 32 ); p a t m a
ppm n a hate she drives away darkness and sin (TS.).
When a compound verb is emphatic, the preposition alone
as a rule moves to the front occupying the position that the
simple verb would occupy ; e. g. p r p r a j y j y e y a I would
increase with progeny (TS.).
W h e n used with substantives the genuine prepositions as
a rule follow their ease, while the prepositional adverbs
precede it. The reason of this doubtless is that the former
supplement the sense of the case, while the latter modify
the sense much more emphatically.
g. M u l t i p l i c a t i v e adverbs precede their genitive ; e. g.
t r savatsarsya three times a year.
h. E n c l i t i c s cannot, of course, begin a sentence. I f they
belong to a particular word they follow it ; otherwise they
tend to occupy the second position in the sentence. The
enclitic particles that follow the word with which they are
2
286
[191
most closely connected are ca, v , i v a , c i d ; k a m is

restricted to following n , s , h i n V . , and sma to follow
ing ha i n B . The other unaccented particles, u , gha,
ha, svid, which refer to the statement of the whole
sentence, occupy the second (or third) position i n the
sentence.
i. Even accented particles for the most part cannot
begin a sentence. They either follow the word they em
phasize in any position i n the sentence : , ev, k m ; or
they occupy the second position in the sentence, as empha
sizing the whole statement : ag, ha, d, kla, khlu, t,
n , v i , hI.
The only particles that can begin the sentence are t h a ,
p i , u t ; also n if it negatives the whole sentence, but if
it negatives the verb only, it follows that.
j. Forms of the pronoun t tend in B . to occupy the first
position, especially s when it anticipates a proper name i n
dialogues, or t d as an acc. when famous authorities are
quoted ; e. g. s h.ovca g r g y a (SB .) Grgya spoke (as
follows) ; t d u h o v c a ^ s u r i with regard to this suri
said (B.), The order is similar when t h a or p i are used :
p i h o v c a y j avalkya (B.).
k. In relative and interrogative sentences there is nothing
peculiar except that, as these two classes of words tend to
begin the sentence, cases of them come to occupy the first
position which in ordinary sentences do not occupy it ; e. g.
k h s t i r g h i kury t what indeed should he do with
this house ^ (B.).
a. The last position i n the sentence is exceptionally occupied in the

following ways : 1. very often by final datives as a supplement to
the sentence ; e. g. t t paun evâsmai pri dadti gptyai thus
he hands the cattle over to him for protection (B.) ; 2. by the subject eithe
when it is the name of an authority quoted or when it is equivalent
to a relative clause; e. g. s haûvca g r gya so said Grgya ; aindr
car nr vapet pakma one (who is) desirous of cattle should assign
a pap for Indra (TS.).
192193]
O R D E R OF W O R D S
287
192. There is neither an indefinite nor a definite article

in the Vedic language. Their meaning is inherent in the
substantive much as personal pronouns are in forms of
the definite verb. Whether the one or the other is meant
is made sufficiently clear by the context ; e. g. a g n m He
p u r h i t a m I pr aise Agni the domestic priest (i. I ) ; a g n
manye p i t r a m Agni I deem a father (x. 7 ), In B . the
anaphoric use of t is sometimes very nearly equivalent to
the definite article (cp. 195 B 3b, p. 294).
1
Number.
1 9 3 . 1. Singular words with a plural or a collective sense
are always treated strictly as singulars, being never con
strued with a plural form of the verb (cp. 194).
2. The dual number is i n regular use and, generally
speaking, i n strict application. But in certain parts of the
R v the plural is often used instead of the dual of natural
pairs ; sometimes also otherwise ; e. g. s m a j a n t u vve
dev , s m p o h d ayni n a u let all the gods, let the waters
unite the hearts of us two (x. 85 7),
a. A m. or I. du. is sometimes used to express a male and
female of the same class ; e. g. p i t r = father and mother ;
m t r mother and father. This type of the dual has its
widest application i n naming pairs of deities by means of
one of them and is equivalent to dual compounds containing
both names ; e. g. dy v heaven and earth (= dy v pthiv ) ;
u s Dawn and Night (= u s nkt) ; m i t r Mitra and
Varua (= mitr vru).
Sometimes the other member
of the pair is added in the N . sing. ; e. g. m i t r t n n
r a t h y v r u o y ca s u k r t u Mitra (and Varua) and
the very wise Varua, lik^ two constantcharioteers(viii. 25 ).
3. a. The plural is sometimes used (analogously to the
dual) so as to include the other two of a group of three ;
e. g. dy v a the (three) heavens = heaven, air, and earth ;
4
288
[193-194
1
pthiv the (three) earths = earth, air, and heaven. This

inclusive plural is also found with the names of the two
other members of the group added i n the N . sing. ; thus
a b h samr j o v r u o ganty, a b h mitr s o aryam
saj to it the universal sovereigns Varua, to it the Mitras
(= Mitra, Varua, Aryaman), and Aryaman, accordant, sing
(vii. 38 ).
b. The 1. pers. pl. is sometimes loosely used instead of
the sing. or du. ; thus Yama i n his dialogue with Yam says
n y t pur cakm k d dha n n m t v d a n t o n t a
rapema how pray can we, what we have never done before,
speaking of righteous things now talk of what is unrighteous ?
(x. 10 ). The plur. of personal pronouns is also occasionally
used i n a similar way ; thus i n the dialogue of Yama and
Yam (x. 10 ) nas alternates with the correct nau : s no
n b hi, p a r a m j m i t n n a u that is our bond of union,
that our highest kinship. This occasional looseness is probably
due to the situation for the moment being regarded more
generally so as to include others ; we would then mean I and
those present, we two and others in like circumstances. I n B .
the use of the pi. for the sing. of the first pers. of the
personal pronoun is not infrequent both when the pronoun
is expressed and when it is latent i n the verb ; e. g. s h a ^
u v c a : n m o v a y b r h m i h y a k u r m a he replied :
we ( = I) show reverence to the most learned man (B.) ; v r a
b h v a t e g a u t a m y a dadma we (= I, Jaivali) offer a boon
to his Honour Gautama (B.),
4
Concord.
I 9 4 . The rules of concord in case, person, gender, and
number are i n general the same as i n other inflexional
languages.
To this use is probably due the conception of the three heavens
and three earths in Vedic cosmology.
1
CONCORD
194]
289
A . 1. To the rule that the verb agrees with its sub

stantive i n person and number the exceptions are very rare.
Thus the sing. of the word tva many, having a p i . sense,
appears once with a pi. verb : j y n u tvo j u h v a t i many a
one sacrifices for victories (MS.). On the other hand, there
are a few examples i n the R V . of a neut. pi. taking a verb
in the sing. ; e. g. dhve d h y a t e d h n to the bold man
booty accrues (I. 81 ).
2. a. When two Sing. subjects have one verb, the latter in
most cases is i n the dual ; e. g. n d r a ca y d y u y u d h t e
hi ca when Indra and the dragon fought (1. 32 ) ; r ja
no d y u ca p t h i v ca p i n v a t m may heaven and earth
increase our strength (vi. 70^) ; n d r a ea s m a pibata
bhaspate do ye two, Indra and (thou), O Bhaspati, drink Soma
(iv. 50 ),
When one only of two subjects is expressed, the other
having to be supplied, the verb is also i n the dual ; e.g.
y d n d r a ca d d v a h e when (I) and Indr a r eceive
(viii. 34 ) ; b h aspate y u v m n d r a ca vsvo d i v y s y a ^
t h e O Bhapati, ye two, (thou) and Indra, dispose of
heavenly wealth (vii. 97 ). I n B . this usage seems to be
found only when the verb is i n the third person ; e. g.
praj p ati praj asjata : t b h aspti c a ^ a n v v a i t m
Prajpati created beings : (he) and Bhaspatifollowedthem (TS.).
3
13
10
16
10
a. I n a minority of cases two sing. subjects take a sing. verb when

they are equivalent in sense to a dn. compound ; e. g. tok ca tsya
^naya ca vardhate his ofispring and family prosper (ii. 25).
^. I n B . when two sing. subjects are connected by ca the verb is
in the du. ; but if a contrast is intended, in the sing. ; e. g. tsy
1ht caâryam caâjyetam from her Dht and Aryaman were born
(MS.) ; but prthivy vi mdhya ca^,amedhym ca vyd akrmat
from the earth there issued on the one hand the pure and on the other the
impure (Ms.).
b. When there are more than two subjects the verb is not
necessarily in the pi., but may agree with only one of them.
1. If each of the subjects is sing. the verb is sing. ; e. g.
290
[194
m i t r s t n no v r u o r d a s ca d y b h a k t a m n d r o
aryam d a d t u let Mitra, Varua, Rodas, Indra and
Aryaman give us this divine wealth (vii. 40 ),
2. If the subjects are of different numbers the verb may
agree with either one or the other ; e. g. vad n d r a
y a m n t t sava ea Yamuna and the Ttsus helped Tndra
(vii. 18 ^) ; n d r o v i d u r g i r a s a ca Indra and the Agirascs
know it (x. 108 ).
The du. and pl. take the du. or the pi. ; e. g. g i r y a ca
dh dy v ca bh m tujete the firm mountains and heaven
and earth trembled (i. 61 ) ; dy v ca y t r a p p y a n n n
ca where heaven and earth and the days have given abundance
(vii. 65),
2
10
14
a. I n B. a sing. and a du. subject take a verb in the sing. or pf. ;

e. g. vymamtru paku ca pcha ca bhavati both the wings and
the tail are a fathom in length (Ts.) ; tv avnau ca srasvat caâp
phen vjram asican the Avins and Sarasvat moulded the foam of the
waters into a bolt (B.) ; a sing. and a pi. take the verb in the pl. ; e. g.
dev ca vi yam ca^,asmin loke 'spardhanta the gods and Yama
fought for (the possession of)thisworld (Ts.).
^. I n B. any 'ny one another takes the verb i n the sing., du., or
pl. according as one, two, or several agents are intended ; e. g.
t b hya s n r chd y na pratham 'ny 'nysmai drhyt of these
he shall be deprived whofirstof us may cheat another (TS.) ; nd any 'ny
hinsta lesttheyinjure each other (B.) ; t n i srny any ' n y n a ^
aspardhanta being created they fought with one another (B.).
3. When two or more subjects of different persons take a

verb in the du. or pi. the first person is preferred to the
second or third, the second to the third ; e. g. a h ca
t v ca s y u j y v a I and thou will unite together (viii. 62 ) ;
t y y v a y caây m a may you and we obtain him
(ix. 98 ). Occasionally, however, the third person is pre
ferred to the first ; e. g. am ca y m a g h v n o v a y ca
m h a n s r o t i n a t a n y u may these patrons and we
pierce through as the sun the mist (i. 141 ),
B. 1. A n attributive adjective agrees with its substantive
i n gender, number, and case. The exceptions are few
11
13
194]
CONCORD
291
and unimportant, being chiefly due to the exigencies of

metre.
a. The cardinals from five to nineteen, being adjectives, show some
peculiarities of concord : in the oblique cases they appear i n V . not
only i n their inflected form, but often also the uninflected form of
the nom. and acc. ; e. g. saptbhi putri and sapt htbhi,
pacsu jneu and pca ku. In B . only the inflected forms
are used.
b. The cardinals from 20 upwards being substantives i n form may
govern a G. ; e.g. am vnm sucty horses, at gnm a hundred
kine, sahsri gvm thousands of kine. They are, however, generally
treated like adjectives ; but being collectives they take sing. endings
in concord with pi. cases ; e. g. trid dev thirty gods, trita
yjanni thirty yojanas (acc.), trit hribhi with thirty bays, tra
yastriato devnm of thirty gods (AB.). atm hundred and sahsram
thousand are used as the nom. acc. form i n agreement with plurals ;
e. g. at pra a hundred forts, sahsra hraya a thousand bays,
sahsra pa n a thousand beasts (TS.) ; they also appear i n the same
sense in the plural ; e. g. at pra a hundred forts, sahsry dhi
rathni a thousand wagon loads (x. 98 ), atm and sahsram are also
found (but not in B.) with an inst. pi., as at prbh with a
hundred forts beside atna hribhi with a hundred bays, sahsram ibhi
with a thousand seer s. The noun accompanying sahsra occasionally
appears by a kind of attraction i n the sing. : na cic chpa
ndita sahsrd y p d amuca thou didst deliver unaepa, who was
bound, from a thousand posts (v. 2 ) : this use does not seem to occur
in B .
9
2. A predicative adjective used with as or b h (often to

be supplied) agrees i n gender and number with its subject.
a. The nom. of var capable used thus i n B . is equivalent to
a verb = be able. The concord here is i n the majority of cases normal ;
e. g. var v v 'yat 'pratihita pr parvta gnto
a horse if unbridled and unobstructed can go to an extreme distance (TS.) ;
s ^ enam var pradha she can burn him (TS. ) ; varu v etu
nirdha both of them can burn (B.) ; t n y enam var i pratinda
they can drive him away (MS.). sometimes, however, the concord of
either number or gender, or of both, is neglected ; e. g. tm var
rksi h n t o the demons can kill him (TS.) ; tsya^var praj
ppyas bhvito his offspring can degenerate (B.) ; var haêt
nagnicita satpto these (f. pl.) are liable to weigh heavily upon one
who has not built a fire altar (B.). In the last two examples quoted
292
[194195
and in others the masc. sing. has become stereotyped as a nom. of all
genders and numbers.
b. The use of a predicative adjective referring to two or more
substantives differing in gender is very rare ; it then seems to agree
in gender with the subst. nearest it, or the masc. seems to have been
preferred to the neut. ; e. g. tray vi nirt ak strya svpna
(Ms.) dice, women, and sleep (are) the treble pernicious (things) ; ev h
sya kmy stma ukth ca sy thus indeed his two favourites,
stoma and uktha, are to be recited (i. 8 ). A predicative adj. dependent
on k agrees with its subst. ; if there are two, the du. is used ; e. g.
div ca v v âsm etd via mnu ca^nuvartmnau karoti
so he makes the divine andthehuman folk obedient to him (Ms.).
10
3. A s in Greek and Latin, a demonstrative pronoun

agrees with a predicative noun in gender and number ; e. g.
ye t u s tvak what (are) the husks (that =) those (are) the
skin (AB. ) ; y d r u s k r i t a m st t n i v y s i ^
abhavan what was the concentrated tear (those =) that became
the birds (B.).
Pronouns.
1 9 5 . A . Personal. a. Owing to its highly inflexional
character the Vedic language, like Latin and Greek, uses
the nominatives of personal pronouns far less frequently
than modern European languages do. Being already inherent
in the first and second persons of the finite verb such
pronouns are expressed separately only when they require
emphasizing.
b. The unaccented forms of a h m and t v m (109 a) being
enclitic, can be used neither at the beginning of a sentence
or metrical line (Pada), nor after vocatives, nor before em
phasizing, conjunctive or disjunctive particles.
e. B h a v n Your Honour, the polite form of tvm, which
first comes into use i n B . , properly takes a verb in the
3. sing. But being practically equivalent to a personal
pronoun of the 2. pers., it occasionally appears with a verb
in that person ; e. g. t i v v k l a no b h v n p u r ^
195]
PRONOUNS
293
anui n voca (B.) in this sense then you have formerly

spoken of (us =) me as instructed (cp. 194, 1).
B . Demonstrative. 1. a y m this (here) is a deictic
pronoun used adjectivally of what is i n the neighbourhood,
presence, or possession of the speaker, and may often be
translated by here ; e. g. a y ta e m i t a n v p u r s t t here
I come with my body before thee (viii. 100 ) ; i y m t i r
m m a this my hymn ; a y v t a the wind here (on earth) ;
a y j n a the people here (vii. 55 ) ; i d b h v a n a m this
world ; a y m a g n Agni here (present). I n the R v a y m is
sometimes used even with d i v heaven and d i t y sun as if
they were included i n the environment of the speaker.
2. Opposed to a y m is a s u that (there), applied to objects
remote from the speaker, as heaven and its phenomena,
immortals, persons who are not present or are at a distance ;
e. g. am y d e v s t h n a tri^ rocan d i v ye, O gods,
whoarethere, in the three bright realms of heaven (I. 105^);
ami ea y m a g h v n o v a y oa those (absent) patrons and
we (i. 14 l ) ; a s u y i v r a k you who go there, a
mannikin (viii. 9 l ) ,
1
13
a. In . the usage is similar, only the contrast is more definite :

it is typical i n referring to the earth (iym) and the heavenly world
(asu), and i n the phrases y 'y pvate he who blows here ( = Wind),
and y su tpati he who burns there ( = sun), and asv dity the sun
there. I n B . asu is besides used in a formulaic way ( = so and so)
when the actual name is to be substituted ; e. g. asu n m aâym
idrpa he here, having this form, is so and so by name (B.). In
addressing a person the voc. form sau is also used thus : y th v
id nmagr h am s s ti hvyati as one here (in ordinary life)
by way of mentioning the name calls : ' you there, youthere (Ms.).
3. t, like asu, can be translated by that, but in a different

sense. It is not like a s u essentially deictic and local, nor
does it imply a contrast (that there as opposed to this here) ;
but it refers to something already known either as just
mentioned or as generally familiar.
a. A very frequent application of this meaning is its
294
[195
reference as a correlative to what is made known by an

antecedent relative clause ; e. g. y y a j paribh r si,
s d d e v u gachati the sacrifice that thou encompassest, that
certainly goes to the gods (i. I ). Often, however, an ante
cedent clause is lacking and must be mentally supplied i n
some such form as whom we have in mind. Then t is
equivalent to the well known. This use comes out most
clearly i n the first verse of a hymn ; e. g. s p r a t n t h
s h a s j y amna, s a d y k v yni b adhatta vv
(i. 96 ) he (who is i n our thoughts, the famous Agni) being
engendered in the ancient way with strength, lo ! has straightway
assumed all wisdom ; t v v v a s y a gop yajase (viii. 25 )
you two famous guardians of the universe I worship.
b. t has a very frequent anaphoric use, referring back
to a noun or a pronoun of the third or second person (in B .
also of the first), and may then be translated by as such, so ;
e. g. t v v j asya r t y a s y a rjasi : s no ma thou
rulest over glorious spoil : as such be gracious to us (i. 36^) ;
s t a t h ^ i t y a b r a v t : s v a i vo vara v i t i she said,
yes : I as such ( = i n the proposed circumstances) will choose
a boon of you (AB.). This usage is a prominent and some
what monotonous feature of the narrative style i n B . ; e. g.
praj p ates t r y a s t a d d u h i t r a s a n , t s m y a
r j e dadt, t s r h i m p a i t , t ryant p n a r
agachan Prajpati had thirty daughters; he gave them to King
Soma ; of them he visited Rohi (only) ; they (the others),
being jealous, went back (TS.).
When this t is widely
separated from the antecedent noun to which it refers
(sometimes only indirectly) it may he translated by the
definite article ; thus the opening of the story of Urvas :
u r v haâpsar p u r r v a s a m a i cakame an
Apsaras Urva loved Purravas, the son of I is some
sentences later referred to with : t d dha t a p s a r s a
t y o bhtv p r i pupluvire then the Apsarases swam about
in the form of water birds (B.).
4
195]
PRONOUNS
295
a. I n its anaphoric use t is frequently followed by personal pronouns

of all persons (regularly i n their enclitic form when they have one) ;
e. g. t m s sja vrcas unite me as such with glory (i. 23^ ), m
yajd antr agta : s vo 'hm ev yajnm ammuham ye have excluded
me from the sacrifice ; so I have thrown your sacrifice into confusion (B.) ;
havimanto vidhema te : s tv no ady sumn ihâvit bhva
bringing oblations we would serve thee: so do thou be for us today a benevolen
helper (i. 36 ) ; ydi t v ^ e t t pnar brvata, s tv b r t t (B.)
if they (two) shall say this to you again, then do you say (to them) ; asy
ptv ghan vtr am abhavas . . . t t v vjyma having drunk
of this thou becamest a slayer of Vtras : so we strengthen thee (I. 4 ). similarly
used are : sing. A . t tvm (here exceptionally not enclitic),
D. tsmai te, G. tsya te, tsyas te ; du. t vm ; pl. A. tn vas,
G. t vas.
^. Four demonstrative pronouns are found following t i n this
way : idm, ads, t itself, and oftenest of all etd ; e. g. s ^ iym
asm sanaj ptry dh this here is among us an ancient hymn of our
forefathers (iii. 39 ) ; tsya vlo ny saji : tm am vto dhunoti
its tail hangs down : that the wind tosses to and fro (sB.) ; t h a ^ e v
n ^ t i dadha : t ha sma t pur brhma n taranti that
(river) he (Agni) did not burn across : that same one the Brhmans used not
formerly to cross (B.), bhavaty asyaânucaro ya eva veda : sa v
ea ekatithi, sa ea juhvatsu vasati he who knows this has a follower ;
that (follower) is this one guest ; this same (follower, the sun) abides
among the sacrificers (AB.).
^v. The N . sing. s is sometimes used adverbially i n B. (see 180,
p. 249).
3
4. e t this is used like t but is more emphatic. It refers

to something known to the listener as present either to his
senses or his thoughts.
a. The c o r r e c t i v e use of e t seems to be limited to B . ,
tlie relative clause here usually following ; e. g. patho v
ea p r a i t i , y o y a j e m u h y a t i he diverges from the path who
goes wrong in the sacrifice (AB.). It is somewhat peculiar
when the relative i n the neuter sing. and without a verb is
added solely for the purpose of emphasizing a particular
word ; e. g. svarga v etena l o k a m upapra y a n t i y a t
p r y a y a people go to the heavenly world with that which (is)
the preliminary sacrifice (AB.), I n these circumstances e t
when alone always agrees i n gender with the noun i n the
296
OUTLINES OF S Y N T A X
[195
relative clause ; but when it is accompanied by a substantive,

with the latter ; e. g. paavo v ete y a d p a water is
equivalent to cattle (AB.). I n this usage y d often loses its
inflexional character to such an extent that it becomes like
an explanatory particle ( = that is to say), the substantive
that follows it agreeing i n case with that which precedes;
e.g. e t i r t r a ^ u b h y a i r r t h o bhavati y d d e v i ca
b r h m a i ca there is need here of both, that is, of the gods
and the Brhmans (B.).
The use of e t without an antecedent, parallel to that of
t, is common both i n v . and B . ; e. g. e u v y c h a t i
this Dawn (whom we see before us) has shone forth (i. 46^) ;
t h a ^ s u r a s y n t a i v a ^ c u r : y v ad evi v u r
a b h i t e t v ad vo dadma t i the Asuras said somewhat
displeased : as much as this Viu (here present) covers lying
down, so much we give you (B.) ; y u v m e t cakrathu
s n d h u u p l a v m ye two have made that boat (present to our
thought) in the ocean (1. 182^) ; t n a ^ e t m u t t a r g i r m
t i d u d r v a therewith he passed over that (well known)
northern mountain (B.) ; t e t m y asjanta supar
ca k a d r ca they created these two (wellknown) miraculous
beings, Supar and Kadru (B.). I n the last example ete
requires the addition of the two following names to supple
ment its sense.
a. somewhat similarly this pronoun is sometimes followed i n B .

by words or a sentence explaining it ; e. g. s et b hir devtbhi
sayg bhutv mardbhir vi ^ agnn^nkenaûpapl y ata he, united
with these deities, the Maruts as the fighting folk and Agni as the hea
approached (Ms.) ; s h a ^ e t d ev dadara :ânaantay vi me
praj pr bhavanti^ti he saw this: in consequence of hunger my
creatures are perishing (B.).
b. I n its anaphoric use e t expresses identity with that

to which it refers back, more emphatically than t does ;
e. g. p e t a vta v ca s a r p a t a ^ t o : asm e t p i t r o
l o k m akran go away, disperse, depart from hence: this place
PRONOUNS
19^]
297
(on which you have been standing) the fathers have pr e

pared for him (x. 14 ) ; i n the final verse the expression e
s t m a i n d r a t b n y a m (i. 173^) this praise isforthee, O Indr a,
refers to the whole preceding hymn ; t d n b h y a sam
bh t ya m d a c a ^ a p c a ^ a k m akurvas : t s m d
e t d u b h y a m a k bhavati m c ca^ p a ca having
brought both those together, clay and water, they made the brick :
therefore a brick consists of both these, clay and water (B.).
5. t y occurs only i n the sense of that (well known) ; e. g.
k v ty n i n a u sakhy b a b h v u what has become of those
friendships of us two? (vii. 88^). It often follows forms of
the demonstrative pronouns e t and i d m ; e. g. e t t y
b h n v a usa gu here those (familiar) beams of Dawn
have come (vii. 75 ) ; i m m u t y m a t h a r v a v d a g n
manthanti they, like Atharvan, rub forth that (famous) Agni
here (vi. 15 ^). The neuter t y d is sometimes used after the
relative y , and often after the particle ha, i n an adverbial
sense ; e. g. y s y a t y c c h m b a r a made d v o d s y a
r a n d h y a in the exhilaration of which (Sonia) thou didst at
that time subject Sambara to Divodasa (v1. 43^).
6. The pronoun a that i n its substantive sense ( = he, she,
it, they), when it is unaccented, not infrequently appears as
an unemphatic correlative (while the accented form is a
deictic adjective); e.g. y s y a d e v i r sado h a r h r agne,
h n i asmai s u d n bhavanti on whose litter thou, O Agni,
hast sat down, fair days arise for him (viI. 11 ); y v
s a t n i y t a scante, bhir y t a m arv k the hundred
teams that accompany you, with them do ye two come hither
(vii. 91 ) ; n k i r e nindit m r t y e u , y asm k a
p i t r o gu yodh there is among mortals no reproacher of
them who, (being) our fathers, werefightersfor cows (iii. 39 ),
9
298
THE
[196
CASES.
Nominative.
196. The nominative, as i n other languages, is mainly

used as the subject of a sentence.
a. A second nominative is employed as a predicate
with certain verbs beside the subject, that is, with verbs
meaning be, become, seem or be accounted, think oneself; e. g
t v h i ratnadh s i for thou art a bestower of treasure
(i. 15 ) ; iv s a s n t o iv b h v a n being friendly they
have become unfriendly (v. 12^) ; k a v i a t i s padyante
they become twentyone (TS.) ; g k m me achadayan they
seemed to me desirous of cows (x. 108 ) ; i k v p r a ohate
who counts as a seer, as a singer ? (viii. 3 ) ; apratr mnya
mna thinking himself irresistible (v. 32 ) ; sma manyate
papivn he believes he has drunk Soma (x. 85 ) ; parbhavi
ynto manmahe we think we are about to perish (TS.).
3
10
14
a. I n B. the predicative nom. also appears with verbs meaning to

call oneself (br, vac, vad i n the middle) ; e. g. :ndro brhma
bruv Indra calling himself a Brahman (TB.) ; hntvocath thou
hast described thyself as a slayer (Ts.).
^. With verbs of naming the predicative acc. may also be expressed
in B . by the nom. with ti ; e. g. r s abha t i hy tm ay 'vadan
for the seers called him ass' (Ts.).
b. W i t h passive verbs the predicative nom. takes the

place of the acc. object of the active verb ; e. g. t v m . .
ucyase pit thouartcalled a father (i. 3.F ),
c. Instead of the predicative nom. the voc. is sometimes
used ; e. g. y y h i h , s u d n a v a fur ye are liberal
(i. 15 ) ; b h r k o , rayipate ray m thou alone hast been
4
I n B. the phrase rp k to assume a form, because it is equiva

lent to bh become, takes a predicative nom. ; e. g. v rp ktv
assuming the form of Viu (Ts.).
196-197]
ACCUSATIVE
CASE
299
the lord of riches (vi. 31 ) ; g u t a m a b r u v a thou who callest

thyself Gautama (B.). (Cp. 180 under n, 2 a.)
a. since apparently two vocatives cannot be connected with ca, the
nom. often appears instead of the first or the second vocative ; e. g.
vyav ndra ca cetatha O Vyu and Indra, ye know (i. 2 ) ; ndra ca
sma pibata bhaspate Indra and Bhaspati, drink the Soma (iv. 50 ),
Cp. 180 under ca 1 a, b.
5
10
Accusative.
197. A . This case is usually employed i n connexion
with verbs i n various ways. Besides its ordinary use of
denoting the object of transitive verbs, the acc. is employed
to express :
1. the goal with verbs of motion, chiefly gam, also i ,
much less often y , car, and s and some others. The ace.
may be a person, a place, an activity or a condition ; e. g.
y a m ha yaj gachati to Yama goes the sacrifice (x. 14 ) ;
devm i d ei p a t h b h i s u g b h i to the gods thou goest by
paths easy to traverse (i. 162 ); n d r a s t m caranti
to Indra fare the songs of praise (x. 477) ; sraj j r n
y a m he sped like a lover to a maiden (ix. 101 ) ; ma t v t
k t r y r a n i ganma may we not go from thee to strange
fields (vi. 61 ) ; sabh m eti k i t a v the gambler goes to the
assembly (x. 34^) ; j a r i t r gachatho h v a m ye two go to the call
of the singer (viii. 35 ) ; t v a k r t u b h i r a m t a t v m y a n by
thy mental powers they (went to =) attained immortality (vi. 7 ).
13
21
14
14
13
a. The usage in B. is similar; e.g. prajpati praj asjata, t

vruam agachan Prajpati created creatures;theywent to Varua (TS.) ;
s n dvam apatat he did not fly to heaven (B.); rya gacheyam

may I (go to ----.) attain prosperity (B.).
2. duration of time (in origin only a special form of the

cognate acc.) ; e. g. a t j v a a r d o v r d h a m n a live
prospering a hundred autumns (X. 161 ) ; s avatth sa
vatsarm atihat he remained in the Avattha tree for a year
4
300
[197
(TB.) ; t s m t s r v n t n varati therefore it rains during

all the seasons (TS.) ; savatsaratam r t rim g a c h a t t
(B.) for the night a year hence thou shalt come (to me).
3. extension of distance (in origin only a special form
of the cognate acc.), a use rare i n both v and B . ; e. g. y d
b h i p t a s i yjan p u r when with the swift ones thou
fliest many leagues (ii. 16^) ; s bh m i vivto vtv ^ ty
atihad d a g u l m he cov ering the earth on all sides
extended beyond (it) a distance of ten fingers (x. 90 ) ; sapt
daa pravydhn j dhvanti they run a race (a distance
of) seventeen arrowflights (TB.),
4. the cognate object of intransitive verbs, which may
be allied to the latter etymologically or only i n sense ; e. g.
s a m n m ajâjate they deck themselves with like adorn
ment (vii. 57^) ; y a d agne y s i d t y m when, O Agni, thou
goest on a message (i. 12 ); t v y ^ d h y a k e a p t an
jayema with thee as witness we would conquer in battles
(x. 128 ) ; t s m d r j s a g r m jitv ^ udjm d ajate
therefore a king, having won a battle, chooses booty for himsel
(MS.) ; t i s r r t rr v r a t caret he should perform afastfor
three nights (TS.).
1
a. verbs meaning to stream or to shine in v . take a cognate ace. with

a concrete sense ; e. g. tsya jihv pavate mdhu the tongue of the rite
(soma) streams mead (ix. 75 ), tsm po ghtm aranti for him the
waters stream ghee (i. 125 ), v y t sryo n rcate bhd bh when,
like the sun, he beams forth lofty light (vii. 8 ).
2
5. an adverbial sense. Adverbs of this form all originated

in various uses of the acc. which have acquired an indepen
dent character. They are formed from :
a. substantives ; e. g. n k t a m by night (not during the
night like the acc. of time) ; k m am at will (still rare i n the
RV.), e.g. k m a t a d d h o t ased y a d d h o t r a k
p r v e d y u aseyu the Hot may, as he likes, recite what
the assistants of the Hot may recite the day before (AB.) ;
n m a by name ; e.g. m
dhur n d r a n m a d e v t
197]
ACCUSATIVE
301
(x. 49 ) me they have placed as Indra by name (or verily) among

the gods.
b. various kinds of adjectives. They have an attributive
origin when they express the senses of quickly or slowly
( k i p r m , cirm), much or greatly (bah, blavat), well or
badly, boldly (dh), or direction (as n y k downward, &c.) ;
e. g. b I a v a d v t i it blows hard (B.) ; b h a d r j v anta
living happily (x. 37 ).
6
a. The acc. adverbs from ordinals seem to have been appositional

in origin; e.g. t n v etn saptn vivmitra prathamam
apasyat (AB.) these same Sapta hymns Vivmitra inventedfirst( as the
first thing).
^. several ace. adverbs are from comparatives and superlatives in
tara and tama formed from prepositions and adverbs ; e. g. dr g hya
yu pratar ddhn obtaining longer life furthermore (i. 53 ^ ).
A good many such have a fem. acc. form i n later use, but there is only
one found i n the RV. : satar pduku hara put your two little feet
closer together (viii. 33 ).
^. A special class is formed by adverbs i n vat expressing that an
action takes place like that performed by the noun preceding the
suffix; e.g. tv d tso manuvd vadema (ii. 10 ) having thee as our
messenger we would speak like men (as men should speak : properly some
thing that belongs to men).
^. Another class of acc. adverbs is formed from various adjectival
compounds. A number of these are formed with the privative particle
a, being of the nature of cognate accusatives ; e. g. dev chndobhir
iml lok n anapajayym abhy jayan the gods (unconquerably .)
irrevocably conquered these worlds by means of the metres (Ts.).
^.Another group comparatively rare i n V . , but very common i n
B., are those formed from prepositionally governing adjectival com
pounds; e.g. anukm tarpayethm satisfy yourselves according to
desire (I. 17 ), adhidevatm with reference to the deity (B.). Probably
following the analogy of some of these were formed others i n which
the first member of the compound is not a preposition, but an adverb
derived from the relative y ; e. g. yathkm n padyate she turns
in according to her desire (x. 146 ), yvajjvm (as long as = ) for life (sB.),
Some other adverbial compounds are used like gerunds i n am; e.g.
stuksrga sr bhavati it is plaited like a braid of hair (B.).
1
19
197. B . The acc. is largely used with verbal nouns.

Besides being governed by all participles, active and middle.
302
[197
and by genuine infinitives, i n V . it is used with agent

nouns formed from the root or other verbal stems by means
of about ten primary suffixes. Such nouns are made from
the simple root (when compounded with a preposition), and
with the suffixes a (when the stem is compounded with a
preposition), ani (from the aor. or desid. stem), i (generally
from the reduplicated root), yas and iha (comparatives
and superlatives), u (from desiderative stems), u k a (very
rare in V.), tar (when the root is accented), van (when com
pounded), snu (from causative stems) ; and a few with the
secondary suffix i n . Examples of the ace. with such agent
nouns are : dev s t v paribhur asi thou eneopassest
the gods (v. 13^) ; dn c i d r u j breaking even what is
firm (iii. 45) ; t v no v v a b n m t s a k i thou
overeomest all our adversaries (viii. 24-^) ; a t p r o ruruk
i ready to destroy a hundred forts (ix. 48 ) ; n d r ha
r t n a v r u d h h Indra and Varua bestow treasure
most abundantly (iv. 4l ) ; vats ca gh t uko v k a (AV.
xii. 47) and the wolf slays the calves ; dt rdhsi um
bhati giving riches he shines (i. 22^) ; prtaryvo adhvarm
coming early to the sacrifice (i. 441 ) ; sthir cin namayi
ava O ye who desire to bend even what is rigid (viii. 20 ) ;
km h v r s d a m asya p t m for the hero always desires
a draught of it (ii. 14 ).
2
a. some adjectives formed with anc from prepositions governing

the acc. are also used with that ease. Such are pratync facing,
anv's following ; e. g. pratyn usam urviy v bhti facing the
Dawn (the fire) shines forth far and wide (v. 28 ), tasmd anc patn
grhapatyam aste hence the wife sits behindthe6ârhapatya jlre (AB.).
The acc. is found even with samyc united ; e. g. adhr evêna
samyca dadhti he puts him into contact with the plants (MS.) ; but
this adj. also takes the inst., the natural ease with a compound
of sm.
^. In B . the only nouns taking the ace seem to be the des. adjec
tives i n u and the ordinary adjectives i n uka (which are very
common) and those in i n ; e. g. ppmnam apajighsu wishing
to drive away sin (AB.), sarp ena gh t uk syu the snakes might bite
1
197-198]
ACCUSATIVE
303
îm (Ms.) ; aprativdy ena bhrtvyo bhavati his enemy does not
contradict him (PB.).
e. The ace. is governed by more prepositions than any

other case. The genuine prepositions with which it is
exclusively connected in both V . and B . are t i beyond, n u
after, a b h towards, p r t i against, t i r s across; and in V .
only cha towards. It is also taken secondarily by others
which primarily govern other cases (cp. 176. 1, 2). The acc.
is further taken exclusively by the adnominal prepositions
antar between, a b h t a s around, u p r i above, s a n i t r apart
from ; and secondarily by some others (cp. 177. 13).
a. The preposition vn without, except, which first occurs in B . (and
there has only been noted once), takes the acc. ; and rt without,
which i n the RV. governs the abl. only, i n B . begins to take the acc.
also (as it often does in post vedic sanskrit).
^. I n B . a number of adverbs (inst. of adjectives and substantives
or formed with tas from pronouns expressive of some relation in
space) take the acc. ; such are grena in front of ntarea within,
beiween, ttarea north of dkiena to the right or the south of, prea
beyond ; ubhaytas on both sides of.
^. In B . the ace. is taken by two interjections. One of them, d
lo behold.^ (cp. Lat. en), is always preceded by a verb of motion,
which, however, has sometimes to be supplied ; e. g. yya vyr :
d dhat vtrm Vayu came (to see): behold, Vtra (was) dead (B.) ;
pnar ma ti dev : d agn tirbhutam we are coming back', said
the gods ; (they came back, and) behold l Agni (had) disappeared.^ (B.).
The other interjection dhik jie .^, used with the acc. of the person
only, is still very rare i n B. ; e. g. dhik tv jlmaâstu fie on you,
rogue (KB.).
Double Accusative.
19S. A second acc. appears in apposition with various
verbs ; e. g. p r u a ha v i dev g r e p a m lebhire
the gods in the beginning sacrificed a man as a victim (B.).
It is further used :
1. predicatively with verbs of saying ( b r , vac), thinking
(man), knowing (vid), hearing (ru), making (k), ordaining
(vi-dh), choosing (v), appointing (nidh) in both V .
304
[198
and B . ; e. g. v n a b a s t b c d h a y i t r a m a b r a v t the
hegoat said (that) the dog (was) the wakener (i. 161 ); y d
a n y ^ny p p m avadan that the one ealled the other
wicked (B.) ; a g n manye p i t r a m Agni I think a father
(x. 7 ) ; m a r i y n t a ed y j a m n a m n y e t a if he thinks
the sacrificer (is) going to die (B.) ; c i r t n mene he thought
that too long (B.) ; vidm h i t v p u r v s u m we know thee
(to be) possessed of much wealth (i. 81^) ; n v i h a t v t r
v i d m n j v m we know not (whether) Vtra (is) dead nor
(whether he is) alive (B.) ; r e v n t a h t v m i I hear
(about) thee (that thou art) rich (viii. 2 ) ; v n t y enam
a g n e i k y n m (TS.) they hear (about) him having piled the
fire (altar) : asm n s j i g y a k d h i make us thoroughly
victorious (viii. 80 ) ; t p a m a d h i p m akarot he
made Pan their lord (MS.) ; t s m hutr yaj v y
d a d h u they made (= ordained) the oblations (to be) the
sacrifice for him (MS.) ; a g n h t r a p r v e I choose
Agni priest (iii. 19 ) ; n tv m agne m n u r dadhe j y t i r
j n y a vate Manu has appointed thee, O Agni, as a light
for every man (i. 361^).
2. to express the person as a direct object beside the
thing wdth verbs of addressing (vac), asking (prach), begging
(yc), approaching with prayer (, y), milking (duh), shaking
(dh), sacrificing to (yaj), doing to (k) ; e. g. a g n mah m
a v o c a m s u v k t m to Agni we have addressed a great hymn
(x. 807) ; pch m i t v p r a m n t a pthivy I ask thee
about the farthest limit of the earth (i. 164 ); y j avalkya
d v u p r a n u p r a k y m i I will ask Yjavalkya two questions
(B.) ; a p y c m i bheajm I beg healing from the waters
(x. 9^); t d agnihotry g n y c e t that the Agnihot should
beg of Agni (MS.) ; v s n i d a s m m m a h e we approach the
wondrous one for riches (i. 42 ) ; t t t v y m i I approach
thee for this (i. 24 ) ; d u h n t y d har divy n i they milk
celestial gifts from the udder (i. 64^) ; im m e v s r v n
k m n duhe from her he (milks ) obtains all desires (B.) ;
13
11
34
10
11
198]
TWO
ACCUSATIVES
305
v k p h l a d h n u h i shake down fruit from the tree

(iii. 45 ) ; y j devm t b h t sacrifice to the gods the
lofty rite (I. 75^) ; k m k a r a n n abal asya s n what
can his feeble hosts do to me ? (v. 30^).
4
a. Of the above verbs vac, and y, dh, yaj and k do not seem
to be found with two acc. i n B. ; on the other hand gam approach,
dh milk, j i win, jy wrest from are so used there ; e. g. agnr vi
vrua brahmacryam gachat Agni (approached) askedVaruafor
the position of a religious student (Ms.) ; iml lokn adhayad yaya
kmam akmayata from these worlds he extracted whatever he desired (AB.) ;
devn sur yajm ajayan the Asuras won the sacrifice from the gods
(Ms.) ; ndro maruta sahasram ajint Indra wrested a thousand from
the.IIaruts(PB.).
1
3. to express the agent with causative verbs beside the

acc. which would be taken by the simple verb also ; e. g.
u n devm u a t p y a y h a v eager thyself cause the
eager gods to drink the libation (ii. 37 ) ; t y j a m n a
v c a y a t i he makes the sacrificer name them (TS.). W i t h
verbs of motion the other ace. expresses the goal (which is,
however, never a person) ; e. g. p r m e v p a r v t
s a p t n g a m a y m a s i to the extreme distance we cause the
rival wife to go (x. I45 ) ; y j a m n a s u v a r g l o k
gamayati he causes the sacrificer to reach the celestial
world (TS.).
6
a. In B. the agent is frequently put in the inst. instead of the acc.

with various causatives, especially that of grah seize ; e. g. t vru
enaâgrhayat (MS.) he caused Varua to seize them ( he caused them
to be seized by Varua).
b. In B. a second acc. expresses the goal (with n lead) or duration
of time beside the acc of the object ; e. g. evm evêna krm
suvarg lok nayati thus the tortoise leads him to the celestial world
(TS.), tisr r t rr vrat caret he should observe a fast for three nights
(TS ).
1
Which would be expressed by the nom. with the simple verb ;

e. g. dev hav pibanti the gods drink the libation.
When the goal is a person it is expressed by the loc. or a Joe.
adverb; e.g. agnv agn gamayet he would send Agni to Agni (B.) ;
devatrêv enad gamayati he sends it to the gods (B.).
2
306
[199
Instrumental
1 9 9 . A . The fundamental sense of this case is con

comitance, which may variously be rendered by with, by,
through, according as it expresses accompaniment, instru
mentality^ or agency, causality, motion through space or
duration of time.
1. I n its soeiative sense the instrumental expresses the
companion or accompaniment of the subject in any activity ;
e. g. dev d e v b h i r gamat may the god eome with the gods
(i. 1^) ; n d r e a yuj n r ap m aubjo a r a v m with Indra
as thy eompanion thou didst release thefloodof waters (ii. 23 ^) ;
n d r o no r d has^ gamat may Indra eome to us with wealth
(iv. 55 ).
1
10
a. similarly in B . : agnir vasubhir ud akrmat Indra departed with

the Vasus (AB.) ; yna mntrea juhti td yju the s,oell to the accom
paniment of which he offers the oblation is the Yajus (B.); td asya
shas^, d itsanta they tried to take it from him by force (TS.).
2. I n its instrumentai sense it expresses the means

(person or thing) by which an action is accomplished ; e. g.
v a y m n d r e a s a n u y m a v j am we would win booty through
Indra (i. 101l ) ; h a n v t r m n d r o vjrea Indra smote
Vtra with his bolt (i. 32^),
1
a. similarly in B . : kna vra by whom as champion (B.) ; rs

bja haranti they carry corn (with =) on the head (B.); tsmd
dkiena hstena^nnam adyate therefore food is eaten withtheright
hand (MS.).
3. I n its causal sense it expresses the reason or motive

of an action by reason of, on account of for the sake of;
e. g. s m a s y a pty . . . gatam come hither for the sake of
the Soma draught (i. 46 ); a a t r r j a n san d asi thou
art by thy nature without foes from of old (i. 102^).
13
a. similarly i n B. : s bh n lilye he concealed himself through

(B.), ; so n m n by name.
4. In its local sense of through or over it is used with
199]
INSTRUMENTAL
307
verbs of motion to express the space through or over which

an action extends ; e. g. div y n t i m a r t o b h u m y ^ a g n r
a y v t o a n t r i k e a y t i the Maruts go along the sky,
Agni over the earth, the Wind here goes through the air (i. 161 ) ;
a n t r i k e p a t h i b h i p t a n t a m flying along the paths in the
air (x. 87^).
14
a. In B. the inst. is constantly used in the local sense with words

meaning path or door, but rarely with others ; e. g. yth^ketrajno
'nyna path nyet as if one who does not know the district were to lead by a
wrong road (B.) ; srasvatya yanti they go along the Sarasvat^ (Ts.).
5. I n its temporal sense the inst. expresses the time

throughout which an action extends ; e. g. prvbhir dad
im ardbhi we have worshipped throughout many autumns
(i. 86^), Sometimes, however, the sense of duration is not
apparent, the inst. being then used like the loc. of time ;
thus t n and t b h i mean in due season.
a. In B .thetemporal meaning is rare ; e.g. sv iumtrm ov h n
tiryh avardhata he grew in the course of a day quite an arrow's length in
width (Ms.).
6. Many instrumentais (chiefly of the sociative and local

classes) have come to be used i n a purely adverbial sense.
Such are formed from either substantives or adjectives (of
which sometimes no other form occurs) ; e. g. jas straight
way, m h o b h i mightily, s h a s and s h o b h i s suddenly ;
n t a r e a within, t t a r e a to the north ; u e c i s above, c i s
below, p a r c i s sideways, p r c i s forwards, nais and anis,
a n a k i s slowly.
a. In a number of these instrumentais the adverbial use is indicated,
not only by the sense, but by a shift of accent ; e. g. dv by day ; dak
i to the right ; madhy between ; naktay by night ; svapnay in a
dream ; akay across (B.) ; anomalously formed from u stems : uy
quickly, dhruv boldly, raghuy swiftly, sdhuy straightway, mithuy
falsely (mithy B.), anuhuy immediately (anuy B . ) ; and from a
pronoun, amuy in that way.
199. B. Besides having the above general and indepen

dent uses the inst. also appears, in special connexion with
308
[l99
different classes of words by which it may be said to be

' governed ' :
1. w i t h verbs expressing :
a. association or contention with ; i n R v : yat marshal,
y d combine, yuj join (mid.), sac accompany ; y u d h fight,
spdh strive, h s race, k r play; i n B . : y u d h fight, v i j i
contend victoriously (with).
b. separation from (compounds with vi) ; i n R V . : v i y u
dissever from, vivt turn away from, vyavt separate (intr.)
from ; i n B . : v y v t id., v i d h be deprived of v i s t h be
removed from, vva i go away from = lose.
c. enjoyment ; i n RV. : k a n find pleasure in, m a d be
exhilarated with, uc be fond of, t u be satisfied with, mah
delight in, h rejoice in, bhuj enjoy ; i n B . : tp be pleased
with, nand be glad of bhuj enjoy.
d. repletion ; i n RV. : p fill (acc.) with, p swell with ;
in B . : cans. of p : p r a y a fill, pass. p u r y a befilledwith.
e. purchase for (a price) ; i n v. : vikr bargain away for ;
in B . : n i k r ransom for.
f. adoration or sacrifice (the victim or object offered), W i t h
yaj sacrifice to the deity is i n the acc. i n both v. and B . ;
in B . the sacrificial date also is put i n the (cognate) acc. ;
e. g. amvasy yajate he celebrates the feast of new moon.
g. procedure: the verb car i n both V . and B . ; e.g.
d h e n v carati m y y he acts with barren craft (x. 71^) ;
u p u vc carati he proceeds in a low tone with his voice
(AB.).
h. ability to do : the verb k i n both V . and B . ; e. g. k m
c k a r y a t i what will he do with a hymn ? (i. 164 ^) ; k
s t i r g h i kury t what could he do with that house?
(B.), I n B . the phrase r t h o bhavati there is business with
= there is need of (Lat. opus est aliqua re) is similarly used ;
1
sometimes also with the gen.: the past part. pass. pr with the
gen. = full of but with theinst.filled with.
199]
INSTRUMENTAL
309
e. g. y a r h i v v a vo m a y r t h o b h a v i t if you (gen.) shall

have need of me (AB.).
1. dominion: only (in V.) the verb patya be lord of(lit.
by means of) ; e. g. n d r o v v a i r v r y i p t y a m n a
Indra who is lord of all heroic powers (iii. 54 ^).
j. subsistence : only (in B.) the verb j v live on, subsist by ;
e. g. y y manuy j v a n t i (the cow) on which men subsist
(Ts.).
1
a. W i t h passive forms of the verb (including participles) the inst.

expresses either the means (as with the active verb) or the agent (the
nom. of the active verb) ; e. g. ghtnaâgn sm ajyate Agni is
anointed with ghee (x. 118 ) ; u uchnt ribhyate vsihai Uas when
she dawns is praised by the Vasisthas (vii. 76 ). similarly in B . : prajpa
tin sjyante they are created by Prajpati (MS.) ; p t rair nnam adyate
food is eaten with the aid of dishes (Ms.).
^. Nominal forms connected with the verb, when they have a passive
sense, as gerundives and infinitives, take the same construction ; e. g.
nbhir hvya to be invoked by men (vii. 22 ) ; rip nâvacke not to
be observed by the enemy (iv. 58 ) .
4
2. w i t h nouns :
a. substantives and adjectives (especially those com
pounded with sa) expressive of association or equality ; e. g.
nsunvat sakhy vai ra the hero desires not friend
ship with him who does not press Soma (x. 42 ) ; si sam
d e v i thou art equal to the gods (vi. 48 ) ; n d r o v i sad
d e v t b h i r st Indra was equal to the (other) deities (TS.) ;
jyena m i r mixed with butter (B.).
b. other adjectives, to express that by which the quality
in question is produced ; e. g. o v j ena vjini O Dawn
rich in booty (iii. 61 ) ; b a h p r a j y bhaviyasi thou wilt
be rich in offspring (B.).
e. numerals accompanied by n, to express deficiency ;
e. g. e k y n v i a t not twenty by (lack of) one
nineteen.
4
19
3. w i t h prepositions : genuine prepositions are virtually

not used with the instrumental. The only exceptions in
310
[l99-20o
the RV. are the employment of d h i with the inst. of s n

height ; of p a i n three passages with d y b h i s and dhrma
bhis ; and possibly of s m with i n a few passages with the
inst. But prepositional adverbs are found thus used ; in
the RV. only a v s below and p a r s abov e ; and i n both V .
and B . s a h and s k m with. Cp. 177, 2.
Dative.
2 0 0 . The dative expresses the notion with which an
action is concerned. It is either connected with individual
words or is used more generally as a complement to the
whole statement.
A . Dative i n a special sense with :
1. verbs (mostly as affecting persons) having the sense of
a. giv e ; i n v. B . d a giv e, y a m extend, d h bestow, bhaj
apportion ; e. g. d d h t i r t n a v i d h a t he bestows treasure
on the worshipper (iv. 12 ) ; i n v. also many other verbs
expressing a modification of the sense of giving : d i assign,
v a - d u h milk down on, p r bestowfully,p c bestow abundantly,
m a h give liberally, m measure out, r procure (fur), n - y u
bestow permanently, V i d find (for), san obtain (for), s set in
motion (for), sj shed (for), and others.
b. sacrifice ; in v. a-yaj offer to (while yaj takes the aec.) ;
and i n v B . k when make an offering to ; i n B . -labh
(catch and tie up ) offer ; e. g. a g n b h y a pa n labhate
he sacrifices the animals to the Agnis (TS.).
e. say = announce, explain (but with ace of person if
address) : i n v B . ah, b r , vac, v a d (in B . also cak) ; i n
v. also are and g sing to, stu utter praise to, g i r , rap,
as praise anything (acc.) to. I n B . also : n i - h n u apologize
to ; e. g. t d u d e v b h y o n hnute thereby he craves pardon of
the gods (B.).
d. hear : i n RV. a few times r u listen to ; also ram
linger for = listen to.
3
DATIVE
200]
311
e. believe, have confidence in: r d d h ; e. g. r d asmai

dhatta believe in him (ii. 12^) ; i n B . also 1gh trust in.
f help, be gracious to, pay homage to : i n v. a k aid, sidh
avail ; s-nam be complaisant to ; d a a s y a pay honour to,
saparya do anything (ace.) in honour of (a god) ; d , v i d h ,
sac pay homage to (a god), a m serve (a god) ; i n v. and B . :
m be gracious to.
g. bring : n, b h , vah, h i , h ; e. g. am sat vahasi
bh r i v m m for him who is at home thou bringest much
wealth (i. 124 ) ; d e v b h y o h a v y vahanti they take the
oblation to the gods (TS.) ; t h a r m i pityaj y a d e v m
that god I bring to the sacrifice for the Manes (x. 16 ) ; v a
k a t r y y a b a l haranti the peasants bring the taxes to the
nobility (B.). I n v. only there are many other verbs, with
this general sense, that take the dative, such as , i n v , c u d
set in motionfor,and figurative expressions such as abhi-kar
stream to, d and u c shine on, p r u sprinkle on, a b h i - v
waft to : i n v. also the verb i go is used with the dat. ; e. g.
p r vave m etu m n m a let my strong hymn go forth
in honour of Viu (i. 154 ).
h. please : svad be sweet to and chand be pleasing to ; e. g.
s v d a s v a ^ n d r y a p t y e be sweet to Indra as a draught
(ix. 74 ) ; u t t d asmai m d h v c cachadyat and may that
mead be pleasing to him (x. 73 ).
i. succeed : i n B . d h and k p ; e. g. n h a ^ e v ^ a s m a i t t
s m ndhe he did not suceeed in that (B.) ; k l p a t e ^smai
he succeeds (TS.).
j. subject to : radh ; e. g. a s m b h y a vtr r a n d h i subject
our foes to us (iv. 22 ).
k. yield to: radh succumb, nam and n i h bow before,
s t h obey, mrad and k a m (B.) yield to, -vrac fall a victim
to ; e. g. m a h dviat radham may I not succumb to
my enemy (i. 50 ) ; t a s t h sav y a te they obey thy command
(iv. 54^).
l. be angry with : i n V . h (hte) ; i n V . and B . : a s y a
12
10
13
312
[200
and k r u d h ; i n B . also a r t y a be hostile and gl be

averse to.
m. seek to injure : in v . and B . d r u h ; e. g. y d d u d r h i t h a
s t r i y i p u m s what mischief thou hast done to woman or man
(AV.).
n. cast at : v. sj discharge ; v. B . as throw ; B . prah
hurl at ; e. g. sjd s t d i d y m asmai the archer shot a
lightning shaft at him (i. 71^) ; t s m a i t m u m asyati he
shoots the arrow at him (MS.) ; vjra b h r t v y y a p r
harati he hurls the bolt at the foe (TS.).
o. exist or be intended for, accrue to : as be, b h become ;
e. g. g a m b h r c i d bhavati g d h m asmai even in deep
water there is a ford for him (vi. 24 ) ; n d r a t b h y a m d
a b h m a we have become thine own, O Indra (TS.) ; t h a k
m h y a b h g bhaviyati then what share will accrue to
me (B.),
3
a. The dative is used with gerundives and infinitives to express the

agent, and with the latter also the object by attraction instead of the
acc. ; e. g. y stotbhyo hvyo asti who is to be invoked by singers (i. 33 ) ;
v rayant prayi devbhya let (the doors) open wide for the gods to
enter (i. 142 ); ndram arkir vardhayann haye hnta v u they
strengthened Indra with hymns to slay the serpent (v. 3 l ) .
2
2. The dative is used w i t h a certain number of sub

stantives.
a. Such are words that invoke blessings, especially n m a s
homage (with the verbs k do or as be, which are often to be
supplied) ; e. g. n m o m a h d b h y a homage to the great
(i. 27 ) ; n m o 'stu b r h m i h y a adoration to the greatest
Brahman (B.). Similarly used are the sacrificial formulas
sv h , svadh , va hail ! blessing ! e. g. t b h y a sv h
blessing on them (Av.).
13
a. The indeclinables m i n V . and km i n B . meaning welfare are

used as nom. or acc. with the dat. ; e. g. yth m sad dvipde
ctuspade in order that there may be welfare for biped and quadruped
(i. 114 ) ; hutayo hy agnye km for the oblations are a joy to Agni (B.) ;
nâsm -ka bhavati it does notfare ill with him (Ts.).
1
200]
DATIVE
313
1n V. the substantives kma desire and gat path may perhaps be

regarded as taking a dative without a verb to be supplied ; e.g. kv
nso amtatvya gtm procuring for themselves a path to immortality
(I. 72^),
^v. I n the name Dsyave v k a Wolf to the Dasyu (RV.) the dat. is to be
explained as due to its use in the sentence he is a very wolf to the Dasyu.
3. The dative is used w i t h adjectives meaning dear, kind,

agreeable, beneficial, willing, obedient, illdisposed, hostile ; e. g.
iv s k h i b h y a u t m h y a m st she was kind to friends
and also to me (x. 34-) ; t i t h i c r ur y v e a guest dear to
man (ii. 28) ; y d v v j v b h y o h i t t t pit b hya what
is good for the living is goodforthe Manes (B.) ; s r t m a n
v r s c a n y a bhavati (B.) he is ready for felling (the tree) ;
p r a t y u d y m n ha katr y a v a k u r y t he would
make the peasantry hostile to the nobility (B.),
a. The adj. ngas sinless often seems to take the dative of the name
of a deity, but it is somewhat uncertain whether the case should not
be connected with the verb ; e.g. ngaso ditaye syma may we be
sinless (to =) in the eyes of Aditi (i. 241) may perhaps mean may we, as
sinless, belong to Aditi.
5
4. The dative is used w i t h a few adverbs.

a. r a m often takes the dat. ; e. g. y r a v h a n t i
manyve who drive in accordance with (thy) zeal (vi. 16 ).
This use of r a m is common in combination with the verbs
k , gam, and b h . When used with the dat. r a m is not
infrequently equivalent to an adj. ; e. g. s s m r a m he is
ready for him (ii. 18) ; a y smo astu r a m n a s e
y u v b h y m let this Soma be agreeable to your heart (i. 108).
In B . lam appears i n the place of r a m and is often
similarly used ; e. g. n l am huty sa, n l a bhak y a
he was not suitable for sacrifice, nor suitable for food (B.).
b. The adverb vs visibly is used with the dat. i n V . and
B., but only when accompanied by the verbs k , bh or as
(the latter sometimes to be supplied) ; e. g. v r ebhyo
abhavat s r ya the sun appeared to them (i. 146 ) ; t s m a i v
v r a s m a we will appear to him (B.).
43
314
O U T L I N E S OF
SYNTAX
[200
B . The dative also in a general sense complements the

statement of the whole sentence.
1. It expresses the person for whose advantage or
disadvantage the action of the sentence takes place ; e. g.
dev n d e v a y a t yaja worship the gods for the benefit of the
pious man (i. 15 ) ; t s m e t vjram akurvan for him
they made this bolt (B.) ; t a s m u p k t y a n i y o k t r a na
v i v i d u (AB.) for him when he had been brought near they eould
find no binder (i.e. they could find no one willing to bind him).
2. It expresses the purpose for which an action is done
(final dative) ; e. g. r d h v s t i h na t y e stand up for
our help = in order to help us (I. 30^) ; n s v i m n d r o vase
m d h t i Indra will not leave the pious man in the lurch for
help (vi. 23 ) ; svarg y a 1ok y a v i u k r a m kramyante
the Viu steps are taken for the sake of(= i n order to gain)
heaven (TS.) ; a g n hotr y a pr v ata theychoseAgni for
the priesthood i n order that he should be priest (B.). The
final sense is commonly expressed by abstract substantives
(including in v. many infinitives) ; e. g. d h i r i y duhit
s r y a s y a r t h a tasthau the daughter of the sun has mounted
the car for beauty = so as to produce a beautiful effect (vi. 63^) ;
t n a ^ e v ^ e n a s sjati n tyai with him (Mitra) he unites
him (Agni) for appeasement (TS.),
a. This final dat. is particularly used with as and b h ;
e. g. sti h m m d y a v a there is (something) fur your
intoxication, i . e. to intoxicate you (I. 37 ^) ; m d y a s m a
(sc. asti) Soma (is for =) produces intoxication (B.).
3. The dative is used, though rarely, i n expressions
of time like the English for ; e. g. n n na i n d r a ^
aparaya ca s y now and for the future mayst thou be ours,
O Indra (vi. 33^) ; savatsar y a s m amyate for a year an
alliance is made (MS.).
12
a. The iterative compound divdive day by day, though apparently

dat. of div, is probably i n reality meant for the loc. of the transfer
stem div.
DATIVE
200201]
315
4. T w o datives connected i n sense often appear together.

This occurs i n V . when an ace is attracted by a dative
infinitive ; e. g. vtr y a h n t a v e = v t r h n t a v e to slay
Vtra (cp. 200. A . 1 o a).
a. There is an analogous use i n B . , where, however, an abstract
substantive takes the place of the infinitive; e.g. yth.îd pi
bhym avanjanaya^hranty evm just as they bring it for washing the
hands (B.). Two datives are here often found with the verb stha,one
expressing the purpose, the other the person affected by the action ;
e.g. devebhya paavo 'nndyyalambya naâtihanta the animals
did not present themselves to the gods for food, for sacrifice (AB.).
5. The adverbial use of the dative is very rare : k m ya

and r t h y a for the sake of may be regarded as such ;
k m a c r s y a k m ya for the sake of unrestrained motion
(B.) ; a s m k r t h y a jajie thou hast been born for our
sake (AV.).
Ablative.
2O1. The ablative, expressing the startingpoint from
which the action of the verb proceeds, may as a rule be
translated by from. It is chiefly connected with various
classes of words, but is also used independently.
A . I n its dependent use the ablative appears with :
1. verbs a. expressing a local action, as go, proceed, drive,
lead, take, receive ; pour, drink ; call, loosen, ward off, exclude ;
e. g. y r gvo n y v a s d g o p they went like unherded
kine from the pasture (vli. 18 ) ; vtrsya vasthd a
m fleeing from the snorting of Vtra (viii. 967) ; sata
s d ajyata from nonbeingarosebeing (x. 72 ); abhr d v a
p r stanayanti v y a from the cloud as it were thunder the
rains (x. 75 ) ; t v dsym r k a s a ja thou drovest the
enemies from the house (vii. 5 ) ; b h u j y samudr d ha
t h u ye two have borne Bhujyu from the sea (vi. 62 ) ; do
hirayapi n d v o d s d asniam ten lumps of gold I
1
316
[201
23
have received from Divodsa (vi. 47 ) ; p d dhotr d u t

p o t r d amatta he has drunk from the Hot's vessel and has
intoxicated himself from the Pot's vessel (ii. 37 ) ; m r u t o y d
vo d i v h v m a h e O Maruts, when we call you from heaven
(viii. 7 ) ; n a cic c h p a y p d a m u c a thou didst
release Sunaepa from the post (v. 27) ; y u y u t m a s m d
n i r m m v m ward off from us sickness and calamity
(vii. 7 l ) ,
4
11
^. Examples from B. are : y d dh v ed ann d yd dhvet if he were to

run, he would run away from his food (Ts.) ; s rtht papta he fell from
his car (B.) ; div v ir rte rain comes fromthesky (Ts.) ; raya kavaam
ailsa somd anayan the seers led Kavaa Aila away from Soma, i. e.
excluded him from it (AB.) ; enn asml lokd anudanta they drove them
away from this world (AB.) ; tsmd nasa ev grhyt therefore he should
take it from the cart (B. ) ; keavt prut ssena parisrta krti
he buys the Parisrut from a longhaired man for lead (B.) ; s evêna
varuapa n mucati he releases him from the fetter of Varua (Ts.);
suvarg l lokd yjamno hyeta the sacrificer would fall short of heaven
(Ts.). The two verbs antr dh hide and nl conceal oneself are used
with the abI. i n B . only : vjreaêna suvarg l lokd antr dadhyt
he would exclude him from heaven with the bolt (Ts.); agnr devbhyo n
lyata Agni concealed himselffrom the gods (Ts.).
b. expressing rescue, protect ; fear, dislike ; transcend, prefer :

verbs with the latter two senses as well as uruya protect,
rak guard, and rej tremble take this construction i n V . only ;
p and t r protect and bn fear i n both V . and B . ; g o p y a
protect, b b h a t s a be disgusted with i n B . only ; e. g. haso
no m i t r uruyet may Mitra rescue us from distress (iv. 55 ) ;
s n s t r s a t e durit t he shall proteet us from misfortune
(I. 128^) ; indrasya vjrd abibhet she was afraid of Indras
bolt (x. 138 ) ; p r s n d h u b h y o ririce, p r k i t b h y a he
reaches beyond rivers and beyond lands (x. 89 ) ; s m t sutad
n d r o a v t a vsihn Indra preferred the Vasisthas to
(Padyumna's) pressed Soma (vii. 33 ).
a. W i t h b h two ablatives are found, the one being the
object feared, the other the action proceeding from it ; e. g.
indrasya vjrd abibhed a b h i n t h a she was afraid of
5
11
^0l]
ABLATIvE
317
Indras bolt, of its crushing (x. 138 ), i . e. that it would crush

her; asurarakasbhya sag d bibhay c a k r u they
were afraid of the Asuras and Rakasas, of their attachment =
that they would attach themselves to them (B.).
2. substantives when derived from, or equivalent to,
verbs used with the ablative ; e. g. rma no yasan triv
rtnam hasa they shall grant us thriceprotecting shelter
from distress (x. 66^); p a chy m i v a gh er g a n m a
r m a te v a y m we have entered thy shelter like shade (that
protects) from heat (vi. 16^); r k o b h y o v i t bh
v c am ayachan they restrained their speech from fear of the
demons (B.).
3. adjectives : i n v. and B. comparatives and adjectives
of cognate sense, when it means than ; e. g. ght t sv d ya
sweeter than butter (viii. 24 ) ; v v a s m d n d r a t t a r a
Indra is greater than every one (x. 861) ; jt n y v a r y a s m t
born later than he (viii. 96^) ; p u r v v v a s m d b h v a n d
abodhi she has awakened earlier than every being (i. 123 ) ;
p p yn vd g a r d a b h the ass is worse than the horse
(TS.) ; brahma h i p r v a k a t r t the priesthood is superior
to the warrior class (PB.) ; anyo v ayam asmad bhavati
he becomes other than we (AB.),
20
a. In B. several local and temporal adjectives: arvc n a below,

rdhv above, jihm aslant ; arv c before, par c after ; e. g. yt k
ca^,arvc n am dity t whatever is below the sun (sB.) ; etsmc c t vald
rdhv svarg lokm upd akraman upward from that pit they
ascended to heaven (sB.) ; yajnj jihm yu they (would go obliquely
firom =) lose the sacrifice (AB.)., daa v etasmd arvcas trivto, daa
parca ten Irivts occur before it and ten after it (AB.).
b. i n B. adjectives i n uka, which with bhu are equivalent to
a verb ; e. g. yajamnt paavo 'nutkrmuka bhavanti the animals are
not inclined to run away from the sacrificer (AB.).
c. i n B. numerals, both ordinals and cardinals : with the former
the abf. expresses the point from which the reckoning is made ;
e.g. varo naâsmad dvityo v ttyo v brhmaatm abhyupaito
the second or third (in desCent)from him can obtain Brahminhood (AB.) ; with
the latter it expresses the figure by which the complete number is
defective ; e. g. kn n atm not a hundred by one - ninety-nine.
318
[201202
Analogously with words meaning incomplete the abl. expresses the

amount of the deficiency; e.g. kasmad akrd naptam (a verse)
incomplete by one syllable (Ts.); tm alpak d evâgnr sacita sa
their fire (altar) was not completely piled up by a little only, i.e. was almost
completely piled up (B.).
4. adverbs meaning before, beyond, outside, below,forfrom,

without are used prepositionally with the abl.
Those
occurring in V . only are : a d h s below, avs down from, r
without, p u r s before ; in V . and B . : t without, t i r s apart
from, p a r s outside, pur before ; in B . only : a b h y a r d h s
far from; b a h s outside. Cp. 177, 3.
a. I n B . some other adverbs with a local or temporal
sense ; e. g. d r ha v asm n m t y r bhavati death is
for from him (B.) ; t s m n madhyam c chakr daki
p e a d a a vikram n p r k r m a t i he stridesforwardfifteen
steps to the right of this middle peg (B.) ; p r g g h o m t before
(making) the oblation (AB.).
B . The abl. is used independently of any particular class
of word to express the reason of an action in the sense of
on account of; e.g. m nas t s m a d naso deva r r i a
let us suffer no harm, O god, on account of this sin (vii. 89 ) ;
n t d v i t praj v r u o ' g n t by reason of their guilt
Varua seized creatures (MS.). Similarly in B . : t s m d
therefore; k s m t wherefore
5
Genitive.
2 O 2 . The genitive is a dependent ease, being in its main
uses connected with verbs and substantives, but also appear
ing with adjectives and adverbs.
A . W i t h verbs the gen. has a sense analogous to that of
the acc., but differs here from the latter i n expressing that
the action affects the object not as a whole, but only in part.
It is used with verbs having the following senses :
a. rule over, dispose of: always with k i and r j , nearly
always with irajya and (rarely ace). In B . the only verb
202]
GENITIvE
319
with this sense taking the gen. is have power over ; e. g.

t h a ^ e s r v a e then every one has power over them (MS.).
b. rejoice in : always with tp, p r , v d h ; optionally with
kan and mad (also inst. and loc.), and with the caus. of pan
(also ace.).
a. In B . the only verb of this group taking the gen. is tp in a
partitive sense; e.g. nnasya tpyati he refreshes himself with (some) food
(B.).
e. take note of: always with 2. k speak highly of and

-dh think about, care for ; alternatively with acc. : c i t
observe, attend to, budh take note of; adhi-i, -gam, -g
attend to, eare for ; v i d know about (with acc. know fully) ;
r u hear (gen. of person, acc. of thing, heard). I n A v .
k r t a y a mention and s m remember take the gen.
a. In B. only three verbs of this class are thus construed : v i d and
ru as in RV. , and krtaya mention.
d. partitiveness (while the acc. with the same verbs

expresses full extent) :
1. eat, drink : a eat of, ad eat (almost exclusively with
acc.) ; p drink ; -v fill oneself full of, v and jus enjoy.
a. In B . only a and p besides bhak eat (in R V . with acc. only)
take the partitive gen.
2. give, present, sacrifice: d give of, - d a a s y a and a k

present with; pc give abundantly of; yaj sacrifice (acc. of
person, gen. of offering), e. g. s m a s y a t v y a k i I will
worship thee (with a libation) of Soma (iii. 53).
a. In B. yaj may be used without acc. of the person ; e.g. tsmad
jyasyaêv yajet therefore he should sacrifice some butter ( S B ) .
^. In B. several verbs having the general sense of giving and taking,
not so used i n V., come to be used with the gen. of the object i n
a partitive sense : vap strew, hu offer, abhighar pour upon, avad cut off
some of, -cut drip, upa-st spread over, ni-han (Av.) and pra-han strike,
vi-khan dig up some of; grabh take of and i n the passive be seized
= suffer in (a part of the body); e. g. n ckuo ghe he does not suffer
in his eye ( M s ) : y vc ght who suffers in his voice (Ms).
320
[202
^. In B . anu-br invite is used with the dat. of the god and the gen.
of that to which he is invited ; e. g. agn-mabhy mdas 'nu
brhi invite Agni and Soma to the fat (B.).
e. obtain, ask for : bhaj participate in (with acc. obtain) ;

b h i k beg for. and 1 implore for (generally acc. of thing as
well as person) ; e. g. t m m a h e i n d r a m asya r y we
implore Indra for some of that wealth (vi. 22 ) ; iyate vs
n m he is implored for some of his riches (vif. 32 ) ; also yu
take possession of
3
a. Of these verbs bhaj remains in use in B . : with gen. = have a share

in (with ace. receive as a share).
f belong to: as and b n , with the gen. of the possessor in

both v. and B . ; e. g. a s m k a m astu k v a l a let him
exclusively be ours (i. 7 ) ; t h a ^ a b h a v a t k v a l a smo
asya then Soma became exclusively his (vii. 98 ); m n o r ha
v a b h sa Manu had a bull (B.) ; tasya a t a j y
b a b h v u he had a hundred wives (AB.).
B . The genitive is used with two classes of substantives.
1. It depends on verbal substantives and is then allied to
the gen. with verbs (especially those expressing possession).
a. The subjective gen., which is equivalent to the agent
of the action expressed by the cognate verb ; e. g. uso
vyau at the break of dawn when the dawn breaks ;
apakram d u h a ^ e v ^ e m e t d bibhay e a k r a he
was afraid of their departure (B.) that they would run away.
It very often occurs with datives ; e. g. yajsya smd
d h y a i for the successofthesacrifice(TS.) = that the sacrifice
might succeed.
b. The objective gen., which is equivalent to the object
expressed by the cognate verb ; e. g. ygo vjna the yoking
of the steed = he yokes the steed ; pur v t r s y a vadh t
before the slaughter of Vtra (B.) before he slew vtra.
It often occurs with datives ; e. g. y j a m n a s y a ^ h i s y a i
for the non-injury of the sacrificer (MS.) in order not to
injure the sacrificer.
10
2^12]
GENITIVE
321
a. This genitive is common with agent nouns, especially those i n

tr ; e.g. ray data giver of wealth (vi. 23 ) ; p pan prajanayit
Puan is the propagator of cattle (Ms.). But i n V. the agent nouns in tr
with few exceptions take the acc. when the root is accented ; e. g.
data vsu one who gives wealth (vi. 23 ).
10
2. The gen. commonly depends on nonverbal substantives.

It may then have two senses :
a. The possessive gen. ; e. g. v p a r m the wing of the
bird = wing belonging to the bird ; dev n d t the
messenger of the gods. It also appears with abstract nouns
derived from such words ; e. g. d i d dev n m p a
s a k h y m y a n then they came to friendship with the gods
(iv. 33) then they became friends of the gods.
a. The gen. used with the perf. pass. part., felt to be the agent, is a
variety of the possessive gen. Already appearing a few times i n the
RV. it is common i n B. ; e. g. ptyu krt (MS.) the bought (wife) of
the husband (the wife) bought by the husband.
^. The gen. is similarly used. with the gerundive ; e. g. anyasya
balikrd anyasyaâdyah paying taxes to another, to be devoured by another
(A1^.
^v. The gen. is frequently used possessively where we would use a
dative ; e. g. tasya ha putro jaje a son of his was born = a son was born
to him (AB.).
^. The gem is occasionally used for the dative with rad dh believe
and da give i n the A B . This use may have started from the possessive
sense.
b. The p a r t i t i v e gen. expresses a part of the whole ; e.g.
m i t r v i iv dev n m Mitra is the kindly one among the
gods (TS.). I f the gen. is a plural of the same word as that
on which i t depends it is equivalent to a superlative ; e. g.
s k h e s k h n m O friend among friends = best of friends
(i. 30 ) ; m a n t r a k t mantrakt best of composers of
hymns (B.).
11
a. This gen. is i n particular used with comparatives and superla

tives (including pratham first, caram last, ^c.) ; e.g. n pr jigye
katar canino not either of the two of them conquered (vi. 69^-) ; gardabh
pan bhrabhartama the ass is the best bearer of burdens among
animals (Ts.).
322
[202
^. It is used with numbers above twenty (in B . only with sahsram)

and words expressive of a division or a measure ; e. g. am vnm
(an aggregate of) si^ty horses; gnm ardhm half of the cows; gva
yth n i herds of cows. sometimes this gen. is used by transference to
express not a part, but the whole ; as in mart ga the h oSt (con
sisting) of the Îaruts.
^. The gen. sometimes expresses the material ; e. g. kr n a
vrha car rapayati he cooks a mess of black rice (B.) ; et
vka bhavanti they (the fences) are (made of the wood) of these
trees (B.). It is used i n this sense with the verb k ; e.g. y ev k
ca vk phalagrhis tsya kry whatever tree bears fruit, of (a part of)
that it is to be made (Ms.).
C. The gen. is used w i t h a few adjectives meaning

attached to, like, capable of knowing, offering, abounding in:
p r i y dear, n u v r a t a obedient ; p r t y a r d h i standing at the
side of; n u r p a similar ; svar able to, n v e d a s cognisant
of; P P r bestowing abundantly (partitive gen. of the thing
offered, e. g. n d h a s a of the juice (I. 52 ) ; and with the
participles, used like adjectives, p r full of, ppiv s
abounding in.
D. The gen. is used w i t h certain adverbs having 1. a local
sense : in v. a g r a t s before (AV.) ; i n V. and B . : d a k i a t s
to the right of; avstd below, p a r s t d above, p u r s t d before ;
i n B . : u p r i d behind, pac d behind, p u r s before ;
a n t i k m near, n d y a s nearer, ndih.am. nearest.
3
a. In the RV. ar far from takes the gen. (also the abl.).
^. In B . the local adjective (like the local adverbs) dac northward
of takes the gen.
2. a temporal sense : i d and id n m now are used i n V.

with the genitives h n a s and h n m = at the present time of
day; p r t r early with the gen. h n a s i n V. and with
r t rys i n B . ; e. g. y s y r t ry p r t r y a k y m n a
sy t in the morning of which night he may be about to sacrifice
(MS).
3. a multiplicative sense: in V. sak t once with h n a s
once a day ; t r s thrice i n t r r h n a s , t r r a d i v h thrice
202203]
GENITIVE
323
a day and t r i r a k t s three times a night ; i n B . : d v s twice

and tris thrice with savatsarsya, twice, thrice a year.
a. The adverbial use in v. of the gen. in a temporal sense is perhaps
derived from that with multiplicatives : akts, kpas and ksaps
of a night ; vstos and ussas of a morning.
Locative.
2 0 3 . This case expresses the sphere i n which an action
takes place, or with verbs of motion the sphere which is
reached by the action. Its sense includes not only locality
(both concrete and abstract) but persons and time. It may
therefore be variously translated by in, on, at ; beside, among,
in the presence of; to, into.
A. The loc. appears i n a general and independent way i n
the following senses :
1. Place : a. concrete ; e. g. d i v in heaven, p r v a t e in or
on the mountain (i. 32-) ; s r a s v a t y m at the Sarasvat
(iii. 23 ) ; y u d h in battle (i. 8 ), sagrm id. (B.).
b. abstract : asya s u m a t u s y m a may we be in his good
graces (viii. 48 -) ; t d i n d r a te ve that, O Indra, is in
thy power (viii. 93 ) ; y dity n b h v a t i p r t a u who
is in the guidance of the dityas (il. 27 ) ; vjrasya y t
p t a n e p d i a when upon the flight of the bolt ua
fell (vi. 20^) ; g h t a k r t u at the mention of (the word)
ghee (B.).
2. Persons : e. g. y t k ea d u r i t m y i whatever sin
there is in me (I. 23 ) ; p p y a s r v a s 1 n r t y e u he
abounds in fame among mortals (vi. 10 ) ; y t s t h d r u h y v y
navi t u r v e y d a u , h u v v m whether ye two are beside
(with) Druhyu, Anu, Turvasa (or) Y adu, I call you (viii. 10^) ;
v a y s y m a v r u e n g may we be guiltless in the eyes
of Varua (vii. 877) ; a s m n puyantu g p a t a u let them
prosper under this herdsman (X. 19 ).
3. Time : here the l e e expresses that an action takes
place within the limits of the time mentioned; e.g. uso
4
13
22
324
[203204
v y u a u at the flush of dawn ; usi in the morning (in B.

p r t r is used instead) ; d y v i d y a v i every day (not used in
B.) ; t r r h a n three times in the day (in B. gen. only) ; j y a t e
msmsi he is born (once) in every (successive) month
(x. 52 ).
3
a. This temporal use sometimes comes to mean that something

happens at the end of the period ; e. g. savatsar idm ady vy
khyata ye have opened your eyes now today (for the first time) in a yea
(i. 161 ) = at the end of a year ; tta savatsar prua sm abhavat
thence arose in (^ at the end of) a year a man (B.).
13
4. Adverbially. A few substantives and adjectives are

thus used ; e. g. gre often occurs i n the sense of in front
and at first,, appearing even i n compounds (e. g. agreg
going before, agrep drinking first) ; i n B. the loc. of
k i p r quick is several times thus employed, e. g. k i p r
ha y j a m n o ' m l o k m i y t the sacrificer would speedily
go to yonder world.
2 O 4 . B. The lee. is connected with different classes of
words by which it may be said to be governed.
1. It is specially connected with verbs expressing :
a. i n V. : rejoice in ; grow, prosper ; bless, injure in respect
of; implore, invoke for (, h ) ; receive from ; e. g. vive dev
h a v i m d a y a d h v a m do ye, O allgods, rejoice in the oblation
(vi. 52^) ; t v i u v v d h e he grew in strength (I. 52) ;
y e b h t y m d h a t s j v t he .who will sueeeed in
their support, shall live (i. 84 ^) ; pr v a nas t o k bless us in
children (viii. 23 ) ; m nas t o k r r i a injure us not in our
children (I. 1148) ; a g n t o k t n a y e vad m a h e Agni
we constantly implore for children and for grandchildren
(viii. 7P ) ; d h h t v h v m a h e t n a y e g u ^ a p s for
we invoke thee for offspring, cows, water (vi. 19 ) ; d e v u ^
a m t a t v m n a a ye received immortality (among =) from the
gods (iv. 36 ) ;
in V. and B. : let share in (bhaj) and struggle for (spdh,
rarely in V.); e. g. y n bhajo m a r t a i n d r a sme the
1
12
12
325
LOCATIvE
204]
Maruts whom thou, O Indra, didst allow to share in Soma

(iif. 35^) ; n u no 'sy pthivy m bhajata let us have
a share in this earth (B.) ; d i t y ca ha v agirasa ca
svarge loke 'spardhanta the dityas and the Agirases
struggledfor(the possession of) the heavenly world (AB.) ;
in B . : request (i), ask (prach), call in question (mms) ;
e. g. s haîy devu sutyym apitvm e she re
quested from the gods a share in the Soma feast (B.) ; te devev
apchanta they inquired of the gods (PB.).
b. in v. and B . : motion, to indicate the place that is
reached. The case may here be translated by to, into, upon.
Such verbs i n v. are : go (gam), enter (vi), ascend (-ruh),
descend (ava-vyadh), flow (ar, dhv), pour (sic, hu), put
(dh, k) ; e. g. s d d e v u gachati (i. 1 ) that goes to
(= reaches) the gods (while dev n gachati wou1d mean goes
in the direction of the gods) ; y m r t y e v i t k t i dev n
who brings the gods to mortals (i. 77) ; v r y y j a m n e
d a d h t i he puts energy into the sacrificer (TS.) ; n v e
g r m y u p a u h i t he (is not placed among =) does not
belong to the tame animals (TS.). I n B . verbs meaning to
throw at are especially common with the loc.
e. desire, to indicate the goal or object aimed at : gdn be
eager, yat strive, -as hope ; e. g. n n e u j g d h u r they are
eager for food (if. 23 ) ; d i v i svan yatate the sound soars to
heaven (x. 75 ) ; t u na i n d r a asaya gv v e u pray
give us hope, Indra, of cows and horses (i. 29 ) ; agninOtri
d e v t a asante the gods place their hope in the maintainer
of the sacrificial fire (MS.),
2. The lee. is also used to some extent connected w i t h
nouns :
a. verbal nouns (substantives and adjectives) derived from
verbs taking that case ; e. g. n t s y a vcy p i b h g asti
he has no share in speech (x. 71^) ; smo b h t v avap n ev
bhaga let Soma be a participator in drinking bouts (i. I 3 6^) ;
s u t i t t v n m i I a i n d r a sme thou art attached, O Indra,
4
16
326
[204205
to the pressed Soma (vi. 23 ) ; t s m i n n evêt n m i l a t a m

i v a to him these (women) are most devoted (B.).
b. ordinary adjectives : i n V . p r i y and c r u dear ; e. g.
p r i y s r ye p r i y agn b h a v t i he will be dear to Srya,
dear to Agni (v. 37^) ; c r ur m i t r v r u e ca dear to Mitra
and Varua (ix. 61 ) ; in B . d h r u v firm ; e. g. r r m e v ^
asmin d h r u v m a k a he has made the sovereignty established
in him (TS.).
3. The loc. is used w i t h a few prepositions : in V . a in,
at, on, and (rarely) p i near, in, and p a near to, at, upon, as
well as the prepositional adverb s c beside, with ; i n V . and
B. d h i on and a n t r within (cp. 176, 2 ; 177, 5).
1
Locative and Genitive Absolute.

2O5. 1. The absolute construction of the loc., in which
the case is always accompanied by a participle, started from
the ordinary use of the loc. Combined with a participle it
came to be regarded as a temporal or qualifying clause
where the case alone could not be employed. Thus beside
usi at dawn could appear u c h n t y m usi at dawn as it
shines forth, which then acquired the independent sense
when dawn shines forth (i. 184 ). A s regards the participles
used i n this construction, the future never occurs ; the perf.
act. is quite isolated ; the perf. pass. part. is somewhat
doubtful i n V . , but undoubted in B . ; while the pres. part.
is i n fully developed use i n V . as well as B .
a. A n example of the perf. part. act. in vant used
absolutely is : ait v aty t i t h v a n y t (Av. ix. 6 ) the
guest having eaten, he may eat (cp. 161).
b. The perf. part. pass. appears in the RV. i n several
expressions, such as j t a g n u , s t r b a r h i , s u t sme,
in which the loc. probably still has its ordinary sense ; e. g.
v v a m a d h g yudham i d d h a g n u he burnt every weapon
in the kindled fire (ii. 15 ) ; y vasya dadhikr v o k r t
1
33
LOCATIVE
205]
ABSOLUTE
327
s m i d d h e a g n uso v y a u who has honoured the steed

Dadhikrvan beside the kindledfireat the flush of Dawn (iv. 39 ),
possibly when the fire is kindled. I n other examples the
absolute sense seems more likely : y d m enm u a t abhy
v a r t ty v ata prv y gatym when it has rained
upon the eager thirsty ones, the rainy season having come
(vii. 103 ) ; especially i n y n maruta s r ya d i t e m d a t h a
when ye, O Maruts, are exhilarated at the rising of the sun
(v. 54^), H ere s r y e could not be used alone, while the
loc. of time would be expressed by d i t s r yasya at
sunrise.
3
a. In B. the absolute use with the perf. part. pass. is much more
pronounced ; e. g. diteu nkatreu vca v srjati whenthestars
have risen he sets free his voice (Ts.) ; s en v bhut yaj ate he sacrifices
to them when the morning has appeared (TS.) ; krt sme maitrvaru y a
da pr yachati when the Soma has been bought he hands the staff to the
Maitrvarua priest (TS.); tsmd gardabh pur ^ y ua prmte
bibhyati therefore one is frightened when a donkey has died before its time
(TS.). The substantive has sometimes to be supplied ; e.g. s hovca :
hat vtr ; y d dhat kury t a tt kuruta^,ti he said .. Vrtra is dead ;
what you would do, if he were dead,thatdo (B.).
c. Of the pres. part. with the loc. i n the absolute sense

there are many examples in V. ; e. g. indra prtr hav
maha ndra prayatâdhvar Indra we invoke early.
Indra when the sacrifice proceeds (i. 16 ) ; s r a s v a t deva
y n t o havante s r a s v a t m a d h v a r t y m n e men devoted
to the gods invoke Sarasvat, Sarasvat while the sacrifice is
extended (x. 17 ) ; t v m a d y t v a p a r huvema^
u e h n t y m usi so you two today, so you two in future we
would invoke when Dawn shinesforth(f. 184 ).
3
a. Similarly in B : yajamukhyajamukhe vi kriyme yaj

rkasi jighsanti always when the commencement of the sacrifice
is being made, the Rakases seek to destroy the sacrifice (TS.) ; sme hany
mne yaj hanyate when Soma is destroyed, the sacrifice is destroyed (Ts.) ;
1
Because the sense rejoice inthesun would be unnatural, though the

construction of mad with the loc. is normal (cp. 204, 1 a).
328
[205206
t s m d a g n i c d v r a t i n d h v e t therefore thefirepilershould not run

when it rains (Ts.) ; t m e t t p r a t y y a t y r t r a u s y m p t i h a n t a
so they approached him in the evening when night returned (B.),
2. The genitive absolute is unknown i n v , but has

already come into use in B . It arose from the possessive
genitive which acquired an independent syntactical value
when accompanied by a (pres. or perf. pass.) participle much
in the same way as the loc. The substantive is sometimes
omitted. Examples are: t s y a ^ l a b d h a s y a s v g p a
c a k r m a he beingsacrificed,this voice departed (B.) ; t s m d
ap tapt n p h n o j y a t e therefore, when water is heated,
foam arises (B.); s et v i p r o 'janayata y m
s k y m n a s y a v i p r v a n t e he (Agni) produced those sparks
which dart about when (the fire) is stirred (MS.) ; te ha^
u t t i h a t m u v c a while these stood up he said (AB.). In
the first three of the above examples the close relationship
of the absolute to the possessive case is still apparent.
Participles.
2 0 6 . Participles are of a twofold nature inasmuch as
they share the characteristics of both noun and verb.
In form they are adjectives both in inflexion and concord.
On the other hand they not only govern cases like the verb,
but also indicate differences of voice and generally speaking
retain the distinctions of time expressed by the tenses to
which they belong. They are as a rule used appositionally
with substantives, qualifying the main action and equiva
lent to subordinate clauses. They may thus express a rela
tive, temporal, causal, concessive, final, or hypothetical
sense. The verbal character of participles formed directly
from the root (and not from tense stems) is restricted (with
certain exceptions) to the passive voice in sense, and to past
and future time ; while owing to their passive nature they
are not construed with an acc. of the object, but only with
the inst. of the agent or means.
207208]
PARTICIPLES
329
207. The pres. part. is occasionally used in V. by anaco

luthon as a finite verb ; e.g. asmd ah tavid ama
n d r d bhiy maruto r j a m n a I (am) fleeing from this
mighty one, trembling with fear of Indra, ye Maruts (f. 171 ).
This use does not seem to be found i n B .
a. The pres. part. is used with the verbs i go, car move,
s remain, s t h stand as auxiliaries to express continued
duration i n V . and B . ; e. g. vvam a n y a b h i c k a eti
the other (Pan) goes on watching the universe (ii. 40^) ;
vickaac c a n d r m n k t a m eti the moon goes on shining
brightly at night (i. 24 ) ; t 'sya gh pava upamry
m yu his house and cattle would go on being destroyed
(B.) ; t v h . . . k o vtr c r a s i j g h n a m n a for thou
alone goest on killing the Vtras (ill. 30 ) ; t 'rcanta rm
yanta ceru they went on praying and fasting (B.) ; c
tva pam s t e pupuv n the one keeps producing abundance
of verses (x. 71ll) ; s m a m e v ^ e t t pibanta s a t e they thus
keep on drinking Soma (TS.) ; u c c h v c a m n pthiv s
tihatu let the earth keep on yawning wide (x. 18 ) ; vith
s tihanti they keep conflicting (TS.).
4
10
12
2OS. The past passive particip1e i n ta is very frequently

used as a finite verb ; e. g. t a t me p a s t d u t y a t e
p n a my work is done and it is being done again (I. 110l) ;
n tv v m i n d r a k e a n n j t n janiyate no one is
like thee, O Indra, he has not been born, and he will not be born
(i.81^) ; used impersonally : r d d h i t a te m a h a t indriy y a
confidence has been placed in thy great might (1. 104^),
similarly i n B. : i devt tha katam et the gods have been wor
shipped, but which arethesegods ? (TS.); also i n subordinate clauses:
tsmin yd panna, grasitm evâsya t t what has got into him, that
has been devoured by him (TS.).
a. The perf. pass. part. is not infrequently used with

forms of as and b h as auxiliaries constituting a periphrastic
mood or tense i n V . ; e. g. y u k t s te astu d k i a let thy
right (steed) be yoked (i. 82^) ; d h m s te k e t r abhavad
330
[208-209
d i v r i t the smoke, thy banner, (was raised = ) arose to

heaven (v. 11 ).
b. Such forms (pres. and aor. ind. of b h , impf. and perf.
ind. and opt. of as) make regular past and present tenses and
the opt. mood i n B . ; e.g. b h y a s b h i r h a ^ a s y a ^ h u t i b h i r
i a bhavati by him sacrifice has been made with several
offerings (AB.) ; devsur s y a t t san the gods and
Asuras were engaged in conflict (TS.) ; td v m nu
rutam sa that was heard by the seers (B.) ; tsmd vdht
d h v n o ' b h v a n therefore the roads have been divided (TS.).
2 O 9 . F u t u r e Participles Passive. There are six of
these : one, that i n y y a occurs i n the RV. only ; three,
those in enya, ya, and tva in v. and in B . ; two, those i n
tavya and a n y a i n v . (but not i n the Rv) and in B .
The commonest sense expressed by these verbal nouns is
necessity ; but various allied meanings, such as obligation,
fitness, certain futurity, and possibility, are also frequent.
Four of them are construed with the inst. of the agent (the
gen. and dat. sometimes appearing instead), while the forms
in t v a and a n y a are never found connected with a case.
1. The commonest of these gerundives is that i n ya ;
s a d y jajn h v y o b a b h v a as soon as born he became
one to be invoked (viii. 96 ). It often appears without a
verb ; e. g. vv h vo namasy n i v n d y n m ni dev
u t y a j y n i v a all your names, ye gods, are adorable,
worthy ofpraise, and worshipful (x. 63 ). The agent may be
expressed by the inst., dat., or gen.; e.g. t v n b hir
h v y o v i v d h ^ a s i thou art always to be invoked by men
(vii. 227); a s m b h i r n p r a t i c k y ^ a b h t she has
become visible (by) to us (i. 113 ) ; s k h s k h i b h y a ya
a friend to be praised by friends (i. 75 ) ; y k a d d h v y a
caran m who alone is to be invoked of men (vi. 22^),
3
21
11
a. In B. the agent may be i n the inst. or gen., but not i n the dat. ;
thus tsmai dyam means to him gifts should be given (B.). This
example also illustrates the impersonal use of this gerundive in B.,
^j
GERUNDIVE
331
a use unknown to the RV. This gerundive is always without a verb,

being unaccompanied by forms of as or b h in B . ; e.g. bah dyam
much (is) to be given (MS.).
2. The gerundive i n tva i n the RV. implies necessity or

possibility and is often used i n contrast with the past ; but
it is not found accompanied by a verb (as or b h ) or a noun
expressing the agent ; e. g. r i p v o h n t v s a the enemy are
to be killed (iii. 30i^) ; y n n t v n y n a m a n n y jas who
by his might bent what could be bent (ii. 24 ) ; t d v i v a m
a b h i b h r asi yj j t y c ca j n t v a m thou surpassest all
that has been born and that is to be born (viii. 89^),
2
a. The only meaning that seems to be expressed by this gerundive

in B . is possibility ; e.g. sn t vam udakm water that can be bathed in
(B.); n asyaânyd dhtvam st pr t and he had nothing else that
could be offered but breath (MS.).
3. The gerundive in yya, found in the RV. only, some

times appears accompanied by an agent in the inst. or the
dat. ; e. g. dak y yo n b hi to be propitiated by men (i. 129 ) ;
dakyyo d s v a t e d m a a who is to be propitiated by the
pious man in his house (ii. 4 ),
4. The form i n enya, almost restricted to the R v , may
be accompanied by an agent i n the inst. ; e. g. a g n r n y o
gir Agni to be praised with song (I. 79^) ; a b h y y a s n y
bhavata m a n b h i be willing to be drawn near by the
devout (i. 34 ).
2
a. It is once or twice also found in B. ; thus vcam udysa ur

yam I would utter a speech worthy to be heard (Ts.).
5. The gerundive i n tavya, which is not found i n the

RV. at all, occurs only twice i n the A v . ; thus n b r h m a
h i s i t a v y a Brahmin is not to be injured ( A v . v. 18^),
a. In B. it is frequent and used much i n the same way as the form
in ya ; here it is also used impersonally and with the agent i n the
inst. ; e. g. putr yjayayitavy a son must be made to sacrifice (MS.) ;
agnict pako nâitavym an Agnicit should not eat (any part) of a
bird (Ms.), pavratena bhavitavym (MS.) he should act afterthemanner of
332
OUTLINES
OF S Y N T A X
[209210
cattle (more literally : action should be taken by him as one following the
manner of cattle).
6. The form i n anya, which is rare i n both v. and B . ,

does not occur at all i n the R v , and only twice i n the prose
of the A v . Expressing only suitability or possibility, and
never used either with an inst. or impersonally, it has
hardly attained the full value of a gerundive even i n B . ;
' e. g. upajvanyo bhavati he is one who may be subsisted on
(Av) ; abhicara y a liable to be bewitched (B.) ; havan y a
suitable to be offered to (AB.).
G e r u n d or Indeclinable Participle.
21O. The forms of the gerund, ending i n tv t v , t v y a
(cp. 163) and i n y a or t y a (164) are synonymous, expressing
an action that is past before that of the finite verb begins.
It regularly refers to what is regarded as the subject of the
sentence ; e. g. ghv t m o jytiû abodhi having
hidden away the darkness, Dawn has awakened with light
(vii. 80); yuktv h r i b h y m p a y s a d arv k having
yoked (them) may he come hither with his two bays (v. 40 ) ;
s t r y a dv y a k t a v t a t p a having seen a woman it
pains the gambler (x. 34 ) the gambler, having seen a woman,
is pained ; p b n i d y a drink, after having sat down (i. 177 ) ;
y h n t i t r u m abh t ya who slays the foe after having
attacked him (ix. 55 ).
4
11
a. The usage in B. is similar ; e. g. tsmt suptv praj pr budh

yante therefore creatures awake after having slept (Ts.); t ha^,ena
dv bhr viveda having seen him fear seized him = having seen him he
became afraid (B.). The gerund is, however, here found loosely con
strued i n various ways not occurring in V . Thus it refers in sense to
the agent implied by the future part. pass. in tavya or ya used predi
catively as a finite verb ; e. g. agnihotrahvan pratpya hsto
'vadhya his hand (is) to be put into it (by the holder) after having heated
the firesacrifice ladle (MS.). still looser is the connexion in such sen
tences as the following : t pava adhr jagdhv ^ ap ptv tta
e rsa s bhavati the beasts having eaten the plants and drunk water
210-2ll]
GERUND
333
then this vital sap ari^cs (SB) then acquire this vital sap. The past sense
of the gerund is often emphasized by the particle tha then being
placed immediately after it. The gerund is here sometimes equiva
lent to the finite verb of a subordinate clause ; e. g. tithyna vi
dev iv tant samd avindat after the gods had sacrificed with the rite of
hospitable reception, discord came uponthem(B.); similarly with the verb
man think : etd vi dev pr p ya raddhv ^ ivaâmanyanta the gods,
having obtained this, thought that they had as good as won (B.).
b. The gerund i n am, which is always a compound, and

the first member of which is nearly always a preposition,
expresses a simultaneous action performed by the subject of
the finite verb of the sentence. Being a cognate ace. used
adverbially it is only beginning to be used as a gerund i n
late V . ; e. g. t a n t r yuvat a b n y k r m a vayata the
two maidens weave the web while going up to it (Av.).
a. I n B . it has become common ; e. g. abhikr m a juhoti (Ts.)
he sacrifices while approaching (the fire). This gerund is sometimes used
with s, i , or ear to express continued action ; e. g. t parp t am
asata they keptflyingaway (MS.).
Infinitive.
211. The normal use of this form is to supplement the
general statement of the sentence i n a final (in order to) or
a consequential (so as to) sense. The infinitive is, however,
sometimes dependent on a particular word i n the sentence,
usually a verb, occasionally a noun : it then loses some of its
full meaning, as i n other languages after an auxiliary. The
object when it is expressed is generally i n the accusative.
1. Dative Infinitive.
a. The various forms of this infinitive govern either an
acc. or (by attraction) a dat., sometimes (according to the
nature of the verb) another case ; e. g. n d r y a ^ a r k
j u h v s m aje, v r d n u k a s a v a n d d h y a i for
Indra I with my tongue adorn a song, to praise the bountiful
hero (i. 61^) ; t v m a k o r d u r t u sho vvasmai shase
s h a d h y a i thou didst display irresistible power to overcome
334
[2ll
every power (vi. 1 ) ; v a sya r a ^ d h v a n o n ^ n t e ' s m n

n a d y s v a n e m a n d d h y a i unyoke, O hero, as at the end
of a journey, to delight in this our Soma pressing today (iv. 16 ) ;
b n d u p r m t a v e p n t h the path has appeared, to
(enable us to) go to the farther shore (i. 46 ) ; no nv
matn y t pr y a g n t a v e do ye two come to us with
the boat of our hymns, to go to the farther shore (i. 467) ; n d r a
eodaya d t ave m a g h m urge Indra to give bounty (ix. 75^) ;
n d r a m avardhayann h a y e hntav u they strengthened
Indra to slay the dragon (v. 31 ) ; ta etu m n a p n a
j v s e j y k ca s r ya d let thy spirit return (to live =)
that thou mayest live and long see the sun (x. 57 ) ; ite ge
r k s a s e vinke he sharpens his horns in or der to pierce the
demon (v. 2 ) ; s a d y c i n m h i d v n e to give much at
once (viii. 46 ) ; p r y d b h r a d h v e suvit y a d v n e
when ye proceed to give welfare (v. 59 ) ; a m t r n p t s
t u r v e to overcomefoesin battle (vi. 46^) ; t h a ^ p a p r ^
aid y u d h y e d s y u m then he advanced to fight the demon
(v. 30 ) ; t v a s m b h y a dye s r yya p n a r d t m
s u m may these two give us back our breath that we may see
the sun (x. 14 ) ; d e v no t r a savit n ^ r t h a pr s vd
d v p a t p r e t u p a d i t y i here god Savit has now urged on
our bipeds, on our guadrupeds to go to their work (i. 124^) ;
b o d h i h t y a j t h y a dev n the priest has awakened to
worship the gods (v. 1 ).
1
11
25
12
b. The dat. inf. not infrequently depends on a particular

word i n the sentence ; e. g. t v v s tniûsmasi g
madhyai we desire to go to those abodes of you two (i. 154^) ;
ddhvir bhradhyai strong to carry (vi. 66 ) ; cikd nay
dhyai understanding to destroy (viii. 97 ) ; agn dvo
y t a v i no gmasi we implore Agni to ward off hostility
from us (viii. 71 ^) ; t h putr s o d i t e r v i d u r d v s i
y t a v e for those sons of Aditi know how to ward off hostilities
(viii. 18^) ; t v m i n d r a sravitav aps k a thou, O Indra,
hast made the waters to flow (vii. 21 ); vidy m a t s y a te
3
14
INFINITIVE
211]
335
v a y m k p r a s y a d v n e may we know this of thee who art

inexhaustible to give (v. 39 ) ; b h i y s e m g k a he has
made the monster to fear (v. 29 ) ; jajan ca rjse and they
ereated (him) to rule (viii. 97 ); kavmr i c h m i sad e
I wish to see the poets (iii. 38 ).
2
10
a. The dat. inf. has sometimes a passive force ; e. g. vo v h iho

vahatu stavdhyai rtha may your most swift car bring you hither to be
praised (vii. 37 ) ; grbh sakh y a g n dohse huve with songs I
call my friend like a cow to be milked (vi. 45 ) ; es purutm dr km
she here that constantly returns (so as) to be seen (i. 124 ). This sense is
especially noticeable i n the infinitives i n tavi, tave, and e, which
when used predicatively (as a rule with the negative n) are equiva
lent to a future part. pass. with the copula ; e. g. stus s va r a t
that bounty of yours is to be praised (i. 122 ) ; ni gvytir pabhartav u
this pasture (is) not to be taken away(x. 14 ); ysya n r d na pryetave
whose treasure is not to be surpassed (viii. 24 ) ; nâsm k am asti tt
tra dityso atikde this our zeal, O dityas, is not to be overlooked
(viii. 67 ) ; n pramye savitr divyasya tt this (work) of the divine
Savitr (is) indestructible (iv. 54 ).
^. The agent (or instrument) of the action expressed by the inf. is
put in the inst. or gen. when there is a passive sense ; e. g. n ^ a n y n a
stmo vasih nvetave va your laudation, O Vasihas, is not to be
equalled by another (vif. 33 ) ; bhd agn samdhe m n um Agni
has appeared to be kindled of men (vii. 77 ). When there is no passive
sense the agent is expressed by the dat. ; e. g. v rayant prayi
devbhyo mah may the great (gates) open (for the gods to = ) thatthegods
may enter (i. 142^); dabhr pyadbhya urviy vicka u ajgar
bhvanni vv (i. 113 ) Dawn has wakened all creatures (for those who
now see little to ) thatthosewho see little now may look far and wide ;
ah rudr y a dhnur tanomi brahmadvse rave hntav u
I stretch the bow for Rudra (for the arrow to =) that the arrow may strike the
hater of prayer (x. 125 ).
.y. The infinitive i n dhyai is not infrequently employed elliptically
to express an intention, the subject being either expressed or requir
ing to be supplied in the first or third person ; e. g. prti v rtha
1
21
19
In Latin the gerundive actually appears to have taken the place

of the I E . predicative infinitive : see Brugmann, Grundriss, 4, 2,
pp. 461 and 488.
Which in Latin would be : laudanda (est) vestra benignitas.
The inf. is similarly used in Greek i n the sense of a 2. pers. impv.;
e. g. ^ra^ra ab^ a^yÂa^
^â^.Âo^
tell all this c^n^l b^ not afals^
messenger (Homer, Od) ; ^'s^p.âi
Tô^ tell me, ye Trojans (ibid.).
2
336
OUTLINES
OF S Y N T A X
[2ll
1
jardhyai the chariot of you two (I purpose) to invoke (vii. 67 ); va

auij huvdhyai sam the son of Uij (intends) to proclaim your praise
(i. 122 ).
^. In B . the inf. i n tavi has three uses : I. with a final sense ;
e. g. ta pra harati yo 'sya strtyas tasmai startavai he hurls it in order
to strike down him who is to be struck down by it (AB.). 2. predicatively
with n, often with a passive sense, sometimes impersonally ; e.g. n
vi yaj i v a mntavi it is not to be regarded like a sacrifice (B.) ; n
pur suryasya detor mnthitavi one should not rub fire before sunrise
(Ms.) ; tsmd etna^ru n krtavi therefore tears should not be shed
by him (MS.). 3. with a pass. sense after an acc. governed by aha,
uvca and bryt ; e. g. agn pristartav ha he says that thefireis
to be enclosed (MS.) ; gopl n shvayitav uvaca he said that the cow
herds should be called together (B.) ; td avm netavi bryt then h
should order the horse to be brought (B.). Perhaps, however, the acc. here
depends on the inf. alone : he should give orders to bring the horse.
5
2. Accusative
Infinitive.
a. The form i n am is used to supplement statements con

taining a verb of going or i n dependence on verbs meaning
be able (arh a , ak), wish (va), or know (vid) ; e. g. p o
emi c i k i t o vip c ham I go to the wise to inquire (vii. 86 ) ;
i y t h a b a r h r s d a m thou hast gone to seat thyself on the
straw (iv. 9 ) ; a k m a t v s a m d h a m we would be able to
kindle thee (I. 94 ) ; s veda d e v n m a dev n he, the god,
knows (how) to guide hither the gods (iv. 8 ).
3
a. I n B. this form of the inf. appears only i n dependance on the

verbs arh, vid, and ak when they are combined with the negative n.
e. g. avarndha n,âaknot he was not able to keep back (Ms.).
b. The inf. i n t u m i n the RV. expresses the purpose with
verbs of m o t i o n and also appears i n dependence on the
verbs a r h be able and c i intend ; e. g. k vidvasam p a
g t p r u m e t t who has gone to the wise man to ask him
this? (I. 164 ) ; bh y o v d t um arhasi or thou canst give
more (v. 79),
1
The use of this inf. is restricted to dependence on such verbs in

the Latin supine in tum.
2.ll]
INFINITIVE
337
a. I n B . the use is similar, this inf. expressing the purpose

with verbs of motion, or in dependence on the verbs d h
intend and (generally accompanied by the negative n) arh
and a k be able, k a m desire, dhs dare, -d trouble, -as
expeet ; e. g. h t u m eti he goes to sacrifice (TS.), d r u m a
gachati he comes in order to see (B .) ; a n y d eva k r t u
dadhrire ' n y d vi k u r v a n t i they have purposed to do one
thing, but do another (B.) ; k a t h m a a k a t a m d t j v itum
how have you been able to live without me ? (B.) ; n cakame
h n t u m he did not wich to kill (B.).
3. Ablative-Genitive
Infinitive.
a. The form i n as (which is always compounded with

prepositions) is almost exclusively abl. as is shown by its
being used with words governing that case, viz. the pre
positions t without, p u r before, and the verbs pproteet,
t r rescue, bhfear ; e. g. t c i d a b h i r a pur j a t r b h y a
t d a without binding, before the cartilages being pierced
(viii. 1 ) ; tr d hva kart d a v a p d a (ii. 29^) save us
from falling into the pit (lit. from the pit, from falling down).
There is one example of its being a gen., as it is governed
by the verb : n a h t v d r n i m a can^ e for without
thee I am not able even to blink (ii. 28^).
12
a. In B . it appears only as a gen. governed by var ; e. g. svar

yjamnasya pa n nirdha he is able to burn the cattle of the sacrificer
(MS.),
b. The form i n tos is abl. when it is governed by the

prepositions pur before and till or by verbs of saving and
preventing ; e. g. p u r h n t o r b h y a m n o v y r a fearing
he withdrew, before being struck (iii. 301) ; y u y t a no anapa
t y n i g n t o save us from coming to childlessness (iii. 54^),
The gen. form is found only i n dependence on the verb
be able (with the object by attraction in the gen.) or on
the adverb madhy in the midst of; e. g. e ry suvr
yasya dto he can give wealth and heroic offspring (vii. 4^) ;
338
[211
m no madhy rriata^ y ur g n t o injure us not (in the

midst of) before our reaching old age (I. 89 ),
9
a. I n B . the abl. inf. is found with prepositional words only. It

usually occurs with till and pur before, both the subject and the
object being in the gen. The object may, however, by attraction be
in the abl., and a predicate is in the abl. ; e. g. s r yasya deto
(Ms.) till the sun's rising till the sun rises ; tis dgdho (B.)
till .the milking of three (cows) till three (cows) are milked; mdhyad
bhvito till becoming pure ; pur suryasya^deto before the sun's rising
(Ms.)----- before the sun rises; pur vgbhya sapravadito before the
voices' uttering (PB.) = before the voices are uttered. The abl. form is als
sometimes used with the prepositional adverbs purstd and arvc
nam before; e.g. purstd dhto before sacrificing (MS.); arvcna
jnito before being born (MS.).
The gen. form occurs only i n dependence on var able, the object
being i n the acc. (sometimes by attraction i n the gen.), and the predi
cate i n the nom. ; e.g. s var rtim rto he can fall into misfortune
(Ts.); t var yjamna hsito these two can injure the sacrificer
(Ms.). Occasionally var is omitted ; e. g. tto dkit paman
bhvitoh hence the initiated man (can) become scabby (B.).
4. Locative Infinitive.
The only loc. forms to which a genuine inI. use (cp. 167, 4)
can be attributed are the few i n s n i . These supplement
the general statement of the sentence or depend on a
particular word i n it, and (like the form i n dhyai) express
an intention or exhortation (with the ellipse of a verb in
the 1., 2., or 3. pers.) ; e. g. v n a p a t h citana yave,
a s m b h y a vv ass t a r i do ye open up for us the
paths to sacrifice, (for us to ) that we may conquer all regions
(iv. 377) ; n y i h u no nei, p r i h u n a pary
t i d v i the best guides to guide us, the best leaders to lead
us through our foes (x. 126 ) ; t d v a u k t h s y a b a r h ^
n d r y a ^ u p a s t i this song of praise (I will) spread out
with power for your In^lra (v1. 44^) ; p r i y vo t i t h i
gi (do ye) extol your dear guest (vI. 15 ) ; jn
bh m ir abh p r a b h i (let) Earth assist the sacrificer
(x. 132 ).
3
212]
T E N S E S A N D MOODS
339
T E N S E S A N D MOODS.
212. Two or more roots of cognate meaning sometimes
supplement each other i n such a way as to be used for
different tenses of what is practically one verb. Such are :
1. as and b h be : the pres., impI., and perf. are formed by
as ; the fut. and aor. by b h alone. I n its proper sense
b h means to become (originally to grow), but unless opposed
to as be, it has the same sense as the latter, the pres. and
perf. of both being used promiscuously. The contrast
appears clearly when the pres. is opposed to the aor. ; e. g.
y a m v i d m a b h d y d v a y s m Yama has become
that which we arc (TS.). It also appears i n the impf. : y
v i p r sas t r k a r abhavan what were sparks
beeame gravel (MS.).
2. d h v and s run : i n the RV. occur the plup. d a d h v a t
and the pres. s s a r t i ; i n B . the pres. d h v a t i , the impI.
sarat, and the perf. sas r a.
3. p a and d see : the former appears i n the pres. only,
the latter i n the aor., fut., and perf. only ; k h y see is used
in the same tenses as d, but as opposed to the latter means
discern.
4. b r and vac speak: the former is used i n the pres.
stem only ; the latter i n the aor., fut., perf. (v. has also the
pres. vvakti).
5. han and vadh slay: the former has the pres., impf.,
fut., perf. only, the latter the aor. only.
a. In B . a few additional pairs of roots supplement each other to
some extent. such are ad and ghas eat; aj and v drive; i and g
(aor.) go ; pra-yam and pra-d present ; ad and s fall.
Present.
A . In v. a number of verbs form two or more present
stems, i n which, however, no differences of meaning are
traceable. I n B . this multiplicity is for the most part lost.
340
[212
The only type here showing any development is that i n ya,

which tends to have an intransitive sense. Such present
stems are formed i n B . from more than a dozen roots
that do not form it i n the R V ; e. g. t p y a t i grows hot
(RV. tpati).
1. A s i n other languages, the present is used to indicate
an action that is taking place when the speaker makes his
statement.
2. In the R V . the simple pres. is sometimes employed of
past actions i n narration to add a new statement i n a vivid
manner ; e. g. purutr v t r a a y a d v y s t a : amuy
y n a m t i y a n t i ^ p a Vtra lay scattered in many places :
over him as he thus lies the watersflow(i. 327).
This use does not seem to occur i n B .
a. pur formerly is used with the pres. to indicate an
action which has extended through the past down to the
present ; e. g. k v t n i nau sakhy b a b h v u , scvahe
y d a v k pur cit where has that friendship of us two
gone, inasmuch as we have hitherto associated inoffensively
(vii.
88^)
;
s
haâgnr
uvca^tha
yn
m
pur
pra
tham
yjatha
kvâh
bhavni^ti
so
Agni
said:
now that you have hitherto honoured me at the sacrifice as the
first where shall I be? (^B.).
a. In B. pur is also used without reference to the actual present
from the speaker's point of view, to express a previous stage i n typical
conditions ; e. g. hot v^ e pur bhavati yadêvêna prav
t 'tha ht he is previously a nonHot ; as soon as he chooses him, then
he is a Hot (SB) ; naddhîva v asya^ta pur jna bhavati
previously his origin i^ as it were uncertain (B.).
b. sma pur with the pres. ind. expresses that something

used to happen i n the past; e.g. s a h o t r sma p u r
n r s m a n a v ^ va gachati formerly the woman used to
go down to the common sacrifce or the assembly (x. 861 ),
a. The same usage is common in B. with ha sma pur ; e.g. n ha
sma vi pur ^ agnfr parauvka dahati formerly Agni used not to
burn what was not cut off with the axe (TS.). H ere, however, the pur is
212213]
PRESENT
341
much more usually omitted, ha sma alone expressing the same sense,
especially often with the pres. perf. ha ; e. g. etd dha sma v ha
nrad (Ms.) with regard to this Nrada used to say. (The A B . uses the
perf. and the impf. with ha sma in the same sense.) The particles ha
sma, which originally only accompanied it, have thus acquired, when
used alone, the sense which is inherent i n pur only.
e. The pres. ind. is also sometimes used for the fut. or

the subj. ; e. g. h a m p i hammi^ti h a ^ u v c a he said :
I too will slay him (B.) ; i n d r a ca r u s a m a caâa
prsyet : yataro nau prvo bhmi paryeti sa jay
atiîti Indra and Rusama proposed a wager : whichever of us
shall go round the earthfirstshall win (PB.).
Past Tenses.
213. Each of the past tenses (except the pluperfect) has
a distinctive meaning of its own, though occasional examples
of aor. and perf. forms occur that are almost indistinguish
able in sense from the impf.
A . The perfect characteristically expresses the condition
attained by the subject as the result of a preceding action.
If that action (often a repeated or continuous one) is con
tinued into the present so as to include the latter, it may be
translated by the present ; if it is regarded as concluded
before the present, by the present perfect. It can express
both these senses when accompanied by the adverbs p u r
formerly and n n m now ; e. g. p u r n n ca s t u t y a
paspdhre the praises of the seers have vied together
in past times and (do so) now (vi. 34 ) ; vad d h va t b h i r
v a y pur n n bubhjmhe we have constantly enjoyed
your aids and (do so) now (viii. 67 ) ; the same sense appears
with the adverb satr always ; e. g. t b h y a b r h m i
gira i n d r a t b h y a s a t r dadhire : j u s v a to thee
prayers, O Indra, to thee songs have always been offered (and
still are): accept them kindly (iii. 51 ). But even without
a particle this double sense is not infrequently apparent :
1
16
342
[213
1
n s m a n d r a m s u t o m a m d a (vii. 26 ) unpressed Soma

has not (in the past) intoxicated Indra (and does not now) ;
n bhoj mamrur n n y a r t h m y u r : n r i y a n t i n
vyathante ha bhoj the liberal have not died (and die not),
they have not fallen into calamity (and do not now) : the liberal
are not injured and waver not (x. 107^) ; n d r a . . . u b n
paprau r d a s manitv Indra has with his greatness filled
(and still fills) the two worlds (iii. 54^),
a. Thus a number of perfects (since their action includes
the present) can be translated by the present, as is indicated
by their often occurring by the side of actual present forms.
Such perfects are formed from verbs meaning to know ;
be pleased, sad, or afraid ; stand, sit, tie ; rest upon, holdfust;
have, possess ; encompass ; surpass ; prosper ; become ; show
oneself; e. g. kvîd n s r ya : k ciketa where is now
the sun : who knows ^ (I. 357) ; y n na n d r o j u j y c ca
v i what Indra likes from us and what he desires (iv. 22 ) ;
k ate, t u j y t e , k b i b h y a whoflees(and) speeds, who is
afraid ^ (i. 84 7) ; n methete n tasthatu they (night and
morning) clash not and stand not still (i. 113 ) ; v n e - v a n e
iriye takvav r i v a on every tree he sits like a bird (x. 91 ) ;
y t h ^ i y pthiv mah ddh r aîm n v n a s p t n ev
d d h r a te m n a as this great earth holds these trees, so he
holds thy spirit (x. 60^) ; n te p r ve n ^ p a r s o n v r y
n t ana k c a n ^ p a not earlier men, not future men, no
man of the present (has attained =) equals thy heroism (v. 42 ) ;
p r h i r i r i k jas div n t e b h y a s p r i , n t v vivyca
rja indra p r thivam thou extendest beyond the ends of
heaven with thy might, the terrestrial space does not contain thee
(viii. 88^) ; n d r e a u u v e n b hir y s te sunti^ through
Indra he who presses (Soma) for thee prospers in men (vii. 32^) ;
sd u r j k a y a t i caran m , ar n n n e m p r i t
b a b h v a he rules as king over men, he encompasses the worlds
(t) as the felly the spokes (i. 32^) ; bhadr dadka urviy
v i b h s i , t te ocir b h n v o dy m apaptan brilliant
1
213]
PERFECT
343
thou appearest, thou shinest afar, thy light, thy beams, have shot
up to heaven (vi. 64 ).
b. Other perfects, which sum up past action but exclude
the present, may be translated by the present perfect ; e. g.
y t s m ga cakm t t s matu whatever sin we have
committed, let him forgive that (I. 179^) ; y vtrah p a r v t i
s n n v ca c u c y u v , t sastsu p r vocata what old
and new deeds the Vtraslayer has set going in the distanee,
those proclaim in the assemblies (viii. 45 ^) ; uv s aû uch c
ca n Dawn has flushed (in the past) and she shallflushnow
(1. 48 ) ; k i m ga s a varua j y h a , y t stot r a
jghsasi s k h y a m what has that chief sin been (in niy
past life) that thou desirest to slay the praiser, thy friend?
(vii. 86 ) ; y y p r v a t a r m p a y a n v y u c h n t m
usa m r t y s a ; [ = u] t y a n t i y paru. p s y n
those mortals have gone who saw flushing the earlier dawn;
those are coming who shall see her in the future (I. 113 ).
c. The perf. often expresses a single action that has been
completed i n the recent past, when it can be translated by
the pres. perf. ; e.g. no y t a divs p r i : p u t r
kvasya v m i n suva s o m y m d h u come to us from
heaven : the son of Kava has here pressed for you the Soma
mead (viii. 8 ). This use of the perf. comes very near that
of the aor. The distinction seems to be this : i n the above
passage the perfect means come because the Soma has been
pressed, i . e. is ready for you ; the aor. would mean come
because of the fact that the Soma has just been pressed for you.
d. The perf. is not infrequently used of a single action i n
the remoter past, when it cannot be translated by the perf.
pres. It occurs thus beside the impf. of narration, when
the story is interrupted by a reflexion which often expresses
the result of the action previously related. Thus i n the
story of the Vtra fight the poet says : jayo g jaya
r a s m a m ; vsja s r t a v e s a p t s n d h n thou didst
win the kine, thou didst win the Soma, O hero, thou didst let
2
11
344
[2l3
12
loose the seven streams to flow (i. 32 ) ; he then adds n d r a s

ca y d y u y u d n t e hi c a ^ u t ^ a p a r b h y o m a g h v v i
jigye when Indra and the serpent fought, the bounteous god
conquered ( remained conqueror) for the future. This use
of the perf. is hardly distinguishable from the impf.
a. I n B. the perf. ind. appears i n three different uses :

1. in a present sense based on the pres. perf., chiefly in forms that
have a strengthened reduplicative vowel and thus seem to have an
intensive meaning. It is the pres. perf. that includes the present,
expressing that an action takes place in the present as a result of its
repetition i n the past ; e. g. ddhra (he has constantly held and now)
holds; e.g. y t sy juhti r t ryai tna ddhra if he offers in the
evening, he thereby holds (Agni) for the night (MS.). Other perfects of this
kind are .. ddya shines ; upa dodrva rashes at ; yoyva wards of ;
lelya quivers ; bbh y a (beside bibh y a) fears (while the periphrastic
bibhay cakra has always a preterite sense). Besides these verbs
veda knows and ha says always have a present sense.
several other perfects with ordinary reduplication often have the
present sense : na (has obtained =) has (MS., TS.); pryya (has
acquired ) possesses (TS.); babh v a (has become =) is (MS.); vivy
(has encompassed =) contains; dad (has been seen -^) appears (while
dadra always has a past sense) ; also the perfect of grah and pra-p :
y h paavo lma jaghs t mdha pr p u the cattle which have hair
have also fat (MS.).
2. i n a preterite sense, expressing that an action once occurred i n
the past (but not in the narrative sense of the impf.). This use most
often appears i n the form uvaca, which may be translated by once
said or has said ; e. g. etna v paker rardha : dhnti y etna
yjate by this sacrifice Upakeru once prospered; he who sacrifices with it
prospers (MS.). It often occurs i n the A B . at the conclusion of a story
related in the impf., in the phrase tad etad i payann abhyan
vca seeing this a seer has uttered with reference to it (the following verse).
A somewhat different connexion with the narrative impf. appears i n
the following example : et ha viyajsena cti vid cakara :
ty vi s pan vrnnddha this method of piling Yajasena once in
vented : by means of it he acquired cattle (Ts). This perfect is found con
trasting what is past with the present and future in the following
successive sentences : yd v asy k c r canti yd ncr ; yd
ev k ca vc ^ ncr yd t 'dhiârcit r a whatever prayers they
offer on it (the earth) or have offered ; whatever prayers they have offered
the voice or will offer in future (Ts.).
3. i n an historical sense, equivalent to that of the impf. in narrative,
2l3]
PERFECT.
IMPERFECT.
AORIST
345
in certain parts of the A B . (vi-viii) and the B. (i--v ; x i , xii, xiv),

while the impf. is used elsewhere i n B. (MS., TS., K . , T B . , PB A B . i--v ;
B. vi-x, xiii), Thus i n the former uvca said and dev ca^sur
ca paspdhirethegods andtheAsuras were in conflict, i n the latter abravt
and aspardhanta would be used. There are, of course, exceptions i n
both groups.
B . The imperfect is the past tense of narration, never
having any relation to the present as the perf. and the aor.
have ; e. g. hann him . . . pr vak abhinat prva
tnm he slew the serpent; he pierced the bellies of the mountains
(i. 32 ) ; n v i t v t d akaror y d a h m b r a v a m you
did not do what I said (B.). The impf. has also to do duty
for the pluperfect, as i n the relative clause of the preceding
example, which is equivalent to what I had told you.
1
C. The aorist ind. expresses that an action has occurred

i n the past with reference to the present.
It neither
describes nor indicates duration, but simply states a fact.
It may nearly always be translated by the English present
perfect.
The aor. usually expresses the immediate past ; e. g. p r t i
d i v a d a r i d u h i t the daughter of heaven has appeared
(iv. 52 ) ; y s m d d u v p n y d b h a i m a ^ p a t d uchatu
let her (Dawn) drive away with her light the evil dream that we
have feared (viii. 47 ^).
a. I n B . three uses of the aor. ind. may be distinguished : 1. it
expresses what has occurred i n the speaker's experience, very
commonly i n the statement made by the witness of an action ; e. g.
tto ha gandharv sm dire : jyk v iym urv manuyev
avtsit then the Gandharvas spoke together : this Urva has dwelt long among
men (B.). As compared with the impf. it never narrates ; e.g.yajo
vai devebhya ud akrmat; te dev abruvan : yajo v a i na ud
akramt the sacrifice went away from the gods ; the gods then said : the sacri
fice has gone away from us (AB.) ; t yd prchant sbravd : ady^,
amta^ti when they asked her, she said : he has died today (MS.) ; t m
apchan : ksmai tvm ahaur ti they asked him : to whom have you
sacrificed ^ (MS.); t dev abruvan: mah n va aym abhd y
vtrm vadhd tithegods said of him : he has shown himself great who has
slain Vtra (TS.) ; t h a ^ c u r : agnye tiha^ti ttas tasthv, agnye
va asthad ti t m agnv ajuhavutheysaid: stand still for Agni ; then
1
346
OUTLINES OF s Y N T A x
' ^ - ^
it stood still ; thinking it has stood still for Agni, they sacrificed it in Agn
(B.).
2. it is employed by the author with regard to what from his own
point of view has either just happened or has occurred i n the more
remote past ; e. g. s bndhur unsrysya y purvm vocama
this is the import of the unsrya oblation which we have explained abov
(B.) ; puro va etn dev akrata yat puros tat puron
puroatvam because the gods have madethesecakes their castles, the c
are so called ( A B ) . The adverb pura is not infrequently used with
these aorists ; e. g. n v etsya brhma pur ^ nnam akan
Brahmins have never hitherto eaten his food (Ts.).
3. it expresses what results from a ritual act or is antecedent to it ;
e. g. putrsya nma ghti : prajm ev^nu sm atant he gives his
son a name : hc hasthusextended his race (MS.) ; etd vi trt y a yajm
pad yc chndsi.^pnti thereby he has obtainedthethirdsacrifice when
he obtains the metres (Ts.) ; y d dhâsyaâmedhym bht t d d h i ^
asyaêtd avadhnti what has been impure in it, that in it he shakes off in
this way (B.).
D. The pluperfect, as an augmented perfect, is equivalent

to the corresponding Greek tense i n form only. It cannot
be distinguished i n syntactical use from the impf. i n some
examples and from the aor. i n others ; e. g. t r s a m u d r
g h m sur yam ajabhartana then ye brought the sun
hidden in the sea (x. 727) ; d u y d e v savit y a y m a
h i r a y y m a m t i y m iret that god Savit now has
raised up the golden sheen which he has spread out (vii. 38 ).
1
Future.
2 1 4 . A . I. The simple future is i n comparatively rare
use i n V . , being formed from only fifteen roots in the R V .
and from rather more than twenty others i n the A v . This
limited employment is accounted for by its sense being
partly expressed by the subjunctive and to some extent by
the present. It means that, according to the opinion,
expectation, intention, hope or fear of the speaker, an action
is to take place i n the near or the remote future. The
sphere of the future includes that of the w i l l , the specific
meaning of the subjunctive, but the stress is here laid on
214]
FUTURE
347
the futurity rather than the purpose ; e. g. athaâta p a o r

v i b h a k t i s : tasya v i b h g a v a k y m a next (comes) the
division of the (sacrificial) animal : (now) we will (shall) state
its division (AB.).
Examples from the RV. are : staviy m i tvm ahm I shall praise
thee (I. 44^) ; k svid vakymi km u nu maniye what pray shall
I say, what shall I now think ^ (vi. 9^) ; ydy ev kariytha sk
devir yajyso bhaviyatha if ye will do so, you will be partakers of the
sacrifice with the gods (I. 161 ) ; n tvvm indra k ean n jt n
janiyate no one equal to thee, O Indra, has been born or will be born.
2. In B. the simple future is frequently used after verbs of speaking,
knowing, thinking, hoping, fearing, which are sometimes also to be
supplied; e.g. s 'bravd : id myi vry, tt te pr dsymi^
ti he said : here is heroism in me, that I will give thee (Ts.) ; t h a ^ c u
kna rja, kna^nkena yotsyma ti they said : with whom as king,
with whom as leader shall wefights(B.); ttra vidyd : varsisyati^,ti
in regard tothathe should know : it will rain (B.) ; ndro ha v ks
cakre : mahd v it 'bhv janiyate Indra rejlected : a great abuse
will arise from this (B.) ; sarv devat asanta : mm abhi prati
patsyatiîti allthegods hoped : he will begin with me (AB.) ; ydi bibhy d
ducarm bhaviymi^ti if he should fear, 'I shall suffer from skin disease'
(TS.) ; sur v ak acinvata : dvam rokyma ti the Asuras
built up the bricks (thinking) : we shall scale heaven (MS.).
a. After an impv., the fut. is often used with t h a ; e.g. pti n
me pnar yvna kurutam : tha v vakymi (B.) make my
husband young again : then I shall tell you (two).
^. After the impv. of a-i or pra-i the I. pers. fut. is equivalent to
an exhortation ; e. g. prîta, td esyama come, we will go there (B.).
W i t h the negative n, the 2. and even the 3. pers. may have the
value of a prohibition ; e. g. devn rksi . . ajighsan : n yak
yadhva ti the Rakases wished to slay the gods (saying) : you shall not sacri
fice (B.); t n vive dev anonudyanta neha psyanti nehaîti all
the gods drove them back (saying) : they shall not drink here, not here
(AB.^.
B . The periphrastic future though not occurring in V., is frequent
in B. It expresses that something w i l l take place at a definite point
of time in the future. It is therefore often accompanied by such
words as prtr early in the morning, vs tomorrow (but never by ady
today). The point of time, however, need not be expressed by an
adverb ; it may be defined by a clause. Examples are : savatsara
tam rtrim gachatt, tn ma k rtrim nte ayitse, jt u
te 'y trhi putr bhavit come for the night of this day year, then you
5
348
OUTLINES O F s Y N T A x
^ . . ^
will lie beside me for one night, then too this son of thine will be born (B
ydi pur sasth n d d r yetaâdy variyati^ti bruyad ; ydi
ssthite v vra ^ ti bryt if it (the vessel) should be broken before
the completion (of the sacrifice) he should say: it will rain today;ifit has
been completed, he should say .. it will rain tomorrow (Ms.) ; yarhi vva
mayârtho bhavit, tarhy eva vo 'ha punar agantasmi when you will
have need of me,then(on that particular occasion) I will come back to yo
(AB.).
a. Sometimes this form is used to express not that an action will
take place at a definite time, but that it will take place with certainty ;
e.g. s ^ evîym ady^pi pratih , sa^,u ev^pi^t 'dhi bhavit
this is the foundation today, and it will also (certainly) be so in future (B.
A.
Imperative.
215. The only pure impv. forms are those of the 2. 3. sing.
and 3. pi., represented by b h v a and b h v a t t , b h v a s v a ;
b h v a t u ; b h v a n t u , b h v a n t m . The forms later regarded
as imperatives of the 1. pers., b n v n i , b h v v a , b h v m a
are subjunctives (cp. 131): while the 2. 3. du. and 2. pi.
bhvatam, bhvatm, bhvethm, bhvetm ; bhvata,
b h v a d h v a m , are injunctives (cp. 122 a a).
a. The impv. does not express commands only, but also
a desire i n the widest sense, such as a wish, a request,
advice, a direction ; e. g. devam i h ^ vaha bring hither the
gods (i. 14 ) ; h e a m n o bodhi be not angry (1. 24 ) ;
im n iâsya r i c h i n d d h i cut off these heads of his (MS.) ;
v k n v a p r t i b a d h n v a tie the ship to the tree (B.) ;
p r v m a n o t u s u u t i may the hymn of praise reach you
two (i. 17 ) ; h n t a na k o vettu come, let one of us find
out (B.).
b. The sphere of the ordinary impv. is the present ; it
may, however, still be used for the later of two opposed
actions ; e. g. v r a v s v a ^ t h a me p n a r dehi choose
a boon and then give it me back (TS.). The form i n t d ,
however, has a tendency i n v. to express the more remote
future, and i n B . does so distinctly ; e. g. i h ^ e v m
thantam a b h y h i ^ t i b r h i , t t na gat p r a t i p r
12
11
215]
IMPERATIvE
349
b r t t tell her : come to me as I stand here ; when she has

come, you shall (then) tell it us (B.), A s this form is only
active, the subj. takes its place in middle verbs ; thus t
v v a = do thouchooseit (now) as opposed to t v s a i
choose it then (B.),
a. The genuine impv. seems never to be found in negative sen
tences ; thus it never appears i n V . with the prohibitive particle m
(which is used with injunctive forms only, and in B . almost exclu
sively with the aor. inj.). It is employed i n positive principal clauses
only ; e. g. v no dhehi yth j v ma so dispose usthatwe may live (B.),
A subordinate clause with ind., subj., or (very rarely) opt. may pre
cede or follow ; e. g. ys tv dt saparyti, tsya sma prvit
bhava be the promoter of him who adores thee as a messenger (i.123); s
vid naya y . . anu s ati bring us together with one who knows, who
may give us directions (vi. 54 ) ; id me haryat vco ysya trema
tras at hma gladly accept this word of mine by the force of which we
would pass a hundred winters (v. 54 ). In such periods the form with
tad would regularly be used i n B .
^. The R V . has a number of 2. sing. forms made with si added
directly to the root, which are clearly used imperatively, as is indicated
by their being generally accompanied by imperatives (sometimes by
subjunctives and imperatives) ; e.g. devbhir yhi yki ca come
with the gods and sacrifice (i. 14 ). These forms are confined to the RV.
(and passages borrowed from it) except satsi (Av. vi. 110 ) ; and they
are restricted to positive principal sentences.
1
15
B.
Injunctive.
Formally this mood corresponds to an unaugmented past

tense (including the 2. 3. du. and 2. pl. as represented by
act. b h v a t a m , b h v a t m , b h v a t a ; mid. b h v e t h m ,
b h v e t m , b h v a d h v a m , which later came to be regarded
as imperatives).
Its use constitutes one of the chief
difficulties of Vedic grammar and interpretation, because it
cannot always be distinguished from the subjunctive (e. g.
gamat might be the subj. of gan or the inj. of gamat)
or from an unaugmented indicative (e. g. c r a might be =
.cara). Judged by its uses the inj. probably represents
a very primitive verbal form which originally expressed an
action irrespective of tense or mood, the context showing
350
[2l5
which was meant. The addition of the augment gave the

sense of a past tense to one set of forms, while the rest
finally became incorporated with the impv. The general
meaning of the inj. expresses a desire, combining the senses
of the subj., the opt., and the impv. A s compared with the
subj., the inj. is essentially appropriate i n principal clauses,
though it sometimes appears i n subordinate clauses intro
duced by relatives or the relative conjunctions y d and
yad .
a. The first person expresses an intention the execution
of which lies i n the power of the speaker ; e. g. n d r a s y a
n vryaî p r vocam now I will proclaim the heroic deeds of
Indra (i. 321). Sometimes, however, the execution depends
on another ; e. g. a g n h i n v a n t u no d h y a s : t n a jema
d h n a d h a n a m let our prayers urge Agni : through him we
shall assuredly win booty after booty (x. 156l).
b. The second person is used exhortatively, very often
beside an impv. ; e. g. sug n a s u p t n k u ; puann
i h k r a t v i d a do thou make fair paths for us easy to
traverse ; O Pan, here procure us wisdom ; ^ ady no deva
sv s u b h a g a , p r d u v p n y a suva today, O god,
proeure us good fortune; drive away evil dream (v. 82 ).
A parallel opt. is much less common ; e. g. e t n a g t
vido n a ; no v a v t y suvit y a by reason of that find
for us the path; mayst thou bring us to welfare (i. 173 ).
e. The third person also is used exhortatively, very often
beside an impv. ; e. g. sm v e t u v a k t i m ; a g n r
juata no g r a let him come to this Vaa call; may Agni
accept our songs (vii. 15^) ; it is often accompanied by a
2. sing. impv. ; . g. ^ i d b a r h r y j a m n a s y a sda ;
t h ca b h d u k t h r n n d r y a a s t m seat thyself upon this
straw of thesacrificer; and then may the hymn be sung to Indra
(iii. 53 ). It appears less frequently with the subj. ; e. g.
p a b r h m i ava im no, t h te y a j s t a n v v y o
d h t mayst thou listen to these our prayers, and then let the
4
13
2l5]
INJUNCTIvE
351
4
sacrifice bestow vigour on thyself (vi. 40 ), A parallel opt. is

not common ; e. g. p r i no het r u d r s y a vjy, p r i
tvesya d u r m a t r mah g t would that the dart of Rudra
pass us by, let the great malevolence of the impetuous one avoid
us (ii. 33 ).
d. The injunctive is very frequently used alone (unaccom
panied by any other modal form) i n an impv. sense ; e. g.
im havy juanta nah let them accept these oblations of
ours (vi. 52 ) ; the preceding verse has the regular impv. :
j u n t y j y a p y a let them accept the suitable milk.
I n negative sentences the inj. is the only mood (with the
exception of the single opt. form bhujema) with which
the prohibitive particle m can be used ; e. g. m na i n d r a
p r v a k do not, O Indra, abandon us (viii. 977) ; v i v y a n
m n a gan let not any swelling thing come near us (vii. 50 ) ;
m t n t u chedi let not the thread be cut (ii. 28 ), The aor.
form is Commoner than the impf. form i n the RV., but its
relative predominance has greatly increased i n the A V .
e. The inj. not infrequently expresses a future sense like
the subj. (215 C) i n two types of sentences:
1. i n positive interrogative sentences ; e. g. k no m a h y
d i t a y e p n a r d t who will give us back to great Aditi?
(i. 24 ), The subj. itself is here sometimes found beside it ;
e. g. kad m r t a m a r d h s a pad k m p a m i v a sphurat,
kad nah u r a v a d g r a when will he purn the niggardly
mortal like a mushroom with hisfoot; when will he hear our
songs ? (i. 84^),
2. i n negative sentences with n ; e. g. y m d i t y abhi
d r u h r k a t h , n m a g h n a a t whom, O dityas, ye
proteet from harm, him misfortune will not reach (viii. 47 ),
4
11
a. In B. the use of the inj. i n positive sentences has almost entirely

disappeared. The B., however, preserves several examples ; e. g.
dev n avat let it refresh the gods ; also sometimes i n subordinate
clauses, especially with n d ; e.g. nd id bahirdh yajd bhvat
lest it be outside the sacrifice.
On the other hand the inj. is very frequent i n negative sentences,
352
[215
in which it constantly appears with m, in the vast majority of cases

in the aor. form. Only a few examples of the impf. form occur : ma
vadhadhvam slay not (Ts.); m bibhta fear not (AB.); kilbia nu
m ytayan letthemnot reprove it as a fault (AB.) ; and from the perfect :
m suupth sleep not (SB).
C. Subjunctive.
The meaning of the subj. is best brought out by contrast
ing its use with that of the opt. From this it appears that
the fundamental sense of the subj. is will, while that of the
opt. is either wish or possibility (this mood being therefore
alternatively called optative or potential). This distinction
appears clearly from the fact that i n the first person in
independent sentences one group of verbs i n the RV. employs
the subj. exclusively or almost exclusively, while another
employs the opt., because in the former the execution is
dependent on the w i l l of the speaker, while in the latter
it is not in his control, but is only possible. W i t h the subj.
are thus used the verbs nan strike, k make, su press, b r
speak. W i t h the opt. on the other hand appear : j i conquer,
t overcome, sah conquer ; as and n a obtain, v i d acquire,
be master of; sac be associated with ; vt attract (to the
sacrifice) ; a k be able ; mad be happy ; d h prosper ; p a live
to see; as be (with predicates such as prosperous, &c.); also
certain sacrificial verbs : i d h kindle (with the co-operation of
the god), d worship, vac and v a d speak (effectively), v i d h
serve, sap please obtain the favour of(a god), h call (= bring
hither).
1. The meanings expressed by the different persons of the
subj. are the following:
The first person declares the w i l l of the speaker ; e. g.
s v a s t y e v y um p a b r a v m a h a i for welfare we will invoke
Vyu (v. 51 ), It is often accompanied by the particles n
and h n t a ; e. g. p r n voc s u t u v m I will now praise
you two at the libations (v. 691), The I. du. and pl. may also
express an exhortation to another to share an action with
12
215]
SUBJUNCTIVE
353
the speaker, an impv. usually then preceding; e.g. daki

at bhav me : dh vtri jaghanva bhri stand on
my right : then we two will slay many foes (x. 837) ; or an
exhortation to aid the speaker; e.g. j m a ^ i n d r a t v y
yuj we will eonquer ( let us conquer) with thee as our ally
(viil. 63^ ).
1
In B. the usage is the same ; e. g. vra vrai I will choose a boon

(Ts.) ; hantaîmn bhayai well, I will terrifytht^m(AB.) ; vay dev
abruvan : sma r j na hanma^ti the gods said to Vdyu : let us slay
king Soma (TS.).
The second person is used exhortatively : h n o v t r ,

j y a p slay Vtra, win the waters (i. 80 ), It often
follows a 2. pers. impv. ; e. g. agne u n i ; d e v b h y o
bravasihear, O Agni, do thou say to the gods (f. 139 ) ; sometimes
it follows a 3. pers. impv. ; e. g. v vahantu . . v,
p i b t h o asm m d h n i let the horses bring you two ; do ye
drink the honied draughts beside us (vii. 67^). When an
expectation is indicated, the subj. is almost equivalent to
a future ; e. g. c h n t a me, c h a d y t h ca n n m ye hav e
pleased me and ye shall please me now (i. 165l-),
3
In B. the 2. pers. subj. is used only when the speaker makes a condi
tion or gives a direction relating to the (not immediate) future ; e. g.
atho eta varam avta : mayêva prc dia pra janathaîti
so he made this condition : thr ough ^ne ye shall (in future) discover the eastern
quarter (AB.).
The t h i r d person is as a rule used i n exhortations to the

gods, though the subject is not always the name of the deity;
e.g. i m n a avad d h v a m he shall hear this our
call (viii. 43 ); p r i o ho v r u a s y a vjy ; u r
na n d r a k a v a d u l o k m may the wrath of Varua
avoid us; Indra shall procure us wide space (vii. 84 ); s
dev . îh vakati he shall bring the gods hither (i. 1 ) ; p r
te sumn no a n a v a n thy good intentions shall reach us
(viii. 90^), The subj. sentence is sometimes connected with
a preceding one ; e.g. a g n m He : s u r a v a t I praise Agni:
he shall hear (viii. 43 ). The subj. here often approaches the
22
24
354
[215
future i n sense, being then usually opposed with n n m or

n to another verb : d u y d e v savita . . a s t h t :
n n d e v b h y o v h i dh t i r t n a m god Savit has just
arisen : he will now distribute bounty to the gods (ii. 38 ) ;
uv s aû uch c ca n Dawn hasflushed(in the past) and
she will flush now (I. 48 ), Sometimes there is no opposition ;
e.g. gh t gaehn ttar yugni, ytra jmya k
van jmi there shall eome those later generations when those
who are akin will do what befits not kinsmen (x. 10 ).
1
10
In B . the 3. pers. subj. is not found i n the hortative sense, appearing

only when a condition, promise, or curse is expressed; e.g. vva^
ity abruvan ; so 'bravn : maddevatyêva samid asad i t i they said ..
choose a boon ; he replied :thefuel shall be sacred to me (MS.) ; s ^ abrav
vra vrai ; kht t parbhaviynt manye : tto m par bhuvam
ti ; pur te savatsar d pi rohd ty abravt she said : I will make a
condition ; I think I shall perish in consequence of digging ; let me not per
He replied : beforethelapse of a year for you, it (the wound) shall heal u
(Ts.) ; devs t n aapan : svena va kiku vajrea vrcn i t i the
gods cursed them (the trees) : they shall destroy yot^ with your own h
with a bolt (TB.). The 3. pers. subj. often also expresses the purpose of
a ceremony ; e.g. rd ti aramya barhr bhavati (MS.) the litter is
made of reeds withtheintention : it shall destroy him (the adversary).
2. The syntactical employment of the subj. is twofold.

a. It appears i n principal sentences :
a. with interrogatives, either the pronoun or the adverbs
katha how ? kad when, and k u v d ; e. g. k m n v a
k a v m a what, pray, shall we do for you ? (ii. 29 ) ; kath
m a h r u d r y y a b r a v m a how shall we speak to the great
Rudrahost? (v. 41 ^); kad n a u r a v a d g r a when will
he hear our prayers? (i. 848). k u v d nearly always accen
tuates the verb (which is thus treated as i n a subordinate
clause) ; e. g. a v n a s e stuhi : k u v t te r v a t o h v a m
the Avins praise well, O seer: shall they hear thy call?
(viiI. 26 ).
3
10
In B. first persons only seem to be met with i n this use, and an

interrogative word is sometimes lacking
^ . I n negative sentences with n not ; e. g. n t n a a n t i ;
215]
SUBJUNCTIVE
355
n d a b h t i t s k a r a they perish not; no thief shall (can) harm

them (vi. 28 ),
3
In B. n is similarly used ; e. g. nât 'para k can sah r

reaâmto sat from now onwards no one shall be immortal with his body
(B.). Once only, in a command, is the subj. used with m : akm
sma m n padysai you shall not approach me (in future) against my will
(B.).
b. I n dependent clauses the subj. is used either with a

negative or with relatives (pronominal or adverbial) :
a. i n a final sense with the negative particle n d that not,
lest. The antecedent clause has either an ind. or an impv. ;
e.g. hotr d a h v a r u a b b h y a d y a , n d ev m
y u n j a n n t r a dev fearing the office of Hot, O Varua,
I went away, lest the gods should appoint me thereto (x. 51 ) ;
v y c h duhitar divo m c i r t a n u t h p a , n t tva
s t e n y t h r i p t p t i s r o arci shineforth,daugh
ter of the sky, delay not long thy work, lest the sun scorch thee,
tike a hostile thief with his ray (v. 79 ).
4
In B . the antecedent clause has either an ind. or an opt. ; e. g. tha

yn n prkate, nn m rudr ninsad ti now (the reason) why he does
not look is lest Rudra should injure him (B.) ; tn n dadbh khded,
nn ma id rudrya dat hinsad ti he should not chew it with his
teeth, lest this that belongs to Rudra injure his teeth (B.). A gerundive i n
the antecedent clause has also been noted in the A B .
^ . in relative clauses :
1. such a clause normally precedes if it contains a suppo
sition determining the sense of the principal clause ; the
latter usually has an impv., not infrequently a subj., seldom
an inj. or ind.; e.g. y n a p t a n y d , p a ttam d
dhatam whoever shall combat us, him do ye two slay (i. 132 );
y s t b h y a d n n t m ho a n a v a t who shall serve
thee, him no distress can reach (ii. 23 ); u t n n y d in
d r i y kariy i n d r a p u s y a m , ady n k i d
minat and what heroic, manly deed thou, Indra, shalt now do,
that let no one belittle today (iv. 30 ) ; y s m a i t v suk t e
j t a v e d a , u l o k m agne k v a s y o n , s r a y
6
23
356
[215
n a a t e svast the righteous man for whom thou shalt procure,

O Agni Jtavedas, a comfortable place, he obtains riches for
welfare (v. 4 ).
11
In B. the use of the subj. in relative clauses is similar; but here

the subj. is by far the commonest form in the principal clause, the
impv. and ind. (sometimes omitted) being rare., e.g. tny abru
van, vra vrmahai : yd sura jyma, tn nah sahâsad ti
they said, we will make a condition : what we shall win from the Asuras th
shall be ours in common (TS.) ; ys tv k caûp y at, tum ev^sva
whoever shall come towards you, sit still ; yd vind s ai tt te 'gnihotr
kurma what thou shaltfind,thatwe (shall) makethyfireoblation(Ms.) ;
td vi smrddha y dev sdhve krmae ju n tai that, indeed,
(is) excellent,ifthegods shall be pleased with him for a good work (B.),
the last example the relative clause exceptionally follows.
2. The relative clause follows if it expresses a final or

consequential sense (in order that, so that) arising from the
principal clause ; the latter usually has an impv., but some
times an inj., opt., or ind. ; e.g. s pan vid naya,
y jasânu s ati, y e v ^ i d m t i b r v a t assoeiate us,
O Psan, with a wise (guide) who shall at onee direet us and
who shall say : here it is (vi. 54 ) ; a s m b h y a t d r d ha
g t , y t stot b hya p y e b h v t i let that wealth eome
for us which shall be a blessing to thy praisers and thy kinsman
(ii. 38 ); t d a d y v c p r a t h a m Inasya yna^su
rm abhi d e v s m a I would today think of that as the
first (point) of my speech whereby we gods shall overcome the
Asuras (x. 53 ) ; i m bibharmi s k t a te a k u
y n a ^ r u j s i m a g h a v a c h a p h r j a I bring to thee this
wellfashioned weapon (with which =) in order that thou shouldst
break the hoofbreakers (x. 44 ). The subj. of these relative
clauses sometimes comes to have a purely future sense ;
e. g. (=a^ju) t y a n t i y par u p y n thosearecoming
who in future days will see her (i. 113 ).
1
11
11
In B. this type of relative clause with the subj. is rare ; e. g. yn ma

dhinvat tn me kuruta procure for me that which shall refresh me (B.) ;
h n t a vay tt sjmahai yd asmn anvsad ti come, let us create
what shall come ater us (sB^),
215]
SUBJUNCTIVE
357
^y. with relative conjunctions :

I. y d , which, i f the clause is determinative, means when ;
the dependent clause then precedes, while the principal clause
usually contains an impv., but sometimes an inj., a subj.,
or an opt. ; the conjunction means in order that, so that, i f the
dependent clause is final or consequential ; the dependent
clause then follows, while the principal clause contains an
impv., a subj., or an ind., e.g.
if y d = when : o y d a d y b h n n v i dv r v
v o d i v , p r no y a c h a t d a v k m O I)awn, when to
day with thy beam thou shalt open the doors of heaven, then
bestow on us safe shelter (i. 48i^); y d a d y b h g vibhj
si n b hya, o d e v no t r a savit d m n ngaso
vocati s r yya when thou shalt today distribute a share to men,
O Dawn, god Savit, the house friend, shall declare us guiltless
to Srya (i. 123 ); y d v a ga p u r u t k r m a , m vas
t s y m p i b h m a when we shall commit a sin against you
after the manner of men, let us not have a part in that (shaft) of
yours (vii. 57 ) ; y d d i d y v a p t ansu prakr n, t s y a
v s y m a ânit r a j when shafts shall play in battles, of
that conflict of yours we would be the winners (iv. 41 ).
3
11
if y a d in order that, or so that : s vaha d e v t t i

yaviha, r d h o y d a d y d i v y yjsi ô bring hither the
gods, O youngest, that thou mayst adore the heavenly host today
(iii. 19 ); t a v d u t s u k r t y 'sann u t p r a s t a y a ,
y d i n d r a m y s i n a these laudations and praises shall
be thine, that thou, O Indra, mayst be merciful to us (viii. 45 );
n ppso manmahe, yd in nv ndra skhya kv
mahai we deem not ourselves. wicked, (so) that we can now
make Indra our friend (viii. 61 ), I n such posterior clauses
the y d sometimes comes to express the content of the
principal clause ; e. g. n te s k h s a k h y vay e t t ,
s l a k m y d v u r p b h v t i (x. 10 ) thy friend wishes
not this friendship, that she who is of the same type (= akin)
shall become of a different kind (not akin), This y d may
4
33
11
358
[215
once be translated by till : k i y t y y t s a m y b h a v t i

y v y u r y ca n n v y u c h n in what time will it be
that ( hO^v long w i l l it be till) she shall be between those that
have shone forth and those that shall now shine forth? (i. 113 ).
10
In B . the subj. is rarely found in these clauses with yd ; e.g. tt

prpnuhi yt to pr vtam apipdytai attainthisthat your breath
shall transfer itself tothewind (B.).
2. y t r a when seems not to occur i n v with the subj.

when it is a genuine conjunction (that is, when it is not
equivalent to the loc. of the relative pronoun).
In B., however, it is found with the subj. i n the sense of
a future perfect : e. g. y t r a n t c h n d a s a p r gcht,
t t p r a t i p r a s t h t p r t a r a n u v k m up k u r u t t when
the Hot shall have got to the end of the metre, then let the Prati
prastht start a Prtaranuvka (B.).
3. y t h with the subj. as an antecedent clause means as,
the principal clause containing an impv. or a subj. ; as a
posterior clause it has the sense of in order that, so that, the
principal clause containing either a demand (generally impv.,
occasionally inj., opt., or gerundive) or a statement (ind.
pres. or aor., act. or pass.). Examples of the first use are :
y t h hotar m n u d e v t t yjsi, ev no a d y y a k i
dev n as thou canst, O priest, worship at the divine service of man,
so do thou for us today worship the gods (VI. 4 ). This use does
not seem to occur in B . Examples of the second use are : gh n
gacha g h p a t n y t h ^ s a go to the house that you may be
mistress of the house (x. 85 ) ; id n m h n a upav c yo
n b hi, rha no t r a ^ d r v i a y t h d d h a t at this
time of day he is to be addressed by men that he may here bestow
on us the best wealth (iv. 54 ); mahat m v m a h 'vo,
y t h v s u n m a h a i we implore the favour of the great, in
order that we may obtain riches (x. 36 ^); i d p t ram a p y i
m t s a d y t h saumanas y a d e v m this bowl has been drunk
up, in order that it may exhilarate the god to benevolence
(vi. 44 ), The negative i n such clauses is n or n .
1
20
10
215]
SUBJUNCTIVE
359
a. I n B . the usage is similar: the principal clause here contains

either an impv. or a subj. ; e.g. tath me kuru yathâham im
sen jayni so arrange for me that I may conquer this army (AB.) ; sa
dh n s dadhvahai yth tvm ev pravinti now let us two
make an agreement in order that I may enter into thee (Ms.).
4. yad when, with the subj. (pres. or aor.), which then

has the value of a fut. perf., is regularly antecedent, the
principal clause containing an impv. or a subj.; e.g. t
yad
krasi
jtavedo,
tha^m
ena
pri
dattt
pit
bhya when thou shalt have made him done, then deliver him to
the fathers (x. 16); yad g c h t y s u n t i m et m , t h a
dev n vaan r bhavti when he shall have gone to that
spirit world, then he shall become subject to the gods (x. 16 ).
y a d k a d ca whenever seems to give the verb the same
sense : y a d k a d ca s u n v a m a s m a m , a g n v d t
d h a n v t y c h a whenever we shall have pressed Soma, Agni
shall hasten to thee as a messenger (iii. 53 ).
2
^. The usage of B . is the same ; e. g. s yad t m ativrdh, tha

karu khtv tsya m bibharsi when I shall have outgrown that
(vessel), then having dug a trench you shall keep me in it (B.).
5. y d i if with the subj. generally precedes the principal

clause, which contains an impv., a subj., (rarely) an opt., or
an ind. (sometimes to be supplied); e.g. y d i s t m a
m m a r v a d , asm k am n d r a m indavo mandantu if he
shall hear my praise, let these drops of ours gladden Indra
(viii. 1 ^) ; y j m a dev n y d i a k n v m a we will adore the
gods, if we shall be able (i. 27 ) ; y d i p r t i t v h r y . .
a p e n jayema if thou shalt accept (it) gladly, we might thereby
win the waters (v. 2 ); i n d r ha v r u d h h , y d i
s m a i . . m d y a i t e Indra and Varua (are) the most
liberal, if they shall delight in the Soma offerings (iv. 4 l ) .
1
13
11
a. In B . the subj. with ydi is very rare ; an example is : ydi t v ^

ett pnar brvatas, tv brttiftheytwo shall saythisagain to thee, do
thou say (B.),
6. y d so long as occurs twice with the subj. i n the R V . :

a n n u k t y m a p u n c a k r a y t s r ym s m i t h ucc
360
[215--216
r t a he has onceforall done what is inimitable so long as sun

and moon alternately shall rise (x. 68 ) ; vsiha ha vru
o . . i cakra . . yn n dyvas tatnan, yd usa
Varufta has made Vasiha a seer, so long as the days shall
extend, so long as the dawns (vii. 88 ), I n B . y d does not
occur.
^. The subj. is sometimes used i n an antecedent clause
with ca in the sense of if, which is then treated as a subor
dinate conjunction and accentuates the verb ; e. g. ndra
ca m y t i no, n n a pae d a g h n a a t if Indra
shall be gracious to us, no evil shall afterwards touch us(ii. 41 ).
10
11
D. Optative or Potential.
216. I. The meaning of the opt. is predominantly a
wish, which is modified according to the person of the verb.
The first person, which is very common, expresses the
wish of the speaker, generally addressed to the gods ; e. g.
as t m a s y y a s a r a y m O Dawn, I would obtain
that glorious wealth (i. 928); vidh.ma te s t m a i we would
worship thee with songs ofpraise (ii.9 ); v a y y m a p t a y o
ray m we would be lords of riches (iv. 50^).
3
In B. the sense of the first person is similar, but its occurrence,

owing to the nature of the subjectmatter, is far less common; e.g.
vi ca katr y a ca samda kurym I should like to create enmity between
people and nobility (MS.).
The second person is much less common. It is almost

exclusively used to express a wish or a request addressed to
a god ; e.g. no m i t r v r u hotr y a v a v t y pray bring
Mitra and Varua to our oblation (vi. 11 ); ty me h v a m
j a g m y t a m so, pray, do ye two come to my call (vi. 50 ) ; p r
s na y u r jvse tiretana do ye, pray, extend fully our
allotted span that we may live (viii. IS ), W e might here
often rather expect the impv., which indeed frequently
either precedes or follows the 2. opt. ; e.g. dhiv v j r a
r a k o h t y y a : ssahh abhi sp d ha take the bolt for
1
10
OPTATIVE
21^]
361
the slaughter of the demons : mayst thou overcome our foes

(vi. 45 ^) ; im me s a m d h a vane; im r u d h
g r a pray accept this my fuel; graciously hear these songs
1
(. 6).
In B . the second person is used almost exclusively i n wishes; e. g.
asmfn yjamne bahvyah syta may you be numerous besidethissacrifice^
(B.),
The t h i r d person is used i n the three different senses of

wish, precept, or supposition ; e. g. mhv m
asm k a
b a b h y t may he be bountiful to us (i. 27 ); i m m am t a
d t k v t a m r t y a this immortal the mortal should make
his messenger (viii. 23 ) ; p n n p i r p a n t a m a b h y t
the friend who bestows would prevail over him who does not
bestow (x.1177). In the sense of a supposition (regarded as
possible or probable) the opt. seldom appears independently,
but often i n an apodosis.
2
19
In B. it is common in all three senses .. expressing a wish ; e. g. apa

syt may he be bereft of cattle (TS.) ; a general precept (where a
gerundive may also be used) ; e. g. kume vsn agnm dadhy
t t adhvaryve dye wearing linen garments the tno should lay the
fire ; the two (garments) should be given to the Adhvaryu (Ms.) ; a supposition
in the apodosis of periods, but seldom independently ; e.g. nâsya
t r t rm ap grhn pr hareyur ; po vi n ti : amyeyur eva
(Ms.) they should not during that night bring water into his house ; for water
is extinction : they would thus extinguish (if they did this). The protasis
in this example must be supplied.
2. The syntaetical employment of the optative is two

fold:
a. it appears i n principal sentences (for the most part re
taining the sense of a wish) with interrogatives, either the
pronoun or the adverbs kath how kad when ^ and k u v d ;
e.g. k s m a i dev y a h a v vidhema what god would we
worship with oblations (x. 121 ); kad na i n d r a ry
d a a s y e when wouldst thou, O Indra, bestowrichesupon us ?
(vii. 37^); k u v t tutujy t s t y e d h y a (f. 143^) would he
not stimulate our prayers for gain ? (cp. p. 354, 2 a). A possi
bility is sometimes thus repudiated ; e.g. k d dha n n m
1
362
[216
t v d a n t o n t a rapema how could u.e now speaking

righteous words utter unrighteousness ^ (x. 10 ).
4
In B. the optative with interrogatives may express a wish, precept,

possibility, or the repudiation of a suggestion ; e.g. kath n pr
jyeya how should I propagate myself^ (B.) ; ymm eva prva aset
he should jirst pronouncethejbrmula addressed to rama (AB.); k mma
tta syat (B.) what would then accrue to me (if I did this)'^ ks td
driyeta who would pay attention to that ^ (B.).
a. The opt. appears i n negative sentences with n not,

sometimes n eid never. The sense is either optative or
potential ; e. g. n riyema k a d ean may we never suffer
harm (vi. 54 ); n u ein n v y r am t a v i dasyet may
the nectar of Vyu never^foil (vi. 37 ) ; n td dev n mr
tyas
tuturyd
yni
prvddho
vabh
eakra
no
god,
no mortal could surpass what the mighty bull has done (viii. 96 ).
The only opt. form with which the prohibitive m occurs is
bhujema: m v a n o a n y k t a bhujema may we not
suffer before you for a sin done by others (VI. 517).
9
In B. the opt. is used with n to express either a general prohibition

or a potential sense ; e. g. tsyaêtd vrat : n^nta vaden, n
msm anyat this is his vow : he should not speaktheuntruth, he should
not eat meat ; nêna dadhikr v a can pvay kriyt Dadhikrvan
himself could not make him pure (Ms. ).
b. In dependent clauses the opt. is used with relatives

(pronominal or adverbial) :
a. such a clause having a determining sense, usually
precedes. This type is very rare i n v ; e. g. s r y a y
brahm vidy t , s i d v d hyam arhati a priest who should
know Sry deserves the bridal garment (x. 85 ),
34
In B., on the other hand, clauses of this type, which always imply
a supposition, are very common. The opt. here expresses a precept
or a potential sense ; the principal clause most often has the opt.
also ; e. g. y dviy t , t dhyyet whom he may hate, he should think
of (Ts.) ; y v imm lbheta, mcyetaâsm t ppmna he who were
to offer this (bull), would be delivered from this sin (TS.), In the principal
clause a gerundive occasionally appears or the verb to be has to be
2l6]
363
OPTATIVE
supplied ; e. g. y rr d pabhuta syt tsai hotavy this should

be offered for him who should be deprived of his kingdom (Ts.) ; yasyaâgnayo
grmyeaâgnin sadahyeran, k tatra pryacitti if any one's fires
should be united with a village fire, what expiation (is) there ^ (AB.).
^ . the relative clause, if it has a final or consequential

sense (in order that, so that) follows. The principal clause
contains an impv., a subj., or an opt. ; e.g. r e v t r n a
sadham d a indre santu y b hir m d e m a (i. 30 ) let our feasts
beside Indra be rich (by which = ) that we may rejoice (in them) ;
d h s a t h o r a y y n a s a m t s u s h i m h i bestow wealth on
us (by which = ) that we may be victorious in battles (viii. 40 ) ;
y y ^ t i vv durit t r e m a s u t r m a m d h i n v a
ruhema we would ascend the rescuing ship (by which = ) that we
may cross over all misfortunes (viii. 42 ),
13
In B. final relative clauses with the optative are rare.
y. with relative conjunctions :

1. y d if : i n the antecedent clause of pres. conditional
periods, the condition being generally regarded as unful
filled. The apodosis normally contains a potential opt.
(though isolated examples of the impv., inj., and ind. occur);
e. g. y d agne sy m a h t v , t v v g h sy a h ,
s y e saty h^ ia ifI, O Agni, were thou,andthou
wert I, thy prayers would be fulfilled (viii. 44 ) ; occasionally
the fulfilment of the condition is expected ; e. g. y c chu
ruy i m h v a d u r m r a c a k r i y u t , b h v e r p i r
no n t a m a if thou shouldst hear this call and shouldst not
forget it, thou wouldst be our most intimate friend (viii. 451 ).
The temporal sense of when with the opt. seems to occur
only once i n the R v (iif. 33 ),
23
11
I n B . (as i n V.) yd ifwith the opt. is very common i n the protasis,

when the fulfilment of the condition is not expected (ydi with opt.
being used when it is expected); e.g. s yd bhdyeta^ r tim r^hed
yjamna if it should be broken, the sacrifice^ would fall into calamity (Ts.).
The infinitive with var may take the place of the opt. in the prin
cipal clause ; e. g. yad et ased vara parjanyo 'varo if he
were to repeat this (formula), Parjanya might not rain (AB.). sometimes the
364
[2l6
verb (opt. of as be) is omitted in the apodosis. The opt. with yd here
rarely expresses a purely hypothetical case (that is, without the im
plication that the condition w i l l not be fulfilled) ; e. g. yn m
pravi k m bhujya (Ts.) if you were to enter me,of what use would
you be to me ? (afterwards he does enter Indra).
a. y d with the opt. in the final sense of in order that is

very rare ; e.g. y n n n m ay g t i , m i t r s y a y y
p a t h in order that I might now obtain a refuge, I would go on
the path of Mitra (v. 64 ).
3
^. In B. yd with the opt. in the sense of that is frequently used

after va kalpate is suitable, t sahate endures, ichti desires, vda
knows, yukt bhavati is intent, in posterior clauses ; e. g. n h td
avaklpate yd bry t for it is not fitting that he should say (B.) ; n v
ahm idm t sahe yd vo ht sym (B.) I cannot endure this that
should be ( ----- I cannot be) your Hot; td dhy v br h maena.êvya
yd brahmavarcas syt for that is to be aimed at by the Brahmin, that he
should be pious (B.); svay v etsmai dev yukt bhavanti yt
sdh vdeyu for the gods themselves are intent on this, that they should
what is right (B.); ks td veda yd vrataprad vratm upotsicet
/or who knows (this that = ) whether he who hands the fast-milk (should add
adds (fresh milk) to it (B.). In the B. var also is used with this
construction (in other Brahmaas with the infinitive only) to express
a possible consequence (though the yd is nearly always omitted) ;
e. g. pr asmd yajn 'bhd ti^var ha yt tthêv syt the
sacrifice has turned away from him : it is possiblethatthisshould be so (B.
Otherwise the phrase regularly appears in the form of ti^var ha
tth eva syt, perhaps because var came to be regarded as a kind
of adverb possibly this might be so.
^y. In B . yd introducing a clause with the opt. accompanied by n
and ending with ti, dependent on a verb of fearing or similar expres
sion, is equivalent to lest ; e.g. dev ha vi bibhay cakrur yd vi
na . . asurarakas n i,îm grha n h a n y r ti the gods feared
lest the Asuras and Rakases should destroy this draught (B.); ndro ha
k eakre yn m tn nâbhibbved ti Indra pondered (fearing)
lest that should vanquish him (B.).
2. y d i if with the opt. does not occur in the R V . and

A V . at all, and only once i n the S v
In B . it is very common, expressing a condition the fulfilment of
which is assumed (while yd with opt. implies non-fulfilment of the
condition). The clause with ydi generally precedes. The apodosis
has :
216]
OPTATIvE
365
a. usually the opt., which expresses a precept applicable when the

condition is fulfilled ; e. g. ydi pur sasthnd dryetaâdy var
iyati^ti bryt if (the vessel) should be broken before the completion (of
the sacrifice), he should say : it will rain today (Ms.); yadi na aknuyt
so 'gnaye puroa nir vapet if he should not oe able to do so, he should
ofier a c^.ke to Agni (AB.). The precept occasionally has a potential
sense ; e.g. ydy katayu dvay u v^,avagched, apardhuk ena
syu (MS.) ifhe (the banished man) should return after one or two libations
they might exclude him from the sovereignty (but not if he returns at the
conclusion of the ceremony).
var with the infinitive ; e. g. varo ha yady apy anyo
yajetaâtha hotra yao 'rto evenifanother should sacrifice (instead
of him), it is possible that fame should come to the Hot (AB.).
^. a gerundive ; sa yadi na jyeta, rakoghnyo gyatryo 'ncy
if it (the fire) should not be kindled,thedemonslaying verses are to be repeated
(AB.),
^. an ind. (sometimes omitted if it is a form of as be);

e. g. t a s m d y a d i yaja k t a r t i s y d brahmaa eva n i
vedayante thereforeifat the sacrifice there should be any failure
with regard to a c verse, they inform the Brahman priest (AB.);
y a d i no yaja k t a r t i s y t , k p r y a c i t t i if we shall
have an accident at the sacrifice in regard to a c verse, what (is)
the penance (AB.),
^. The difference between y d and y d i with the opt.
may be illustrated by the following example : yn no jye
yur im abhypa dhvema, ydy u jyemaîm abhyup
v a r t e m a h i ^ t i if they were to conquer us (not to be assumed),
we should take refuge with these (friends), but if (as is to be
assumed) we should conquer, we could again betake ourselves to
them (MS.),
3. y t h used in v. only in the sense of in order that,
generally following the principal clause, which contains an
impv an inj., or an ind. ; e. g. p a vvm a m t r n nudasva,
y t n t v a r m a n m d e m a drive away all foes that we may
rejoice in thy protection (x. 131 ) ; t v y a y t h gtsamad s o
. . parm abhi y , s r i b h y o g a t t d v y o d h
bestow on the patrons and the singer this blessing that through
thee the Gtsamadas may be superior to their neighbours (ii. 4 );
1
366
[216
d i v y v m a h ^vsi, y t h b h v e m a mhe n g we implore the div ine aids that we may be sinless before the
gracious one (vii. 97 ).
2
a. In B . yth with the opt. has two uses : ^. i n antecedent clauses

in the sense of as, as if, with a correlative meaning so in the principal
clause, which contains an opt., an ind., or no verb ; e. g. yathaêva
chinn naur bandhant plaveta,êvam eva te plaveran just as a boat
cut from its fastening would drift, so they would drift (AB.) ; s yth nad
yi
pr
parpyed
ev
svsya^yua
pr
pr
cakhyau
as
if he were looking across to the farther bank of a river, so he saw the end of h
life from afar (B.) ; tho yth bruy d etn me gopya^jti td g ev
t tthenit (is) so as if he were to say : guardthisfor me (TS.).
Î. in posterior clauses in the sense of how, sothat; e. g. pa jnta
ythîy pnar gchet do ye find out how she could come back (B.) ;
tt tthaêvhotavy ythâgn vyavey t hence it is to be so poured
that it may divide thejire (MS.).
4. y t r a and yad are not found with the opt. in v . , and

y r h i does not occur at all in the RV. and A v .
In B . all three conjunctions are used hypothetically with the opt. in

the sense of when.
^. ytra, besides having the sense of when, in case, often seems to
mean at the moment when, as soon as ; the principal clause has the opt. or
the ind. : e. g. mrut saptkapla nr vaped ytra v r j na
jjyset he should offer a cake on seven dishes to the .^Maruts in case the pe
were to oppresstheking (MS.) ; s ytra prastuy t td etni japet as soon
as he (the priest) begins to sing, one should mutter the following prayers (B
yad as soon as seems often to imply that the action of the opt.
should be assumed to be past ; it seems always to be followed by tha
then ; e. g. s yad sagrm jyed thaâindrgn nr vapet as
soon as he may have won a battle, he should sacrifice to Indra and Agni (Ms.
^. yrhi when is generally followed by the correlative trhithenin
the principal clause, which usually has the opt. also ; e. g. yrhi
praj kdha nigcheyus, trhi navartra yajeta when his people
should be exposed to hunger. then he should sacrifice with the rite of nine
(Ts.).
5. cd if is used with the ind. only in the R v and only
once with the opt. i n the A v .
In B. it is used with the opt. like ydi (with which it may inter
change) ; e. g. et cd anysm anubrys, tta ev te ra chindyam if you were to communicate this to another, I would cut off your head (
217218]
P R E C A T I v E , CONDITIONAL
367
Precative.
217. This form, which occurs i n the RV. and A v . i n
principal clauses only, and never interrogatively, expresses
a prayer or wish addressed to the gods almost exclusively, as
is to be expected from the nature of those texts ; e. g. y no
d v y d h a r a ss p a d a may he who hates us full to the
ground (iii. 53 i). When a negative is used it is n ; e. g.
b h g o me agne s a k h y n m d h y may my good fortune,
O Agni, not relax in (thy) friendship (iii. 54 ).
In B. the precative is almost restricted to verse or prose formulas
quoted and to paraphrases of such formulas ; e. g. bhuyasnm tta
r sm kriysam ti gv lkma kuryt would that I may do
2
21
(this) to more next year : so saying he should make the mark of the cows (M s.).
at hm ti at vari jvysam ty evêtd ha by the expres
sion a hundred winters ' he says this : would that I may live a hundred yârs '
(SB). It is, however, sometimes found in genuine prose narrative

also ; e. g. s ha vk prajpatim uvca : havyav evâh
tbhya bhuysam Vc said to Prajpati : I would like not to be a con
ductor of sacrifice for thee (B.); tm aapad: dhiydhiy tv vadhy
su him (Agni) cursed (saving) : I wish they may kill thee with repeated
deliberation (TS.).
Conditional.
2
21^. I n v . the conditional occurs only once (RV. ii. 30 ) i n

a somewhat obscure passage, though the form abhariyat
used after a past tense appears to mean would take away
(in place of the future which would have been used after
a present tense).
In B. the conditional is once found in a simple interrogative sen
tence : tta evâsya bhay v1yaya : ksmd dhy bhesyat there
upon his fear departed: for of what should he have been afraid^ (B.),
Otherwise it occurs only in compound sentences :

1. usually in both protasis and apodosis of conditional sentences,
expressing what might have happened in the past, but did not happen
because the condition was not fulfilled. The conditional clause is
generally introduced by yd, rarely by ydi (216) ; e. g. s yd dha^pi
mkhd droyan, n haêv pryacittir abhaviyatifit (Soma) had
alsoflowedout of his mouth, there would not have been a penance (B.); yd ev
n^vakyo murdh te vy patiyat if you had not spoken thus, your

head would have split asunder (B.) ; pdau te 'mlsyat ydi ha n^
gamiya your feet would have withered,ifyou had not come (B.).
368
[218
a. When y d is used with the opt. the supposed condition

refers to the present (216).
2. in relative clauses dependent on negative principal
clauses containing a past tense (always of v i d find); e.g. s
t d ev n ^ a v i n d a t praj p atir y d hoyat Prajpati
found nothing that he could sacrifice (MS.); s vi t
n ^ a v i n d a d y s m a i t m d k i m neyat he found no
one to whom he should give this sacrificial fee (TB.).
3. in a clause introduced by y d that dependent on a
negative (or equivalent) clause ; e. g. c i r t n mene y d
v s a p a r y d n s y a t a he thought it too long (that =) till he
should put on the garment (B.) = he thought the time was not
short enough till he should put on the garment.
APPENDIX I
LIST OF VERBS.
The order of the parts of the verb, when all are given, is : Present
Indicative (PR.), Subjunctive (B.), Injunctive (INJ.), Optative (OP.),
Imperative (IPV.), Participle (PT.), Imperfect (IPF.) ; Perfect (PF.);
Pluperfect (PPF.) ; Aorist (AO.) ; Precative (PRC.) ; Future (FT.) ;
Conditional (co.), Passive (Ps.), Present, Aorist, Past Participle (PP.) ;
Gerundive (Gnv) ; Gerund (on.); Infinitive (1NF.); Causative (es);
Desiderative (ns.) ; Intensive (1.NT.),
The Roman numerals indicate the conjugations class of the verb ;
P. signifies that the verb is conjugated in the Parasmaipada (active)
only, . that it is conjugated in the tmanepada (middle) only.
a attain, v : PR. a n t i ; sn. a n v a t ; IPv. a n t u ;

PT. a n u v n t . PF. n a and n a ; n a m , n a ,
n a r ; n a s ; sB. a n a m a h a i ; oP. nay m ; PT.
n a n ; PP. also a, t u r , r ; . du. t he,
t e. AO. root : . 3. s. a, p l . ata ; iNJ. aa,
p l . a a t a ; oP. ay t , PRC. 3. s. ay s ( = a y s t ) ; s : sB.
k a t ; a : at. iNF. ave.
ak mutilate, v. : PR. i P v . a k u h .
PP. PT. a k . AO.
i : kiur.
ac bend, I. : PR. c a t i . 1Pv. 2. s. ca ; casva. Ps. a c y t e ;
PT. a c y m n a ; 1PF. a c y n t a ; PP. a k n (B.), GD. acya.
aj drive, I. : PR. jati, jate ; sB. jni, jsi, jti ; oP.
j e t a ; 1Pv. j a t u ; PT. jant. i P F . jat. Ps. a j y t e ;
PT. a j y m n a . 1NF. je.
aj anoint, v l l . : PR. a n k t i , a k t ; sn. anjat ; 1Pv. a d h
( = agdh), a n k t u ; PT. ajnt, ajn. 1PF. jan.
PP. anja ; naj, najr ; sB. anaj ; OP. anajy t ;
PT. anajn.
Ps. a j y t e ; PT. a j y m n a ; PP. a k t .
GD. aktv (B.), ajya (B.),
370
APPENDIX
ad eat, I I . : PR. d m i , tsi, t t i ; a d n t i ; B. d a t , pl.

d n (Av.) ; oP. ady t ; IPv. a d d h , t t u ; a t t m , att m ;
a t t , a d n t u ; PT. a d n t , a d n . 1PF. dat. FT. a t s y t i .
PP. n n a n.food. GD. attv y a (B.). 1NF. t t u m , t t a v e ,
ttos (B.), cs. d y a t i (B.).
an breathe, P . : L n a t i (Av.) ; V I . : a n t i (AV.) ; II. :
n i t i ; 1Pv. a n i h ; PT. a n n t .
IPF. nt. PF. na.
Ao. niur. FT. aniyti (B.). PP. anit(B.). anya(B.),
1NF. n i t u m (B.). cs. a n y a t i .
a m injure, II. : PR. m i , m t i ; I. : PR. m e ; INJ. m a n t a ;
1Pv. mva ; PT. m a m n a . i P P . mt. PP. m i r (B.).
Ao. mamat. Ps. a m y t e . cs. m y a t i .
arc praise, L : PR. r c a t i ; sB. r e , r c t ; r e m a , r c n ;
iNJ. arcat; r c a n ; iPv. r c a t u ; PT. r c a n t . 1PF. rcan.
PF. n c r ; n c . Ps. c y t e ; PT. c y m n a . 1NF.
cse. es. a r c y a t i .
a r h deserve, I. : PR. r h a t i ; sn. r h t ; PT. r h a n t . PP.
a n h r (TS.) ; a r h i r . INF. a r h s e .
av fuvour, I. P . : PR. vati ; sB. v t ; 1NJ. v a t ; oP. vet ;
1pv. v a t u ; PT. v a n t . 1PF. vat. PP. vitha, va.
Ao. root : oP. 2. avy s ; PRC 3. avy s (=avy s t) ; is : vt;
sB. v i a t ; 1NJ. v t ; 1Pv. a v i h , v i u ; avim,
avi m ; avina. FT. a v i y t i ; PT. aviynt. PP.
t a . GD. avya. 1NF. v i t a v e .
a eat, I X . : PR. an t i, a n n t i ; ant, a n t e ; oP.
any t ; iPv. a n ; PT. a n n t . iPF. nm, nt;
nan, a n a n . PP. a. Ao. i : iam, s, t;
INJ. at.
FT. aiyti (B.). Ps. a y t e ; PP. ait.
GD. a i t v a (B.), -ya (B.). cs. y a t i (B.). Ds.
aiiati (B.).
1. as be, II. P . : PR. s m i , si sti ; s t h s , sts ; s m s ,
s t h and s t h n a , s n t i ; sB. sni, sasi and sas, s a t i
and s a t ; s a t h a s ; s m a , s a t h a , s a n ; 1NJ. 3. pl.
s n ; oP. sy m , sy s , sy t ; sy t am, s y t m ; sy m a,
sy t a and sy t ana, s y r ; 1Pv. e d h , s t u ; s t m , st m ;
st, s n t u ; PT. snt. 1PF. sam, ss, s (^st) and
LIST OF V E R B S
371
st; as tarn, stm; san. PP. sa, sitha, sa; s

thur, stur ; sim., sr.
2. as throw, I V . : PR. s y m i , s y a t i and s y a t e ; s y m a s i ,
s y a n t i ; IPv. s y a and s y a t t , s y a t u ; PT. s y a n t .
1PF. syat. PF. Sa. FT. asiyt1. Ps. a s y t e ; PP. a s t .
GD. asya. INF. stave, stavi (B.).
ah say, P . : PP. ha, ttha (B.) ; h t u r (B.) ; h r .
p obtain, V . : PR. p n t i . PF. pa, pitha ; p i r ; PT.
p n . Ao. red.: pipan (B.) ; a: pat; o P . p y a m
(AV.). FT. p s y t i , te (B.) ; p t (B.). Ps. p y t e (B.) ;
Ao. pi (B.) ; PP. p t . GD. ptv (B.), p y a (B.). 1NF.
ptum (B.). cs. p y a t i (B.). Ds. psati, psate (B.) ;
Ao. ipst (B.) ; Ds. of es. pipayiet (B.).
s sit, II. . : PR. ste ; sthe, ste ; smahe, sate ;
sB. sate ; oPT. sta ; 1Pv. s. 3. stm, pl. 2. dhvam ;
PT. s n and sna. iPF. pl. 3. sata. PP. s cakre
(B.). Ao. sia (B.). FT. s i y t i , te (B.). Pp. s i t
(B.), GD. sitv (B. ), 1NF. situm (B.), cs. s y a t i (B.),
i go, I I . : PR. t i ; y n t i ; . I. s. i y e , du. 3. i y t e , pl. 1.
mahe ; sB. y , y a s i and yas, y a t i and y a t ; y a m a ,
y a n ; 1NJ. pl. 3. y n ; oP. iy m , iy t ; iy m a ; rPv. i h ,
t u ; i t m , it m ; i t and eta, i t n a , y n t u ; PT. y n t ,
i y n . 1PF. yam, i s , i t ; i t a m , i t m ; i t a , yan ;
. 3. pl. yata. I . : y a t i , y a t e ; 1NJ. y a n t a ; 1Pv.
3. du. y a t a m , pk y a n t m . V . : PR. i n t i ; i n v i r .
1PF. inos, inot.
PF. i y t h a and i y t h a , iy y a; y t h u r , y t u r ; y r ;
PT. yiV s. PPF. iyes. FT. e y t i ; ayiyati ( B . ) ;
et (B.), PP. i t . GD. itv , t y a . 1NF. t u m (B.) ;
tave, tavi, ityi, i y d h y a i , yase ; tos.
i d h kindle, V I I . . : PR. i n d d h ; i n d h t e and i n d h a t ;
sB. i n d h a t e ; 1pv. indh m ( = i n d d h m ) ; i n d h v m
( = i n d d h v m ) , i n d h t m ; PT. n d h n a . 1PF. i n d h a .
PF. d h ; d h i r . Ao. sB. i d h a t ; oP. i d h m h i ; PT.
i d h a n . Ps. i d h y t e ; iPv. i d h y s v a ; Pr. i d h y m n a ;
PP. i d d h . 1NF. d h a m ; d h e . From the nasalized
372
APPENDIX
root, indh, the is A o . is formed i n B . : 1ND. i n d h i a ;

oP. indhiya.
i n v go, I. P . ( = V . inu+a) : PR. invasi, n v a t i ; n v a t h a s ,
nvatas. sB. nvt ; 1Pv. nva, nvatu ; nvatam, n
vatm ; PT. nvant.
1. is desire, V I . : PR. i c h t i , t^ ; sB. ich t ; 1NJ. ichs ;
i c h n t a ; oP. i e h t ; i c h t a ; 1Pv. ich, i c h t u ; i c h t a ;
ichsva, i c h t m ; PT. i c h n t ; i c h m n a . 1PF. i c h a t .
PP. (B.) iya, r ; 1, ir. Ao. (B.) i t ; iiur.
FT. (B.) eiyti, te. PP. i. GD. ya. 1NF. um
(B.) ; avi (B.).
2. i send, I V . : PR. yati, te ; 1Pv. yatam ; yata ;
PT. yant. I X . : PR. i t i ; PT. i n t ; i n . V I . :
PR. i ^ 1NJ. i n t a ; oP. i m a ; 1PF. ianta. PP. t h u r ,
r ; , ir. PP. i i t . GD. iya(B.). 1NF. i d h y a i .
cs. i y a i , te ; 1NF. i a y d h y a i .
k see, I. . : PR. ke ; P T . kama. 1PF. ikata ;
i k e t m ; ikanta. PER. PF. k eakre (B.). Ao. i :
l k i i . FT. k i y t i , te (B.). PP. k i t (B.). GDV.
key. GD. kitv (B.). cs. k y a t i , te.
k h swing: es. k h y a t i , te; sn. k h y t a i (AV.),
k h a y v a h a i ; 1Pv. k h y a ; PT. k h y a n t . P P .
khit.
praise, I I . A . : PR. 1. e, 3. e ; ate ; sB. mahai
and m a h e ; 1NJ. ata (3. pl.) ; OP. t a ; 1Pv. iva;
PT. na. PP. (3. s.). PP. it. GDv. ya, n y a .
r set in motion, I I . : PR. rte ; rate; sB. rat; 1Pv. rva;
rthm;
rdhvam,
ratm;
PT. ra. 1PF. i r a m ,
irat, du. 2. iratam ; . airata (3. p l . ) . PP. r (B.).
cs. r y a t i ; sB. r y m a h e ; 1NJ. r y a n t a ; 1Pv. r y a ,
r y a t a m ; r y a s v a ; r y a d h v a m ; P T . r y a n t . 1PF.
i r a y a t ; i r a y a t a ; 1NF. r a y d h y a i . PP. rit.
be master, I L . : PR. 1. e, 2. ke and ie, 3. 1e,
e and (once) ate;
the;
mahe,
idhve,
ate;
1NJ. ata (3. s.) ; 0P. ya, ta ; P T . na. P P .ire;
PT. n.
L I S T OF
YERBS
373
move, I. : PR. ati, te ; ati ; INJ. as ; Ipv. atu,

a t u ; pT. ant ; ama. PF. (1. 3.), pp. ita.
1. u k sprinkle, v L : PR. u k t i , te ; i p v . u k t a m , u k t a ;
u k t h m ; PT. u k m a . A0. i : u k i a m (B.). F T .
u k i y t i (B.). ps. u k y t e (B.) ; p p . u k i t . G D .
kya.
2. u k (=vak) grow, I. and v L : PR. PT. k a n t ; u k m a .
iPF. ukat. Ao. s : u k s . p p . u k i t . cs. u k y a t e .
uc be pleased, I v . P . : PR. ucyasi. PF. u v c i t h a , u v c a ;
c i , e ; PT. okiv s, c . PP. u c i t .
u d wet, v I L : PR. u n t t i ; u n d n t i ; u n d t e (3. pl.). 1Pv.
u n d h i ( = u n d d h i ) ; u n t t a ; PT. u n d n t . v I . P . : PR.
u n d t i (B.).
IPF. u n a t .
PP. d r .
Ps. u d y t e ;
PP. u t t (B.). GD. udya (B.).
ubj force, v I . P . : PR. u b j t i ; 1Pv. ubj, u b j t u ; u b j t a m ;
u b j n t u ; PT. ubjnt.
1PF. 2. ubj as, 3. ubjat. P P .
u.bjit. GD. ubjya (B.).
u b h confine, v I I . P. : IPF. unap (2. s.), n m b h a n (TS.).
V I . P . : 1Pv. u m b h t a (2. pl.) ; IPF. u m b h a t . I X . P . :
1PF. u b h n s , u b h n t . PP. u b d h .
us burn, I. P . : PR. ati ; 1NJ. as ; 1Pv. a and a t t ,
atu ; atam ; P T . ant. I X . P. : PT. u n t . 1PF.
u n . PF. u v a (B.). Ao. u t (B.). PP. u (B.).
1. h remove, L : PR. hati ; iPv. ha. iPF. u h a t ; u h a t a ,
u h a n ; . u h a t a (3. s.). Ao. u h t (B.); 0P. uhyat
(B.). P P . h (B.). GD. uhya and h y a (B.). 1NF.
h i t a v i (B.).
2. h eonsider, I. . : PR. h a t e . II. . : pR. h a t e (3. pl.) ;
PT. hna and ohn. PF. h; 2. du. hythe (=h
the ?). AO. uhia ; PT. hasna.
go, V I . P . : PR. c h t i (te, B.) ; sB. e h t ; 1pv. c h t u ;
c h n t u . III. P . : PR. i y a r m i , i y r i , y a r t i ; 1pv.
iyarta (2. pl.). V . : PR. m i , t i ; v n t i ; v ;
v i r ; 1NJ. s ; v n ; . u t (3. s.) ; sB. v a s ;
1Pv. : . v t m (3. pl.) ; PT. v n t . IPF. v n . PF.
ritha, ra ; r t h u r , r r ; PT. ariv s ; ara. Ac.
374
APPENDIX
root : rta ; rata ; 1NJ. arta ( . 3. s.) ; oP. a r y t (TS.) ;

arta ; PT. a r ; a : r a m , arat ; r a t a , aran ; . rata
(3. s.) ; ranta ; sn. arma ; iNJ. aram ; aran ; . ar
mahi, aranta; 1Pv. aratam, aratm. FT. ariyti (B.).
PP. t .
GD. t v , t ya.
Cs. a r p y a t i ; AO. red. :
arpipam ; PP. a r p i t and r p i t a . GD. r p y a , arpayitv
(AV.). 1NT. a r i , l a r t i .
j direet, V I . : PR. jti, te ; 1Pv. j t a ; PT. j n t .
V I I . . : PR. j ; jte (3. pl.); I V . : PR. jyate ;
PT. jyant. I . : PR. rjati (B.).
Ao. P T . j a s n .
1NF. jse.
d stir, V I . P. : 1Pv. d n t u . 1PF. rdan. I. : PR. r d a t i
(AV.). Cs. a r d y a t i ; sn. a r d y t i .
d h thrive, V . P . . PR. d h n t i ; 1PF. rdhnot. I V . : PR.
dhyati,
te ; 1Pv. dhyat.rn. V I L P. : sB. d h a t ;
OP. ndhy m ; PT. n d h n t . PF. n a r d h a (K.) ; n d h r ;
n d h . AO. root : rdhma (B.) ; sB. d h t ; . dh t he
(2. du.); OP. dhy m , dhy s , d h y m a ; d h m h i ;
PRC d h y s a m ; PT. d h n t ; a : oP. d h t , d h m a ;
i : rdhia (B). F T . ardhiyte (B.) ; a r d h i t (B.).
Ps. d h y t e ; 1Pv. d h y t m ; PP. d d h . Gnv. r d h y a .
cs. a r d h y a t i . Ds. rtsati ; PT. rtsant.
rush, L : PR. rati, te ; sB. r t ; 1NJ. rat ; 1Pv.
r a , r a t u ; rata, r a n t u ; PT. rant. V I . P . : PR.
t i ; PT. n t . PP. .
ej stir, I. P . : PR. jati ; sB. jti and jt ; 1Pv. jatu ;
PT. jant. 1PF. ijat. es. ejyati (B.).
edh thrive, I. A . : PR. d h a t e (B.) ; 1Pv. dhasva, d h a t m
(B.). PER. PP. edh eakrire (B.). Ao. i : oP. edhiya.
kan, k a ejoy, I V . : PR. PT. k y amna. PF. c a k ; sn.
e a k n a s , c a k n a t ; e k n m a ; 1NJ. c k n a n t a ; OP.
c a k a n y a t ; 1Pv. c k a n d h , c k n t u ; PT. c a k n ;
PPF. c k n (2. s). Ao. k n i a m ; sB. k n ias.
k a m love: PP. PT. c a k a m n . Ao. r e d . : c k a m a t a (B.).
FT. k a m i y t e (B.); k a m i t (B.), Cs. k m y a t e ; sB.
k a m y s e ; PT. k a m y a m n a .
L I S T OF V E R B S
375
k appear, I . : PR. k ate (B.), INT. c k ami, c k ati;

e k a y t e (B.) ; sB. c k a n (AV.) ; PT. c k aat. i P F .
e k a a m . es. k y a t i .
k u p be angry, I V . : PR. P T . k p y a n t .
P P . k u p i t . cs.
kopyati.
I. k make, v : PR. kmi, ki, kti ; kuths, k
uts ; kmsi, kuth, kvnti ; . kv, ku,
k u t ; k m h e , k v t e ; 1NJ. k v t a (3. pl.) ; sn.
kv, kvas, kvat; kvva; kvma,
k v t h a (VS.), k v a n ; . k v a i , k v a s e ,
k v a t e ; k v v a h a i , k v i t e (for k v a i t e ) ;
k v m a h a i , k v a n t a ; oP. k v t ; 1Pv. k ,
k u h and kut t , k t u ; k u t m , k u t m ;
k u t , k t a , and k t a n a , k v n t u ; . k u v ,
kut m ; k v t h m ; k u d h v m ; PT. k v n t ;
k v n . 1PF. k a v a m , kos, k o t ; k u t a m ;
kuta, kota and kotana, kvan; . k
uta
(3.
s.)
;
kudhvam,
kvata.
VIII. : karmi, karti ; kurms, kurvnti ; kurv, ku
rut;
kurvte;
sB.karvas,
karvt;
1Pv.
knr,kartu;
. k u r v t m . PT. k u r v n t ; k u r y . 1PF. k a r o s ,
k a r o t ; k u r v a n ; . k u r u t h s , k u r u t a ; k u r v a t a .
I I . : PR. k r i ; k t h s ; k t h ; A . k .
PP. c a k r a , c a k r t h a , eak r a; e a k r t h u r , c a k r t u r ;
eakm, c a k r , c a k r r ; . e a k r , eak, c a k r ; ca
kr t he, eakr t e ; c a k r i r ; oP. cakriy s ; PT. cakv s ;
e a k r . PPF. c a k r a m , e a k r a t ; c a k r i r a n . A o . root:
karam, kar, kar ; krtam, kartm ; karma,
k a r t a , k r a n ; . k r i , k t h s , k t a ; k r a t a ; 1NJ.
k r a m , k r ; sB. k r i , k r a s i and k r a s , k r a t i and
k r a t ; k r a t h a s , k r a t a s ; k r m a , k r a n t i and k r a n ;
. k r a s e , k r a t e ; k r m a h e ; oP. kriy m a ; PRc.
k r i y s m a ; iPv. k d h ; k t m and k r t a m ; k t and
k r t a n a ; . k v ; k d h v m ; PT. k r n t ; k r .
A o . a : k a r a s , k a r a t ; 1Pv. k a r a ; karatam, k a r a t m ;
s^ k r t (B.) ; . k i (B.), FT. k a r i y t i ; te (B.) ;
376
APPENDIX
sB. kariys. co. kariyat (B.). Ps. kriyte ; PT. kri

yma ; AO. kri ; PP. kt. GDv. krtva. GD.
ktv , ktv , ktv y a. 1NF. k r t a v e , k r t a v i ; krtos ;
krtum.
cs. k r y a t i , k r y a t e (B.). ns. eikrati.
1NT. PT. k r i k r a t and e r i k r a t .
2. k commemorate : Ao. s : krarn ; is : k r i a m , k r t .
1NT. e r k a r m i ; sB. c r k i r a n ; Ao. erke (3. s.); GDv.
cark t ya.
k t cut, V I . P . : PR. k n t t i ; 1NJ. k n t t ; 1Pv. k n t ;
PT. k n t n t . i P F . kntat. P F . c a k r t i t h a , eakrta.,
Ac. a : ktas ; PT. k t n t ; red. : cktas (B.), FT.
kartsy m i. Ps. k t y t e ; PP. k t t . GD. k t ya.
k p lament, I. . : PR. k p ate ; PT. k p ama. I P F . kp
anta. PF. cakpe (K.). PPF. cakpnta. Ao. root : kp
ran ; i : krapia. cs. PT. kpyant ; 1PF. kpayat.
k be lean, I V . P . : PR. k yati (B.). P P . c a k r a . P P .
k i t (B.). es. k a r y a t i .
k plough, I. : PR. k r a t i ; te (B.) ; 1NJ. k r a t ; 1Pv.
kra. VI. : PR. kti ; 1Pv. ktu ; kntu ; . k
sva; PT. knt. PP. eakra (B.). Ao. red. : clâm ;
sa : k k a t (B.). FT. k r a k y (B.). Ps: k y t e ; PP.
k.
GD. kv (B.),
INT. 3. pl. e r k a t i ; B.
c r k a t ; PT. c r k a t ; 1PF. c a r k u r .
k scatter, V I . P . : PR. k i r t i , te ; s B . kir s i ; 1Pv. k i r ,
k i r t u . i P F . k i r a t . Ao. i : sB. kriat. Ps. k r y t e
(B.); P P . k r (B.),
k p be adapted, I.: PR. k I p a t e ; 1Pv. k l p a s v a ; PT. k l p
amna.
1PF. k a l p a t a , k a I p a n t a .
PP. c k p r ;
c k p r . Ao. red. : ekpat ; sB. c k p t I . FT. kalp
s y t e (B.). PP. k l p t . es. k a l p y a t i ; sn. k a l p y t i ;
kalpyvahai ; iPv. kalpya, kalpyatu ; kalpyasva ;
PT. k a l p y a n t ; IPF. k a l p a y a t . Ds. ckalpayiati (B.) ;
GD. kalpayitv .
k r a n d ery out, I. P . : PR. k r n d a t i ; I N J . k r n d a t ; 1Pv.
k r n d a , k r n d a t u ; PT. k r n d a n t .
I P F . krandas,
krndat.
PP. c a k r a d . P P F . cakradas, cakradat.
377
Ao. a : INJ. kradas ; red. : eikradas, eikradat ; ci

kradan; INJ. cikradas; s : krn (2. 3. s.), cs. krand
yati. INT. knikranti (3. s. = knikrantti) ; PT.
knikradat.
k r a m stride, I. P . : PR. kr m ati ; oP. kr m ema ; 1Pv. kr m a ;
PT. kr m ant ; i p F . k r m a t ; . : k r m a t e ; sn. k r m
m a ; i p v . krmasva.
P F . cakr m a, c a k r a m r ; ca
k r a m ; cakram t he ; PT. e a k r a m . PPF. c k r a m
anta ; A o . r o o t : k r a n ; k r a m u r ; 1NJ. k r a m u r ; a :
k r a m a t , k r a m a n ; s : . k r a s t a ; k r a s a t a ; sB.
krsate ; i : k r a m i a m a n d k r a m m , k r a m s ,
k r a m t ; kramia (3. s.) ; INJ. k r a m s ; 1Pv. k r a m i m .
FT. k r a s y t e ; k r a m i y t i , te (B.) ; PP. k r n t . G D .
k r n t v (B.), k r m y a . INF. k r m e ; k r m i t u m (B.) ;
k r m i t o s (B.). cs. k r m y a t i (B.). 1NT. I P v . cakra
mata (2. pl.) ; c a k r a m y t e (B.),
k r buy, I X . : PR. kr t i ; k r t ; sB. kr v ahai.
i P F . k r a n . PT. kreyti, te (B.). Ps. k r y t e (B.) ;
PP. k r t . GD. krtv , kr y a (B.).
k r u d h be angry, I v P . : PR. k r d h y a t i . PF. c u k r d h a (B.).
A o . r e d . : c u k r u d h a t ; sB. c u k r u d h m a ; 1NJ. c u k r u d h
am ; a : 1NJ. krudhas. PP. k r u d d h . es. k r o d h y a t i .
k r u ey out, I. : P R. k r a t i ; IPv. k r a t u ; PT. k r a n t ;
k r a m n a . Ao. sa : k r u k a t . PP. k r u (B.).
kad div ide, I. . : P R . k d m a h e . P P . cakad ; P T .
cakadn. 1NF. k d a s e .
kam endure, I. . : o p . k m e t a ; i p v . k m a d h v a m .
PT. k m a m a .
P F . cakam (B.) ; o p . cakamths.
kar flow, L P . : PR. k r a t i ; 1NJ. k r a t ; 1pv. k r a ;
k r a n t u ; PT. k r a n t . 1PF. karat ; karan. A o . s :
kr. pp. karit (B.). INF. kradhyai. cs. kr
yati (B.),
1. k i possess, I I . P . : PR. k i , k t i ; k i t s ; k i y n t i ;
sB. k y a s , k y a t ; k y m a ; PT. k i y n t . I. P . : PR.
k y a t i ; o p . k y e m a (Av.) ; P T . k y a n t . I v P . :
378
APPENDIX
PR. k y a t i ; op. k y e m a ; ipv. k y a . Ao. s: sB. kat.

FT. PT. keynt. Cs. IPv. k a y y a ; INJ. k e p y a t .
2. k i destroy, I X . : PR. ki t i ; k i n t i ; iNJ. ki m .
1PF. k i s . V . : PR. k i m i . I V . . : PR. k y ate ;
kyante.
Ao. s: iNJ. kea ( A v ) .
Ps. k y t e ;
PT. k y m a ; PP. k i t ; k ( A v ) , GD. k y a(B.).
1NF. ketos (B.), Ds. ekati (B.).
k i p throw, v l . P . : PR. k i p t i ; iNJ. k i p t ; 1Pv. k i p ;
PT. k i p n t . ô. red. : 1NJ. eikipas ; cikipan. PP.
k i p t . 1NF. keptos (B.).
k u whet, I I . : PR. ku.mi ; PT. k u v n . PP. k u t
(B.), GD. k u t y a (B.).
khan, k h dig, I. : PR. k h n a t i ; sB. k h n m a ; oP. k h n
ema; PT. k h n a n t . iPF. k h a n a t ; k h a n a n t a . PP.
c a k h n a ; c a k h n r . PP. PT. k h a n i y n t . Ps. k h y t e
(B.) ; PP. k h t . GD. khtv (B.) ; khtv (TS.), k h y a
(B.). 1NF. k h n i t u m .
k h d chew, I. P . : PR. kh d ati ; 1Pv. kh d a ; PT. kh d ant.
PF. cakh d a. PP. k h d i t (B.). GD. k h d i t v (B.).
k h i d tear, v l . : PR. k h i d t i ; 1NJ. k h i d t ; oP. k h i d t .
1Pv. k h i d ; k h i d n t . iPF. k h i d a t . PF: PT. khidv s.
GD. khidya (B.).
k h y sec: PP. c a k h y t h u r . Ao. a: k h y a t ; 1NJ.. k h y t ;
1Pv. k h y t a m ; k h y t a .
FT. k h y s y t i (B.).
Ps.
k h y a y t e (B.) ; PP. k h y t . Gnv. khyeya. GD. khy y a.
1NF. khy t um (B.) ; k h y i . cs. k h y p y a t i , te (B.).
gam go, I. : PR. gchati, te ; sB. g c h s i and g c h s ,
g c h t i and g c h t ; g c h t h a , g c h n ; . g c h a i ;
oP. g c h e t ; g c h e m a ; 1Pv. gcha and g c h a t t , g c h a t u
and g c h a t t ; g c h a t a m , g c h a t m ; g c h a t a , g
chantu ; A . g c h a s v a ( A v ) , g c h a t m ; g c h a d v a m ;
PT. g c h a n t ; g c h a m n a . 1PF. g a c h a t ; g a c h n t a .
PF. j a g m a , j a g n t h a , jag m a ; j a g m t h u r , j a g m t r ;
j a g a n m , j a g m r ; j a g m ; oP. jagamy m , j a g a m y t ;
jagamy t am, j a g a m y r ; PT. jaganv s, jagmiv s;
j a g m n . Per. PP. gamaya c a k r a (AV.). ppF. jagan
LIST OF v E R B S
379
(2. s.) ; jaganta ; A . jagmiran. Ao. root : g a m a m , g a n

(2. 3. s.) ; g a n m a , g m a n ; g a t h s , g a t a ; g n v a h i ;
g a n m a h i , g m a t a ; sB. g m n i , g m a s , g m a t ;
g m a t h a s , g m a t a s ; g m m a , g m a n t i ; 1NJ. g n ;
op. gamy s ; gmya (B.) ; pRc. 3. s. gamy s ; 1Pv.
g a d h and gah, g n t u ; g a t m and g a n t m , gantam;
gat, g n t a a n d g n t a n a , g m a n t u ; PT. g m n t ;
a : gamat, gaman ; sn. gamtas ; gamtha ; INJ. gm
an;
gamyam,
gams,
gamt
;
gamma;
gammahi;
red. : jgamam, j g a m a t ; s : g a s m a h i ; i : gamiam;
gmiya (vS.). FT. gamiyti (Av.); gant (B.). ps.
g a m y t e ; Ao. g m i ; PP. g a t . GD. gatv , gatv y a,
gatv , gtya. i N F . g n t a v e , g n t a v i , g m a d h y a i ,
g a m d h y e (TS.); gntos, g m a s . cs. g a m y a t i and
g m y a t i . DS. j i g s a t i ; jgamiati, te (B.). 1NT.
g n g a n t i ; PT. g n i g m a t .
1. ggo, I l l . P . : PR. jgsi, j g t i ; 1NJ. j g t ; 1Pv. j g t a m ;
j g t a ; PT. j g a t . 1PF. jigt. PP. oP. j a g y t . Ao. root:
g m , gs, g t ; g t a m , g a t m ; gma, g a t a ,
g u r ; sB. gni, g s , gt ; g m a ; i N J . gm ; g m a, g r ;
IPv. g t and g t n a ; s: i N J . gesam(vS.) ; g e m a ( A v ) .
Ds. j g sa (SV). 1NF. g t ave.
2. g sing, I V . : PR. g y asi, g y ati ; g y anti ; . g y e ;
1NJ. g y at; 1Pv. g y a; g y ata, g y a n t u ; PT. g y ant.
1PF. g a y a t . PP. jagn (B.). Ao. s: 1NJ. gsi (1. s.);
s i : g s i u r ; sn. g s iat. FT. g s y t i (B.), Ps. PT.
g y m n a ; PP. gt. GD. gtv (B.); gya (B.) and
gya (B.). 1NF. g t um (B.). cs. g p y a t i , te (B.).
Ds. jigsati (B.).
g h plunge, I . . : PR. g h ase, g h ate; oP. g h e m a h i ;
1Pv. g h e t h m ; PT. g h amna. 1PF. g h a t h s . INT.
jgahe.
gur greet, V I . : PR. 1Pv. g u r s v a . PF. sB. j u g u r a t ; OP.
jugury s , jugury t . AO. root : g r t a (3. s. A.). PP. g u r t .
GD. gurya.
guh hide, I . : PR. g h ati, te; 1NJ. guhas; g u h a t h s ;
380
APPENDIX I
1pv. ghata; PT. gnant; ghamna. 1PF. ghat.

AO. a: guhs; 1NJ. guhs; PT. guhnt; guhmna;
sa : ghukat. Ps. guhyte ; PT. guhymna; PP. gh;
GDv. ghya, -gohya. GD. ghv. Ds. jgukatI.
1. g sing, IX. : PR. gmi, gti ; gts ; gmsi,
gnti ; . g, g, gt (and g), gmhe ;
1NJ. gt (3. s. .) ; 1Pv. ghi, gtu ; gtm,
gtm; gt, gntu; PT. gnt; gn. GD.
-grya (B.). 1NF. gi.
2. ^ wake : AO. red. : 2. 3. jgar ; 1Pv. jigtm ; jigt.
1NT. jgarti; jgrati; sB. jgarsi (AV.), jgarat; op.
jgriyma(VS.), jgyma(TS.); 1Pv. jgh and jgtt;
jgtm, jgtm ; PT. jgrat. 1PF. jgar. PP. 1. s. jgra. 3. jgra. PT. jgvs ; FT. jgariyti, -te
(B.); PP. jgarit (B.), cs. jgaryati (B.),
gdh be greedy, IV. P . : PR. PT. gdhyant. PP. jgdhr.
Ao. a : gdhat ; 1NJ. gdhs ; gdht.
g swallow, VI. P . : PR. girti. PF. jagra. A o . root :
sB. grat, gran; red.: jgar (2. s.); i s : 1NJ. gr1t.
FT. gariyti (B.). PP. gr. GD. -grya (AV.). 1NT.
sB. jlgulas ; PT. jargur.
grabh seize, IX.: PR. gbhmi, gbhti; gbhnti;
gbh; gbhte; sB. gbhs ; INJ. gbht (3. s.);
1Pv. gbhhI. 1PF. gbhs, gbht; gbhan;
gbhata (3. pl. .). PF. jagrbha (1. s.) ; jagbhthur ;
jagbhm, jagbhr ; . jagbhr and jagbhrir ; op.
jagbhyt; pT. jagbhvs; PPF. jagrabham, jagrabht. Ao. root : grabham ; gbhran ; PT. gbh ;
a: gbham; red.: jigrabat; i : grabhm (TS.),
grabht; grabhma, grabhur; gbhata (3. pl. .).
INJ. grahha (2. pl.). pp. gbht. GD. gbhtv,
-gbhya. 1NF. -grabh, -gbh. es. PT. gbhyant.
gras devour, I. . : PR. grsate ; oP. grsetm. PF. op.
jagrast ; PT. jagrasn. pp. grasit.
grah seize, IX. : ghmi, ghti ; ghnti ; gh ;
ghmhe, ghte ; op. ghyt ; ipv. ghhi (AV.),
LIST OF V E R B S
381
ght t and g h ; gh t u ; g h t m ; g h n t u ;
PT. g h n t ; g h n .
iPF. g h t , g h a n . PF.
j a g r h a , j a g r h a ; jaghm, j a g h r ; jagh. Ao. a :
1NJ . g h m a h i ; i : g r a h t ; g r a h a . FT. g r a h y t i
(B.); co. grahyat (B.), grahaiyat (B.). ps. g h y t e ;
PP. ght. GD. ghtv , g h ya. 1NF. g r h t a v i (B.).
g r h t o s (B.).
Cs. g r h y a t i (B.). Ds. j g h k a t i ,
te (B.),
ghas eat: PF. j a g h s a , jagh s a; oP. jaky t ; PT. jaki
v s ( A v ) . Ao. root : ghas (2. 3. s.), g h a t (3. s., B.) ;
g h a s t m (3. du., B.) ; g h a s t a (2. pl., B.), k a n ;
sB.ghsas, ghsat ; iPv. g h s t m (3. du.); s : g h s (2. s.) ;
red. : jgbasat. PP. gdha (TS.). Ds. jighatsati.
ghu sound, I. : PR. ghati, ghate ; sB. g h t ; ghn ;
PT. ghant. PP. j u g h a (B.). Ps. Ao. g h i . GD.
g h y a . cs. ghoyati.
cak see, I I . : PR. eke (= eke), c e ; c k t h e ;
ckate; P . e k (= cki) ; iPF. cakur. I. . : PR.
ckate (3. s.) ; 1PF. ckata (3. s.). PP. c a c k a ; ca
eak (B.), PPF. cacakam. GDv. e k y a . GD. ckya.
1NF. cke, ckase ; c k i . es. cakyati.
car move, I. P . : PR. c r a t i ; sB. c r i ; crva, c r a t a s ;
c r n ; c r t a i (Av.) ; 1NJ. c r a t ; oP. cret ; 1Pv. c r a ,
c r a t u ; c r a t a , c r a n t u ; PT. c r a n t .
1PF. c a r a t .
PP. cac r a ; c e r i m , e e r r . Ao. red. : c c a r a t ; s : cr
am (B.) ; i : c r i a m ; 1NJ. c r t.
FT. cariy m i.
Ps. c a r y t e (B.) ; PP. e a r i t ; GDv. c a r y a . GD. caritV
(B.) ; c r y a (B.). iNF. carse, c r i t a v e , c a r d h y a i ;
c r i t a v i (B.) ; c r i t u m (B.) ; c r i t o s (B.), cs. c r y a t i ,
te (B.). Ds. cicarati (B.), cieariati (B.), 1NT. c r c a r t i ;
PT. c a r c r y m a .
c y note, L : PR. c y ati (B.) ; PT. c y amna. PER. PF. c y
c a k r u r (B.). Ao. i : cyiam.
Ps. c y y t e . GD.
c y i t v ; c y ya.
1. c i gather, v.: PR. e i n t i ; c i n v n t i ; c i n u t ; sB. c i n v
at; oP. c i n u y m a ; 1Pv. c i n u h , c i n t u ; c i n v n t u ;
382
APPENDIX
cinuv ; PT. e i n v n t ; e i n v n . I. : PR. cyase, c y a t e ;

c y a d h v e ; 1NJ. c y a t ; oP. eyema. PP. eikya ; c i k y ;
eikyir.
Ao. root : cet ; 1Pv. c i t n a , c i y n t u ; s :
caiam (B.) ; i : cyiam.
FT. eeyti, te (B.).
Ps. o i y t e ( B . ) ; PP. eit. GD. citv ( B.). 1NF. c t u m (B.) ;
c t a v i (B.), Ds. ckate (B.).
2. c note, III. : PR. c i k i (AV.) ; 1Pv. c i k h (AV.), ciketu
(TS.) ; . (3. s.) c i k i t m (AV.) ; PT. cikyat. 1PF. c i k e t ;
e i k a y u r (B.). PP. cik y a ; c i k y t u r ; c i k y r ; . 2.
du. e i k t h e (for ciky t he).
AO. root : cet ; . ci
dhvam. PP. cit. Ds. ckate.
cit perceive, I. : PR. c t a t i ; c t a t h a s ; c t a t h a ; A . c t a t e ;
c t a n t e ; 1NJ. c t a t ; i P v . c t a t m ; PT. c t a n t ; 1PF.
cetat.
II. . : PR. eit (3. s.). PP. cikta ; c i k i t r ;
. c i k i t ; c i k i t r and e i k i t r i r ; sn. cikitas, ciketati
and e k e t a t ; e k e t a t h a s ; i P v . c i k i d d h ; PT. cikitv s ;
e i k i t a n ; PPF. c i k e t a m ; c i k e t a t .
AO. root: c e t ;
PT. c t n a ; Ps. : ceti ; s : cait. 1NF. c i t y e . es. c e t y a t i ,
te and c i t y a t i , te ; sB. c e t y n i , e e t y t a i (TS.) ; oP.
e i t y e m a . Ds. 1NJ. ckitsat. INT. c k i t e (3. s. ) ; sB. c
k i t a t ; PT. c k i t a t .
cud impel, I. : PR. c d m i ; c d a t e ; 1NJ. c d a t ; 1Pv. cda,
cdata; cdasva, cdethm. es. sn. codysi, cod
yt ; codyse, codyte ; PP. codit.
c y u move, I. : PR. c y v a t e ; 1NJ. c y v a m ; e y v a n t a ; 1Pv.
cyvasva ; cyvethm ; eyvadhvam.
PP. ^ cicyu,
cucyuv (3. s. ) ; 1NJ.cucyavat ; oP. cucyuv1nhi, cucyav
rta. PPF. cueyavat, cucyavt ; cucyavtana, cu
cyavur. Ao. s : cyohs. FT. cyoyate (B.). PP. cyut.
es. c y a v y a t i , te.
chad or chand seem, I L : PR. c h n t s i . PP. c a c h n d a ;
or. cachady t . Ao. s: c h n ; e h n t a ( = c h n t s t a ) ,
c h n t s u r ; sB. c h n t s a t . es. c h a d y a t i ; c h a n d y a s e ;
1NJ. c h a d y a t ; sB. c h a d y t h a ; c h a n d y t e ; 1rF.
chadayan.
ehid eut off, V I I . : PR. c h i n d m i , e h i n t t i ; ipv. c h i n d h
383
( = e h i n d d h ) , c h i n t t u ; c h i n t m ( = c h i n t t m ) . PP. c i
c h d a ; cichid (B.). Ao. root: chedma; a : c h i d a t ;
e h i d a n ; s : c h a i t s t (B.) ; 1NJ. chitth s . FT. c h e t s y t i ,
te (B.). Ps. c h i d y t e ; PT. e h i d y m n a ; Ao. c h e d i ;
PP. c h i n n . GD. chidya; chittv (B.). 1NF. c h t t a v i
(B.) ; c h t t u m ^(B.). Ds. cchitsati, te (B.).
jan generate, L : PR. j n a t i ; sn. j n a t ; 1NJ. j n a t ; 1Pv.
j n a t u ; PT. j n a n t ; j n a m n a . 1PF. j a n a t ; j n a t a
(3. s.); jananta.
PF. jaj n a; j a j t u r ; j a j r and
j a j a n r ; . jaji, jaj ; jajir ; PT. j a j a n . AO.
root : jani (1. s.) ; red. : jjanat, jjanan ; 1NJ. j j a n a m ;
jijananta ; is : j n i m (3. du.) ; . janihs, jania ;
op. janiy, jani. FT. janiyti, te ; janit (B.) ;
co. janiyata (B.). Ps. : Ao. jani ; j n i , j n i. GDv.
j n t v a and j n i t v a . GD. janitv . 1NF. j n i t o s . cs. jan
y a t i , te ; sB. j a n y s ; OP. j a n y e s ; 1Pv. j a n y a ,
j a n y a t u ; j a n y a t a m ; j a n y a t a . ns. jijaniate (B.).
jambh chew : Ao. red. : jjabham ; i : sB. j m b h i a t .
PP. j a b d h . es. : 1Pv. j a m b h y a ; j a m b h y a t a m ; PT.
j a m b h y a n t . 1NT. j a j a b h y t e (B.) ; PT. j j a b h n a .
jas be exhausted, I. : PR. PT. j s a m n a ; I V . : 1Pv. j s y a t a .
PP. jaj s a; 1Pv. jajastm. Ao. red. : j1jasata (3. s., B.).
es. j s y a t i (B.),
j be born, I V . . : PR. j y a t e ; 1NJ. j y a t a ; oP. j y e m a h i ;
1Pv. j y asva, j y a t m ; j y a d h v a m ;
PT. j y amana.
1PF. j a y a t h s , jyata ; jyanta. PP. j t .
1. j i conquer, I. : j y a t i , te ; sB. j y s i , j y s , j y t i ;
j y v a , j y a t h a ; . j y t a i ( A V . ) ; 1NJ. j y a t ; oP.
j y e m a ; 1Pv. j y a t u ; A . j y a n t m ; PT. j y a n t . 1PF.
jayat. I I . P . : PR. j i . PP. j i g t h a , jig y a ; j i g y t h u r ;
j i g y r ; A . j i g y ; PP. jigv s ; jigiv s (B.) ; Ao. root :
1NJ. j s ; 1Pv. j i t m ; s: jaiam, 3. jais ( = j a i s t ) ;
jaima; sn. jas, j a t ; j m a ; 1NJ. jam (VS.),
j s ; jma, jiur (AV.).
FT. j e y t i ; PT. j e y n t .
PP. j i t ; GDv. j t v a . GD. j i t v (B.) ; jtya. 1NF. j i ;
j t a v e (B.); j t u m (B.). cs. j p y a t i (B.); jjapata
384
APPENDIX I
(VS.) and jjipata (TS.). Ds. jigati, te; pT. jg

ama.
2. j quicken, V . : PR. j i n i ; j i n v . 1PF. jinot (B.).
jinv quieken (=v jinu+a), I. : PR. jinvasi, jnvati; jnva
tas ; jnvatha, jnvanti ; . jinvate ; iPv. jnva, jnv
atu; jnvatam ; jnvata ; PT.jnvant. IPF. jinvat; jinv
atam. PP. jijinvthur. FT. jinviyti (B.). PP. jinvit.
jv live, I. P. : PR. j v ati ; sB. j v ni, j v s, j v t i and j v t ;
j v tha, j v n ; oP. j v ema ; 1Pv. jva, j v atu ; j v atm ;
j v ata, j v a n t u ; PT. j v ant. P P . jij v a (B.). Ao. root:
PRC. jvy s am; i : iNJ. j v t. FT. j v i y t i (B.). Ps.
j i v y t e (B.) ; PP. jvit.
Guv. jvan y a.
Gn. jvitv
(B.), 1NF. j v s e ; j v itavi, jv t ave (Ts. vs.); j v iturn
(B.). es. j v y a t i . Ds. jjviati (B.) ; jjy ati (B.) ;
rP. j i j y i t (B.).
j u enjoy, VI. : PR. j u t e ; oP. j u t a ; j u r a t a ; PT.
j u m a ; 1PF. juat ; juata. P P . juja ; juju ;
sB. jjoati, jjoat; jjoatha, j j o a n ; . jjoate;
1Pv. jujuana ; PT. jujuv s ; juju. PPF. jujoam.
AO. root : juran ; sB. jati, jat ; . jase ; PT.
j u ; i : sB. jiat. P P . j u gladdened and j a
welcome. GD. juv. es. j o y a t e ; sB. joyse.
j speed, IX. P. : PR. j u n t i ; j u n n t i ; sn.jun s . I. . : PR.
j v a t e . PF. j u j u v r ; sB. jujuvat ( = j j a v a t ) ; PT. j
juvas ; j j u v n . PP. j t . INF. javse.
j r v consume, I. P. : PR. j u r v a t i ; sB. j r vs ; 1Pv. j u r v a ;
PT. j r vanI. Ao. is : j r vt.
j sing, I. . : PR. j r a t e ; sB. j r t e ; oP. j r e t a ; 1Pv.
j r a s v a , j r a t m ; PT. j r a m a . iNF. j a r d h y a i .
j , j u r waste away, I. P. : PR. j r a t i ;^ 1Pv. j r a t a m ; PT.
j r a n t . v l . P. : PT. j u r n t . Iv. P. : PR. j r yati, j u r y a t i ;
PT. j r yant ; 1PF. j r y a n . PP. jaj r a ; PT. jujurv s.
AO. is : j r i u r .
PP. j r , j r .
es. j a r y a t i , te ;
PT. j a r y a n t and j a r y a n t .
j know, IX. : PR. jn t i ; j n m s , j n t h , j n n t i ;
j n t ; j n t e ; sB^ jn m a ; jn m ahai ; oP. j n t h a s ;
LIST OF vERBS
385
1Pv. j n h , jnt t , jn t u; j n t , j n n t u ; j n d h v m ,
j a n t m ; PT. j n n t ; j n n . 1PP. jnm, j n t ;
j n a n ; . 3. pl. jnata.
PF. j a j u ; j a j ; PT.
jajiv s and jniv s. Ao. r o o t : oP. jey s (Gk.
.yuo^); s: jsam (B.); jsths ; 1NJ. j e a m ;
sis : jsiam.
FT. j s y t i , te (B.) ; j t (B.).
Ps. j y t e ; Ao. j y i ; PP. j t ; GDv. j e y a (B.).
GD. jtv (B.), j y a (B.). 1NF. j t um (B.), j t os (B.),
cs. j a p y a t i ; Ao. jijipat (TS.); Ps. j a p y t e (B.) ;
PP. j a p t (B.) ; j p y a t i (B.). Ds. j j s a t e .
j y overpower, I X . : PR. jin t i; oP. jiny t ; PT. j i n n t .
I v . . : PR. j y ate. PP. j i j y u (B.). Ao. si : jysiam
(B.). FT. j y s y t i , te (B.). Ps. j y t e ; PP. j t . Ds.
jjysati.
j v a l flame, I. P . : PR. j v I a t i (B.). PP. jajv I a (B.). Ao.
jvlt (B.). PT. jvaIiyti (B.). PP. jvaIit (B.). es.
j v a I y a t i (B.).
tas shake : PP. t a t a s r . PPF. tatasatam. Ao. a : t a s a t .
cs. t a s y a t i , te ; INF. t a s a y d h y a i . 1NT. sB. tantas
i t e ; GDv. tantas y ya.
tak fashion, I. P . : PR. t k a t i ; sB. t k m a ; INJ. tkat ;
IPv. t k a t a m ; tkata, t k a n t u ; PT. tkant. iPP.
takat. II. P . : PR. t i ( B . ) , t k a t i (3. pl.) ; IPv. t a l h .
iPF. t a k m a , taa. v. P . : PR. takuvanti (B.). PP.
t a t k a (takthur, t a k r ) ; tatak. Ao. i : t a k i u r .
PP. ta.
tan stretch, v I I L : PR. t a n t i ; t a n m s i , t a n v n t i ; t a n u t ;
sB. t a n v a v a h a i ; iNJ. t a n u t h s ; iPv. t a n , t a n u h ,
t a n t u ; . tanuv; t a n u d h v m ; P T . t a n v n t ; t a n v n .
1PF. t a n u t a ; t a n v a t a .
PP. t a t n t h a , t a t n a and
tt n a; . 1. t a t a n , 3. t a t n and t a t ( t ) ; t a t n i r
and t e n i r ; sB. t a t n a t ; t a t n m a , t a t n a n ; iNJ. tatn
anta ; oP. t a t a n y r ; PT. tatanvas. Ao. root : t a n ;
. 2. t a t h s , 3. t a t a ; t n a t a (3. pl.) ; a : t a n a t ;
INJ. tanat; s: t n and t s t ; t a s i (B.); tas
mahi (B.) ; i : t n t . FT. t a s y t e (B.). Ps. t y t e ;
386
APPENDIX I
AG. t y i (B.). PP. t a t . on. tatv (B.), tatv y a (vS.),

t t y a (B.). 1NF. t n t u m (B.).
tap heat, I. : PR. t p a t i , te ; sB. t p t i ; 1NJ. t p a t ; 1Pv.
t p a t u ; PT. t p a n t . 1PF. t a p a t . I v P . : PR. t p y a t i (B.).
PF. 1. t a t p a . 3. tat p a; t e p ; sB. t a t p a t e ; PT. t e p n .
AO. root : PT. t a p n ; red. : t t i p e (3. s.) ; sB. t t i p s i ;
s : t p s t ; t a p t h s ; INJ. t p s t ; t p t a m . FT. t a p s y t i
(B.). Ps. t a p y t e ; AO. t p i ; PP. t a p t . GD. taptv (B.),
t p y a . INF. t p t o s (B.). cs. t p y a t i , te ( A v ) ; Ps.
t p y t e (B.).
tam faints Iv. P . : PR. t m yati (B.). PP. tat m a (B.). AO. a :
1NJ. tamt. PP. tnt (B.). 1NF. tmitos (B.). tam
yati (B.).
tij be sharp, I. . : PR. tjate ; PT. t j a m n a . PF. 1Pv. titig
d b (B.). PP. t i k t . Ds. ttikate. 1NT. t t i k t e .
t u be strong, II. P . : PR. t v t i . PP. tt v a. PPF. tutos,
t t o t . INT. PT. tVltVat (= t v t u a t ) .
tuj urge, v i l . : PR. t u j n t i ; t u j t e (3. pl.) ; PT. t u j n .
v L : PR. t u j t e ; PT. t u j n t . PP. op. t u t u j y t ; PT. t
t u j n and t u t u j n a . ps. t u j y t e . 1NF. tujse, tujye,
tje. cs. PT. t u j y a n t .
t u d thrust, vL : PR. t u d t i ; 1pv. t u d ; t u d n t u ; PT.
t u d n t . 1PF. t u d t . PF. t u t d a . pp. t u n n .
t u r ^ ( = t) pass. v I . : PR. t u r t i , te; I v P . : 1Pv. t u r y a ;
IL P . : op. tury m a. PF. OP. t u t u r y t ; tutur.^ m a. pp.
t r t (B.). GD. t r y a . 1NF. t u r v e .
cs. t u r y a t e .
Ds. t t r a t i .
t d split, v l l . : PR. t d m i , t t t i ; tntte (B.) ; 1PF. t a t ;
tndan. PF. t a t r d i t h a , t a t r d a ; PT. t a t d n . AO.
root : sB. tardas. pp. t (VS.), GD. t d ya. 1NF. t d as.
tp be pleased, V. P . : PR. t p t i ; sB. t p v a s ; 1pv. t p u h ;
t p u t m ; t p u t ; VI. P. : PR. t m p t i ; 1pv. t m p ;
IV. : PR. t p yati. PF. t t p r ; PT. t t p . AG. root :
PRC. tpy s ma ; a : tpat ; PT. t p n t ; red. : ttpas ;
t t p m a . Co. t a r p s y a t (B.). pp. t p t . cs. t a r p y a t i ,
te ; Ds. t t a r p a y i a t i . Ds. t i t p s a t i ; B. t t p s t .
LIST OF vERBS
387
t be thirsty, IV. : PR. tyati, te ; PT. tyant. PP. tat

r ; PT. tt and tat. Ao. root : PT. t ;
a : t t ; r e d . : t t m a ; 1NJ. ttas. pp. tit. cs.
t a r y a t i (B.).
t h crush, v l L P . : PR. t h i ; t h n t i ; 1Pv. t h u ;
sB. t h n ( A v ) ; PT. t h n t . PF. t a t r h a . AG. a :
t h a m . Ps. t h y t e ; PP. th, t h . GD. thv .
t cross, I. : PR. t r a t i , te; SB. t r t h a s ; 1NJ. t r a t ; OP.
t r e t ; 1Pv. t r a ; PT. t r a n t . 1PF. t a r a t . VI. : PR. t i r t i ,
te; sn. tir t i ; 1NJ. t i r n t a ; OP. t i r t a , tana (2. pl.); 1Pv.
t i r ; tirta^ t i r n t u ; t i r d h v a m ; PT. t i r n t . i P P . t i r a t .
III. : PT. t t r a t . v l H . . : tarute. PP. tat r a ; t i t i r r ;
PT. tatarus (weak stem) and titirv s.
AO. red. : t
taras ; is : t r t ; t r i m a and t r i m a , t r i u r ; sB.
t r ias, t r iat ; 1NJ. t r s, t r t ; 0P. t r i m a h i . Ps. Ao.
t r i ; PP. t r . GD. trtv . 1NF. tiram, tire ; t a r
d h y a i ; t a r i . Cs. t r y a t I . Ds. t t r a t i (B.), 1NT.
t r t a r t i ; t a r t r y n t e ; PT. t r i t r a t .
tyaj forsake : PP. tity j a ; 1Pv. t i t y a g d h . PP. t y a k t (B).
GD. tyjya (B.).
tras be terrified, I. P . : PR. trsat1. Ao. red. : t i t r a s a n ;
is : tr s s (B.). PP. t r a s t (B.). INF. trasas. Cs. t r a s
yati. 1NT. t t r a s y t e (B.).
t r rescue, Iv. . : PR. tr y ase ; tr y adhve, tr y ante ;
1Pv. tr y asva, tr y atm ; tr y ethm, tr y etm ; tr y a
dhvam, t r y a n t m ; PT. tr y ama.
I I . . : 1Pv.
trasva ; tr d hvam.
PP. t a t r . Ao. s. : t r s m a h i (B.).
sn. trasate ; tr s the ; oP. tr s thm. FT. t r s y t e (B.).
PP. t r t (B.). 1NF. tr m ae.
es. G D V . traya
y y ya.
t v i be stirred, IL P . : i P F . tviur. VI. . : tvianta.
PF. t i t v i ; PT. t i t v i . P P F . titvianta. PP. t v i i t .
1NF. tVi.
tsar approach stealthily, L P . : PR. t s r a t i . P F . tats r a.
AG. s. . t s r ; - is : ts^riam (B.). GD. t s r y a (B.).
da, d a bite, L P.:^ PR. d a t i ; 1pv. d a ; pr. d a n t . PF.
388
APPENDIX
PT. dadav s. pp. da. GD. dav (B.). 1NT. PT.

dndana.
dak be able, I. : PR. dkati, te ; 1pv dkata ; PT. dk
ama. PF. dadak (B.). Ao. red. : dadakat (B.),
FT. dakiyte (B.), Guv. dak y ya. es. dakyati (B.).
dagh reach to, V . : PR. op. daghnuy t (B.). Ao. root : 1NJ.
dhak (2. 3. s.) ; daghma; PRC. daghy s (3. s.); 1Pv.
d h a k t m . FT. daghiynte (B.). 1NF. dghas (B.),
dghos (B.).
dab, dambh harm, I. P . : PR. d b h a t i ; sn. d b h t i ; 1NJ.
d b h a t . V . P . : PR. d a b h n u v n t i ; 1Pv. dabhuhi. PP.
dad b ha, d a d m b h a ; d e b h r ; 1NJ. dadabhanta.
Ao. root : d a b h r ; 1NJ. d a b h r .
Ps. d a b h y t e ; PP.
d a b d h . GDV. d b h y a . 1NF. d b h e ; . d b d h u m (B.).
cs. d a m b h y a t i . Ds. d i p s a t i ; sn. d p s t ; PT. d p s a n t ;
PR. dh p sati (B.).
das, das lay waste, I V . P . : PR. d s y a t i ; oP. d s y e t . L P . :
PR. d s ati ; sB. d s t ; 1NJ. d s at ; PT. d s ant. PP. PT.
dadasv s.
Ao. a : 1NJ. dasat ; PT. d s a m n a ; is :
d s t. PP. dast (B.). cs. d a s y a t e ; d s y a t i .
dah burn, I. P . : PR. d h a t i ; SB. d h t i . I L P. : PR.
dhki.
PP. dad h a (B.). Ao. s. : d h k t ; d h k
(3. s.); 1NJ. dh k (3. s.); PT. d h k a n t and dkant.
FT. d h a k y t i ; PT. d h a k y n t .
Ps. d a h y t e ; PP.
d a g d h . GD. dagdhv (B.) ; d h y a (B.). 1NF. dhas
(B.), d g d h o s (B.), d g d h u m (B.). Ds. dh k ate (B.).
1. d give, I I I . : PR. d d t i ; d t t e ; sB. d d a s , d d a t ;
d d a n ; d d t a i ( A V ) , d d m a h e ; 1NJ. d a d s , d a d t ; oP.
dady t ; d a d m h i , d a d r n ; 1Pv. d a d d h , d e h , datt t ,
d d t u ; d a t t m , datt m ; d a t t and d d t a , d d t a n a ,
d d a t u ; . d a t s v ; PT. d d a t ; d d n a ; 1PF. d a d m ,
dads, dadt ; dattam ; dadta, dattana, dadur ;
. datta. I. : dadati ; dadate ; 1NJ. dadat ; 1Pv. da
datm (3. s.) ; 1PF. dadat ; dadanta. PF. dadtha,
d a d u ; d a d t h u r , d a d t u r ; d a d , d a d r ; . d a d ,
dad t he, d a d r i r ; PT. dadv s, dadiv s ( A v ) , d a d
LIST OF VERBS
389
v1ns (AV.) ; d a d n .
Ao. root : d s , d t , d t ;
d m a , d u r , d r . . di d i t h s (B.), d i t a (B.) ;
d i m a h i (TS.) and d m a h i (VS.) ; sB. d s , d t i, d t ; 1NJ.
d r ; op. d e y m ; 1pv. d t u; d t m , dt m ; d t ; d v
(VS.) ; a : dat. s. : d i i ; sB. d s at, d s athas ; i N J .
dema (VS.) ; i : d a d i a (Sv).
FT. d s y t i ; te (B.) ;
dadiy (K.) ; d t (B.). ps. d y t e ; PT. d a d y m n a ;
AO. d y i ; PP. dta, d a t t , tta. GDV. dya. GD. dattv ,
dattv y a ; d y a, dadya (Av.).
1NF. di, d t ave,
d t avi, d 1 nane, d v n e ; dm (B.), d t um ; d t os.
Cs. d p y a t i . Ds. PT. d t s a n t , d d s a n t .
2. d divide, IL P . : PR. d t i ; d n ti ; 1Pv. d n tu.

vl. P. :
PR. dy m i, d y t i ; dy 1 nasi; IPv. d y t u ; d y t m ; I v . :
PR. d y m a s i ; 1Pv. d y a s v a , d y a t m ; . PT. d y a m n a .
1PF. d y a n t a . PP. d a d i r (B.). Ao. root : d i m a h i (B.),
a d m a h i (VS., K.) ; s : oP. diy. Ps. d y t e ; PP. d i n ;
tta (B.). GD. d y a.
3. d bind, VI. P . : PR. d y t i ; 1PF. d y a s . Ps. Ao. d y i ;
PP. d i t .
d make offering, L P . : PR. d ati ; sB. d t ; oP. d ema ;
1PF. d a t . II. P. : PR. d i ; PT. d at. V. P . : PR.
dnti.
PP.
dada.
sn.
dadas,
ddati
and
d
dat;
PT.
dadvs,
dvs,
divs
(SV.).
Cs.
d a y a t (B.).
di point, VI. : PR. dimi. ipv. ditu ; PT. dint ; di
mna. PF. dida ; sn. ddeati ; 1pv. didih, ddeu ;
didina.
ppF. d i d i a (3. s. . ) .
Ao. root : d i a ;
s. : d i k i ; sa : d i k a t (B.). pp. di. GD. -dya.
iNF. de.
iNT. d d i i ; 1PF. d e d i a m ; d e d i a ;
dediyte.
d i h smear, IL : PR. d g d h i ; d i h n t i ; sB. d h a t ; PT. d i h n .
1PF. d i h a n . Ao. s. : d h i k u r (B.). pp. d i g d h .
1. d fiy, IV. : PR. d y ati ; te ; 1NJ. d y at ; 1pv. d y a. IPF.
d y a m . 1NT. 1NF. d d 1 y i t a v i .
2. d, dd shine : PR. d d y a t i (3. pl.) ; sB. d d ayat ;
1pv. d i d h i and d d i h i ; PT. d d yat; d d yna.
1PF.
390
APPENDIX
d d e s , ddet.
PF. d i d t h e , dd y a ; d d i y r ; sB.
d d y a s i and d d y a s , d d y a t i and d d y a t . PT.
ddiv s.
d k be consecrated,I. . : PR. dikate (B.). PF. d i d k and
d i d k r (B.). Ao. red. : didkas (B.); is : d k i a (B.).
FT. d k i y t e (B.). PP. dkit. GD. dkitv (B.). es.
d k y a t i (B.). Ds. didkiate (B.).
dip shine, I v . : PR. d p yate. Ao. red. : d i d p a t ; d
dipat (B.) ; 1NJ. d i d p a s . es. d p y a t i .
dv play, I v : PR d v yati; d v y a t e (B.). PF. d i d v a .
PP. d y t . GD. ^d v ya.
d u , d burn, v. P . : PR. d u n t i ; d u n v n t i ; PT. d u n v n t .
AO. is : sB. d v i i (or from d u go ?). PP. d n .
dus spoil, I v . P.. : PR. d y a t i (B.). AO. red. : d d u a t ;
a : dut (B.) ; i s : doiam (B.). C s . d y a t i ; FT.
dayiymi.
duh milk, I L P. : PR. d g d h i ; d u h n t i ; . d u g d h ; d u h t e
and d u h a t , duhrate and d u h r ; s B . d h a t ; d h a t e ;
oP. d u h y t , d u h y n ; 1Pv. 3. du. dugdham ; . 3. s.
d u h m ; 3. du. d u h t h m ; 3. pl. duhr m (Av.) and
d u h r t m (Av.) ; PT. d u h n t ; d g h n a , d h n a , and
d u h n ; IPF. d h o k ; d u h r ; d u h a n (B.) and d u h r a n
(Av.). I. . : PR. dhate. VI. : 1PF.duhat (TS.). PF. du
dha, dudhitha; duduhr; A. duduh ; duduhr and
d u d u h r i r ; PT. d u d u h a n . Ao. s : d h u k a t a (3. pl.) ;
1NJ. dhukata (3. pl.) ; oP. d h u k m h i ; sa: d h u k a s ,
dukat and dhukat ; dhukan, dukn and dhuk
n;
.
dhukata,
dukata
and
dhukata;
1NJ.
dukas ; . 3. dukata and d h k a t a ; pl. d h u k n t a ;
1Pv. dhuksva. Ps. d u h y t e ; PT. d u h y m n a ; PP.
dugd. GD. dugdhv (B.). 1NP. d u h d h y a i ; d o h s e ;
d g d h o s (B.). cs. d o h y a t i (B.). Ds. d d u k a t i .
I. d pierce, I I . P . : PR. d r i . I X . P . : oP. dy t (B.). PF.
dad r a ; PT. dadv s. AO. root : d a r ; s : sB. drasi,
drat ; . drate ; OP. dar. Ps. d r y t e (B.) ;
Ps. d r (B.). GD. drya (B.), cs. d a r y a t i ; d r a y a t i
L I S T OF
VERBS
391
(B.). 1NT. drdarmi, drdarti; sB. drdirat; 1Pv.

dardhi a n d ddhi, dardartu; PT. drdrat; dridrat
(TS.); 1PF. dardar, dardar (2. 3. s.) ; dardtam;
dardirur.
2. d heed : AO. dths (B.) ; s : dhvam (B.). Ps. driyte (B.). GD. dtya.
dp rave, IV. P . : PR. dpyati. AO. a : dpat (B.). FT.
drapsyti (B.) a n d drapiyti (B.). PP. dpt a n d
dpit.
d see: PF. dadra; . dadk, dde; ddre,
dadrire (TS.); 1Pv. (3. pl. . ) dadrm (AV.); PT.
dadvs ; ddna. A O . r o o t : daram (B.) ; darma
(TS.), dma (B.), darur (B.) ; . 3. pl. dran,
dram; sB. drati, drathas, dran ; 1NJ. dram;
PT. dn and dna ; a : dan ; 1NJ. dan ; oP. d
yam; s: drk (B.) and drkt (B.) ; . dkata (3.
pl.) ; sB. dkase ; sa : dkam (K.) ; r e d . ddat (B.).
FT. drakyti (B.). Ps. dyte ; Ao. dari a n d dri ;
PP. d ; GDv. dnya. GD. dv, dvya, -dya.
iNF. d, dye ; drum.
c s . daryati.
ns.
ddkase.
dh makefirm,I. P . : ipv. dha ; dhata ; iPF. dhat.
vl. . : PR. dhthe ; 1pv. dhntm ; PT. dhnt.
1PF. dhta (3. s.). Iv. : Ipv. dhya ; dhyasva.
PF. PT. ddh. PPF. dadhanta. Ao. is : dhs,
dht. pp. dh. cs. dhyati.
dyut shine, I. . . pR. dytate. PF. diyta ; didyutr ;
A. didyut ; PT. didyutn. A o . r o o t : PT. dyutnt ;
dytna a n d dyutn ; a : dyutat (B.) ; red. : didyutat ;
INJ. didyutas ; s. : dyaut. FT. dyotiyti (B.). PP.
dyutt. GD. -dyutya (B.). Cs. dyutyati (shine), dyotyati (illumine). 1NT. dvidyutati (3. pl.) ; sB. dvidyutat ;
PT. dvidyutat; iPF. dvidyot.
1. dra run, II. P . : IPv. drntu. PF. dadrr ; PT. dadr.
Ao. s : sB. drsat. es. drpyati (B.) ; Ds. ddrapayiati
(B.). INT. PT. dridrat.
392
APPENDIX
2. d r sleep, II. P . : PR. dr t i (B.). Ao. sis: d r s t (B.),

PT. d r s y t i (B.). PP. d r .
dru run, I. P . : d r v a t i . PP. dudr v a (B.) ; sB. d u d r v a t .
PPF. d u d r o t . Ao. red. : d u d r u v a t (B.), PT. droyti
(B.). PP. d m t (B.). GD. drutv (B.) ; d r t y a (B.).
cs. d r a v y a t i (flows) ; d r v y a t i . 1NT. PP. d o d r v a .
d r u h be hostile, I V . P . : PR. d r h y a t i (B.). PP. 1. d u d r h a ,
2. d u d r h i t h a . Ao. a : d r u h s ; INJ. d r u h s ; d r u h n ;
sa : d r u k a s (B.). FT. dhrokyti. P P . d r u g d h . GD.
drhya. 1NF. d r g d h a v i . Ds. d d r u k a t .
d v i hate, I L : PR. d v i ; d v i m s ; B. dvat ; d v m a ;
. dvate ; 1Pv. d v u ; PT. d v i n t . PP. d i d v a (B.).
Ao. sa: 1NJ. d v i k t ; . dvikata (3. s.). PP. dvi.
GDv. dVya, dvieya. 1NF. dvos (B.).
dhan run : PF. sB. d a d h n a t ; oP. d a d h a n y r ; PT. dadhan
v s. cs. d h a n y a n ; . d h a n y a n t e ; d h a n y a n t a .
dhanv run, L P . : PR. d h n v a t i ; sn. d h n v t i ; iPv.
d h n v a . PF. d a d h a n v ; d a d h a n v i r . Ao. i : adhanv
iur.
dham, d h m , blow, I. P. : PR. d h m a t i ; PT. d h m a n t .
1PF. d h a m a t .
Ps. d h a m y t e ; d h m y t e (B.) ; PP.
d h a m i t and d h m t . Gn. dhm y a (B.).
1. dhput, III. : PR. ddhmi, ddhsi, ddhti; dhat
ths ; dadhmsi and dadhms, dhatt, ddhati ; .
d a d h , d h a t s , d h a t t ; dadh t he, dadh t e ; d d h a t e ;
sB. d d h n i , d d h a s , d d h a t ; d d h a t h a s ; d d h m a ,
ddhan; . ddhase, ddhate; ddhvahai; oP. d
dhta and dadht ; dadhmhi ; 1Pv. dheh and dhattt,
d d h t u ; d h a t t m , dhatt m ; d h a t t and d h a t t n a ,
ddhatu;
.
dhatsv;
ddhatm.
PT.
ddhat;
d
dhna. 1PF. dadhm, dadhs, dadht ; dhattam ;
dhatta,
dadhur;
.
dhatths,
dhatta.
PF.
da
dhtha,
dadhu;
dadhtur;
dadhim,
dadhr;
.
dadhi, dadh ; dadhthe, dadhte ; dadhidhv, da
dhir and dadhr ; 1Pv. dadhiv ; dadhidhvm. Ao.
root : d h m , dh s , d h t and dhat ; d h t a m , d h t m ;
LISTÔF vERBS
393
d h u r ; . d h i t h s , d h i t a ; d h t m ; d h m a h i ; sB.
dhs, dhti and dht ; dhma ; dhthe, dhithe ; dh
mahe;
1NJ.
dhm;
dhr;
.
dhmahi;
op.
dheym;
d h e y r ; 1Pv. d h t u ; d h t a m ; dh t a, d h t a n a , and
dhetana, dh n tu ; . dhiv ; a : d h a t ( S v ) , d h t ;
s : d h i i (B.) ; dhiata (B.) ; sB. dh s athas ; dh s atha ;
iNJ. dhsur ; oP. dhiy (B.), dhey (MS.). FT. dh
syati, te(B.); dht(B.). Ps. dhyte; Ao. dhyi; PP.
hit, dhita. GD. dhitv (B.), dh y a. 1NF. dhe, dh
tave, dh t avi, d h i y d h y a i ; uh m ; dh t um (B.);
dh t os. cs. d h p y a t i ; sB. d h p y t h a s . Ds. didhiati,
te ; 1NJ. ddhianta ; oP. didhiema ; d d h i e y a ; 1Pv.
ddhiantu ; PT. ddhia ; dhitsati, te ; GDv. didhi
yya.
2. d h suck, I v P . : PR. d h y a t i . Ao. root : d h t . P P .
dht.
GD. dhtv (B.), dh y a (B.). 1NP. dh t ave.
Cs. d h p y a t e ; ti (B.).
1. d h v run, I. : PR. dh v ati, te. PPF. d a d h v a t . Ao:
i : d h v t (B.). Cs. d h v y a t i .
2. d h v wash, I . : PR. dh v ati, te.
Ao. i : d h v i a .
PP. d h a u t . es. d h v a y a t i , te(B.).
d h think, III. : PR. d d hye ; d d h y t h m and d d h t h m
(Av.) ; sB.d d hayas; d d hayan ; PT.d d hyat; d d hyna.
i P P . d d h e t , d d h e t ; d d h a y u r ; A . d d h t a . PP. d d h
y a ; d d h i m , d d h i y r and d d h y r ; d d h i r . PF.
dht. INT. dedhyat (TS.).
d h shake, v. : PR. d h n t i ; d h n u t ; sB. d h n v a t ;
1Pv. d h n u h and d h n ; dhunu.t ; . d h n u v ; PT.
d h n v a n t ; d h n v n . 1PF. d h n o t ; . d h n u t h s ,
d h n u t a . v I . P . : PR. d h u v t i ; oP. d h v t . PF. d u d h u v ;
oP. d u d h u v t . PPF. d d h o t . Ao. root: pr. d h u v n ;
s : . d h a t a (3. pl.). FT. dhaviyti, te (B.). Ps.
d h y t e ; PP. d h t . GD. dhtv (B.), dhuya. 1NT.
d d h a v t i ; PT. d d h u v a t and d v i d h v a t ; PF. davi
dhva.
d h hold : PP. d d h r t h a , ddh r a ; d a d h r , d a d h r i r .
394
APPENDIX
AO. root : 1NJ. dhth s ; red.: d d h a r a t ; d d h r (2. 3. s.);

1NJ. d d harat; iPv. d i d h t m ; didht. FT. dhariyte.
Ps. d h r i y t e ; P P . dht. on. dhtv (B.), dh t ya (B.),
1NF. d h r m a e ; d h a r t r i ; d h r t a v i (B.). cs. d h r
yati, te; FT. d h r a y i y t i ; Ps. d h r y t e (B.), 1NT.
d r d h a r i ; i P P . d a r d h a r ; dadharti (B.); 3. pi. da
dhrati (B.); 1Pv. d d h a r t u (B.).
d h dare, v. : PR. dhti ; 1Pv. d h u h . PP. d a d h r a ;
d d h r . sB. d a d h r s a t i and d a d h r a t ; . dadh
ate ; 1NJ. dadhart ; PT. dadbv s ; PPF. ddhanta.
AO. a : 1NJ. d h t ; PT. d h n t ; d h m a ; dha
(Av.) ; is : d h a r i u r (B.). P P . d h and dhit.
GDv. dhya. GD. dhya (B.). 1NF. dh e ; dh as.
Cs. dharyati (B.).
d h y think, Iv. P . : PR. dhy y ati.
P F . d a d h y n (B.).
Ao. s i : d h y s i a m (B.). PER. FT. dhyat (B.), P P .
d h y t (B.). GD. dhytv . Ds. d d h y s a t e (B.).
dhraj, d h r j sweep, I. : PR. PT. d h r j a n t ; dhr j amna.
1PF. d h r a j a n . AO. i : oP. dhrji1y.
dhvas scatter, I. P . : PR. dhvsati, te(B.). PP. d a d h v a s .
Ao. a : d h v a s n .
PP. dhvasta (B.). Cs. d h v a s y a t i ;
dhvasyati, te (B.).
dhvan sound : Ao. is : d h v a n t . PP. d h v n t . Cs. d h v a n
ayat ; Ao. 1NJ. d h v a n y t .
d h v injure, I. P. : PR. d h v r a t i (B.). Ao. s : . d h u r a t a
(3. pl.). 1NF. dh r vae. Ds. d d h r a t i .
nak attain, I. : PR. n k a t i , te ; 1NJ. n k a t ; 1Pv. n k
asVa; P T . n k a n t ; n k a m a . 1PF. nakan. P F .
nanakr ; nanak.
nad sound, I. P . : PR. n d a t i . Cs. n a d y a t i . 1NT. n n ad
ati (3. pl.); n n a d y t e (B.); PT. n n adat.
nam bend, I. : PR. n m a t i , te. PF. nn m a ; n e m . P P F .
nanmas.
AO. red.: i N J . n n a m a s ; s: n n (K.) ;
. nasata (3. pl., B.). sB. nsai, nasante; P T .
n a m a s n . FT. n a s y t i (B.). PP. n a t ; GDv. nntVa.
GD. ntya (B.). 1NF. n m a m , n m e . Cs. n a m y a t i .
LIST OF v E B B S
395
1NT. nnnamti ; nnnate (3. s.) ; PT. nnnamat ; nn

namna ; 1PF. nannata (3. s.).
1. nas be lost, I v . P. : PR. n y a t i ; I. : PR. n a t i , -te.
P F . n a n a ; n e s r ( B . ) . Ao. red. : n n a a t ; n a t ; 1NJ.
nnaas ; nat. FT. naiyti. PP. na. cs. n
yati ; 1NF. naydhyai.
2. n a attain, I. : PR. n a t i , -te. Ao. root : na (2. 3. s.),
n (3. s.) ; n a m ; 1NJ. n k and n (3. s.) ; . n i ;
oP. n a m h i ; s : sB. nkat. INF. ne. Ds. n a k a s i ;
1NJ. n a k a t .
nas unite, I. . : PR. n s a t e ; n s m a h e ; 1NJ. n s a n t a .
Ao. root : oP. n a s m h i .
nah bind, Iv.: PR. n h y a t i ; i P v . n h y a t a n a (2. pl.); PT.
nhyamna.
PP. n a n h a .
Ps. PT. n a h y m n a ; P P .
n a d d h . GD. n h y a (B.).
n t h , n d h seek aid, I. . : PR. n t hate (B.) ; PT. n d ha
m n a . PP. n t h i t ; n d h i t .
nij wash, I L . : PT. n i j n . I I I . : 1Pv. n i n i k t (2. pl.).
Ao. a : nijam ; s : n a i k t ; 1NJ. n i k i .
PP. nikt.
GD. niktv ( B.), nijya(B.). 1NF. nije. Cs. nejyati(B.).
1NT. n e n i k t ; 1Pv. nenigdhi.
n i n d , revile, I. P . : PR. n n d a t i ; sB. n i n d t ; 1Pv. nindata.
PP. n i n d i m ; n i n i d r .
Ao. root : P T . n i d a n ; is :
n i n d i u r ; sB. nndiat. Ps. n i n d y t e ; P P . n i n d i t .
Us. sB. n i n i t s t .
n lead, I. : PR. n y a t i , te ; B. n y t i , n y t ; . n y s a i
(Av.); 1NJ. n y a t ; n y a n t a ; iPv. n y a t u ; . n y a s v a ;
PT. n y a n t ; n y a m n a ; 1PF. n a y a t . I I . : PR. n s i ( =
IP v.) ; n e t h ; IPF. n t m (3. du.). P P . n i n t h a , ninaya ;
n i n y t h u r ; ninye (B.) ; sB. n i n t h s ; oP. n i n y a t ; 1pv.
n i n t u . Ao. s : naia (2. pl.) ; neata (3. pl.) ; sn.
nati, nat ; natba ; I N J . naia (2. pl.) ; . nea
(3. s.); i : n a y t (AV).
FT. n e y t i ; te (B.); nayi
y t i (B.). ps. n y t e ; pp. nt. GD. ntv (B.), n y a.
INF. n e i ; n t a v i (B.); n t u m (B.), n y i t u m (B.);
n t o s (B.). Ds. ninati (B.). 1NT. n e n y t e .
396
APPENDIX
n u praise, I. : PR. n v a t i ; n v m a h e , n v a n t e ; 1NJ.

n v a n t a ; PT. n v a n t ; n v a m n a . IPP. n a v a n t a . I I .
P . : PT. n u v n t ; 1PF. n v a n . P P F . n n o t , nunot ;
Ao. s : . n i ; n t m ; nata ; I N J . n a t a
(3. pl.) ; i : . navia. GDv. n v y a . 1NT. n n a v t i ;
n o n u m s a n d n o n u m s i ; sB. n n u v a n t a ; i P F . n v n o t ;
n o n a v u r ; P P . n n v a ; nnu.vur.
nud push, v l . : PR. n u d t i , te ; PP. n u n u d ; n u n u d r .
Ao. root : 1NJ. nuttn s ; i : i N J . nudih s .
FT. not
s y t e (B.). PP. n u t t ; n u n n (Sv.). INF. nde ; nudas.
1NT. n o n u d y a n t a (B.),
nt danee, I v . P . : PR. n t yati ; 1Pv. n t ya, n t yatu ; PT.
n t yant. A o . r o o t : n t u r (PP. ?) ; a : PT. n t m n a ; i s :
n a r t i u r . PP. n t t . Cs. n a r t y a t i .
pac cook, I. : PR. p c a t i , te ; sB. p c n i , p c t i , p c t ;
1NJ. p c a t ; 1Pv. p c a t a , p c a n t u . I v . . : PR. p c y a t e .
PF. pap c a ; pec. P P F . p e e i r a n . A o . s : sB. pkat.
FT. pakyti, te (B.) ; pakt (B.). PS. p a c y t e . GD.
Paktv . 1NF. p k t a v e . Cs. p c y a t i , te (B.),
pat fly, I. P . : PR. p t a t i ; sB. p t t i , p t t 1NJ. p t a t ;
oP. p t e t ; 1Pv. p t a t u ; PT. p t a n t . 1PF. p a t a t . PP.
pap t a ; p e t t h u r , p e t t u r ; p a p t i m , p a p t r ; oP.
p a p a t y t ; PT. p a p t i v s . A o . r e d . : p a p t a t a n d p
patat; p a p t m a , p a p t a n ; 1NJ. paptas, paptat; paptan;
1Pv. paptata. FT. patiyti ; Co. patiyat (B.). Ps. A o .
p t i (B.) ; P P . p a t i t . GD. patitv , p t y a (B.). 1NF.
p t t a v e ; p t i t u m (B.). Cs. p a t y a t i , te; p t y a t i .
Ds. p p a t i a t i . INT. p p atti ; sB. p p atan.
pad go, I v . : PR. p d y a t e ; padyati (B.) ; 1Pv. p d y a s v a ;
PT. p d y a m n a ; i P P . p a d y a n t a . P F . pap d a ; p e d
(B.). A o . root : p a d m a h i , p a d r a n ; sB. padti^, p a d t ;
PRC. p a d ; r e d . : p p a d m a ; s : 1NJ. patsi (1. s.),
patth s . FT. patsyati (B.). Ps. A o . p d i , p d i ; P P .
p a n n . GD. p d y a . 1NF. pdas ; p t t u m (B.), p t t o s
(B.). Cs. p d y a t i , te ; Ps. p d y t e (B.) ; Ds. p p d a
y i a t i (B.).
397
pan admire, I. . : PR. 1NJ. p n a n t a . P F . p a p n a (1. s.) ;

papn.
Ao. is : pania (3. s.).
ps. p a n y t e ; PP.
p a n i t . es. p a n y a t i , te; GDv. panay y ya.
1NT. PT.
pnipnat.
pas see, I v : PR. p y a t i , -te ; sB. p y n i , p y s i and
p y s , p y t ; p y m a , p y n ; I N J . p y a t ; oP.
p y e t ; p y e t a ; 1Pv. p s y a ; p y a s v a ; PT. p y a n t ;
p y a m n a ; i P F . p a y a t ; p a y a n t a . Cp. s p .
1. p drink, I. : PR. p b a t i , te ; sB. p b s i , p b t i and
p b t ; p b v a , p b t h a s , p b t a s ; 1NJ. p b a t ; 1Pv.
p b a t u ; p b a s v a ; p b a d h v a m ; PT. p b a n t ; 1PF. p i b a t .
III. : PR. p i p t e (B.), pipate (B.) ; op. p i p y a (B.) ; 1PF.
p i p i t a ( B . ) ; 1pv. pipatu (K.) ; PT. p i p n and p p n a
(Av.).
P F . pap t ha, p a p u ; p a p t h u r , p a p r ; .
p a p ; p a p i r ; oP. papy t ; PT. p a p i v s ; p a p n .
Ao. root : p m , p s , p t ; p m a , p u r ; sB. p s ;
p t h s ; p n t i ; PRC. pey s (3. s.); iPv. p h , p t u ;
p t m , p t m ; p t and p t n a , p n tu ; PT. p n t ; s :
1NJ. p s t a (3. s.). FT. p s y t i , te (B.). Ps. p y t ; Ao.
p y i ; PP. p t . GD. ptv , p t v ; p y a. 1NF. p t y e ,
p t ave, p t avi ; p t os (B.) ; p b a d h y a i . cs. p a y y a t i ;
Ds. p p y a y i e t (K.).
Ds. p p s a t i ; p p a t i ; PT.
pipant.
2. p proteet, II. : PR. p m i, p s i, p t i ; p t h s , p t s ;
p t h , p t h n a , p n ti ; sB. p t ; p t as ; 1Pv. p h ,
p t u ; p t m , pt m ; p t , p n tu ; PT. p n t ; p n ;
1PF. p m , p s , p t ; p m a , p u r . Ao. s : sB. p s ati.
p i , p swell, L . : P R . p y a t e . I L . : PT. p y n a . v :
PR. pinvire ; PT. pinvnt, I. pinvat ; pinvn. PF. p
ptha, ppya; pipythur; pipyr ; pipy (3. s.); sn.
ppyas, ppyat ; ppyatas ; ppyan ; ppyata ;
p p y a n t a ; 1NJ. pipes ; 1Pv. p p i h , p p a y a ; pipyatam,
pipyatam ; pipyata ; PT. ppiv s ; p p yana and
ppyn. PPF. pipet; pipema, ppyan; ppayat;
p p a y a n t a . PP. p n (Av.).
p i n v fatten, I. : PR. p n v a t i , te ; INJ. p n v a t ; p n v a n t a ;
398
APPENDIX
1Pv. pnva; pnvatam; pnvata; . pnvasva, pnv

atm ; pnvadhvam ; PT. pnvant ; pnvamana ; 1PF.
pinvam, pinvas, pinvat; pinvatam; pinvata,
p i n v a n ; . 3. s. p i n v a t a .
PP. p i p i n v t h u r . PP.
p i n v i t (B.). Cs. p i n v y a t i (B.). Cp. p i swell.
pi adorn, v I . : PR. p i t i , -te. PF. pipa ; p i p i r ; A .
pipi ; p i p i r . AO. root : PT. p i a n . Ps. p i y t e ;
Pp. p i ; piit. INT. PT. p p i s a t ; p p i n a .
p i crush, V I I . P . : PR. p i n i ; p i n t i ; INJ. p i k (2. 3.
s.) ; 1pv. pinana ; PT. p i n t ; 1PF. p i k . v l . P . :
1PF. pan (v.). PF. pipa ; pipi. Ao. sa : pik
an (B^). Ps. piyte (B.) ; pp. pi. GD. piva (B.).
1NF. p a v i (B.) ; p u m (B.).
p press : PF. p i p . Cs. p y a t i .
pus thrive, Iv. P . : PR. p y a t i . PF. p u p a ; oP. pupuy s ;
PT. pupuvs. Ao. root : PRC puysam (B.) ; pus
ysma (B.) ; a : oP. puyam ; puma. PP. pu. 1NF.
puyse. es. poyati.
p cleanse, IX. : PR. punmi, punti; punnti; punte; pu
nte (AV.)and punat; 1Pv. punh and puntt, puntu ;
p u n t m ; p u n t , p u n t n a and p u n t a , p u n n t u ; PT.
p u n n t ; p u n n ; 1PF. p u n a n .
I. A . : PR. pvate ;
sB. p v t e ; 1Pv. p v a s v a , p v a t m ; p v a d h v a m ,
pvantm ; PT. pvamna ; 1PF. pavaths. PF. pupuv
r(B.); pupuv (B.). PPF. pupot. Ao. i : pviur;
1NJ. pavia (3. s.). Ps. p u y t e ; PP. p t . GD. ptv ;
p t v ; pya (B.). 1NF. pavitum (B.), Cs. p a v y a t ,
te (B.), p v y a t i (B.).
ppass, Ill. P . : PR. p p a r i , p p a r t i ; p i p t h s ; pipth,
pprati ; 1Pv. piph and piptt, ppartu; piptm; pi
pt and ppartana. AO. red. : pparam, pparas ; p
paran ; 1NJ. p p aras, p p arat and p p r a t ; s : sB. p r a t i ,
P r s ^ t ; 1Pv. p a r a ; i : sB. p r iat. 1NF. par1. Cs.
p r y a t i ; sB. p r y t i ; PT. p r y a n t .
pc mix, VIL : PR. p k i ; p c n t i ; . p c , p k t ;
p c t e (3. pl.) ; 1NJ. p k (3. s.) ; OP. p c t ; 1Pv.
L I S T OF v ^ R B S
399
p d h (= p g d h ) , p k t u ; p k t m ; PT. p c n t ;
p c n ; 1PF. p a k (3. s.). III. P . : 1Pv. p i p g d h ;
p i p k t . PF. p a p c r (B.) ; sB. papcsi ; oP. papey m ,
papcy t ; PT. papcan.
Ao. root : sB. p r c a s ; oP.
p c m h i ; PT. p c n ; s : p r k ; . p k i , p k t a .
Ps. p c y t e ; PP. p k t ; pga. INF. p c e ; p e as.
p fill, v l . : PR. p t i ; sB. p i t h e (du. 2.) ; 1Pv. p ;
p t a ; p s v a ; p d h v a m ; 1PF. pat. 1NF. p
dhyai. Cp. p fill.
p fill, I X . : PR. p m i, p s i, p t i ; p t s ; p n t i ;
sB. p t i, p t ; oP. py t ; 1Pv. p h , p t u ;
p t m ; p t , p t n a ; . p v ; PT. p n t ;
1PF. p s , p t .
I I I . : PR. p p a r m i , p p a r t i ; p
p r a t i (3. pl.) ; 1Pv. p p a r t u ; pipt m ; pipartana ; 1PF.
p i p r a t a (3. s. pipta). PF. oP. p u p u r y s ; PT. pap
v s.
AO. r o o t : 1Pv. p r d h ; PRC. p r i y s a m (Av.) ;
red. : p p u r a m (B.) ; 1NJ. p p a r a t ; 1Pv. p u p u r a n t u ; i :
p r i h s (B.). Ps. p r y t e (B.) ; PP. p u r ; p u r t .
1NF. puras (K.), es. p u r y a t i ; sB. p r y t i .
p y fill up, I V . A . : PR. py y ase ; 1Pv. py y asva, p y y a t a m ;
p y a y a n t m ; PT. py y amna. A0. s i : oP. pyasimahi
(AV.). PP. p y t . Cs. p y y y a t i ; Ps. p y y y t e (B.).
prach ask, v l . : PR. p e h t i , te ; sn. p c h t ; pch n ; .
p e h i . PF. p a p r c h a ; p a p r a e h r (B.). A0. s : p r a k
am p r ; p r k t . FT. p r a k y t i (B.). Ps. pch
y t e ; PP. p ; GDv. p a p k y a .
1NF. p c ham,
p c he ; p r u m .
prath spread, I. . : PR. p r t h a t e . PF. 2. papr t ha (= pa
p r t t h a ^) ; . p a p r a t h and p p r a t h e (3. s.) ; sB.
p a p r t h a s , p a p r t h a t ; p a p r t h a n ; INJ. paprathanta;
PT. p a p r a t h n . Ac. root : PT. p r a t h n ; i : 3. s. .
p r a t h i a ; p r t h i a . es. p r a t h y a t i , te.
p r fill, II. P . : PR. pr s I. PF. papr t ha, papr and p a p r u ;
p a p r t h u r , p a p r t u r ; p a p r r ; . pap, p a p r ; PT.
papv s. Ao. root : p r t ; sB. pr s ; s : 3. s. p r a s .
Ps. Ao. p r y i ; PP. p r t a .
400
APPENDIX
p r please, I X . : PR. pr t i; p r t ; PT. p r n t ; p r n .

1PF. p r t . PF. p i p r i y ; sB. p i p r y a s , p i p r y a t ; 1Pv.
p i p r h ; p i p r y a s v a ; PT. p i p r i y . PPF. p i p r a y a m ,
p i p r e s (B.) ; p i p r a y a n .
Ao. s : prait (B.) ; B.
prat. PP. p r t . GD. prtv (B.). Ds. p p r a t i .
p r u t h snort, L : PR. p r t h a t i ; PT. p r o t h n t ; p r t h a m n a .
GD. p r t h y a . INT. PT. p p r u t h a t .
pru sprinkle, V. : PR. pruuvnti ; pruut ; sB. pru
vat. VI. P. : IPv. pru ; PT. prunt. IV. P. : iPF.
p r u y a t (B.).
I X . P . : PT. p r u n t (B.). FT. PT.
proiynt. PP. pruit.
p u float, I. : PR. p i v a t e ; p I v a t i (B.). PP. p u p I u v (B.).
Ao. red. : p i p I a v a m (B.) ; s : ploa (B.). FT. pIoyti,
te (B.), PP. p I u t . GD. pIya (K.). cs. p I v y a t i (B.).
1NT. p o p I y t e (B.).
p s devour, II. P. : PR. ps t I. PS. p s y a t a (B.) ; PP. p s t .
GD. ps y a (B.).
pha spring : Cs. p h y a t i . INT. PT. p n p h a a t .
bandh bind, I X . : PR. badhn m i ; b a d h n m s , b a d h n n t i ;
. badhnte (3. pi.) ; IPv. badhn, badhntu ; badh
nntu ; . badhntm (3. s.). 1PF. badhnt ; badh
nan ; . b a d h n t a (3. s.). PP. b a b n d h a ; b e d h r . FT.
b h a n t s y t i . Ps. b a d h y t e ; PP. b a d d h . GD. baddhv ;
baddhvya (B.); bdhya (B.), 1NF. bdhe. Cs. bandh
yati (B.),
badh oppress, I. A . : PR. b d hate. PP. b a b d h . Ao. is :
1NJ. b d h i a . PP. b d h i t . GD. b d hya. 1NF. b d he.
cs. b d h y a t i . Ds. b b h a t s a t e ; bbdhiate (B.). 1NT.
hhadhe (3. s.) ; badbadh ; PT. bbadhna ; bad
badhn.
b u d h wake, L P . : PR. b d h a t i ; sB. b d h t i ; 1NJ. b d h a t ;
1Pv. b d h a t u . I v : PR. b d h y a t e ; oP. b d h y e m a ;
1Pv. b d h y a s v a ; b d h y a d h v a m ; PT. b d h y a m n a . PF.
b u b u d h ; sB. bubodhas, b h o d h a t i ; b b o d h a t h a ;
PT. buhudhn. Ao. root: . 3. pl. budhran, bu
dhram; IPv. bodh (2. s.); PT. budhn; a: INJ.
L I S T OF v E R B S
401
b u d h n t a ; r e d . : b b u d h a t ; s: . b h u t s i ; b h u t s mahi, b h u t s a t a ; is :B.bdhiat. FT. b h c t s y t i ( B . ) . Ps.

Ao. b o d h i ; PP. b u d d h . GD. budhya (B.), 1NF. b h e .
cs. b o d h y a t i ; b o d h y a t e (B.). 1NT. h b u d h i t i (B.),
bh make big, v I . P. : PR. b h t i . I. : PR. h hati, te
(B.). PP. b a b r h a ; PT. b a b h . Ao. is : 1NJ. b r h s ,
b r h t . cs. b a r h y a . INT. sn. b r b h a t ; iPv. barbhi.
b r say, II. : PR. b r v m i , b r v i , b r v t i ; b r m s ,
b r u v n t i ; . b r u v , b r , b r t and b r u v ; bruv t e ;
b r u v t e ; sn. b r v i and b r v , b r v a s i and b r v a s ,
b r v a t ; b r v m a , b r v t h a (Av.), b r v a n ; . b r v
vahai, b r v a i t e ; b r v m a h a i ; oP. bry t ; b r y t a m ;
. b r u v t ; b r u v m h i ; iPv. b r h and brt t , b r v t u ;
b r t m ; b r t and b r v t a n a , b r u v n t u ; PT. b r u v n t ;
b r u v . IPF. b r a v a m , b r a v s , b r a v t ; b r t m ;
bravta, bruvan.
bhak eat: Ao. r e d . : b a b h a k a t (B.) ; cs. b h a k y a t i ;
bhakyate (B.) ; Ps. b h a k y t e (B.).
bhaj divide, I. : PR. bhjati, te. I I . P. : PR. b h k i
(= IPv.), PP. 2. s. b a b h k t h a (B.), 3. s. babh j a; .
b h e j ; bhej t e ; b h e j i r ; PT. bhejn. Ao. r e d . : b
bhajur (B.) ; s: b h k and b h k t ; . b h a k i ,
b h a k t a ; sB. bhkat ; INJ. bh k (2. 3. s.) ; oP. bhak
y, bhakt ; bhakmhi ; PRe. bhak. FT. bhak
y t i , te (B.). Ps. b h a j y t e ; PP. b h a k t . Gn. bhaktv ;
bhaktv y a ; bhajya (B.). cs. b h j y a t i ; Ps. b h j y t e .
b h a j break, v I L P . : PR. b h a n k t i ; iPv. bhadh, bha
n k t u ; PT. b h a j n t . 1PF. b h a n a s (for b h a n a k , A v . ) .
PF. b a b h j a . ps. bhajyte.
bhan speak, I. : PR. b h n a t i ; b h n a n t i ; 1NJ. b h n a n t a .
1PF. b h n a n t a .
bhas devour, III. : PR. b b h a s t i ; b p s a t i ; sB. b b h a s a t ;
b p s a t h a s ; PT. b p s a t . V I . P. : PR. b h a s t h a s . I. P . :
1NJ. b h s a t .
b h shine, II. P . : bh s i, bh t i ; bh n ti ; 1Pv. b h h ; PT.
I. bhtI. FT. b h s y t i (B.).
402
APPENDIX
bhik beg, I. . : PR. bhkate ; INJ. bhkanta ; oP. bhk

eta ; PT. bhkama. PP. hibhik (B.).
bhid split, vH. : PR. bhindmi, bhintsi, bhintti ; bhind
nti ; sB. bhindas, bhindat ; 1NJ. bhint (2. 3. s.) ;
oP. bhindy t ; 1Pv. b h i n d h , bhinttu. ; b h i n t t ; PT.
bhindnt ;
bhindn.
1PF. bhint (2. 3. s.) ; b h i n a t
(3. s.) ; b h i n d a n . PF. b i b h d a ; b i b h i d r . Ao. r o o t :
b h e d a m , b h t (2. 3. s.), b h e t (3. s.) ; sB. b h d a t i ; 1NJ.
b h t (2. s ) ; PT. b h i d n t ; a : oP. b h i d y a m ; s : 1NJ.
bhitth s . FT. b h e t s y t e (B.). Ps. bhidyte (B.) ; AO.
b h e d i (B.) ; PP. b h i n n . GD. bhittv ; b h d y a . 1NF.
b h t t a v i (B.) ; b h t t n m (B.). Ds. b b h i t s a t i .
b h fear, I I I . P . : PR. b i b h t i ; b b h y a t i ; 1NJ. b i b h s ; oP.
bibhy t ; 1Pv. b i b h t , b i b h t n a ; PT. b b h y a t ; 1PF.
b i b h s , b i b h e t . I. . : PR. b h y a t e ; sB. bhyte ;
1Pv. b h y a t m (3. s.) ; IPF. b h a y a n t a ; PT. b h y a m n a .
PF. bibhya (1. s.), bibhya (B. also bbhya) ; bibhy
tnr ; bibhyr ; PT. hibhvs ; PER. PF. bibhaya
cakra. AO. root : INJ. bhs (TS.) ; bhema ; PT. bhiy
n;
red.:
bbhayat
;
bbhayur
(Kh.
)
;
bbhayanta;
s : bhais (Av.) ; bhaima, bhaiur ; PT. bhiysna
( A v ) . Co. bheyat (B.). PP. b h t . 1NF. b h i y s e . Cs.
b h y a t e (B.) ; Ao. hbhias; b b h i a t h s .
1. bhuj enjoy, VII. . : PR. bhukt ; bhujte and bhuj
at ; sB. bhunjmahai ; PT. I. bhujat. PF. bubhuj ;
b u b h u j m h e , b u b h u j r i r . Ac. root : sB. bhjate ; 1NJ.
b h j a m ; a : OP. b h u j m a ; 1Pv. b h u j (TS.). ps. bhuj
y t e (B.), 1NF. bhuj ; bhjase. Cs. b h o j y a t i .
2. bhuj bend, V I . P. : 1NJ. b h u j t ; 1pv. bhuj (VS.). PPF.
bubhojs. GD. bhujya (B.).
bhur quiver, V I . : 1NJ. b h u r n t a ; 1pv. bhurntu ; PT.
b h u r m a . 1NT. j r b h u r t i ; PT. j r b h u r a t ; jrbhur
a.
b h be, I. : PR. bhavati ; b h v a t e (B.). PF. babhuva,
habhutha and babhuvitha, babhuva; b a b h v t h u r ,
b a b h u v t u r ; b a b h v i m , b a b h u v , b a b h v r ; or.
403
babhy s , babhy t ; 1Pv. babh t u ; PT. babhv s.

Ao. root : b h u v a m , b h u s , b h t ; b h u t a m , b h u t a m ;
b h m a , b h t a and b h t a n a , b h v a n ; sB. b h v n i ,
b h v a s , b h v a t ; b h u t h s , b h t a s ; b h v a n ; rNJ.
b h v a m , bh s , bh t ; b h m a ; oP. bhy s , b h y t ;
bhy m a ; PRC bhy s am, 3. bhy s ; bhy s ma,
bhy s ta ; ^ 1Pv. b o d h (for b h d h ) , b h t u ; b h t m ;
b h t and b h t n a ; a : b h v a s , b h v a t ; red. : b
bhuvas. FT. b h a v i y t i ; bhavit (B.). PP. b h t .
GDv. b h v y a and b h v y ; b h v t v a .
GD. bhtv ,
bhtv ; bhuya. 1NF. b h u v , bhve, bhv ; b h i ;
b h v i t u m (B.) ; b h v i t o s (B.). os. b h v y a t i . Ds. b
bhuatI. 1NT. b b h a v t i .
b h bear, L : PR. b h r a t i , te. I I I . : PR. b b h a r m i , b
bhari, b b h a r t i ; bibhths, b i b h t s ; b i b h m s i and
bibhms, b i b h t h , b b h r a t i ; sB. b b h a r i , h b h a r a t ;
oP. bibhy t ; iPv. b i b h h , b b h a r t u ; bibht m ;
bibht (TS.) ; PT. bibhrat ; IPF. b i b h a r . PP. j a b h r t h a ,
jabh r a ; j a b h r r ; . jabh, j a b h r ; j a b h r i r ; ba
bh r a (B.) ; . b a b h r ; PT. b a b h r ; sn. j a b h r a t .
PPF. j a b h a r t a n a .
Ao. root : PRC bhriy s am ; 1Pv.
b h t m ; s : b h r a m , 3. b h r ; b h r a m ; sn.
b h r a t ; 1NJ. 3. s. bh r ; i : b h r i a m . FT. bhari
yti ; bhart (B.). co. bhariyat. Ps. b h r i y t e ; sn.
b h r i y t e ; AG. bh r i ; PP. b h t . GD. bhtya. 1NF.
b h r t u m ; b h r t a v e , b h r t a v i ; b h r a d h y a i ; bhr
mae. Ds. b b h r a t i (B.). 1NT. j a r b h t s ; b h r i
bhrati (3. p1); sB. b h r i b h a r a t ; PT. b h r i b h r a t .
bhra full, I. : PR. 1NJ. b h r a t . Ao. a : 1NJ. b h r a a t .
pp. -bha ; bhra. es. PT. b h r y a n t .
bhraj chine, I. . : PR. bhr j ate; PT. bhrajamana. Ao.
r o o t : b h r ; PRC bhrjy s am.
ps. Ao. b h r a j i .
mah, m a h be great, I. : PR. mhate ; m h e (3. s.) ; op.
m h e m a , m h e t a ; 1pv. mhatam ; PT. m h a m n a .
IPF. mahata. PF. m m a h (1. 3.) ; sB. m a m b a s ;
1NJ. m m a h a n t a ; 1pv. mamahasva, m m a h a n t a m ; PT.
404
APPENDIX I
m m a h n . pp. m a h i t (B.). 1NF. m a h , m a h y e . Cs.

m a h y a t i , te ; I N J . m a h y a m ; PT. m a h y a n t ;
mahyamna.
majj sink, I. P . : mjjati. AO. root : op. majjy t (B.). FT.
m a k y t i , te (B.). GD. mjjya. Cs. majjyati (B.).
math, manth stir, I X . : PR. mathn m i ; m a t h n t (B.) ;
1pv. m a t h n t , m a t h n n t u ; PT. m a t h n n t ; i P F . m a t h
n t ; L m n t h a t i , te ; m t h a t i (AV.). P F . mam t ha ;
m e t h r (B.) ; A . m e t h i r (B.). Ao. root : sB. m t h a t ;
is : m a n t h i m (3. du.) ; mathiata (B.) ; INJ. m t h s ,
mtht.
FT. manthiyti (B.) ; mathiyti, te (B.).
ps. m a t h y t e ; pp. m a t h i t . Gn. mathitv ( B.) ; m t h y a
(B.), iNF. m n t h i t a v i ; m t h i t o s (B.),
mad be exhilarated, I . : PR. m d a t i ; te. I I I . P . : PR. ma
matsi. I I . P . : PR. 1ntsi (= 1Pv.). I v P. : PR. m d yati
(B.). P F . mam d a ; sB. m a m d a s , m a m d a t ; m a m d a n ;
1pv. m a m a d d h , m a m t t u ; m a m a t t n a .
P P F . ama
madur. AO. root: 1pv. m t s v a ; red.: m m a d a s ; .
m m a d a n t a ; s : m a t s u r ; . m a t t a (3. s.) ; m a t s a t a
(3. p k ) ; sB. m t s a t i and m t s a t ; m t s a t h a ; 1NJ. mat
sata (3. pk) ; i s : mdiur. ps. PT. m a d y m n a ; P P .
m a t t . GDv. m d ya.
1NF. 1nditos (B.). Cs. m a d
y a t i ; m d y a t i , te ; sB. m d y s e , m d y t e ;
m d y a i t e ; m d y a d h v e and m d y d h v a i ; 1NF.
m d a y d h y a i ; PP. 1nadit.
man think, I v . : PR. m n y a t e . v I I L . : PR. m a n v ;
m a n m h e , m a n v a t ; sB. m a n v a i , m a n v a t e ; 1NJ.
manvata (3. pk) ; CP. m a n v t ; 1Pv. . : manut m (3. s.) ;
PT. 1 n a n v n ; 1PF. m a n u t a (3. s.) ; m a n v a t a (3. pl.).
PF. m e n (B. ) ; mamn t he, mamn t e ; OP. mamany t ;
1Pv. mamandhI. PPF. m a m a n (3. s.). AO. root : m a t a ;
m a n m a h i ; sB. m n m a h e , m n a n t a ; PT. m a n n ;
s : . masta ; m a s t m ; masata ; sn.
msai, msase, msate and msatai (TS.) ;
msante ; 1NJ. m s t h s , masta and m s t a (Av.) ;
OP. masy, mash s , m a s ;
mamsmhi;
LIST OF vERBS
405
masrata ; 1pv. mandhvam (B.). FT. maniy ; ma

syte (B.). PP. mat. GD. matya (B.), INF. 1nntave,
m n t a v i ; m n t o s (B.). cs. m n y a t i ; oP. m n y e t .
Ds. m m sate (AV.), ti (B.) ; Ao. is : m m s i h s
(B.). PP. m m s i t (AV.),
mand exhilarate, I. : PR. m n d a t i , te. PP. m a m n d a ; B.
mamandat ; PT. I. m a m a n d . PPP. m a m a n d u r . Ao.
root : m a n d r ; PT. m a n d n ; is : m a n d t ; m a n d i u r ;
mndia (3. s. .) ; manditm (3. du. .) ; oP. mandi
mhi (VS.). 1NF. manddhyai. es. mandyati ; 1NF.
1nandaydhyai .
1. m measure, III. : PR. mime, m imite ; mimte ; mim
mahe,
mimate;
oP.
mimys,
mimyt;
1Pv.
mimh,
m m t u ; m i m t m , m i m t m ; . i m v a ; m i m t h m ;
PT. m m n a . 1PP. m i m t h s , m i m t a . PF. m a m t u r ;
m a m r ; m a m (1. 3.) ; mam t e ; m a m i r ; Ao. root :
iPv. m h ; m s v ; PT. m n a (TS.) ; s : m s i ; sn.
m s tai (AV.). Ps. Ao. m y i ; PP. m i t ; Gnv. m y a
(AV.). GD. mitv ; 1nya. INF. m, mi.
2. m bellow, III. P. : PR. 1nmti ; mimanti. PF. mim y a;
sn. m m a y a t .
PPF. m m e t . 1NF. m t avi.
1NT. PT.
mmyat.
m i fix, v. P. : PR. m i n m i , m i n t i ; sB. m i n v m a ; 1NJ.
m i n v n ; 1Pv. m i n t u . 1PF. m i n v n . P P . mimaya ;
m i m y r . Ps. 1nyte; PT. m y m n a ; P P . m i t . GD.
mitya (B.).
m i k mix : P P . m i m i k t h u r , m i m i k t u r ; m i m i k ;
m i m i k i r . 1Pv. m i m i k v . cs. m e k y a t i (B.).
m i t h alternate, I. : PR. m t h m a s i ; . m t h e t e . v l . P. :
PT. m i t h n t . PP. m i m t h a . PP. m i t h i t .
mi mix : Ds. m m i k a t i ; 1Pv. m m i k a ; m m i k a t a m ,
mmikatm.
m i wink, v l . P . : PR. miti ; m i n t i ; PT. m i n t . 1NF.
-misas.
m i h shed water, L : PR. m h a t i ; PT. m h a n t ; m g h a m n a .
406
APPENDIX I
AO. sa : mikat (B.). PT. mekyti. pp. m h . 1NF.

m i h . cs. m e h y a t i . INT. 1n1nihat (B.).
m i damage, IX. : PR. min m i, min t i ; m i n m s i , m i n n t i ;
sB. minat ; min m a ; iNJ. m i n t (Av.) : minan ; PT.
m i n n t ; m i n n . 1PP. m i n s , m i n t ; m i n a n t a .
Iv. . : PR. m y ase, m y ate ; oP. m y e t a (B.). PP. mim y a ;
m m a y a (AV.). Ao. s : 1NJ. mei, mehs, mea.
Ps. m y t e ; Ao. m y i (B.) ; PP. m t . INF. m t o s (B.) ;
m y a m , mye. INT. PT. m m y n a .
m v push, I. P. : PR. m v ati ; PT. m v ant. PP. muta ;
m v i t (B.). GD. m v ya (B.).
muc release, VI. : PR. m u c t i , te ; sB. m u c s i , m u c t ;
1Pv. m u c t u ; . m u c t m ; PT. m u e n t ; muc
m n a . 1PF. m u c a t ; . m u c a t a . I v . : PR. m c
yase ; sB. m e y t a i ( A v ) . PP. m u m u e m h e , m u m u c r ;
sB. mumucas ; m m o c a t i , m m o c a t , mumueat ; 1Pv. mu
m u g d h , m u m k t u ; 2. du. m u m u k t m , m u m c a t a m ;
m u m c a t a ; PT. m u m u c n . PPF. m u m u k t a m . AO.
root : m o k ; m u k t a m ; . m u g d h v a m ; PRC. m u c a ;
a : m u c s , m u c a t ; sn. muc t i ; mue t e ; 1NJ. m u c s ,
m u c t ; 1Pv. m u e ; . m u c d h v a m ; ^ : m a u k (B.) ;
. m u k i , m u k t h s ; 1NJ. mauk (VS.) ; . mukata
(3. pl.) ; oP. m u k y a .
FT. mokyti, te (B.).
Ps.
m u c y t e ; Ao. moci ; INJ. m c i ; PP. m u k t . GD.
muktv (B.); m c y a .
1NP. m o k t u m (B.). Ds. m
mukati, te; mkate (B.); PT. m m u k a m a .
mud be merry, L . : PR. m d a t e . PF. m u m d a . Ao. root :
oP. m u d m h i ; is : PRo. . modihs. Ps. Ao. m o d i .
1NF. m u d . Cs.mcdyati, te (B.) ; Ds. mmodayiati(B.).
mus steal, IX. P. : PR. mu t i ; PT. m u n t ; 1PF. m u s
s , m u t ; m u t a m . L P. : PR. matha. AO.
is : 1NJ. ms. PP. muit. GD. mya. 1NP. mu.
m u h be dazed, I v P. : PR. m h y a t I . PP. m u m h a (B.).
AG. a : m u h a t (B.) ; red. : m m u h a t . FT. mohiyti
(B.),
PP. m u g d h ; m h (AV.). 1NF. m u h . Cs.
m o h y a t i ; GD. mohayitv .
407
m r c h , m r thicken, I. P. : 1PF. m r e h a t . PP. m r t (B.).

es. m r c h y a t i (B.).
1 . m die, I. : PR. m r a t i , m r a t e ; m r m a h e ; sB. m r a t i ;
m r m a ; . m r a i .
PF. mam r a ; m a m r r ; PT.
mamv s. Ao. root : m t a ; I N J . mth s ; oP. mur
iy ; red. : m m a r a t (B.). FT. m a r i s y t i ( A v ) . Ps.
m r i y t e ; PP. mt. GD. mtv (B.). es. m r y a t i .
2. m crush, I X . P . : 1Pv. m h ; PT. m n t . Ps. m r
y t e (B.) ; PP. m r (Av.). 1NT. 1Pv. 1nar1nartu.
1nc injure : Ao. s : PRC. mk. PP. m k t . Cs. marc
y a t i ; sB. m a r e y t .
mj wipe, II. : PR. m r i ; m j n t i ; mj; m j m h e ; 1Pv.
m r u ; . m k v ; m h v m ; PT. mjn ; 1PF.
m (3. s. .) ; mjata. v I I . : oP. mjy t (B.) ; 1Pv.
injni (B.) ; iPF. m j t a (3. pl.),
PF. mam r ja;
m m j r ; mamj and m m j ; oP. m m j t . Ao. sa :
mkat ; m k m a ; . m k a n t a ; 1Pv. m k a t a m ;
r e d . : mmjanta (B.) ; s : m r k t (B.) ; i : mrjt
(B.). PT. m r a k y t e (B.), m a r k y t e (B.); mra (B.).
Ps. m j y t e ; P P . m ; Gnv. m r j y a .
GD. mv ;
mrjitv (B.) ; m j ya. INF. m j as (B.). cs. m a r j y a t i ,
te; m r j y a t i , te (B.). 1NT. m a r m j y t e ; m a r m j
y t e (B.); sB. m r m j a t ; m r m j a n t a ; PT. m r m j a t ;
m r m j n a and marmjn ; marmjymna ; 1PF.
marmjm, marmjata.
m be gracious, vI. : P-^. m t i ; m t e (B.) ; sB. m t i
and m t ; 1Pv. 1n and m t t (Av.), m t u . PF.
oP. m a m y r . cs. m y a t i .
m crush, v L P . : PR. m t i ; 1NJ. m t ; 1Pv. m .
iPF. mat. Ao. root : m y r (K.) ; red. : m m a n .
m d crush: Ao. PRC. mdy s am (B.); FT. m a r d i y t e (B.).
ps. m d y t e (B.); PP. m d i t . GD. m d ya (B.). 1NF.
m r d i t o s (B.).
m d h neglect, I. P. : PR. m r d h a t i . vI. : PR. sB. mdh t i.
Ao. root : op. mdhys ; is : sB. mrdhiat ; 1NJ. mrdh
s ; mardhiam. PP. mddh.
408
APPENDIX
m touch, V I . : PR. 1nti, -te. P P . m m r ; mam

(B.). Ao. Sa: m k a t ; iNJ. m k a s ; 1nkata (2. pl.).
PP. m . GD. m ya. 1NF. m e. CS. m a r y a t i (B.).
INT. sB. m r m a t ; IND. 1 n a r m y t e (B.).
m not heed, I v : PR. m yate. PP. m a m r a . Ao. root :
INJ. m h s ; a : INJ. m n t a ; red. : iNJ. mmas ; is :
iNJ. marihs. 1NP. m e.
med be fut, Iv. P. : 1Pv. m d y a n t u . v l . . : iPv. m e d t m
(3. s.). Cs. m e d y a t i .
m y a k be situated, I. P. : iPv. 1nyka. PF. m i m y k a ;
m i m i k r ; . m i m i k i r .
Ao. root : m y a k ; Ps.
myaki.
mrad crush, I. : PR. 1nrdate ; 1Pv. mrda. FT. mradi
yti, te. iNF. mrade (B.). Cs. mradyati.
mruc, mluc set, L P . : PR. m r e a t i ; m l c a t i (B.) ; PT.
mrcant.
PP. m u m l c a (B.). Ao. a: m r u c a t (B.).
PP. m r u k t (B.) ; m l u k t . 1NF. m r c a .
m l relax, I v . P . : PR. 1nI y ati (B.). PP. m l t ; m l n
(B.). Cs. m I p y a t i .
yaj sacrifice, I. : PR. yjati, te ; sn. y j t i , te; oP. y j e t a ;
1Pv. y j a t u ; y j a n t m ; PT. yjant ; y j a m n a . iPP.
y a j a t ; y a j a n t a . PP. j (1. 3. s.), yej (3. s.) ; j t he
j i r ; PT. jn. Ao. root: IPv. y k v a ; red. : y y a j a t
(B.) ; s: y s , y ; s: y k t ; . yaa (3. s.); sn.
ykat ; du. 2. ykatas, 3. y k a t m ; . ykate ; 1NJ.
y (2. s.) ; . yki (1. s.) ; oP. yaky ; sa : 1Pv. yak
satm (3. du.). Fr. yakyte ; yakyti (B.) ; ya (B.).
PP. i . GD. iv . 1NF. y j a d h y a i ; y a j d h y a i (TS.) ;
y a v e ; yum. Cs. yjyati (B.). Ds. yakati, te ;
sB. y a k n ; PT. yakant ; y a k a m a .
yat stretch, I. .. PR. y t a t i , te; sB. . y t a i t e (3. du.); oP.
ytema ; ytemahi ; 1Pv. ytatam ; . ytasva ; ytan
tm ; PT. ytant ; ytamna. PP. yetir. Ao. root :
PT. y a t n and y t n a ; is : y a t i a (B.). FT. y a t i y t e
(B.). PP. y a t t . GD. y t y a (B.). Cs. y t y a t i , te ;
Ps. y t y t e (B.).
L I S T OF v E R B S
yam stretch out, I. : PR. y e h a t i , te ; sB. y c h t ; op.
ychet; 1pv. ycha and ychatt, ychatu. 1PF. ya
chat ; . yachaths. PP. yayntha, yayama ; yem
thur, y e m t u r ; y e m i m , yem, y e m r ; A . y e m (3.
s.) ; yem t e ; y e m i r ; PT. y e m n . Ao. root : yamam. ;
y a m u r ; sB. y m a s , y m a t i and y m a t ; y m a n ; A .
y m a s e , y m a t e ; oP. y a m m h i ; PRC yamyas (3. s.) ;
1Pv. y a n d h ; yantam ; yanta and yantana ; a : oP.
yamet ; s : ysam, y n (3. s.) ; . y s i (B.),
yasta ; yasata ; sB. ysat ; ysatas ; ysan ;
. ysate ; 1NJ. . yasi ; PT. y a m a s n ; i :
y m i a (3. s. . ) . FT. y a s y t i (B.). Ps. y a m y t e ;
Ao. y m i (B.) ; PP. y a t ; GDv. yasnya. GD. ytya.
1NF. y m i t a v i , y n t a v e ;
y m a m ; y n t u m (B.).
Cs. y m y a t i ; y a m y a t i (B.). Ds. y y a s a t i (B.). 1NT.
yyamti.
yas be heated, III. P. : 1Pv. y y a s t u . Iv. P. : PR. y s y a t i .
PP. y a s t ; y a s i t (B.) .
y go, I L P . : PR. y t i; y n t i ; oP. y y m ; 1Pv. y h ,
y t u ; y t m ; y t and y t n a , y n tu ; PT. y n t. 1PF.
y s , y t ; y t a m ; y m a , y t a n a , y u r (B.). PP.
yay t ha, y a y u ; y a y t h u r ; y a y , y a y r ; PT. y a y i
vas. Ao. s : y s a m ; y s u r ; sB. y s at ; 1NJ. yeam ^
sis : ysiam, y s t ; y s i m ; ysia, ysiur ;
sB. y s iat ; PRC. . ysihs ; Ipv. ysiam ; ysia.
FT. y s y t i . PP. y t . GD. ytv (B.) ; yya (B.).
1NF. y t ave, y t avi (B.) ; yi. es. y p y a t i (B.),
y c ask, I. : PR. y c ati, te. PF. yay c e (B.). Ao. is :
y c t ; ycia (B.) ; sB. yciat ; . y c imahe.
FT. y c i y t e . P P . y c i t ; ycitv and y c ya (B.).
1NF. y c i t u m . cs. y c y a t i .
1. y u unite, V I . : PR. y u v t i , te. II. y u t i ; . y u t ;
sB. y v a n ; 1Pv. yut m (3. s. A.) ; pT. y u v n . PF.
y u y u v . PER. FT. y u v i t a (B.). PP. y u t . GD. y u y a . Ds.
y y a t i . 1NT. y o y u v ; PT. y y u v a t ( A v ) ; y y u v a n a .
2. y u separate, I I I . : PR. y u y t i ; sB. y u y v a t ; 1N.L y u y o
410
APPENDIX I
th s , yuyota; oP. y u y u y t m ; IPv. yuyodhi, y u y t u ;

y u y u t m and y u y t a m ; y u y t a and y u y t a n a . L P . :
PR. y e h a t i ; 1Pv. y e h a n t u ; PT. y c h a n t . Ao. root :
sB. y v a n t a ; oP. yuy t (B.) ; 3. du. yy t m (B.) ; PRC.
yy s (3. s.) ; red. : 1NJ. y y o t ; s: yati and yat ;
yatas ; 1NJ. y a m (Av.) ; y u s (2. s.) ; yauam ;
yauma, yaua, yauur ; . yohs (B.) ; is : 1NJ.
yvs. Ps. Ao. y v i ; PP. y u t . 1NF. y t a v e , y t a v i ;
ytos.
Cs. y v y a t i ; y a v y a t i .
1NT. PT. y y u v a t ;
1PF. y o y a v t ; PP. y o y v a .
yuj join, V I L : y u n k t i ; y u j n t i ; y u k t ; yujte ;
sB. y u n j a t ; y u n j a n ; . y u n j a t e (3. s.) ; 1NJ. y u j t a
(3. pl.) ; iPv. y u d h , y u n k t u ; y u n k t a , y u j n t u ; .
y u k v , yut m ; 2. du. yuj t hm ; y u g d h v m ; PT.
y u j n t ; y u j n ; iPF. y u n a k and yunak ; yujan ;
A . y u j a t a (3. pl.). PF. yuyja ; y u y u j m ; A . y u y u j ;
y u y u j r ; sB. A . y u y j a t e (3. s.); PT. y u y u j n . Ao.
root : A . yuji, y u k t h s , y u k t a ; y u j m a h i , y u g
dhvam, y j a t a and y u j r a n ; sB. yjate ; 1NJ. yjam ;
. y u k t a (3. s.) ; oP. yujyva, yujy t am ; 1Pv. yukv ;
PT. y u j n ; s. : y u k i ; y u k t m (3. .du.) ; yukata
(3. pl.). FT. y o k y t i (B.) ; y o k y t e ; yokt (B.). Ps.
y j y t e ; Ao. yoji ; 1NJ. yji ; PP. y u k t . GD. yuktv ,
yuktv y a. 1NF. yuj ; y k t u m (B.).
y u d h fight, I V . : PR. y d n y a t i , te ; sB. y d h y a i . I V . : iPv.
y d h y a ; PT. y d h y a n t ; y d h y a m n a ; 1PF. y u d h y a s ,
y u d h y a t . I. P . : PR. y d h a n t i (AV.). I I . P . y t s i
(= iPv.). PP. y u y d h a ; y u y u d h r ; . yuyudh t e (3.
du.).
Ao. root : sB. y d h a t ; 1Pv. y d h i ; PT. y o d h n ;
is : y o d h t ; sB. ydhiat ; 1NJ. y d h s ; 1Pv. yodhiam.
FT. y o t s y t i , te (B.). PP. y u d d h .
GDV. y d h y a ,
yudhnya.
GD. yuddhv .
INF. y u d h , y u d h y e ;
y d h a m . Cs. y o d h y a t i . Ds. y y u t s a t i , te.
yup obstruct : PP. y u y p a ; y u y o p i m . Ao. red. : y
yupan (B.). PP. y u p i t . Cs. y o p y a t i . 1NT. yoyup
y t e (B.).
411
ye be heated, I. P . : PR. y a t i ; PT. yant.

r a h hasten, I. : PR. rhate ; PT. r h a m a .
1PF.
r a h a s ; . rahata (3. s.). P P . PT. r r a h . cs.
r a h y a t i , te.
rak proteet, L : PR. rkati, te. P P . r a r k a ; PT. r
r a k . Ao. is : r a k t ; r k t (B.) ; sB. rkias,
rkiat. PP. rakit. Cs. r a k y a t e (B.).
raj eolour, I V . : 1PF. rajyata. PP. r a k t (B.). Cs. r a j y a t i .
1NT. rrajtI.
Pad dig, I. : PR. r d a t i , te ; INJ. r d a t ; 1Pv. r d a ; r d a n t u ;
. r d a n t m (3. pl.) ; PT. r d a n t . 1PF. r a d a t , r d a t .
II. P . : r t s i (= 1Pv.). PP. rar d a. PP. r a d i t .
radh, randh make subject, I V . P . : 1Pv. r d h y a , r d h y a t u .
PP. r r a d h r . Ao. root: 1Pv. r a n d h (= r a n d d h ) ; a :
sB. r d h m a ; 1NJ. r d h a m ; red. : sB. r r a d h ; 1NJ.
r r a d h a s , r r a d h a t ; r r a d h a t a m ; r r a d h a t a ; is : 1NJ.
r n d h s . PP. r a d d h . es. r a n d h y a t i ; sB. r a n d h y s i .
ran rejoice, I. : PR. r a t i ; INJ. ranta ; 1Pv. r a .
Iv
P . : PR. r y a s i , r y a t i ; r y a t h a s ; r y a n t i . P F .
r r a (1. s.) ; sB. rras, r r a t ; rar at (2. pl.).
1NJ. r r n (3. s.) ; 1Pv. r r a n d h i ; r r a n t a (2. pl.), r r n t u .
PPF. r r a u r . Ao. i : r i u r ; 1NJ. riana. es.
rayati.
rap chatter, L P. : PR. r p a t i ; 1NJ. r p a t ; oP. r p e m a .
1PF. r a p a t . 1NT. r r apti.
raps be full, I. . : r p a t e ; r p a n t e . PF. r a r a p .
rabh, rambh grap, L : PR. r b h a t e . P P . r a r a b h m ; A .
r r a b h ; r e b h i r ; PT. r e b h . AG. s : 3. s. . r a b d h a ;
PT. r a b h a s n . PP. r a b d h . GD. r b h y a . 1NP. r b h a m ;
rbhe. es. r a m b h y a t i , te (B.). Ds. r p s a t e (B.).
ram rejoice, L . : PR. r m a t e . I X . P . : 1PF. ramas,
ramt.
Ao. red. : r r a m a t ; sB. r r a m m a ; 1NJ.
r r a m a n ; s : . rasta (3. s.) ; rasata (3. pl.) ; 1NJ.
rasth s ; sis : INJ. rasiam. FT. r a s y t e ; t i (B.).
PP. r a t (B.), GD. ratv (B.). 1NF. r n t o s (B.). cs.
r a m y a t i and r m y a t i .
412
APPENDIX
1. r give, m . . iPv. r i r h i ; . r a r s v a (Av) ; r a r t h m

(3. du.) ; r a r d h v a m ; sB. r r a t e ; PT. r r a . IL : PR.
rasi (=iPv.) ; r t (B.) ; PP. r a r i m ; r a r (1. s.), rari ;
r a r t h e ; PT. rariv s ; r a r . Ao. root : r d h v a m ;
1Pv. s va; s: r s m a ; r s a t a (3. pl.); sB. r s at ;
rasan; . r s ate (3. s.) ; oP. r s y ; 1Pv. . r s a t m
(3. s.) ; r s t h m (2. du.) ; r s a n t m (3. pl.) ; PP. r t .
2. r bark, Iv. F . : PR. r y asi ; iPv. r y a ; PT. r y ant.
rj rule, I. P . : PR. r j ati. I L P . : PR. r i ; iNJ. r . Ao.
is : rjiu.r. iNF. rjse. Cs. r j y a t i (B.), te.
r d h succeed, Iv. . : 1Pv. r d h y a t m ; PT. r d h y a m n a .
V. P . : PR. r d h n t i (B.). PP. rar d ha. Ao. root : r d h
am (B.) ; sB. r d h a t and r d h a t i ; r d h m a ; PRC.
rdhy s am ; rdhy s ma ; red. : r r a d h a t (B.) ; s :
r t s s ; is : iNJ. r d h i i (1. s.). FT. r t s y t i . Ps. Ao.
r d h i ; PP. r d d h ; GDv. r d hya. GD. r d d h v (B.).
r d h y a ( B ) . 1NF. i r d h y a i . Cs. r d h y a t i .
r i flow, IX. : PR. r i t i ; r i t h s ; r i n t i ; . r i t ;
r i t e ; iNJ. ri s ; r i n ; PT. r i n t ; r i n . iPF.
ri s , r i t ; r i t a m ; r i t a .
IV. : PR. r y ate ;
r y a n t e ; PT. r y ama.
ric leave, VIL P . : PR. r i k t i ; sn. r i c v a ; 1NJ. r i k
(3. s.). 1PF. r i a k (2. s.) ; r i k (3. s.). PP. r i r c a ;
r i r i c t h u r ; . r i r i k , riric ; riric t he ; r i r i c r ; oP.
ririey m , riricy t ; PT. ririkv s ; r i r i c n .
PPF.
rirect. Ao. root : 1NJ. . rikth s ; 1Pv. r i k t m ; s :
raik (3. s.) ; . r i k i ; red. : r r i c a t (B.). FT. r e k y t e
(B.). Ps. r i c y t e ; 1PF. r i c y a t a ; Ao. reci ; PP. r i k t .
Cs. r e c y a t i (B.),
r i p smear : PF. r i r i p r . PP. r i p t . Cp. l i p .
r i b h sing, I. P . : PR. r b h a t i ; r b h a n t i ; PT. r b h a n t . 1PF.
r b h a t . PP. r i r b h a . Ps. r i b h y t e .
ri tear, VI. : PR. ri m ahe ; 1Pv. r i n t m ; PT. r i n t .
PP. r i .
r i be hurt, IV. : PR. r y a t i ; sB. r y s , r y t i and r y t ;
op. ryet ; ryema. I. P . : sB. r t ; 1NJ. rat. Ao.
LIST OF v E R B S
413
a : rian ; sB. r i m a , r i t h a and r i t h a n a ; PT. rant

and r ant ; red. : 1NJ. rrias, rriat ; rriata (2. pl.) ;
oP. rries; PRC. . rria and r i r i a (3. s.). PP.
r i . INF. r i ; r i s . es. reyati ; INF. r i a y d h y a i .
Ds. r r i k a t i .
ri h lick, II. : PR. r h i ; r i h n t i ; 3. pl. r i h t e and
r i h a t ; PT. r i h n t ; r i h a (vS.) and r i h . P P . P T .
ririhv s. PP. r h .
1NT. r e r i h y t e ; PT. r r i h a t ;
r r i h a . Cp. l i h .
1. r u cry, V I . P . : PR. r u v t i ; 1NJ. r u v t ; 1Pv. r u v ; PT.
ruvnt.
II. (B.) r u t i ; r u v n t i . PP. r u r u v i r (B.).
Ao. is : r v t ; r v i u r . PP. r u t . 1NT. r r a v t i ; PT.
r r u v a t ; r r u v a (B.) ; IPF. r o r a v t .
2. r u break : Ao. is : r v iam. PP. r u t . 1NT. PT^ r r u v a t .
ruc shine, I. : PR. r c a t e . PP. r u r c a ; r u r u c r ; r u r u c
(3. s.) ; 1NJ. r u r u c a n t a ; oP. r u r u e y s ; PT. r u r u k v s ;
r u r u c n . Ao. root : PT. r u c n ; red. : r r u c a t ; .
r r u e a t a (3. s., B.) ; is : . rocia (3. s.) ; oP. rueiy
(AV.) and rociy (B.). Ps. Ao. roci. PP. r u c i t (B.).
1NF. r u e . cs. r o c y a t i ; te (B.). 1NT. PT. r r u c n a .
ruj break, I. P . : PR. r u j t i . PP. r u r j i t h a , r u r j a . A0.
root: 1NJ. r k ; r e d . : r r u j a t a m (2. du.). PP. rug.
GD. ruktv (B.) ; r j y a (B.), 1NF. rje.
r u d weep, II. P . : PR. r d i t i ; r u d n t i ; sB. r d t (Kh.) ;
PT. r u d n t .
IPF. r o d t (B.).
Ao. a : r u d a t .
es.
rodyati.
L r u d h obstûet, V I I . : P R . r u d h m i , r u d d h i ; . r u n d h
( r u n d d h ) ; rundhate (3. pl.) ; sB. . r u d h m a h a i ;
1Pv. r u n d h (= r u n d d h ) ; . r u n d h m (= r u n d d h m ,
3. s.) ; PT. r u n d h n ; i P F . . r u n d h a t a (3. pl.). P F .
rurdhitha ; . rurudhr. Ao. root : rodham ; rudh
ma ; a : rudhat ; rudhan ; 1NJ. udht ; PT. rudh
n t ; s : r a u t ; r a u t s t (B.) ; A . r u t s i (B.), r u d d h a
(B.). FT. r o t s y t i , te (B.). Ps. r u d h y t e ; PP. r u d d h .
GD. r d h y a . 1NF. r d h a m , r n d h a m (B.), r d h a m
(B.); r d d h o s (B.). Ds. r r u t s a t e (B.),
414
APPENDIX
2. r u d h grow, I. P. : PR. r d h a t i ; INJ. r d h a t .

rup break, I v P . : PR. r p y a t i (B.), Ao. red. : r r u p a t .
pp. r u p i t . Cs. r o p y a t i (B.),
r u h ascend, I. : PR. r h a t i , te. PF. r u r h i t h a , r u r h a ;
r u r u h r . Ao. root : PT. r h a ; a : r u h a m , r u h a s ,
r u h a t ; r u h m a , r u h a n ; sB. ruh v a ; 1NJ. ruham,
r h a t ; oP. r u h m a ; 1Pv. r u h ; r u h t a m ; sa : ruks,
rukat; rukma.
FT. r o k y t i (B.). PP. r u h .
GD. rhv , rhya. 1NF. r h a m ; r h i y a i (TS.) ;
r h u m (B.). Cs. r o h y a t i ; te (B.) ; r o p y a t i (B.).
ns. r r u k a t i .
rej tremble, I. : PR. rjati, te; 1NJ. r j a t ; r j a n t a (3. pl.) ;
PT. r j a m n a ; 1PF. rejetm (3. du.) ; rejanta. cs.
rejyati.
lap prate, I. P . : PR. l p a t i ; PT. I p a n t . FT. Iapiyti (B.).
PP. Iapit. Cs. I p y a t i ; te (B.). 1NT. I l apti.
labh take, I. . : PR. l b h a t e . PP. lebhir ; PT. l e b h n .
AG. s (B.) : . l a b d h a ; lapsata. FT. Iapsyti, te (B.).
Ps. l a b h y t e (B.) ; PP. l a b d h . GD. lahdhv ; l b h y a
(B.). Cs. l a m b h y a t i , te (B.). Ds. l p s a t e ; lipsate (B.) ;
Ps. l i p s y t e (B.).
l i k h scratch, vl. : PR. l i k h t i ; te (B.). PP. l i l k h a (B.).
AC. red. : l l i k h a t (B.) ; is : 1NJ. l k h s . PP. l i k h i t .
GD. l k h y a (B.).
lip smear, VI. P . : PR. l i m p t i . PP. lilpa, l i l i p r (B.).
AO. s : l i p s a t a (3. pl.). Ps. l i p y t e (B.) ; PP. l i p t . GD.
lpya (B.).
lihlick, II. : PR. ldhi(B.). Cs. l e h y a t i . INT. PP. lelihit(B.).
l cling, I. . : PR. l y a t e ; 1Pv. l y a n t m . PF. l i l y (B.) ;
l i l y r ; lay cakre. AG. s : lea (B.). pp. ln.
Cs. l a p y a t i (B.), 1NT. lel y ati; PF. lel y a.
l u p break, VI. P . : PR. l u m p t i ; op. l u m p t . ps. l u p y t e ;
PP. l u p t . GD. lpya. Cs. l o p y a t i , te (B.).
l u b h desire, IV. P. : PR. l b h y a t I . Ao. red. : l l u b h a t
(B.), pp. l u b d h (B.). Cs. I o b h y a t i ; Ds. llobha
y i a t i (B.).
415
lu eut (B.), I X . P . : PR. 1unti. v. P . : PR. Iunti. PP.

ln.
Vak inerease (=2. uk) : PF. vavkitha, vavka ; va
vaktur ; vavakr ; . vavak ; vavakir. PPF.
vavkat. cs. vakyati.
vac speak, I I I . P . : PR. vvakmi, vvakti ; IPv. vvaktana.
PP. uvktha, uvca and vavca; cim, cr; .
uci ; PT. cn. Ao. root : PRC ucysam (B.) ; red. :
vocat ; sB. vc, vcasi, vcati and vcati ; vcma ;
. vcvahai; 1NJ. vcam, vcas, vcat; vcan; .
vce; vcanta; op. vocyam, vocs, vct; vbetam;
vocma, vocyur ; . vocya ; voemahi ; 1Pv. vocatt,
voCatu ; vocatam ; vocata. FT. vaksyti ; co. vaksyat
(B.) ; vakt (B.), Ps. ucyte; ô. vci; pp. ukt;
GDv. vCya. GD. uktv (B.) ; -cya (B.). 1NF. vktave ;
vce ; vktum (B.) ; vktos (B.), es. vcyati (B.).
Ds. vVakati, -te (B.). 1NT. 1PF. vavact.
vaj be strong ; cs. strengthen : PR. vjymas, -masi ; .
vjyate ; 1Pv. vjya ; PT. vjyant.
vac move crookedly, I. P . : PR. vcati. PF. vvakr. Ps.
vacyte.
vat apprehend, I. : PR. op. vtema ; PT. vtant. AO. red. :
vvatan. es. vtyati.
Vad speak, I. : PR. vdati, -te ; sB. vdni, vdasi and
vds, vdti ; vdthas ; vdma, vdn ; 1NJ. vdat ;
0P. vdet; . vdeta; ipv. vda, vdat; . vdasva ;
vdadhvam ; PT. vdant. 1PF. vadan ; . vadanta.
PF. dim ; d (B.). AO. root : PRC udysam (B.); i :
vdiam ; vdiur ; . vdiran (AV.) ; sB. vdias ;
1NJ. vdiur. FT. vadiyti ; -te (B.). ps. udyte ; pp.
udit. GD. -udya (B.). 1NF. vditum (B.) : vditos (B.).
es. vadyati, -te (B.) ; ps. vadyte (B.). Ds. vvadiati
(B.). 1NT. vvadti; 1pv. vavadtu; PT. vavadat; .
vvadyte (B.).
vadh slay, I. P . : op. vdheyam, vdhet ; 1pv. vdha.
AO. root : PRC. vadhysam ; op. vadhyt (B.) ; i : -
416
APPENDIX
vadhiam and v d h m , v a d h s , v a d h t and v d h t ;

vadhima;
sn.vhias;
1NJ.
vdhs,
vdht;
vadh
ia and vadhiana (2. pl.), vadhiur ; . vadhihs ;
1pv. vadhiam (2. du.).
van win, V I I I . : PR. v a n s i , v a n t i ; v a n u t h s ; . vanv,
v a n u t ; sB. v a n v a t ; . v a n v a s e ; 1NJ. vanvan ; op.
vanuyama ; 1Pv. v a n v n t u ; . vanuv, vanut m ;
v a n u d h v m , v a n v t m ; PT. v a n v n t ; v a n v n ; 1PF.
vanos ; v a n v a n ; . v a n v a t a .
V I . and I. : PR.
v a n t i and v n a t i ; . vanase, v n a t e ; sB. van t i ;
v n s ; v n v a ; . v n m a h a i ; 1NJ. vanas ; . vanta
( = v a n a n t a ) ; op. v a n s ; v a n m a ; v a n m a h i ; 1pv.
v n a t a m ; vanata ; . v a n a t m (3. s.). PF. v v n t h a ,
vvna ; vavanm ; . vavn ; sB. vvnat ; 1pv. v
vandh ; PT. vavanvs. Ao. root : vsva ; sB. v
sat ; v s m a ; . vsate ; iNJ. v s i ; op. vasi
m h i and v a s m h i ; i s : sn. v n i a t ; . vnianta.
PRC. v a n i ; sis : oP. vasiy. PP. vta. INF.
vantave. Cs. v n y a n t u . Ds. vvsati ; sB. v v s t .
vand greet, L . : PR. v n d a t e . PF. v a v n d a ; v a v a n d i m ;
. v a v a n d ; v a v a n d i r .
Ao. i : ôP. vandimhi.
Ps. Ao. v n d i ; PP. v a n d i t ; GDv. v n d y a . 1NF.
vanddhyai.
Vap strew, L : PR. v p a t i , te. PF. p h u r ; . p i ,
p (3. s.). Ao. s: v p s t (B.). FT. v a p s y t i (B.).
Ps. u p y t e ; AO. ^ v p i ; PP. u p t . GD. p y a . Cs.
v p y a t i (B.).
vam vomit, I I . : sB. v m a n . 1PF. v a m t ; v a m a t (B.).
PP. uv m a (B.). AO. s : v n (B.). PP. v n t (B.).
valg leap, I. P . : PR. v l g a n t i . 1PF. v a l g a t a (2. pl.), PT.
vlgant.
v a desire, II. : PR. vmi, v k i , v i ; u m s i and msi,
u n t i ; 1P v. v u ; P T. u n t ; u n .
I. P. : PR.
v a n t i ; sB. v m a ; 1NJ. v a t ; 1PF. vaat. III. P.^ :
PR. v a v k i ; v i v a i ; IPv. vivau. P F. v v a r ; A .
vva ; PT. v v a n .
L I S T OF vERBS
417
1. vas shine, v I . P . : PR. uch.ti ; sB. uch t ; uch n ; 1NJ.

u c h t ; op. u c h t ; Ipv. u c h , u c h t u ; u e h t a , u c h n t u ;
PT. u e h n t ; IPF. u e h a s u c h a t . PF. uv s a; u (2.
pl.), r ; PT. I. (TS.). Ao. root : vas (2. 3. s.) ;
. v a s r a n ; s : v t (3. s.). Go. v a t s y a t (B.), PP. u.
1NF. v s t a v e . es. v s y a t i .
2. vas wear, I I . . : PR. v s t e ; v s t h e ; v s a t e (3. pl.);
INJ. v s t a (3. s.) ; v s a t a (3. pl.) ; oP. v a s m a h i ; 1Pv.
vsiva, v s t m (3. s.) ; v s t h m (TS.) ; PT. v s n a ;
IPF. v a s t h s ; vasta.
PP. v v a s ; PT. v v a s n .
Ao. i : vasia (3. s.). es. vsyati, te ; FT. vs
ayiyte.
3. vas dwell, L : PR. v s a t i ; v s a t e (B.). PP. t u r ;
i m ; PT. iv s ; v v a s n . PER. vs cakre (B.).
Ao. root : v s n a ; red. : vvasat ; s : vtss. FT.
v a t s y t i (B.). GD. uitv (B.) ; ya (B.). Ds. v v a t s a t i
(B.). es. v s y a t i , te ; Ps. v s y t e (B.).
Vah earry, L : PR. vhati, te. PP. uvha ; hthur, h
tur ; hr; . hi ; hir. Ao. root: oP. uht; 1Pv.
v o h m (2. du.), voh m ; . v o h v m ; PT. h n a ; s:
v , v ; v k u r ; sB. vkas, v k a t i and vkat ;
vkathas, vkatas ; vkan ; 1NJ. vkt. FT. vak
yti ; voh (B.). Ps. uhyte; pp. h. GD. hv
(B.) ; h y a . INF. v h u m ; vhave, v h a v i (B.) ;
vhe ; vhadhyai. cs. vhyati (B.) ; 1NT. van
vhyte (B.).
1. v blow, H. P . : PR. v m i, v t i ; v t s ; v n ti ; 1pv.
v h i , v t u ; pT. v n t ; IPF. v t . I v . P . : PR. v y ati ;
v y atas ; v y anti. PF. v a v u (B.), AG. sis : vst (B.).
cs. v p y a t i .
2. va weave, I v : PR. v y a t i ; v y a t e (B.); Ipv. v y a ;
v y a t a ; PT. v y a n t ; IPF. v a y a t ; v a y a n . PF. u v r .
FT. v a y i y t i . ps. y t e (B.) ; pp. u t . 1NF. t u m ;
t a v e , t a v i ; v t ave (Av.).
vajay desire booty, den. : PR. PT. v j a y n t .
v a c h desire, I. P . : 1pv. v chantu.
418
APPENDIX
va bellow, I. P . : PR. vati. I V . . : PR. v y a t e . PF.

VaVair and VaVar ; PT. VaVan. PPF. vavatm
(3. du.) ; vvaanta. AO. red. : vvaat ; vvaan ;
. vvaanta; i: . vihs (B.). 1NT. PT. v
vaat.
Cs.
vyati.
vic sifu V I I . P . : PR. vicnti ; 1Pv. vinktu ; PT. vmcnt ;
1PF. Vinak. I l l . P . : PR. vveki. PF. PT. vivikvs.
Ps. vicyte ; PP. vikt (B.).
vij tremble, V I . : PR. vijnte ; 1Pv. vijntm ; PT^vijmna ;
1PF. vije. PP. vivijr.
AO. root : 1NJ. A . vikths,
vikt; r e d . : 1NJ. vvijas. Ps. vikt. Cs. vejyati (B.).
INT. V e V i j y t e ; PT. V V i j n a .
1. vid know, I I . P . : P R . vidms ; sB. vdas, vdati and

vdat; vdathas; OP. vidym, vidyt; vidytam;
vidyma, vidyr ; IPv. viddh and vittt, vttu ; vittm.
1PF. vedam, vet and vt ; vidur (B.). PP. vda (1. 3.),
vttha ; vidthur ; vidm, vid, v i d r ; A . vidmhe
(B.), vidr ; PER. vid cakra (B.) ; PT. vidvs. Ac.
is: vedit(B.); PER. vidm akran (B.). FT. vediyti,
te (B.) ; vedit (B.). P P . vidit. GD. viditv. 1NF.
vidmne; vditum (B.); vditos (B:). Cs. vedyati,
te. Ds. vvidiati (B.),
2. vid flnd, V I . : PR. vindti, -te. II. vits, vid (3. s.) ;
vidr ; 1Pv. viddh ; A . 3. s. vidm (AV.) ; PT. vdna
and vidan. PP. vivditha, vivda ; vividthur ; vi
vidr; A . vivid, vivits; vividr a n d vividrir; sB.
vividat ; PT. vividvs.
AC. a : vidam, vidas,
vidat; v^dma, vidan; A . vidanta; sn. vidas,
vid t ; vidthas; vidtha; iNJ. vidm, vids, vidt;
vidn; . vidta(3. s.); vidnta; op. vidyam, vidt;
v i d m a ; . v i d y a ; PRC. videa ( A V . ) ; 1pv vidtam;
PT. vidant ; s : . vitsi. FT. vetsyti, te (B.). ps.
vidyte; AO. vedi, vdi; pp. vitt; vinn. Gnv.
vid y ya. GD. vittv, -vdya (B.). iNP. vid, vttave ;
vttos (B.). ns. vvitsati (B.). iNT. sB. vvidma. pr.
v v i d a t ; vvidana.
LIST OF vERBS
419
Vidh worship, vI. : sn. vidhti ; 1NJ. vidht ; vidhn ; .

vidhnta ; op. Vidhma ; vidhmahi ; PT. vidhnt ;
1PF. vidhat.
vip tremble, I. : PR. vpate ; PT. vpamna ; IPF. vepanta.
PF. vivipr. AO. rcot : PT. vipan ; red. : vvipat ; 1^ :
vepia (B.). cs. vepyati, vipyati.
vi enter, vI. : PR. viti, -te. PF.^ viva (1. 3.), vivitha ;
vivir and (once) viveur; . vivir; OP. viviy s ;
PT. V i V i i v s (TS.), - v i i v s (Av.). PPF. vives.
AO. root : . viran ; s : vikmahi, vikata (3 pl.) ;
i: 1NJ. Vt; sa: Vkat (B.), FT. vekyti (B.),
pp. vi. GD. vya. 1NF. viam ; vavi (B.). CS.
veyati, -te.
vi be active, III. : PR. vveki, vve ; vivis ; vivi
ms ; sB. vveas ; 1pv. vivih ; 1PF. vives and vivs
(2. s.), Vivs (3. s.). I. P . : PT. Vant; 1PF. Vean.
PF. ViVa ; ViVir. PPF. ViVes. AO. i : Vas.
FT. vekyti, -te (B.). ps. viyte (B.) ; pp. vi. GD.
ViV; -Vya. 1NF. Ve. 1NT. VVemi; VeViyte
(B.) ; OP. veviyt ; PT. vviat ; vvia.
vi, ve wrap, I. P . : 1pv. vatam (3. du.). pp. viit.
es. veyati, -te (B.).
v enjoy, II. : vmi, vi, vti ; vths ; vynti ; sB.
vyati ; iNJ. vs ; 1pv. vh, vh and vtt, vtu ; vtm ;
vyntu; PT. vynt; vyn.^ 1PF. vyan. PF. viv y a;
vivy. Ao. s. : sB. vat. ps. vyte. pp. vt. INF.
Vtye. INT. vveti ; vevyte.
v make strong : es. sB. vyasi ; IPv. vyasva. pp.
vit.
1. v cover, V. : PR. vti ; . vv ; vvte and v
Vat; PT. VVnt; IPF. vos, vot; . vvata
(3. pl.) ; PR. rmi, urti ; uruths, uruts ; .
ru, rut ; 1NJ. urot ; 1pv. ruh and ur, r
tu ; urut, ruvntu ; . ruv ; PT. ruvnt ;
rvn ; 1PF. uros, urot. I. : PR. vrathas ; .
vrate; vrethe; vrante; sn. vrte; INJ. vranta.
420
APPENDIX
I X . : 1PF. v d h v a m (AV.). P F . v a v r t h a , vav r a ;

v a v r r ; . VaVr; PF. VaVVs. PPF. vvart. Ao.
root: vm (= vram), var and v r (2. 3. s.); v r a n ;
. vta ; 1NJ. v r (2. 3. s.) ; v r n ;^ 1pv. v d h ; vartam ;
varta ; vra ; red. : v v a r a n ; . vvarata (3. s.) ; s :
sB. vrathas ; i : v r t (B.). ps. Ao. v r i ; pp. v t .
GD. vtv , vtv ; vtv y a ; v t ya. INF. v r t a v e . Cs.
v r y a t i , te ; Ds. vvrayiate (B.). INT. v a r v a r .
2. v choose, I X . . : PR. v , v s , v t ; v m h e ,
v t e ; 1NJ. v t (3. s.) ; OP. v t ; 1pv. vv ;
v d h v m , v t m ; PT. v n ; i P F . v, v t a ;
v m a h i . P F . vav ; v a v m h e . AO. root : vri,
v t a ; sB. v r a s , v r a t ; v r a n t a ; iNJ. v t (3. s. ) ; op.
vurt (3. s.) ; PT. ur ; s : vi ; vhvam (B.), v
ata. FT. variyte (B.). PP. vt. GDv. vrya ; vreya.
vj twist, V I I . : PR. v k i , v k t i ; v j n t i ; . vj,
v k t ; vj t e ; vjte ; B. vjan ; 1Pv. v d h ,
v k t u ; v k t , v j n t u ; . v k v . 1PF. vak
(2. 3. s.) ; vjan. PP. vavjr ; . vvj ; oP. vavj
yr ; 1Pv. vavktm (2. du.) ; PT. I. vavarj ; ()varju
( A v ) . Ao. root : v r k (2. 3. s.), v k (AV.) ; vjan ;
. v k t a ; B. vrjati ; vrjate ; 1NJ. v r k ; oP. vjym ;
vjy m a ; PRC. vjy s (3. s.) ; 1Pv. varktam (2. du.) ;
s : v r k s (B.) ; . v k m a h i ; 1NJ. . v k i ; sa :
v k a m . FT. varkyti, te (B.). Ps. v j y t e ; PP.
V k t . GD. v k t v ; v j ya.
1NF. v j e; v j d h y a i ;
vjse. Cs. varjyat1. Ds. vvkate (B.), 1NT. PT.
Vrvjat ; Cs. PT. v a r v a r j y a n t ( A v ) .
Vtturn, I. . : v r t a t e . PP. v a v r t a a n d v v r t a ; v a v t r ;
A . v v t ; sB. v a v r t a t i , v a v r t a t and v a v t a t ; oP.
Vavty m , vavty s , vavty t ; 1Pv. v a v t t n a (2. pl.);
PT. vavtvs. PPF. v a v t r a n ; . vavtranta. AO.
root : v a r t ; . v t r a n ; sB. v r t a t ; 1Pv. varta
(= vartta, 2. pl.); a: v t a t r e d . : vvtat ; s: A .
vtsata. FT. v a r t s y t i ; v a r t i t (B.). Co. v a r t s y a t (B.).
PP. V t t . GD. V t ya.
1NF. V t e; V t as (B.). Cs.
421
v a r t y a t i , te ; Ps. v a r t y t e (B.) ; INF. v a r t a y d h y a i .

Ds. vvtsati ; te (B.). 1NT. v r v a r t i (= v r v a r t t i ) and
v a r v a r t i (= v a r v a r t t i ) ; v r v t a t i (3. pl.) ; . varvt
y t e (B.) ; 1PF. varvar (3. s.) ; v a r v u r (3. pl.).
v d h grow, I. : PR. v r d h a t i , te.
PP. v a v r d h a ; Va
v d h t u r ; v v d h r ; . v v d h ; vvdh t e ; ^B.
v v d h t i ; . vvdhate ; 0P. vvdhth s ; ipv.
v v d h s v a ; PT. vvdhv s ; . v v d h n . PPF.
Vvdhanta. Ao. a : vdham, vdhat ; v d h m a ,
v d h a n ; PT. v d h n t ; v d h n ; red. : vvi'dhat ;
vvdhan ; . vvdhadhvam, vvdhanta ; s : PT.
v d h a s n ; i : oP. vardhimhi.
P P . v d d h . 1NF.
v d h ; v d h s e ; v v d h d h y a i (PP.),
Cs. v a r d h
yati, te. 1NT. GDv. v v d h n y a .
v rain, I. P. : PR. vrati ; iPv. vrantu ; PT. vrant.
V I . . : v s v a ; v t h m (2. du.). PF. 1Pv. vv asva ;
PT. v v . Ao. s : vars, vart. FT. variyti
(B.) ; vra ( MS.). PP. v. ^ D . vv ; vv (B.) ;
vros (B.). Cs. varyati.
v h tear, V I . P. : PR. v h t i ; iNJ. v h t ; o P . v h v a ; 1Pv.
v h and v t t ; v h t a m ; v h t a ; iPF. vhas. PF.
v a v r h a . A o . sa: vkat (B.). Ps. v h y t e (B.) ; Ao.
v r h i ; PP. v h (B.). GD. v h ya. 1NF. vhas.
ven long, L P. : PR. v n a t ; iNJ. vnas ; 1Pv. v n a t a m
(2. du.) ; PT. v n a n t . 1PF. v e n a t .
vyac extend, III. P . : P R ^ V i v i k s (3. du.) ; 1NJ. vivyak (3.
s.). 1PF. v i v y a k ; v i v i k t m (3. du.) ; v1vyacur. PF.
v i v y k t h a , vivy c a. PPF. v i v y c a t ; . vivyacanta.
v y a t h waver, I. : PR. v y t h a t e . Ao. red. : vivyathas (B.) ;
is : sB. vythiat ; 1NJ. v y t h i h s ; vythimahi. PP.
v y a t h i t . 1NF. vyathiyai (B.). Cs. v y a t h y a t i ; Ac.
v y a t h a y s (AV.).
vyadh pierce, I V . P. : PR. v d h y a t i . PP. v i v y d h a (B.) ;
PT. vividhv s. Ao. s : vy t ss (B.). Pp. v i d d h . INF.
v d h e . Cs. v y d h y a t i (B.). Ds. v v y a t s a t i (B.).
v y envelope, I V . : PR. v y y a t i , te ; op. v y y e y a m ; 1pv.
422
APPENDIX I
v y y a s v a ; PT. v y y a n t . IPF. v y a y a m , vyayât. PF.

v i v y a t h r ; . v i v y ; PT. v l v y n ; PER. PF. vyay
cakara (B.), Ac. a : v y a t ; v y a t a (2. pi.); A. v y a t a
(3. s.) and v y t a .
ps. v y t e (B.) ; pp. vt.
GD.
v y a (B.).
vraj proceed, I. P. : 1Pv. v r j a t a (2. pl.); PT. vrjant. PF.
vavr j a. AO. is : vrjt (B.). FT. vrajiyti (B.), PP.
vrajit (B.). GD. vrjya (B.), es. v r a j y a t i (B.).
v r a c cut up, VI. P. : PR. v c t i ; sB. vc t ; INJ. v c s ;
Iv. : vc, v c t u ; PT. v c n t . 1P F. v c a t and
vct. Ps. v c y t e ; PP. v k . GD. vv ; vktv .
as praise, L : PR. sati, -te. P P . asa (B.) ; aas (B.), Ao.root: IPv. a s t ( 2 . p b ) ; i s : asiam,
a s t ; sB. sias, siat; 1NJ. siam. FT.
a s i y t i (B.),
rs. a s y t e ; Ao. s i ; pp. a s t ;
GDv. sya ; astavya (B.), GD. astv (B.). 1NF. -se.
a k be able, v. P. : PR. a k n m i , a k n t i ; a k n u v n t i ;
sB. aknVma. P1 F. aknuVan. PF. a k a ; ekim,
ek, e k r . AO. root : B. k a s , k a t ; OP. aky m ;
1pv. agdh, a k t m ; a: a k a m , a k a t ; a k a n ;
1NJ. a k a n ; OP. a k y a m ; a k m a . FT. a k y t i , -te
(B.). 1NF. ktaVe. Ds. kat, -te.
1. a d prevail : PF. a a d r ; . a a d m h e , a d r ; PT.
adna.
2. adfall: PF. a d a (B.) ; e d r (B.). FT. a t s y t i .
ap curse, I. : PR. p a t i ; p a t e (Av.) ; sB. p a t a s (3.
du.); PT. p a n t . 1PF. a p a t a (2. pl.). PF. sa p a;
ep (1. 3. s.), epi. AO. s: 1NJ. a p t a (2. pl.), pp.
a p t (B.). cs. s p y a t i .
1. a m , i m labour, Iv. P.: m y a t i (B.); m y a t i ; 1pv.
m y a n t u ; PT. m y a n t . PF. a a m ; sB. amate
(3. s.) ; PT. a a m n . AO. is : . amihas, amia.
pp. a m t (B.).
2. am, be ûiet, IV. (B.) : PR. m yati, te. PF. a m a
(B.); e m r (B.), AO. a : a m a t (B.); red.: amat.
pp. n t . es. s a m y a t i .
LIST OF VERBS
423
s shaken, III. : PR. m i , ^ t i ; i m s ; . s i s t e ;

IPV. h , a t u ;
na.
i t m , i t m ; i t (2. p l . ) ; PT.
1PF. i s ,
-an.
PP. i t .
it;
- ita
(3. s.).
PF. PT.
GD. - y a.
s order, IL : a s m i , a s s i ; . s t ; s m h e , a s t e ;
sB. a s a n ;
sana.
1Pv. a d h ;
1PF. s a m ;
stna,
astu ;
PT. s a t ;
. s a t a (3. pl.).
a s r ; 1NJ. a s ; 1Pv. a d h .
PF. a ^ s a ;
Ao. root : sB. a s a s ;
a : . i m a h i ; 1NJ. a t ; P T. i n t .
PP . i ;
GD.
-ya(B.),
i k ( = Ds. of a k ) be helpful: PR. k a t i , - t e ; sB. k s ,
k t ; k n ; 1NJ. k a t ; oP . k e y a m ; k e m a ;
iPv.
ka,
ama.
i
k a t u ; k a t a m ; P T. k a n t ; . k
iP F. i k a s ;
ikatam.
leave, VII. P. : P R. i n i (B.).
ias.
FT. e k y t i ,
-te (B.),
PP. i i
(B.). Ao. a :
P s. i y t e ;
A0.
i;
PP. i . ^ GD. - i y a (B.),

lie, II.
. : PR. e ,
ye
(3. s.) ; y t e
(3. du.) ;
m a h e , r e and r a t e ; or. y y a , y t a (3. s.) ; 1pv.

3. s. t m and y m ( A v ) ; P T. y n a ; 1P F. e r a n .
I. : PR. y a t e ; y a d h v e , y a n t e ; 1PF. a y a t ; y -
atam ; . a y a t a (3. s.).

PT. a a y n .
PF. iy (B.) ; iy1r (B ) ;
Ao. s : sB. a n ; i : A . a y i t h s . F T .
a y i y t i , -te (B.) ; a y i t s e (B.).

uc
gleam, I. : PR. c a t i , -te.
1NF. a y d h y a i .
PF. u c a
; op. A . u u c t
(3. s . ) ^ d | ^ ^ u u g d h ; PT. u u k v s ; u u c n .
a: ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ T .
1NJ. s r ^ ^ . f ;
Ucdhyai.
ucnt; . ucmna;
ucan;
Ao.
red.: u u e a s ;
i : 1NJ. c s ; Ps. o c i . INF.
Cs. o c y a t i ; PT. U c y a n t .
1NT. sB.
U c a n ; . U c a n t a ; PT. U c a t ; U c a n a .
udh,
(2.
undh
pl.).
purify, I. P. : PR. n d h a t i ; 1pv. n d h a t a
Iv
P.: PR. d h y a t i
(B.),
pp. u d d h .
Cs.
u n d h y a t i ; o d h y a t i (B.).
u b h , u m b h beautify, I. A . : PR. b h a t e ; PT. b h a m a n a ;
m b h a t e ; PT. m b h a m n a ;
B. u m b h t i ;
1pv. u m b h ;
v l . P . : P R. u m b h t i ;
umbhta,
umbhntu;
424
APPENDIX
PT. u m b h m n a . Ao. root : P T. u b h n ; m b h n a ;

red.: u b h a n ; u b h a n t a (B.).
PP. u m b h i t ;
u b h i t (B.).
1NF. u b h ; obhse ; b h a m .
es.
u b h y a t i , -te ; o b h y a t i .
u dry, I v . P . : P R. y a t i ; 1Pv. ya, y a t u ;
y a n t u . GD. -ya (B.). cs. o y a t i .
, v swell, I v . P . : PR. PT. v y a n t . PF. u v r ; A .
u v ; sB. u v a t ; v m a ; OP . uuy m a ; P T .
. uuv s ; . uvna. Ao. a : v a t (B.) ; s : P T .
a v a s n . 1NF. i ; v y i t u m (B.).
d h be defiant, I. : P R. r d h a t i ; r d h a t e (B.) ; 1NJ. r d h a t ;
1Pv. r d h a ; PT. r d h a n t . es. a r d h y a t i .
crush, I X . : P R. m i, s i, t i ; m s i ; 1Pv.
h , t u ; t m ; s n t u ; P T. n . P1P .
t . PP. ar. Ao. i : art. FT. a r i y t e (B.).
Ps. r y t e ; Ao. r i ; PP. r ; -rta. GD. -rya (B.),
1NF. rtos.
nathpieree, II. P. : sn. n t h a t ; iPv. n a t h i h i . Ao. red. :
i n a t h a m , inat a n d i n t h a t ; i N J . i n a t h a s ; is :
1Pv. n a t h i a m ; n a t h i a n a .
PP. n a t h i t .
1NF.
- n t h a s . CS. n a t h y a t i , -te.
y coagulate, I v : PR. y y ati (B.). PS. y t e (B.) ; PP.
t ; n. Cs. y y y a t i (B.).
r a t h slaeke, I X . : P R. r a t h n t ; PT. r a t h n n . 1pp.
rathns ; rathnan.
pp. a r a t h .
Ao. red. : i r t h a s , i r t h a t ; ipv. i r a t h a n t u .
p 1 ^ ^ ^ t . cs.
r a t h y a t i , -te.
^^^^^
r a m be weary, I v . P. : PR. r m yati. PF. ^ | ^ ^ u r ; P T .
aram.
Ao. a : r a m a t ; INJ. r a m a t ; i : A .
r a m i s t h s ; 1NJ. r a m i s m a . pp. r n t . GD. rmya
(B.).
r a (r, ) boil, I X . : P R. r n t i ; r ; 1pv. r h ;
r t and r t n a ; P T. r n t ; . r n . 1PF. .
rta (3. s.),
pp. r t ; t. cs. r a p y a t i ; ps.
r a p y t e (B.) ; AG. i r a p a t (B.).
r i resort, I. : PR. r y a t i ; -te. pp. 1. i r y a , 3. ir y a;
LIST OF v E R B S
425
. i r i y ; op. i r t ( 3 . s.) ; PT. iriy. P P F. i r e t ;

irayur.
A o . r o o t : res, r e t ; r i y a n ; r e d . :
iriyat; s: rait (Av).
FT. r a y i y t i , -te (B.).
Ps. r y t e (B.) ; PP. r i t ; A o . ryi. 1NF. r y i t a v i
(B.), Cs. r p y a t i (VS.).
ri clap, I. : sB. r m a .
A o . a : 1NJ. rit. INF.
-ras.
r mix, IX. : PR. r t i ; r t . PP . rt.
1NF.
riyse.
r u hear, V. : PR. rni, t i ; v n t i ; . v i ,
u t a n d v ; v i r ; sn. v a s , v a t ;
v m a , v a n ; oP. uy t ; uy m a ; 1Pv.
udh, uh a n d , tu; u t m ; ut
a n d ta, t a n a , v n t u ; u v ; P T. v n t ;
iPF. avam, os ; v a n . PP . 1. u r v a , 3.
ur v a; . u r u v (3. s.) ; sn. u r a v a t ; oP. ur
ys ; ury t am ; PT. uruv s.
PPP. u r a v u r ;
. u r a v i (1. s.). A o . root : r a v a , r o t ; r a v a n
( A v ) ; sn. r v a t ; r v a t h a s , r v a t a s ; PRC. ry s am,
ry s (3. s.) ; iPv. r u d h i , r t u ; r u t m ; r u t a n d
rta, r u v n t u ; a : iNJ. r v a t ; r e d . : u r a v a t ;
u r u v a t (B.) ; s: r a u t (B.), FT. r o y t i (B.). P s.
r y t e ; A o . rvi, r v i ; PP. r u t ; GDv. r t y a ;
ravyya. GD. rutv; -rtya. Cs. ravyati, rv
yati. Ds. rate.
r u hear,I..: 1NJ. ran ; 1Pv. rantu ; P T. ramaa.
vac
. : iPv. vcasva ; PT. v c a m n a . PP.
. sB. ^ v a c i . Cs. v a c y a s .
vas blow, IL : PR. vsiti ; . u ; 1Pv. vasih ; PT.
v a s n t and u n t ; . u ; 1PF. vast (B.). I. :
PR. Vsati, -te (Av.). PP. Vasit (B.). 1NF. -vsas.
Cs. Vsyati. 1NT. PT. Vasat.
vit be bright : A o . r o o t : v i t a n ; PT. v i t n ; r e d . : i v i t a t ; s: vait.
hv spew, I. P. : PR. h v ati. 1PF. h v a n . PF. t i h v a
(B.). PP. h y t (B.),
^
^
^
426
APPENDIX
sagh be eoual to, V . P . : IPF. saghnos. Ao. root : sn.

s g h a t ; PRC saghy s am (B.).
sac accompany, I. . PR. scate. I l l . : PR. s a k i ; s a k t i ;
scati (3. pl.); 1NJ. . saeata (3. pl.); IPv. s i a k t u ;
siakta ; P T. scat and sact. I. : PR. scasi ; A .
sce (1. s.); 1NJ. sCat; 1Pv. scata (2. pl.) ; 1PF.
sacatam (2. du.). PF. sacim, s a c r ; A . sacir ;
secir (Av.) ; PT. saciv s. AO. root : 1pv. skva ;
PT. sacan ; s : . sakata (3. pl.) ; sB. skat ; 1NJ.
sakata (3. pl.) ; OP. sakmhi.
1NF. s a c d h y a i ;
saki.
saj, saj, hang, I. P . : PR. sjati. 1PF. sajat. PF. sasja
(B.) ; sejr (B.), AO. s : . s a k t a . ps. sajyte (B.) ; AO.
saji (B.) ; pp. s a k t . GD. sajya (B.). 1NF. sktos
(B.), Ds. ssakati (B.).
sad sit, I. P . : PR. s d ati ; sB. s d ti ; 1NJ. s d an ; OP.
s d ema ; Ipv. s d atu ; PT. s d ant.
1PF. sdat. PF.
s a s t t h a , sas d a; s e d t h u r , s e d t u r ; s e d i m , sed,
s e d r ; . s e d i r ; op. sasady t ; PT. s e d . AO. a :
s a d a t ; s a d a n ; 1NJ. sdas, s d a t ; op. s d e m a ; 1pv
sda, s d a t u ; s d a t a m , s d a t m ; sdata, s d a n t u ;
A . s d a n t a m ; PT. s d a n t ; red. : sadan ; s : sB.
stsat. FT. s a t s y t i (B.), ps. s a d y t e (B.) ; AO. s d i ,
s d i ; pp. s a t t ; s a n n (AV.) ; GDv. s d y a . GD. sdya.
1NF. sde ; s d a m ; s t t u m (B.). es. s d y a t i , te ;
ps. s a d y t e (B.).
san gain, V I I I . P . : PR. s a n t i ; sn. sanvni s a n v a t ;
s a n v a t h a ; op. sanuy m ; sanuy m a ; 1pv. s a n u h ,
s a n t u ; sanVntu. IPF. sanos, sanot ; s a n v a n . PF.
sas n a ; PT. sasav s. AO. a : s a n a m , s a n a t ; san
m a , s a n a n ; 1NJ. s n a m , s n a t ; OP. s a n y a m , s a n t ;
IPV. s n a ; PT. s n a n t ; is : sniam ; sB. sniat ; .
sniamahe, snianta ; 1PV. Sniantu. FT. Saniyti.
PP. s t .
GDv. s n i t v a . 1NF. s a n y e ; s t y e . Ds.
sisati. INT. . saniata (3. pl.).
LIST OF vERBS
427
sap serve, I. : PR. spati, te. P P . s e p r . Ao. red. : 1NJ.

sapanta.
s a p a r y honour, den. : PR. s a p a r y t i ; sn. sapary t ; oP.
s a p a r y m a ; 1Pv. s a p a r y ; PT. s a p a r y n t . 1PF. sap
aryan. AO. s a p a r y a i t (AV.). Guv. s a p a r y y a .
sas sleep, II. P . : PR. ssti ; sasts ; 1Pv. s s t u ; sast m ;
s a s n t u ; PT. sasnt ; 1PF. s a s t a n a . Ill. P . : PR.
ssasti and sassti.
sah prevail, I. : PR. s h a t e ; PT. s h a n t and s h ant ; . s h
amana. PP. ss h a ; . sashi, s a s h ; sB. sshas,
s s h a t ; OP. ssahy t ; ssahy m a ; PRC. . ssahh s ;
PT. sasahv m s and shv m s ; A . s s a h n and s e h n .
AO. root : OP. sahyas ; s h y a m a ; PRC. sahyas (3. s.) ; PT.
s a h n ; s: s k i and s k i ; sakmahi (B.) ; sB. s k
ati and s k a t ; s k ma; . s k ate; oP. s k y ;
1Pv. s k va ; PT. skant ; . s a h a s a n ; is : sahia ;
oP. s a h i v h i ; sahimhi and s h i m h i . FT. sak
y t e (B.). P P . s h . GD. shya. iNF. s h a d h y a i ;
s h a m (B.). Ds. s k ati, te.
s bind, v l . : P R . s y t i , te ; 1Pv. s y , s y t u ; s y t a m ,
s y t m ; . sysva ; s y d h v a m . 1PF. s y a t . Ac. root :
st ; sB. st ; oP. s m h i ; 1Pv. s h i ; a : oP. s t (VS.).
PP. sit. GD. s y a. 1NF. si ; satum (B.),
s d h succeed, I. : PR. s d hati, te. AO. red. : sB. s a d h t i ;
s a d h m a ; 1NJ. sadhas. Cs. s d h y a t i .
si bind, IX. P . : PR. sin t i ; sinths ; 1Pv. sin t u. PF.
si y a ; 1NJ. siet. AC. root : 1Pv. s i t m . 1NF. s t a v e .
sic pour, V I . : PR. sificti, te. PP. sica ; s i i c t u r ;
sisier ; sisio. AO. a : sicat ; s i c a n ; sB. sicamahe.
FT. sekyti (B.). Ps. sicyte ; AO. seci (B.) ; PP. s i k t .
GD. siktV (B.) ; -icya. 1NF. s k t a v i (B.).
1. sidh repel, I. P . : PR. s d h a t i . PP. sidha. Ao. i s :
s e d h s . P P . s i d d h (B.). GD. s d h y a . INF. s d d h u r n
(B.). INT. PT. sidhat.
2. sidh succeed, I v P . : PR. s d h y a t i . PP. s i d d h (B.).
sv sew, IV. : PR. 1Pv. s v yatu ; . s v yadhvam ; PT.
s v yant.
PP. syut.
GD. s v ya.
428
APPENDIX
su press, V . : PR. s u n t i ; s u n u t s ; s u n u t h , s u n v n t i ;
. s u n v ; s u n v i r ; sB. s u n v a t ; s u n v m a ; . su
n v a i ; 1Pv. s u n , s u n t u ; s u n u t and s u n t a , sun
t a n a ; . s u n u d h v m ; PT. s u n v n t ; s u n v n . PF.
su v a ; suum ; PT. suuv s; suv. PPF. su
avur and suuvur (B.). AO. root : 1Pv. s t u ; s u t m ;
sta, s t a n a ; PT. s u v n , s v n . FT. saviyti (B.) ;
sot (B.).
Ps. s y t e ; A O . s v i ; PP. s u t ; GDv.
s t v a . GD. stya (B.), 1NF. s t a v e ; stos.
su generate, impel, V I . P . : PR. s u v t i ; sB. suv t i ; 1Pv.
suv, s u v t t , s u v t u ; s u v t m ; s u v n t u ; PT. s u v n t ;
1PF. s u v a t . II. . : PR. s v e , su.te ; s v t e (3. du.) ;
s v a t e (3. pl.) ; INJ. suta (3. s.) ; PT. s u v n ; IPF. s t a .
PF. sasuva ; suuv. PPF. suot (MS.) ; suavur (B.).
AO. is : svt ; sviur ; sn. sviat ; 1NJ. svs. FT.
soyti, te (B.); PT. s yant. Ps. s y t e ; PP. s t .
GD. s t v (B.) ; stya (B.). INF. sutave, s t avi ; svi
tave. INT. ssavti.
l
s d put in order : PF. sudim ; sn. s d a s , s d a t and

s d a t i ; s d a t h a ; IPv. s u d t a (2. pl.). Ao. red. :
sudanta. Cs. s d y a t i , te ; sB. s d y t i .
s flow, III. : PR. sisari, ssarti ; . s s r a t e (3. pl.) ; 1Pv.
s i s t m ; . s s r a t m (3. pb), PT. ssrat. PP. sas r a;
sasv(.) ; s a s r r ; . sasr ; sasr t he ; PT. sasv s ;
s a s r . AG. a : s a r a m , saras, s a r a t ; s a r a n ; I P v .
s r a ; s : sB. srat. FT. sariyti. Ps. AO. sri (B.) ;
PP. st (B.), GD. stv (B.) ; s t ya (B.), INF. s r t a v e ,
srtavi.
cs. s r y a t i , te.
Ds. ssrati (B.). INT.
s a r s r (3. s.) ; PT. s r s r a .
sj emit, V I . : PR. sjti, te.
PF. s a s r j a ; . sasj;
sasjmhe, sasjrir ; oP. sasjyt ; PT. sasjn. PPP.
sasgram (3. pl.). A O . root : sgran, sgram ; PT.
sjn ; s: sr s (2. s., A V . ) , s r k (3. s.), s r (B.);
sram (2. du.) ; . s k i , sa ; skmahi, sk
ata; sB. srkat ; 1NJ. s r a m ; . s k t h m (2. du.).
FT. srakyti (B.). Ps. sjyte ; AO. sarji ; PP. s.
429
GD. sv ; s j ya (B.). Cs. sarjyati, te (B.). Ds.

siskati, te (B.).
sp creep, I. P . : PR. s r p a t i . PP. s a s r p a (B.). Ao. a :
s p a t ; 1NJ. spat; s: . spta (B.). FT. s r a p s y t i
(B.) and s a r p s y t i (B.). PP. spt(B.), GD. sptv (B.) ;
s p ya.
1NF. s p as (B.).
Ds. sspsati.
INT. sar
s p y t e (B.).
sev attend upon, I. . : PR. sve, s v a t e ; 1Pv. svasva.
skand leap, I. P . : PR. s k n d a t i ; sB. s k n d t ; IPv. s k n d a ;
PT. s k n d a n t ; 1PF. s k a n d a t . PP. e a s k n d a . Ao. root :
s k n (3. s.); s: s k n (B.) and s k n t s t (B.), FT.
s k a n t s y t i (B.). PP. s k a n n .
GD. s k n d y a (B.) and
skdya (B.). 1NF. s k d e , s k d a s . Cs. s k a n d y a t i .
1NT. sn. canikadat ; iPF. k n i k a n (3. s.).
skabh or skambh prop, I X . : PR. skabhn t i ; PT. skabh
n n t ; . s k a b h n a (B.). PP. c s k m b h a ; s k a m b h t u r ;
s k a m b h r ; PT. c a s k a b h n . PP. s k a b h i t . GD. skabh
itv . 1NF. skbhe.
sku tear, II. P . : PR. s k u t i (B.). V . P. : PR. s k u n t I .
Ps. s k y t e ; PP. s k u t . INT. c o k y t e .
stan thunder, I L P . : 1Pv. stanihi ; INJ. s t n (3. s.). I. P.:
IPv. s t n a . Ao. is : s t n t . Cs. s t a n y a t i . INT. 1Pv
tastahi.
stabh or stambh prop, I X . : stabhn 1 ni ; IPv. s t a b h n ;
1PF. s t a b h n s , s t a b h n t . PP. t a s t m b h a ; t a s t a b h r ;
PT. t a s t a b h v s ; t a s t a b h n . PPF. t a s t m b h a t . Ao. s :
s t m p s t (B.) ; i : s t a m b h t , s t m b h t . PP. s t a b h i t ;
s t a b d h (B.). GD. stabdhv , s t b h y a (B.).
stu praise, II. : PR. s t u m i ( A v ) ; s t i , s t u t i (Av.) ;
s t u m s i , s t u v n t i ; . s t ; sn. s t v a t ; s t v a m a ,
stvatha; A. stvai; 1NJ. stut; oP. . stuvt; stuv
mhi ; 1Pv. stuhi, stutu ; PT. stuvnt ; stuvan,
s t v n a and s t a v n ; 1PF. s t a u t . I. . : s t v a t e and
stve (3. s.) ; 1NJ. s t v a n t a ; oP. s t v e t a ; PT. s t v a m a n a .
PF. tu v a ; t u u v r ; . t u u v ; sB. tusvat ; PT.
t u u v s ; t u u v n . PPF. t u a v a m . Ao.s: stau
430
APPENDIX
t (B.) ; . s t o i , stoa ; stohvam, stoata ;

B. s t i , stat ; stama ; 1NJ. stam ; i : s t a v t
(B.). FT. stoyti, te (B.) ; staviyti, te. ce. stoyat.
ps. s t u y t e ; AO. stvi ; PP. s t u t ; GDv. stuyya.
GD. s t u t v ; s t t y a (B.). 1NF. s t a v d h y a i , s t t a v e ;
s t t u m (B.), es. s t v y a t i (B.),
stubh praise, I. P . : PR. s t b h a t i ; Ipv. s t b h a t a , stbh
antu ; PT. s t b h a n t . II. . : PT. s t u b h n . pp. s t u h d h
(B.), Cs. s t o b h y a t i .
st strew, I X . : PR. st m i ; stthna, stnti ; .
s t t ; 1NJ. s t m h i ; Ipv. sth.; sttm (2. du.);
s t t ; . stt m (3. s.) ; PT. s t n t ; s t n ; 1PF.
stt ; stan.
V . : PR. s t i ; s t u t .
PF.
tast r a (B.) ; t a s t a r r (B.) ; . t i s t i r (3. s.) ; t a s t r i r ;
PT. tistira. AO. root : s t a r ; A . stta (B.) ; sn.
s t r a t e ; s t r m a h e ; 1NJ. star (2. s.) ; s : s t i (B.) ;
op. sty ; i : s t a r s . FT. stariyti, te (B.), ps.
s t r i y t e (B.) ; AO. s t a r i ; pp. stt ; s t r . Gn.
strtv (B.) ; st r ya (B.). 1NF. stire, sti ; str
tave (Av) ; s t r t a v e (B.), s t r t a v i (B.) ; stritavi(B.),
startavi (B.). Ds. tstrate (B.) ; t s t r a t e (B.).
stha stand, I. : PR. thati, te. PF. t a s t h u ; t a s t h t h u r ,
t a s t h t u r ; t a s t h i m , t a s t h r ; . t a s t h , tasthi,
t a s t h ; t a s t h i r ; PT. tasthiv s ; t a s t h n . AO. root :
s t h m , s t h s , s t h t ; s t h m a , sthata, s t h u r ; .
s t h i t h s , s t h i t a ; s t h i r a n ; sn. sth s , sth t i and sth t ;
sth t as ; 1NJ. sth m , sth t ; s t h r ; op. sthey m a ; 1pv.
s t h t a m (2. du.); sthata; PT. sth n t; a : sthat (AV.);
s: s t h i i (B.); sthiata (3. pl.); 1NJ. stheam (VS.).
FT. s t h s y t i . ps. s t h y t e (B.); pp. s t h i t . GD. sth y a.
1NF. sth t um (B.) ; sth t os (B.). es. s t h p y a t i , te ;
AO. tihipam, tihipas, t i h i p a t ; 1NJ. tihipat.
Ds. t h s a t i (B.).
s n bathe, II. P . : PR. sn t i; 1Pv. s n a h i ; PT. sn n t. pp.
snt. GDv. sn t va. GD. sntv ; sn y a. 1NF. sn t um
(B.). Cs. s n p y a t i ; te (B.) ; s n a p y a t i (AV.),
LIST OF VERBS
431
s p a see : PF. p a s p a ; PT. p a s p a a n . AG. root : spaa

(3. s.). PP. spa. Cs. s p a y a t e .
sp win, v : PR. s p v a t ; sB. s p v a m a ; 1Pv. spuhi.
PF. pasp r a (B.). AC. root : s p a r (2. s.) ; sB. s p r a t ;
INJ. s p r (2. s.) ; 1pv. spdh ; s : spram. pp. spt.
GD. sptv . 1NF. sprase.
spdh contend, I. . : PR. s p r d h a t e ; PT. s p r d h a m a n a .
PF. . paspdh t e (3. du.) ; paspdhr ; PT. p a s p d h n .
PPF. p a s p d h e t h m (2. du.). AG. root : . s p d h
ran ; PT. spdhn. GD. sp d hya.
INF. s p r d h i t u m .
sp touch, v l . : PR. spti, -te. PF. sB. p a s p r a t . AO.
red.: sB. p i s p a t i ; 1NJ. p i s p a s ; s: s p r a k a m (B.) ;
sa: spkat.
pp. sp.
GD. spv (B.); sp ya
(B.). 1NF. sp e; sp as (B.). es. s p a r y a t i (B.), te.
sph be eager : Cs. s p h y a n t i ; op. sphyet. iPF. sph
ayam. GDv. sphay y ya.
sphur jerk, v l . : PR. s p h u r t i ; . s p h u r t e (B.) ; sB.
s p h u r n ; I N J . s p h u r t ; Ipv. s p h u r ; s p h u r t a m (2.
du.) ; PT. s p h u r n t .
1PF. s p h u r a t . Ao. i : s p h a r s
(sph).
sphurj rumble, I. P. : PR. sphurjati. Cs. s p h r j y a t i .
smi smile, I. : PR. s m y a t e ; 1NJ. s m y a n t a ; PT. s m y a
mana. PF. simiy ; PT. s i m i y .
sm remember, I. : PR. s m r a t i , te. Ps. s m a r y t e (B.) ;
Pp. smt.
syand move on, L A. : PR. s y n d a t e . PF. s i y a d r ; A.
siyad. AO. red. . siyadat ; siyadanta ; s . s y n
(3. s.), FT. s y a n t s y t i (B.). p s . AC. s y n d i (B.); P P .
s y a n n . GD. syanttv (B.) ; syattv (B.), syadya (B.).
INF. s y d e ; s y n t t u m (B.) ; Cs. s y a n d y a t i (B.) ; INF.
s y a n d a y d h y a i . 1NT. PT. sniyadat.
sras, sras fall, I. A. : PR. srsate (B.). PF. sasrasr
(B.), AO. root: srat (VS.); a : OP. srasema; r e d . :
sisrasan ; is : srasiata (B.). pp. s r a s t . GD.
srasya (B.), INF. srsas. Cs. srasyatI.
sridh blunder, I. P. : PR. s r d h a t i ; 1pv. s r d h a t a ; PT.
432
APPENDIX I
s r d h a n t . i P F . s r e d h a n . A o . a: iN.T. sridhat ; PT.

sridhn.
sru flow, I. : PR. srvati. P P . susr v a ; s u s r u v r ; 1NJ.
susrot. P P F . susrot. Ao. is : srvs (B.). PP. s r u t .
1NF. s r v i t a v e ; s r v i t a v i . Cs. s r v y a t i ; te (B.).
svaj embrace, I . : PR. s v j a t e ; sB. svjte, svjtai (Av.) ;
INJ. svjat ; 1Pv. svjasva ; svjadhvam. P P . sasvaj ;
sasvajte (3. du.) ; PT. sasvajn. P P F . sasvajat. PP.
s v a k t (B.). 1NF. svje.
svad, svd sweeten, I. : PR. s v d a t i , te ; . s v d a t e ; B.
s v d t i ; 1Pv. s v d a ; s v d a n t u ; . svdasva. AG. red. :
INJ. sivadaI. PP. s v t t . INF. s d e . Cs. s v a d y a t i ,
te ; PP. s v a d i t .
svan sound : Ao. is : s v a n t ; INJ. s v a n t . Cs. s v a n y a t i ;
PP. svanit. INT. sn. sanivaat.
svap sleep, II. P . : PR. 1Pv. s v p t u ; PT. s v a p n t . I. P . : PR.
s v p a t i . P P . s u u p r ; 1NJ. s u u p t h s (B.) ; PT. suup
v s ; s u u p . Ao. red. : sivapas and sivap (2. s.).
FT. s v a p s y t i (B.) ; svapiy m i. PP. s u p t . GD. suptv .
1NF. s v p t u m (B.). Cs. s v p y a t I .
svar sound, I. P . : PR. s v r a t i . PF. 1NJ. s a s v r (3. s.). Ao.
s : s v r (3. s.) ; s v r m (3. du.) ; is : svrs (B.).
1NF. s v r i t o s (B.). Cs. s v a r y a t i .
svid sweat, L . : PR. s v d a t e . PP. PT. sividn. Pp.
s v i n n . Cs. s v e d y a t i (B.).
han strike, I L : PR. h n m i , h s i , h n t i ; h a t h s , h a t s ;
h a n m s , h a t h , g h n n t i ; sB. h n a s , h n a t i and h n a t ;
h n v a ; h n m a ; h n t h a (Av.), h n a n ; 1NJ. h n
(3. s.); op. hany t , h a n y m a ; 1pv. j a h , h n t u ; h a t m ,
hat m ; h a t and hantana, g h n n t u ; PT. g h n n t . I. :
PR. j g h n a t e ; t i (B.). PF. j a g h n t h a , jagh n a ; j a g h n
t h u r ; j a g h n i m , j a g h n r ; . j a g h n (B.); sB. j a g h n
at ; PT. jaghanv s ; jaghniv s (B.). Ao. i : h n t
(B.). FT. haniyti ; te (B.). Ps. h a n y t e ; PP. h a t ;
GDv. h n t v a .
GD. hatv , hatv ; hatv y a ; htya.
1NF. h n t a v e , h n t a v i ; ^ n t u m .
Cs. g h t y a t i (B.).
LIST OF vERBS
433
Ds. j g h s a t i ; AO. jighss (B.). 1NT. j g h a n t i ;

sB. j a g h n n i , jaghanas, jaghanat ; j a g h a n v a ;
A . jaghananta ; ipv. j a g h a n h i ; PT. jghanat ;
ghnighnat.
har be gratified, Iv. : PR. h r y a t i ; sB. h r y s i and h r y s ;
ipv. h r y a ; PT. h r y a n t . 1PF. h a r y a t ; . h a r y a t h s .
1. h leave, III. P. : PR. j h m i , j h s i , j h t i ; j h a t i ;
sB. j h n i ; j h m a ; oP. jahy t ; j a h y r ; iPv. j a h t t ,
j h t u ; j a h t a m ; j a h t a ; PT. j h a t . i P F . ajaht ;
jahtana, jahur.
PF. jah ; j a h t u r ; j a h r . Ao.
root : h t (B.) ; s : a h s (3. s.) ; . hsi, h s t h s ;
i N J . h s s ; sis : 1NJ. hsiam, h s i m ; hsia,
hsiur. FT. h s y t i ; h s y t e (B.). Ps. h y t e ; Ao.
h y i ; PP. h n ; h n a (B.) ; j a h i t . GD. hitv , hitv ,
hitv y a; h y a (B.). 1NF. h t um (B.). cs. Ao.jhipas.
2. h go forth, III. . : PR. j i h t e ; j h t e ; j h a t e ; 1NJ.
j h t a ; 1Pv. jihva, j i h t m (3. s.) ; j i h t h m (2. du.) ;
j i h a t m (3. pl.) ; PT. j h n a . i P F . A jihta ; jihata.
PP. j a h i r . Ao. red.: j j a n a n t a ; s: . h s a t a (3. pl.);
i N J . h s t h s . FT. h s y t e (B.). PP. h n (B.). GD.
hya. 1NF. h t um. es. h p y a t i . Ds. jhate.
h i impel, v : PR. h i n m i , h i n i , h i n t i ; h i n m s and
h i n m s i , h i n v n t i ; . h i n v (1. 3.); h i n v t e and
h i n v i r ; sB. h i n v ; 1NJ. h i n v n ; 1Pv. h i n u h , hinut t ,
hin ; hintam ; hinut, hinta and hintana, hinv
ntu ; PT. hinvnt ; hinvn ; 1PF. hinvan. PP.
jigh y a (B.) ; j i g h y r (B.). Ao. root: h e m a , h e t a n a ,
h y a n ; 1Pv. heta ; PT. h i y n ; a : h y a m ; s : h a i t
(3. s., A v . ) ; hait (B.) ; . heata (3. ph), PP. h i t .
GDv. h t v a . 1NF. h y .
his injure, vIL : h i n s t i ; hsanti ; A . hste (Av.) ;
1Pv. hinstu. ; oP. hisy t (B.) ; PT. h s n a ; 1PF.
hinat (3. s., B.). I. : PR. hsati, te (B.), PP. jihis
im. PPF. jhiss. AG. is : 1NJ. hisiam, hiss,
h i s t ; hisiam (2. du.) ; hisia, h i s i u r . FT.
h i s i y t i , te (B.). Ps. h i s y t e ; PP. h i s i t ; GDv.
434
APPENDIX
h i s i t a v y . on. hisitv . iNF. h s i t u m (B.), hs

itos (B.). Ds. jhisiati (B.).
h be hostile, I. : PT. h l a n t ; . h a m n a ; hamana
(B.). PF. jih a (1. s.), j h a (Av.) ; . j i h ; j i h i r ;
PT. jihn.
A o . r e d . : jhiat ; i s : A . h i t m
(TA.), PP. h i t . Cs. PT. h e y a n t .
h u sacrifice, I I I . : PR. j u h m i , j u h t i ; j n h u m s , j h v a t i ;
. j u h v , j u h u t ; j h v a t e ; s B . j u h v m a ; o p . j u h u y t ;
j u h u y m a ; j u h u d h i (B.), j u h t u ; j u h u t a n d j u h t a ,
j u h t a n a ; . j u h u d h v m ; PT. j h v a t ; j h v n a ; 1PF.
j u h a v u r ; A . j u h v a t a . PP. j u h v ; j u h u r ; j u h v i r
(B.) ; per. juhav c a k r a (B.). A o . s : h a u t (B.).
FT. hoyti. Ps. h u y t e ; A o . h v i ; PP. h u t . G D .
hutv (B.), iNF. h t a v i ; h t u m (B.), h t o s (B.),
h call, I. . : PR. h v a t e ; 1NJ. h v a n t a ; PT. h v a m a n a .
V I . : PR. h u v (1. 3.) ; huv m ahe ; 1NJ. h u v t ; op.
h u v m a ; . h u v y a ; PT. h u v n t ; iPF. h u v e ; h u v
anta. I I I . : PR^ j u h m s i a n d j u h u m s . I I . : PR.
hut ; hmhe.
P F . juh v a ; . j u h v ; j u h r ;
j u h u v i r (B.). A o . r o o t : . h v i ; h m a h i ; iNJ.
h m a ; a : h v a m , h v a t ; h v m a ; . h v e ; h v a n t a ;
s: . hata (3. pl.). ps. h y t e ; pp. h u t ; G D V .
h v y a . GD. h y a (B.). 1NF. h v t a v e ; h u v d h y a i .
Ds. j h a t i (B.). 1NT. j h a v m i , j h a v t i ; sB. .
johuvanta ; ipv. j o h a v t u ; 1PF. johavt ; johavur.
1. h take, I . : PR. h r a t i , te ; B. h r a i , h r a t ; h r m a ,
h r a n ; op. h r e t ; h r e m a ; ipv. h r a ; h r a t a , h r a n t u ;
PT. h r a n t . iPF. h a r a t . PF. jah r a, j a h r t h a (B.) ;
j a h r r ; A . j a h r (B.), A O . r o o t : hthas (B.) ; s :
h a r a m , h a r (3. s.) ; . hata(3. pl.). FT. h a r i y t i ,
te (B.) ; hart (B.) ; C o . h a r i y a t (B.). Ps. h r i y t e ;
PP. ht. GD. htv (B.) ; h t ya. 1NF. h a r s e ; h r t a v i
(B.); h r t o s (B.) ; h r t u m (B.), Cs. h r y a t i , te (B.).
ns. j h r a t i .
2. h be angry, I X . . : PR. h , h t ; iNJ. hth s ;
IPv. ht m (3. s.) ; PT. h a n .
LIST OF VERBS
435
h be exeited, I. : PR. hrate ; 1pv. hrasva ; PT. hrant ;

hrama. PF. PT. jh. Pp. hit. Cs. har
yati, -te. 1NT. sB. jarhanta ; PT. jrhsaa.
h n u hide, II. : PR. h n u t s ; . h n u v . pp. h n u t . GDV.
imav^ra.
h r be ashamed, I l l . P. : PR: j h r e t i . AC. root : pT. - h r a y a .

pp. h r t (B.).
h v call, IV. : PR. h v y a t i ; h v y e ; sB. h v y a m a h a i ; op.
h v y e t a m (3. du.) ; 1pv. h v y a , h v y a t u ; h v y a n t u ;
A . h v y a s v a ; h v y e t h m (2. du.) ; h v y a n t m ; pr.
h v y a m n a . 1PF. h v a y a t ; h v a y a n t a . Ao. h v s t
(B.), F r . h v a y i y t i , -te (B.),
1NF. h v y i t a v i (B.) ;
h v y i t u m (B.).
hv be crooked, I. . : PR. h v r a t e . I X . P . : PR. hru t i.
III. : sB. juhuras; . juhuranta; INJ. j u h r t h a s ; PT.
j u h u r . Ao. red. : jihvaras ; 1NJ. jihvaras ; jihvaratam (2. du.) ; s: 1NJ. hv r (2. s.), h v a r t ; i : h v r i u r .
pp. hvt, h r u t . Cs. h v r y a t i .
APPENDIX II
vEDIC METRE.
1
1. The main principle governing vedic metre (the source

of all later Indian versification) is measurement by number
of syllables. The metrical unit here is not the foot i n the
sense of Greek prosody, but the foot (pda) or quarter in
the sense of the verse or line which is a constituent of the
stanza. Such verses consist of eight, eleven, twelve, or
(much less commonly) five syllables. The verse is further
more or less regulated by a quantitative rhythm (unaffected
by the musical accent) i n which short and long syllables
alternate. Nearly all metres have a general iambic rhythm
inasmuch as they show a preference for the even syllables
(second, fourth, and so on) i n a verse being long rather than
short. I n every metre the rhythm of the latter part of the
verse (the last four or five syllables), called the cadence, is
more rigidly regulated than that of the earlier part. verses
of eleven and twelve syllables are characterized not only by
their cadence, but by a caesura after the fourth or the fifth
syllable, while verses of five and eight syllables have no
such metrical pause.
2
Called chndas i n the RV. itself.

Except the two metres ry and Vaitlya which are measured
by morae
This seems to have been the only metrical prineipl.e in the Indo
Iranian period, because in the Avesta the character of a verse depends
solely on the number of syllables it contains, there being no quanti
tative restriction in any part of if.
A figurative sense (derived from foot qnarter of a quadruped)
applicable because the typical stanza has four lines.
2
vEDIC
437
METRE
verses combine to form a stanza or c, the unit of the

hymn, which generally consists of not less than three or
more than fifteen such units. The stanzas of common
occurrence i n the RV. range, by increments of four syllables,
from twenty syllables (4 x 5) to fortyeight (4 x 12) syllables
in length. A stanza may consist of a combination of
metrically identical or of metrically different verses ; and
either two or three stanzas may further be combined to form
a strophe.
a. The following general rules of prosody are to be noted. I. The
end of a verse regularly coincides with the end of a word because
each verse in a stanza is independent of the rest in structure. 2. The
quantity of the first and last syllables of a verse is indifferent.
3. A vowel becomes long by position if followed by two consonants.
One or both of these consonants may belong to the following word.
The palatal aspirate oh and the cerebral aspirate h (h) count as
double consonants. 4. One vowel is shortened before another ;
o and o are also pronounced and before . 5. The semivowels
y and v, both within a word and in sandhi, have often to be pro
nounced as i and u ; e. g. sima for syma ; sar for svr ; v u
for vy u; vidtheu ajn for vidthev ajn. 6. Contracted
vowels (especially and u) must often be restored ; e. g. ca agnye
for cgnye ; v ndrah for vndra ; vatu tye for vatutye ;
indra for ndra. 7. Initial a when dropped after o and o must
nearly always be restored. 8. The long vowel of the gen. pi. ending
am, and of such words as dsa, ura, and e (as jyiha for jyha)
or ai (as -ichas for ichas) must often be pronounced as equivalent
to two short syllables. 9. The spelling of a few words regularly
misrepresents their metrical value ; thus pvak must always be pro
nounced as pavk, m:aya as maya, and suvn nearly always as
svn.
2
There are also several longer stanzas formed by adding more

verses and consisting of 52, 56, 60, 64, 68, and 72 syllables ; but all
these are rare : only two stanzas of 68 and one of 72 are found 1n
the RV.
^- No infringement of this rule occurs in any metre of the RV. but
the comparatively rare Dvipad Viraj (4 ^ 5), in which three exceptions
are met with.
3 The vowels , u, o when Praghya (25, 26), however, remain long
before vowels. When a final long vowel is the result of Sandhi, it
also remains long ; tsm adt for tsmai adt. .
438
APPENDIX
II
I . Simple Stanzas.
2. The vedic hymns consist chiefly of simple stanzas,
that is, of such as are formed of verses which are all
metrically identical. ^ Different stanzas are formed by com
bining three, four, five, or six identical verses.
The
following is an account of the various types of verse and of
the different simple stanzas formed by them.
A . Verse of eight syllables. This is a dimeter verse
consisting of two equal members of four syllables each, the
opening and the cadence. I n the opening the first and
third syllable are indifferent, while the second and fourth
are preferably long. W h e n the second is short, the third
is almost invariably long. I n the cadence the rhythm is
typically iambic, the first and third syllables being almost
always short, while the second is usually long (though it is
not infrequently short also). Thus the prevailing scheme of
the whole verse i s ^ ^ . ^ ^
a. Even after every admissible vowel restoration a good many verses
of this type exhibit the anomaly (which cannot be removed without
doing violence to the text) of having one syllable too few ; e. g. t
tu vay pito. There are also here a very few instances of one or
even two syllables too many ; e. g. agnm e | bhuj yvi | stham
and vay td as | ya sbhta | vsu.
1
3. a. The G y a t r stanza consists of three octosyllabic

verses; e.g.
3
Next to the Triubh this is the commonest metre i n the R V . ,

nearly onefourth of that sahit being composed i n it ; yet it has
entirely disappeared in Classical sanskrit. The Avesta has a parallel
stanza of 3 ^ 8 syllables.
The first two Pdas of the Gyatr are treated as a hemistich in
the sahit text, probably i n imitation of the hemistich of the
Anuubh and the Triubh ; but there is no reason to believe that i n
the original text the second verse was more sharply divided from the
third than from the first.
3 B y far the commonest variation from the normal type is that in
which the second syllable of the cadence is short (^ ^ ^ ^ ) , This
occurs about as often in the first verse of Gyatrs as i n the second
and third combined.
2
SIMPLE
STANZAS
439
agnm H e I purhitam ^ ^ | ^ ^ ^ |
ya^sya de | v m tvijam ^ ^ | ^ ^ ^ |
h t a r a ra | tnadhtamam | | | ^ ^ ^ | |
a. A comparatively rare but sufficiently definite variety
of Gyatr differs from the normal type by having a decided
trochaic rhythm i n the cadence, while the iambic rhythm
of the opening is more pronounced than usual ; e. g.
1
t u no ag I ne m h o b h i | ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ |
p h vva I s y r t e | ^ | ^
|
ut dvi I mrtiasya | | ^ ^ | ^ ^ | |
3
b. The A n u u b h stanza consists of four octosyllabic

verses, divided into two hemistichs ; e. g.
y s te sar | p i r s u t e |
|^
g n e m s I t i dh y ase | | | ^
iu d y u m n m I ut rva ^
e i t t m r I t i e u d h ||
^
|
|
^ ||
^ ^ ^ |
^ ||
a. I n the latest hymns of the R V . there begins a tendency to

differentiate the first from the second verse of an Anuubh hemistich
by making the end of the former trochaic, while the cadence of the
latter becomes more strictly iambic. Although i n these hymns
the iambic cadence of the first verse is still the most frequent
(25 per cent.) of all varieties, it is already very nearly equalled by the
next commonest (23 per cent.), which is identical with the normal
and characteristic cadence of the first verse i n the epic A n u u b h
(loka). The scheme of the whole hemistich according to this
innovation then is : ^: ^ | ^ || ^ ^ | ^ ^ ^ | | e . g .
ke vi I sya p t rea || yd rudr | pibat sah ||
4
The only long series of such trochaic Gyatrs occurs in R v viii.

2, 139.
The trochaic Gyatr is commonest i n Maalas i and viii, which
taken together contain about twothirds of the total number of
examples i n the RV.
3 The frequency of this metre is about onethird that of Gyatr i n
the RV., but i n the p o s t - v e d i c period it has become the predominant
metre. The Avesta has a parallel stanza of 4 ^ 8 syllables.
Where the iambic cadence i n the first verse has entirely dis
appeared.
This is the regular type of the Anuubh in the A v .
2
440
APPENDIX
II
1
c. The P a k t i stanza consists of five octosyllabic verses

divided into two hemistichs of two^ and of three verses
respectively. I n origin it seems to be an extension of the
Anusubh by the addition of a fifth verse. This is indicated
by the fact that i n hymns consisting entirely of Paktis the
fifth verse of every stanza is (except i n i . 81) regularly a
refrain (e. g. i n i . 80). The following is an example of
a Pakti stanza :
itth h sma n m d e | brahm cak r a v r d h a n a m |^
viha vajrinn jas | pthivy n a h i m | r c a n n
n u svar j iam ||
d. I n about fifty stanzas of the RV. the number of
octosyllabic verses is increased to six and in about twenty
others to seven, generally by adding a refrain of two verses
to an Anuubh (e.g. viif. 47) or to a Pakti (e.g. x. 133,
13), The former is called M a h p a k t i (48), the latter
S a k v a r (56).
4. B . verses of eleven syllables differ from those of
eight i n consisting of three members (the opening, the break,
and the cadence), They also contrast with the latter i n two
other respects : their cadence is trochaic ( ^ ) and
they have a caesura, which follows either the fourth or the
fifth syllable. The rhythm of the syllables preceding the
caesura is prevailingly iambic, being ^ or ^ ^.
The rhythm of the break between the caesura and the
cadence is regularly ^ ^ or ^
| . Thus the scheme of
2
The A vesta has a parallel stanza of 5 ^: 8 syllables.

The only irregularity here is that the first syllable of the cadence
may be short when it coincides with the end of a word.
This appears to have been the original position of the caesura
because the parallel verse of the A vesta has it there and never after
the fifth syllable.
Identical with the opening of the octosyllabic verse.
The fourth syllable here is sometimes short : the fifth is then
always long.
'^ The first of these two syllables is sometimes, but rarely, long i n
the old hymns of the RV., still more rarely in the later hymns, and
hardly ever in B.
2
SIMPLE
STANZAS
441
the whole normal verse of eleven syllables is :

^ ) ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
^r
( ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
a. Apart from corruptions or only seeming irregularities (removable
by restoration of vowels) several verses of this type have one syllable
too many or too f e w ; e.g. t no vidv sa, mnma vo | oetam
a d y (12); tm giro, jna I yo n ptn (10). Occasionally
two syllables are wanting after the caesura or the verse is too long by
a trochee added at the end ; e. g. t s no, [. ma I h yajatra (9) ;
ay s hta, [^ ^ ] y dvijanma (9) ; rthebhir yata, i | mdbhir
va I parai. (13).
1
5. The T r i u b h stanza, the commonest i n the RV.,

consists of four verses of eleven syllables ^ divided into two
hemistichs. The following are hemistichs of each type :
4
(a) a n g s t v , a d i t i I t v tur s a | i m y a j , da
dhatu | r a m ||
(b) asm k a santu, b h v a | nasya g p | p i b a n t u
s m a m , v a I se n a d y ||
a. A few Triubh stanzas of only two verses (dvipad) occur
(e.g. vii. 17). Much commoner are those of three verses (virj), the
first two of which (as i n the Gyatr stanza) are treated i n the
sahita text as a hemistich ; the whole of some hymns is composed
in this threeline metre (e.g. i i i . 25). Fairly frequent are also
Triubh stanzas of five verses divided into two hemistichs of two
and three verses respectively. They are always of isolated occurrence,
appearing generally at the end of (Triubh) hymns, but never form
ing an entire hymn.
6
This anomaly also appears in the metre of later vedic texts and of
Pali poetry.
The extra syllable i n such cases is perhaps due to the verse being
inadvertently continued after a fifth syllable caesura as if it were
a fourth syllable caesura.
The deficiency of a syllable in such cases may have been partly
due to the similarity of the decasyllabic Dvipad virj (8) with which
Triubh verses not infrequently interchange.
About twofifths of the RV. are composed in this metre.
The Avesta has a parallel stanza of 4^11 syllables with caesura
after the fourth syllable.
These are accounted Atijagat (52) or akvar stanzas by the
ancient metricians when the fifth verse is a repetition of the fourth.
If it is not a repetition it is treated i n the sahita text as a separate
verse (as v. 4 l , 20 ; v i . 63, 11) and is called an ekapad by the
metricians.
2
4 4
APPENDIX
II
6. C. The verse of twelve syllables is probably an

extension of the Triubh verse by one syllable which gives
the trochaic cadence of the latter an iambic character.
The rhythm of the last five syllables is therefore ^ .
The added syllable being the only point of difference, the
scheme of the whole verse is :
1
(^) ^
^ ^ I ^ --^ ^ ^
(b) ^ ^ ^.
^ ^
^ ^ ^
a. several examples occur of this type of verse (like the Triubh)

having one, and occasionally two, syllables too many or too few ; e.g.
m no mrtya., ripve vjinvasu (13) ; rdas , vada | t gaari
ya (11) ; s dh cit, abh t | atti vjam r | vat (14) ; pb
smam, [.^ ^ ] c I n atakrato (10).
7. The J a g a t stanza, the third i n order of frequency i n
the RV., consists of four verses of twelve syllables divided
into two hemistichs. The following hemistich gives an
example of each of the two types of verse :
ananud, vabh I ddhato vadh |
g a m b h r v , s a m | a a k v i a ||
a. There is an eleven syllable variety of the Jagat verse which is
sufficiently definite i n type to form entire stanzas i n two hymns of
the RV. (x. 77, 78). It has a caesura after both the fifth and the
seventh syllable, its scheme being ^ ^ , ,
^ :^ |
The following hemistich is an example :
abhrapro n, vc, pru vsu |
havmanto n yaj, vijana ||
8. D . The verse of five syllables resembles the last five
syllables of the Triubh verse i n rhythm, its commonest
form being ^ ^ , and the one next fo it i n frequency
^^ ^ ^ ^ I ^
1
It is probably not IndoIranian, because though a verse of

12 syllables occurs in the Avesta, it is there differently divided (7^5).
As the Gyatr verse is never normally found i n combination
with the Triubh, but often with the Jagat verse, it seems likely
that the iambic influence of the Gayatr led to the creation of the
Jagat, with which it could form a homogeneous combination.
That is, its first syllable is less often long than short
2
THE JAGATI
STANZA
443
The D v i p a d Virj stanza consists of four such verses

divided into two hemistichs ; e. g.
2
p r i p r dhanva | n d r y a soma |
s v a d r mitr y a I p b h g y a ||
a. Owing to the identity of the cadence a Dvipad
hemistich not infrequently interchanges i n the same stanza
with a Triubh verse ; e. g.
3
priy vo n m a I huve t u r m |
y t t p n , maruto I vvasan ||
b. The mixture of Dvipada hemistichs with Triubh
verses led to an entire hymn (iv. 10) being composed i n a
peculiar metre consisting of three pentasyllable verses 6
followed by a Triubh ; e. g.
gne t m ady I va n stmai | k r t u n b h a d r m |
hdisp am, dhi | m 7 ta h a i ||
II.
M i x e d Stanzas.
9. The only different verses normally used i n combination

to form a stanza are the Gyatr and the Jagat1. The
principal metres thus formed are the following :
a. Stanzas of 23 syllables consisting of three verses, the
first two of which are treated as a hemistich :
1
This stanza is somewhat rare, occurring i n the RV. not much more
than a hundred times.
The otherwise universal rule that the end of a verse must coincide
with the end of a word is three times ignored i n this metre (at the
end of the first and third verses).
3 With this metre compare the defective Triubh verse of ten
syllables (4 a).
This interchange occurs especially i n RV. vii. 34 and 56.
H ere the verb, though the first word of the verse (App. III, 19 b),
is unaccented. This is because the end of the first and the third
verse in this metre has a tendency to be treated like a caesura rather
than a division of the stanza. Cp. note 2.
These three verses are treated as a hemistich in the sahit text.
The verb is accented because i n the sahit text it is treated as
the first word of a separate verse.
4
444
APPENDIX
II
1. U i h : 8 8 12; e.g.
gne vja I sya g m a t a |
sna sa | haso yaho ||
asm dhehi, j t a v e | do m h i r v a ||
2. P u r a u i h : 12 8 8 ; e. g.
aps a n t r , am t am | a p s bheajm |
apm ut | prastaye ^
dv bhava I ta vjna ||
3. K a k u b h : 8 12 8 ; e. g.
d h h i i n | dra girvaa |
p a t v k m n , m a h | sasjmhe ^
u d v a y n | ta u d b h i |
b. Stanzas of 3e syllables consisting of four verses divided
into two hemistichs : B h a t 8 8 12 8 ; e. g.
cbhir nah | aevas |
d v n k t a | d a a s y a t a m ||
m v r t r , p a da | sat k d can |
a s m d r t i | k d can ||
c. Stanzas of 40 syllables consisting of four verses divided
into two hemistichs : Satobhat 12 8 12 8 ; e. g.
j n s o agni, dadhi | re sahov d ham |
havmanto | vidhema te ||
s t v no ady, s u m | n ih v it |
b h v vaje | u s a n t a ||
10. There are besides two much longer mixed stanzas of
seven verses, each of which is split up into three divisions
of three, two, and two verses respectively in the Sahit
text.
a. Stanzas of CO syllables consisting of six Gyatri
verses and one Jagat : A t i a k v a r 8 8 8, 8 8, 12 8 ; e. g.
2
1
2
These are the composition of a very few individual poets.

Only about ten examples of this metre occur in the RV.
MIXED
STANZAS
445
suum y | tam d r i b h i |
g r t mat | sara i m |
s m s o mat | sar i m ||
r j n | divisp |
asmatr gan | tam p a n a ^|
i m v m i t r , varu I g v i r a I
s m ukr I g v i r a ||
b. Stanzas of 68 syllables consisting of four Gyatr and
three Jagat verses : A t y a i 12 12 8, 8 8, 12 8 ; e. g.
1
s no n d i n a , d d | n a bhara |
g n e d e v b h i , sca | n s u c e t n |
m a h r y | s u c e t n ||
m h i avi | ha nas k d h i |
sacke b h u I j asii ||
m h i stOt b hyo, magha | van s u v r i a m |
m t h r u g r I n v a s ||
a. Besides the above mixed metres various other but isolated
combinations of Gyatr and Jagat verses occur i n the RV., chiefly i n
single hymns. There are stanzas of this kind containing 20 syllables
(12 8) ; 32 syllables (12 8, 12) ; 40 syllables (12 12, 8 8) ; 44 syllables
(12 12, 12 8) ; 52 syllables (12 12, 12 8 8),
^. 1. Triubh verses are quite often interspersed in Jagat stanzas,
but never i n such a way as to form a fixed type of stanza or to make
it doubtful whether a hymn is a Jagat one. This practice probably
arose from the interchange of entire Triubh and Jagat stanzas i n
the same hymn bringing about a similar mixture within a single
stanza. 2. A n occasional licence is the combination of a Triubh
with a Gayatr verse i n the same stanza. This combination appears
as a regular mixed stanza (11 8, 88) in one entire hymn (RV. x. 22).^
3. The combination of a Triubh verse with a Dvipada viraj hemistich
has already been noted (8 a).
2
This is the only comparatively common long metre (of more than
48 syllables) i n theRV.,where more than 80 Atyasti stanzas occur.
RV. viiI. 29.
3 I^v. ix. 110.
^ RV. x. 93.
RV. viii. 35.
^ RV. s7.
But the intrusion of JagatI verses i n a Tristubh hymn is
exceptional i n the R v though very common i n the V. and later.
Except stanzas 7 and 15, which are pure Anustubh and Tristubh
respectively.
. .
2
446
APPENDIX
II
I I I . Strophic Stanzas.
11. Two er three stanzas are often found strophically
combined i n the R V . , forming couplets or triplets.
A . Three simple stanzas (called tea) i n the same metre
are often thus connected. Gyatr triplets are the com
monest ; less usual are Uih, Bhat, or P a k t i triplets ;
while Triubh triplets are rare. A hymn consisting of
several triplets often concludes with an additional stanza in
a different metre.
a. It is a typical practice to conclude a hymn composed i n one
metre with a stanza i n another. A Triubh stanza at the end of
a Jagat hymn is the commonest ; a final Anuubh stanza i n Gyatr
hymns is much less usual ; but all the commoner metres are to some
extent thus employed except the Gyatr, which is never used in
this way.
B . Two mixed stanzas i n different metres are often com

bined, the R v containing about 250 such strophes. This
doubly mixed strophic metre, called P r a g t h a , is of two
main types :
1. The K k u b h a P r a g t h a is much the less common
kind of strophe, occurring only slightly more than fifty
times i n the RV. It is formed by the combination of a
Kakubh with a Satobhat stanza : 8 12, 8 + 12 8, 12 8 ; e. g.
a no va | v a d a v i n a |
Vartr y s i a , m a d h u | p a t a m nara ||
g m a d dasra I h r a y a v a t ||
s u p r v a r g , snv r ya | s u h v a r i a m |
n a d h a | r a k a s v n ||
a s m n n v m , y n e | v a j i n v a s |
v v a vam | n i d h m a h i ||
2. The B a r h a t a Pragatha is a common strophe, occurring
nearly two hundred times i n the RV It is formed by the
combination of a Brhat with a SatobrhatI stanza : 8 8, 12 8 +
12 8, 12 8 ; e. g.
STROPHIC STANZAS
4 4
dyumn v | s t m o av1na I
k r v i r n s I k a gatam ||
m d h v a s u t s y a , s d i | v p r i y n r |
p t gaur v I ivrie ||
p b a t a g h a r m , m d h u | mantam a v i n a |
b a r h s | data n a r ||
t mandasn , m n u | o duro |
n p t a v I das v y a ||
a. Of these two types there are many variations occurring i n
individual hymns, chiefly by the addition of one (8), two (12 8),
three (12 8 8), or once (vii. 96, 13) even four verses (12 12 8 8).
APPENDIX Ill
THE
VEDIC
ACCENT.
1. The accent is marked in all the texts of the four vedas

as well as in two Brhmaas, the Taittinya (including its
rayaka) and the atapatha (including the Bhadarayaka
Upaniad),
The vedic, like the ancient Greek, accent was a musical
one, depending mainly on pitch, as is indicated both by its
not affecting the rhythm of metre and by the name of the
chief tone, u d t t a raised. That such was its nature is,
moreover, shown by the account given of it by the ancient
native phonetician^. Three degrees of pitch are to be dis
tinguished, the high, properly represented by the u d t t a ,
the middle by the svarita (sounded), and the low by the
a n u d t t a (not raised). But i n the Rigveda the Udtta,
the rising accent, has secondarily acquired a middle pitch,
lower than the initial pitch of the Svarita. The Svarita is
a falling accent representing the descent from the Udatta
pitch to tonelessness. In the Rigveda it rises slightly
above Udtta pitch before descending : here therefore it has
something of the nature of a circumfiex. It is i n reality
always an enclitic accent following an Udatta, though it
assumes the appearance of an independent accent when the
preceding Udatta is lost by the euphonic change of a vowel
into the corresponding semivowel (as in k v = k), In
the latter case it is called the independent Svarita. The
Anndatta is the low tone of the syllables preceding an
Udtta.
2. There are four different methods of marking the accent
in vedic texts. The system of the Rigveda, which is
METHODS OF M A R K I N G
ACCENTS
449
followed by the Atharvaveda, the vjasaneyi Sahit, the

Taittirya Sahit and Brhmaa, is peculiar i n not marking
the principal accent at all. This seems to be due to the fact
that in the RV. the pitch of the Udtta is intermediate
between the other two tones. H ence the preceding Anudtta,
as having a low pitch, is indicated below the syllable bearing
it by a horizontal stroke, while the following Svarita, which
at first rises to a slightly higher pitch and then falls, is
indicated above the syllable bearing it by a vertical stroke ;
e. g. agnin = a g n n ; v r y a m = v r y m (for vr).
Successive Udttas at the beginning of a hemistich are
indicated by the absence of all marks t i l l the enclitic Svarita
which follows the last of them or t i l l the Anudatta which
(ousting the enclitic Svarita) follows the last of them as
a preparation for another Udtta (or for an independent
Svarita) ; e. g. t v a y t am = t v yatam ; tavet tat
satyam = t v t t t s a t y m .
On the other hand, all
successive unaccented syllables at the beginning of a
hemistich are marked with the Anudatta ; e. g. v a i v a n a r a m
v a i v a n a r m . But all the unaccented syllables following
a Svarita remain unmarked t i l l that which immediately
precedes an Udatta (or independent Svarita) ; e. g. i m a m
me gauge yamune sarasvati u t d r i i m m me gauge
yamune sarasvati | t u d r i .
a. Since a hemistich of two or more Pdas is treated as
a unit that consists of an unbroken chain of accented and
unaccented syllables, and ignores the division into Pad as,
the marking of the preceding Anudtta and the following
Svarita is not limited to the word i n which the Udtta
occurs, but extends to the contiguous words not only of the
same, but of the succeeding Pada ; e. g. agnin r a y i m
a n a v a t poam eva dive-dive = a g n n r a y m a n a v a t |
1
Here the enclitic svarita, which would rest on the syllable sa if

the following syllable were unaccented, is ousted by the Anudatta,
which is required to indicate that the following syllable tyam has the
Udtta.
1
450
APPENDIX
III
pam ev divdive ; sa n p i t e v snave ^gn spa

yano bh v a s n a p i t v a s n v 'gne s p y a n
bhava.
b. When an independent Svarita immediately precedes an
Udatta, it is accompanied by the sign of the numeral 1 if
the vowel is short and by 3 if it is long, the figure being
marked with both the Svarita and the A n u d t t a ; e.g.
apsvianta = a p s a n t h ; r y o ^ v a n i = r y vni
(cp. 17,3),
3. Both the Maitraya and the Kahaka Sahits agree
in marking the Udatta with a vertical stroke above (like the
Svarita i n the RV.), thereby seeming to indicate that here
the Udatta rose to the highest pitch ; e. g. agnin. But
they differ i n their method of marking the Svarita. The
Maitraya indicates the independent Svarita by a curve
below ; e. g. v r y a m = v r y m ; but the dependent Svarita
by a horizontal stroke crossing the middle of the syllable or
by three vertical strokes above i t ; while the Kahaka
marks the independent Svarita by a curve below only if an
unaccented syllable follows, but by a hook below if the
following syllable is accented ; e. g. v r y a v r y
b a d h n t ; v r y a = v r y vy c ae ; the dependent
Svarita has a dot below the accented syllable. The Anudtta
is marked in both these Sahits with a horizontal stroke
below (as in the RV.).
4. I n the Smaveda the figures 1, 2, 3 are written above
the accented syllable to mark the Udatta, the Svarita, and
1
In the Pada text on the other hand, each word has its own accent
only, unaffected by contiguous words. The two above hemistichs
there read as follows : agnin rayim anavat pom eva dive^ dive ;
sa na pit îva snav agne s ^ p y a n a bhava.
As i n kv = k, vrym ----- vrm.
In L . v. schroeder^s editions of these two sahits the Udtta
and the independent svarita only are marked.
When the text of any of the sahitas is transliterated in Roman
characters, the Anudtta and the enclitic svarita are omitted as
unnecessary because the Udtta itself is marked with the sign of the
acute ; thus agnin^, becomes agnn.
2
3
vEDIC ACCENT
451
the Anudtta respectively as representing three degrees of

12
pitch ; e. g. b a r h i i = b a r h i i (barhi). The figure 2 is,
however, also used to indicate the Udatta when there is no
following Svarita ; e. g. g i r = gir (gira). When there
are two successive Udattas, the second is not marked,
hut the following Svarita has 2r written above; e.g.
^1
2r
dvio martyasya (dvi m r t y a s y a ) . The independent
Svarita is also marked with 2r, the preceding Anudatta
3l^ 2r
being indicated by 3k ; e. g. t a n v tanv^.
5. The atapatha Brahmaa marks the Udatta only.
It does so by means of a horizontal stroke below (like the
Anudatta of the RV.) ; e. g. p r u a = p r u a . Of two
or more successive Udattas only the last is marked ; e. g.
agnir h i v a i d h r atha a g n r h v i dhur tha. A n
independent Svarita is thrown back on the preceding
syllable i n the form of an Udatta ; e. g. manyeu =
m a n y e u for manuyu. The Svarita produced by
change to a semivowel, by contraction, or the elision of
initial a is similarly treated ; e. g. evaitad = v a i t d for
e v a l t d (= ev etd).
6. Accent of single words. Every vedic word is, as
a rule, accented and has one main accent only. I n the
original text of the RV. the only main accent was the Udatta
which, as Comparative Philology shows, generally rests on
the same syllable as it did in the IndoEuropean period ;
e.g. tats stretched, Gk. raro^: ; j n u n. knee, Gk. ^youv;
-dat, Gk. ^pa^
; b h r a - t a , Gk. ^p^-r^J But i n the
written text of the RV. the Svarita appears to be the main
accent i n some words. It then always follows a y or v
which represents original i or u with Udtta ; e. g. r a t h y m
1
But ôô-^
(bhramas) by the secondary Greek law of
accentuation which prevents the acute from going back farther than
the third syllable from the end of a word.
452
APPENDIX
1
III
r a t h m ; s v r s r n. light ; t a n v m = t a n m .
Here the original vowel with its Udatta must be restored in
pronunciation except in a very few late passages.
7. Double Accent. One form of dative infinitive and
two types of syntactical compounds have a double accent.
The infinitive i n tavai, of which numerous examples occur
both i n the Sahits and the Brhmaas, accents both the
first and the last syllable ; e. g. tavi to go ; pabhar
tavi to take away. Compounds both members of which
are duals i n form (186 A 1), or i n which the first member
has a genitive ending (187 A 6 a), accent bothmembers ; e. g.
mitr vru Mitra and Varua ; b h aspti lord of prayer.
I n B . a double accent also appears i n the particle v v .
8. L a c k of Accent. Some words never have an accent ;
others lose it under certain conditions.
A . Always enclitic are :
a. all cases of the pronouns ena he, she, it, tva another,
sama some ; and the following forms of the personal pro
nouns of the first and second persons : ma, t v ; me, te ;
nau, v m ; nas, vas (109 a), and of the demonstrative
stems i and sa : m (111 n . 3) and sm (180).
b. The particles ca and, u also, v a or, i v a like, gha, ha
just, c i d at all, bhala indeed, samaha somehow, sma just,
indeed, svid probably.
B . Liable to loss of accent according to syntactical
position are :
a. vocatives, unless beginning the sentence or Pda.
b. finite verbs in principal clauses, unless beginning the
sentence or Pda.
c. oblique cases of the pronoun a, if unemphatic (replacing
a preceding substantive) and not beginning the sentence or
Pada ; e. g. asya j n i m n i his (Agni's) births (but asya
u s a ofthat dawn).
1
2
3
Ace. of rathr charioteer.

In the Ts. always written svar.
Acc. of tan body.
A C C E N T OF N O M I N A L STEMS
453
d. y t h as almost invariably when, i n the sense of i v a

like, it occurs at the end of a Pda ; e. g. t y v o y a t h like
thieves ; k m indeed always when following n , s h i .
1. Accentuation of N o m i n a l Stems.
9. The most important points to be noted here are the
following :
A . P r i m a r y Suffixes :
a. Stems i n as accent the root i f neut. action nouns, but
the suffix if masc. agent nouns; e.g. p a s n. work, but
aps active. The same substantive here, without change
of meaning, sometimes varies the accent with the gender ;
e. g. rkas n., raks m. demon.
b. Stems formed with the superlative suffix iha accent
the root ; e. g. yjiha sacrificing best. The only exceptions
are jyeh eldest (but j y h a greatest) and k a n i s t h youngest
(but k n i h a smallest). When the stem is compounded
with a preposition, the latter is accented ; e. g. gamiha
coming best.
c. Stems formed with the comparative suffix ys
invariably accent the root ; e. g. jvys swifter. W h e n
the stem is compounded with a preposition, the latter is
accented ; e. g. p r t i c y a v y s pressing closer against.
d. Stems formed with tar generally accent the root when
the meaning is participial, but the suffix when it is purely
nominal ; e. g. d tar giving (with acc.), but d t r giver.
e. Stems i n man when (neut.) action nouns, accent the
root, but when (masc.) agent nouns the suffix ; e. g. k r m a n
n. aetion, but d a r m n , m. breaker. The same substantive
here varies, i n several instances, in accent with the meaning
and gender (cp. above, 9 A a) ; e. g. b r h m a n n. prayer,
brahman in. one who prays; s d m a n , n. seat, s a d m n , m.
sitter. When these stems are compounded with prepositions,
1
These two exceptions arise simply from the desire to distinguish

the two meanings of each of them. see below (16, footnote 2).
454
APPENDIX
III
the latter are nearly always accented ; e. g. p r - b h a r m a n ,

n. presentation.
B . Secondary Suffixes :
a. Stems i n i n always accent the suffix ; e. g. asv-n
possessing horses.
b. Stems in tama, if superlatives, hardly ever accent the
suffix (except puru-tma very many, ut-tam highest, avat
tam most frequent), but if ordinals, the final syllable of the
suffix ; e. g. a t a - t a m hundredth.
e. Stems in ma, whether superlatives or ordinals, regularly
accent the suffix ; e. g. a d h a m lowest ; aam eighth :
except n t a m a next (but twice antam).
2. Accentuation of Compounds.
10. Stated generally, the rule is that iteratives, possessives,
and governing compounds accent the first member, while
determinatives (Karmadhrayas and Tatpurusas), and regu
larly formed coordinatives accent the last member (usually
on its final syllable). Simple words on becoming members
of compounds generally retain their original accent. Some,
however, always change it : thus vva regularly becomes
viv ; others do so i n certain combinations only : thus
p u r v a prior becomes p r v i n p r v c i t t i I. first thought,
p r v p t i f. first draught, p r v h t i first invoeation ;
m d h a sacrifice shifts its accent in m e d h p a t i lord of
sacrifice and m e d h s t i I. reeeption of the sacrifice, and
vr hero in puruv r a possessed of many men and suv r a
heroie. A n adjective compound may shift its accent from
one member to another on becoming a substantive or a
proper name ; e. g. skta well done, but sukt, n. good
deed ; rya niggardly, but ar y a m. name of a demon.
a. Iteratives accent the first member only, the two words
being separated by Avagraha in the Pada text, like the
members of other compounds ; e.g. h a r a h a r day after day ;
y d y a d whatever ; y t h y a t h as in each ease ; a d y a d y a ,
v - v a on each to-day, on each to-morrow ; p r - p r a forth
and again ; p b a - p i b a drink again and again.
A C C E N T U A T I O N OF C O M P O U N D S
455
b. I n governing compounds the first member, when it is

a verbal noun (except i k n a r helping men) is invariably
accented ; e. g. t r a s d a s y u terrifyingfoes,name of a man ;
present or aorist participles place the accent, wherever it
may have been originally, on their final syllable ; e. g.
tarddveas overcoming (trat) foes. W h e n the first member
is a preposition, either that word is accented, or the final
syllable of the compound if it ends in a ; e. g. a b h d y u
directed to heaven, but a d h a s p a d under the feet ; a n u k m
according to wish (k m a).
e. Bahuvrhis normally accent their first member ; e. g.
r j a p u t r a having kings as sons (but r j a p u t r son ofa king) ;
Vivtomukha facing in all direetions ; sahvatsa accom
panied by her calf
a. But about oneeighth of all Bahuvrhis accent the second member

(chiefly on the final syllable). This is commonly the case when the
first member is a dissyllabic adjective ending i n i or u, invariably i n
the RV. when it is pur or bah much ; e. g. tuvidynmn having great
glory ; vibhukrtu h aving great strength ; puruputr h aving many
bahvann h aving much food. This also is the regular accentuation
when the first member is dvi two, tri th ree, dus ill, su well, or the
privative particle a or an ; e. g. dvipd twofooted, trin b hi h aving
three naves, durmnman illdisposed, subhga wellendowed, a
toothless, aphal lackingfruit (phla).
1
d. Determinatives accent the final member (chiefly on the

final syllable).
1. Ordinary Karmadhrayas accent the final syllable ;
e. g. prathamaj firstborn, prtaryj early yoked, maha
dhan great spoil. But when the second member ends in
i , man, van, or is a gerundive (used as a n. substantive),
the penultimate syllable is accented ; e.g. durg b hi hard to
hold ; s u t r m a n erossing well ; r a g h u p t v a n swiftflying ;
p r v a p y a , n. preeedence in drinking.
1
The later sahitas tend to follow the general rule ; e. g. pur

nman (.SV.) manynamed.
Bahuvrhis formed with a or an are almost invariably accented
on the final syllable as a distinction from Karmadbrayas (which
normally accent the first syllable, as manusa inhuman) ; e. g. amtr
measureless.
2
456
APPENDIX
III
a. The first member is, however, accented under the following

conditions. It is generally accented when it is an adverbial word
qualifying a past participle i n ta or na or a verbal noun in t i ; e. g.
dr-hita faring ill ; sadh-stuti joint praise. It is almost invariably
accented when it is the privitive particle a or an compounded with
a participle, adjective, or substantive ; e. g. n-adant not eating,
-vidvs not knowing, -kta not done, -tandra unwearied, -kumra
not a child. The privative particle is also regularly accented, when it
negatives a compound ; e. g. n-ava-d not giving a horse, nagni
dagdha not burnt with fire.
1
2. Ordinary Tatpuruas accent the final syllable ; e. g.

g o t r a b h d opening the eowpens, a g n i m i n d h firekindling,
b h a d r a v d n uttering auspicious cries ; u d a m e g h shower
of water. But when the second member is an agent noun
in ana, an action noun in ya, or an adjective i n i , or van,
the radical syllable of that member is accented ; e. g. deva
mdana exhilarating the gods ; ahihtya n. slaughter of the
dragon ; patnirki protecting the road ; somapvan Soma
drinking.
a. The first member is, however, accented when it is dependent on

past passive participles in ta and na or on action nouns in t i ; e. g.
devhita ordained by the gods, dhnasti acquisition of health . It is
usually also accented, if dependent on pti lord ; e. g. ghpati lord of
the house. some of these compounds with pti accent the second
member with its original accent ; some others i n the later sahits,
conforming to the general rule, accent it on the final syllable ;
thus apsarpat (AV.) lord of the Apsarases, aharpat (Ms.) lord of day,
nadipat (Vs.) lord of rivers.
^. A certain number of Tatpuruas of syntactical origin, having
a genitive caseending i n the first member nearly always followed by
pti, are doubly accented ; e. g. b h aspti lord of prayer. Other are
ap npt son of waters, nr-sa (for nr-sa) praise of men,
na-pa Dog's tail, name of a man. The analogy of these is
followed by some Tatpuruas without case-ending in the first member :
cpti lord of might ; tnnpt son of himseif (tan ) ; n sa
praise of men.
sometimes, however, the first syllable of the second member is

accented ; e. g. ajra unaging ; ^.mtra m. enemy (nonfrien : mitr) ;
amta immortal (from mt).
A C C E N T U A T I O N OF COMPOUNDS
457
e. Regularly formed Dvandvas (186 A 2. 3) accent the

final syllable of the stem irrespective of the original accent
of the last member ; e. g. a j v y a m . pl. goats and sheep ;
a h o r a t r i days and nights ; i p r t m n. what is saerificed
and presented.
a. The very rare adverbial Dvandvas accent the first member:
hardivi day by day, syprtar evening and morning.
^. Coordinatives consisting of the names of two deities, each dual in
form (Devatdvandvas), accent both members ; e. g. ndrvru
Indra andVarua; surym s Sun and .llIoon. A few others, formed
of words that are not the names of deities, are similarly accented ;
e. g. turv-ydu rurvasa and Tadu ; mtrpitr moth er and father.
1
a. Accent i n Declension.
11. a. The vocative, when accented at all (18), invariably
has the acute on the first syllable ; e. g. p t a r (N. pita),
d v a (N. devs). The regular vocative of d y (dyv) is
d y u s , i. e. d a u s (which irregularly retains the s of the
nom. : cp. Gk. Z^v), but the accent of the N . , d y u s ,
usually appears instead.
b. I n the a and declensions the accent remains on the
same syllable throughout (except the vocative) ^ e. g. devs,
devsya, dev nm. This rule includes monosyllabic
stems, pronouns, the numeral dv, and radical stems ;
e. g. from m : m y , mhyam m y i ; from t : t s y a ,
tam, t bhis ; from d v : dv bhym, d v y o s ; from
j m. I. offspring: j bhym, j bhis, jabhyas, j su.
a. The cardinal stems in a, pca, nva, da (and its compounds)
shift the accent to the vowel before the endings bhis, bhyas, su and
to the gen. ending nm ; a shifts it to all the endings and sapt to
the gen. ending ; e.g. pacbhis, pacn m ; saptbhis, saptn m ;
abhs, abhys, anm.
1
This is perhaps rather an irregular iterative in which the first

member is repeated by a synonym.
Occasionally these compounds become assimilated to the normal
type by losing the accent and even the inflexion of the flrst member ;
e. g. i n d r g n 1 Indra and Agni, indravyu Indra and Vdyu.
2
4^8
APPENDIx
III
^. The pronoun a this, though sometimes conforming to this rule

(e. g. smai, sya, bhis), is usually treated like monosyllables not
ending i n a ; e. g. asy, em, sm.
e. W h e n the final syllable of the stem is accented, the
acute is liable to shift (except i n the a declension) to the
endings i n the weak eases.
1. I n monosyllabic stems (except those ending i n a) this
is the rule ;
e. g. dh I. thought : dniy, dhbhs, dh
nam ; bh I. earth : bhuvs, bhuvs ; nu I. ship : nv,
naubhs, nau (Gk. uav^ri) ; d n t , in. tooth : dat ,
dadbhs.
1
There are about a dozen exceptions to this rule : g cow, dy sky ;

n man, st star ; ksm earth ; tn succession, r n joy, vn wood ; v
bird ; vfp rod ; svr ligh t ; e. g. gv, gvm, gbhis ; dyvi,
dybhis ; nre, nbhis, n u (but nar m and n m ) ; st bhis ;
kmi ; tn (also tan ) ; re rsu ; vsu (but van m ) ;
vbhis, vbhyas (but vn m ) ; G. vpas ; suras (but sur) ; alsothe
dative infinitives b d he to press and vhe to convey. The irregula
accentuation of a few other monosyllabic stems is due to their being
reduced forms of dissyllables ; these are dr wood (d r u), sn summit
(snu), vn dog (Gk. ^ ^ ) , yun (weak stem of yvan young) ; e. g.
dr ; sn-u ; n, vbhis ; yu.n.
2. W h e n the final accented syllable loses its vowel either
by syncope or change to a semivowel, the acute is thrown
forward on a vowel ending ; e. g. from m a h i m n greatness :
mahimn ; a g n fire : a g n y s ; d h e n eow : dhenv ;
vadh bride: v a d h v i ( A v ) ; pit father: pitr .
a. Polysyllabic stems i n , and, i n the RV., usually those i n I.
throw the acute on the ending of the gen. pf. also, even though the
final vowel of the stem here retains its syllabic character; e.g.
agnn m , dnenn m , dt m , bahvn m (cp. 11 b a).
3. Present participles i n t and n t throw the acute
forward on vowel endings i n the weak cases ; e. g. t u d n t
striking : t u d a t (but t u d d b n i s ) ,
This rule is also
A t the end of a compound a monosyllabic stem loses this accentua

tion ; e. g. sudh wise, udh nm.
ACCENT IN DECLENSION
459
followed by the old participles mah n t great and b h n t

lofty ; e. g. mahat (but mahdbhis).
4. In the R v derivatives formed with accented a c
throw the acute forward on vowel endings i n the weak cases
when the final syllable contracts to c or c ; e. g. p r a t y c
turned towards: pratc ( but p r a t y k u ) ; anvcfollowing :
ancs ; but pr c forward: pr c I.
1
4. v e r b a l Accent.
12. a. The augment invariably bears the acute, if the
verb is accented at all (19) ; e. g. impI. b h a v a t ; aor.
b h t ; plup. jagan ; cond. bhariyat. The accentua
tion of the forms in which the augment is dropped (used
also as injunctives) is as follows. The imperfect accents the
same syllable as the present ; e. g. b h r a t : b h r a t i ; b h i n t :
b h i n t t i . The pluperfect accents the root ; e. g. c k n
(3. s.); n a m m a s , t a s t m b h a t ; t a t n a n t a ; but in the
3. pl. also occur eakpnta, ddhanta.
The aorist is variously treated. The s and the is forms
accent the root ; e. g. vsi (van win) ; siam. The
root aorist (including the passive form) accents the radical
vowel in the sing. active, but the endings elsewhere ; e. g.
3. s. v r k (vj); pass. vdi ; 2. s. mid. nutth s . The
aorists formed with a or sa accent those syllables ; e. g.
r u h m , v i d t ; b u d h n t a ; dhuknta. The reduplicated
aorist accents either the reduplicated syllable ; e. g. n n aas,
p p arat, j j anan ; or the root, as p p r a t , i n t h a t .
b. Present System. The accent i n the a conjugation
(as i n the a declension) remains on the same syllable
throughout : on the radical syllable in verbs of the first and
fourth classes, on the affix in the sixth (125) ; e. g. b h v a t i ;
nhyati ; tudti.
2
I n the other sahits, however, the accent is generally retained

on the stem ; thus the A V . forms the f. stem prat1o (RV. pratc ) .
In the a aorist several forms are found accenting the root ; e. g.
ranta, sdatam, snat.
2
460
APPENDIX
III
The graded conjugation accents the stem i n the strong

forms (126), but the endings i n the weak forms. In the
strong forms the radical syllable is accented i n the second
and the reduplicative syllable i n the third class ; and the
stem affix in the fifth, eighth, seventh, and ninth classes ;
e. g. sti, sat, stu ; bibharti ; k t i , kvat ;
manvate;
yunjmi,
yunjat;
ghti
gbh
s (2. s. sub.); but addh, adyr; bibhmsi ;
kv, k u h i ; vanuy m a, v a n v n t u ; y u k t ,
y u k v ; gmsi, gh.
e. Perfect. The strong forms (the sing. 1. 2. 3. ind. and
3. impv. act. and the whole subjunctive) accent the radical
syllable, the weak forms (cp. 140) the endings ; e. g. cakara ;
jabhrat, vavrtati ; mumktu ; but cakrr, cak
mhe; vavtym; mumugdhi. The participle accents
the suffix ; e. g. eakv s, c a k r .
d. Aorist. The injunctive is identical i n accentuation
(as well as form) with the unaugmented indicative (see
above, 12).
1
a. Tl1e root aor. accents the radical syllable in the subjunctive ;

e.g. krat rv-a-tas, gm-a-nti, bhj-a-te; but the endings it
the opt. and impv. (except the 3. s. act.), and the suffix in the
participle ; e.g. a-ym, a--mhi ; k-dh, ga-tm, bh-t (but 3. s.
sr-tu), k-v ; bhid-nt, budhn.
1
Eleven verbs of this class accent the root throughout : as sit,

1 praise, r set in motion, rule, cak see, taks fashion, t r protec
kiss, vas wear, lie, s bring forth ; e. g. ye, ^:c.
Occasionally the 2. s. impv. mid. accents the root in other verbs
also ; e. g. ykva (yaj),
Four verbs, c i note, mad exhilarate, yu separate, hu sacr^flce,
the radical syllable ; e. g. juhti. A few other verbs do so i n isolated
forms ; e. g. hibhrti (usually bbharti).
3 In the third class the reduplicative syllable is accented i n the
weak forms also i f the ending begins with a vowel ; e.g. bbhrati.
In the second, fifth, seventh, eighth, and ninth classes the final syl
lable of the 3. pf. mid. is irregularly accented i n rihat (beside rihte) ;
krvat, vvat, spvat, tanvat, manvat ; bhujat (beside
bhujte) ; punat, riat.
The radical syllable (in its strong form) is also in several instances
accented i n the 2. pi. act. ; e.g. krta beside kt ; gnta, gntana
beside gat, ^:c.
I n the mid. part. the root is, in several instances, accented ; e. g.
dytana.
2
ACCENT I N CONJUGATION
4^1
.S. The s and is aor. accent the root in the subjunctive but the
endings i n the opt. and impv.; e.g. ykat (yaj), bdhiat ;
but bhaksy (bhaj), dhukmhi ( duh), edhiy (Av.) ;
avihi, avim. The s aor. accents the root i n the act. part.,
but nearly always the suffix i n the irregularly formed middle ; e. g.
dkant (dah), arcasn.
The a aorist accents the thematic vowel throughout the moods
(as i n the unaugmented indicative) and the part. ; e. g. vid t ;
vidyam ; ruhtam ; trpnt, guhmana.
^. The sa aor. accents the suffix i n the impv. : dhaksva (dah).
The same accentuation would no doubt appear i n the subjunctive and
optative, but no examples of those moods (nor of the part.) occur.
^. In the reduplicated aor. the treatment of the subj. and opt. is
uncertain because no normally formed accented example occurs ; but
in the impv. the ending is accented ; e. g. jigtm, didht.
1
e. Future. The accent i n all foi^ms of this tense remains

on the suffix s y or iy ; e. g. ey m i ; kariyti ;
kariynt.
f. Secondary conjugations. A s all these (except the
primary intensive) belong to the a conjugation, they accent
the same syllable throughout. The causative (168) accents
the penultimate syllable of the stein, as k r o d n y a t i enrages ;
the passive, the secondary intensive (172), and the denomina
tive (175), accent the suffix y ; e. g. panyate is admired ;
rerihyte licks repeatedly ; g o p y n t i they proteet. The
desiderative (169) accents the reduplicative syllable ; e. g.
pprati desires to please. The primary intensive agrees
with the third conjugationa1 class i n accenting the reduplica
tive syllable in the strong forms, but the endings with
initial consonant in the weak forms of the indie. act. ; e. g.
jhavti, jarbhts, but 3. pl. v r v t a t i ; i n the mid.
ind. the reduplicative syllable is more frequently accented
5
No accented impv. forms occur i n the s. aor. In the sis aor. the
only accented modal form occurring is the impv. : y.sis^m.
Neither the is nor the sis aor. forms participles.
But the root is accented, in several imperatives and participles,
e. g. sna, sdatam, khyta ; sdant, dsamna.
No participial form occurs in this aor.
A certain number of unmistakable denominatives, however, have
the causative accent ; e. g. mantryati takes counsel (mntra),
2
46^
APPENDIX
III
than not ; e. g. ttikte, less often nenikt. I n the subj.

and part. the reduplicative syllable is regularly accented ;
e. g. jgnanat, jghananta ; ckitat, c k i t n a .
The accentuation of the imperative was probably the same
as that of the present reduplicating class (12 b) ; but the
only accented forms occurring are i n the 2. s. act., as
j g h , carkt t .
1
5. Accent of N o m i n a l v e r b Forms.
13. a. Tense Participles when compounded with one or
more prepositions retain their original accent (while the
prepositions lose theirs) ; e. g. a p a g c h a n t going away,
v i p r a y n t a advancing, paryvvtsan wishing to turn
round; a p a g c h a m n a ; apajaganv s, apajagmn.
.a. A single preposition, or the first of two, not infrequently

becomes separated by the interposition of one or more words or by
being placed after the participle. It is then treated as independent
and recovers its accent ; e. g. pa drh n i drdrat bursting strongh ol
asunder ; ca pr ca pathbhi crantam wandering h ith er and th
on his paths ; mdhu bbhrata pa bringing sweetness near ; pr
ujjhn jlying up to a branch ; avasrjnn pa bestowing. Occasiona
an immediately preceding preposition is not compounded with the
participle and is then also accented ; e. g. abb dksat burning around ;
v vidv n discriminating ; abh acranta approaching.
2
b. On the other hand, the past passive participIe, when

compounded with one or more prepositions, generally loses
its accent ; e. g. n h i t a deposited. W h e n there are two
prepositions the first remains unaccented ; e. g. sam ktam
accumulated ; or the first may be separated and independently
accented ; e. g. p r y t s a m u d r hita when dispatched
forth to the ocean.
4
No accented form of the optative occurs.

Probably i n distinction from vividv n simple reduplicated
participle of vidjlnd.
Which itself is always accented on the final syllable ; e. g. gat
patit, ehinn.
In several instances, however, it retains its accent ; e. g. nikt
prepared. This is the case with prepositions that are not used
independently.
2
ACCENT OF NOMINAL v E R B FORMS
463
c. Gerundives i n y a (or tya) and tva accent the root ;

e. g. ck-ya to be seen, r t y a to be heard, eark tya to be
praised, v k t v a to be said ; those i n y y a , enya, a n y a
accent the penultimate of the suffix ; e. g. panayya to be
admired, keya worthy to be seen, upajvan y a (Av.) to
be subsisted on ; while those in tavya accent the final
syllable : j a n i t a v y ( A v ) to be born. When compounded
with prepositions (here always inseparable) gerundives nearly
always retain the accent of the simple form ; e. g. pari
ekya to be despised ; abhyyasnya to be dra^vn near ;
mantra y a (AV.) to be addressed.
14. Infinitives are as a rule accented like ordinary cases
that would be formed from the same stem.
a. Dative infinitives from stems i n i , t i , as, van accent
the suffix ; those in dhyai, the preceding thematic a ; and
those formed from the root, the ending ; e. g. dye to see,
pty-e to drink, c a r s - e i to move, d - v n e to give,
tur-v-e to overeome ; iydhyai to go ; d- to see.
2
c^. When radical infinitives are compounded with prepositions the

root is accented ; e.g. sam-dh-e to kindle, abhi-pra-caks-e to see.
5
b. The dative infinitive from stems in man, the accusative

and the abl. gen. from roots, and all from stems i n t u
accent the root ; e. g. d-man-e to give ; b h a m to shine,
sdam to sit down ; avapdas to full down ; datum
to give, gntos to go, b h r t a v e to bear, gntavi 7 to go.
6
a. When compounded, infinitives from tu stems accent the preposi

tion;^ e.g. skartum to collect; ndhatos to put down; pidh
1
In these the root is sometimes accented, as ckase to see.

This infinitive also appears with independently accented preposi
tions ; pr dvne and abh pr dvne.
3 The root is once accented in dhurvane to injure.
In these the root is sometimes accented ; e. g. gmadhyai.
The regular accentuation of monosyllabic stems when compounded :
cp. 11c, 1.
3 But vidmne to know.
With a secondary accent on the final syllable : cp. above, 7.
^ But when the preposition is detached the infinitive retains its
accent ;^ e. g. pr dse d t ave to present to the worshipper.
2
4
5
4,34
APPENDIx III
1
tave to cover up ; pabhartavi to be taken away. When there a

prepositions the first may be separate and independently accented ;
e. g. nu prvohum to advance along, v prsartave to spread.
15. Gerunds formed with t v , t v , t v y a accent the

suffix, but when they are compounded with prepositions
(here always inseparable) and formed with y or ty , they
accent the root ; e. g. bhtv having beeome, gatv and
gatvya having gone ; samgbhy having gathered, upa
rtya (Av.) having overcome.
16. Case forms used as adverbs frequently shift their
accent to indicate clearly a change of meaning.
The
accusative neuter form is here the commonest ; e. g. d r a v t
guichly, hut d r v a t running ; a p a r m later, but p a r a m as
n. adj. ; u t t a r m higher, but t t a r a m as n. adj. ; adverbs in
Vt e. g. p r a t n a v t as of old, but the acc. n. of adjectives
in vant do not accent the suffix. Examples of other cases
are : dv by day, but div through heaven ; apar y a for
the future, but p a r y a to the later ; sanat from of old,
but s n t fuom the old.
2
6. Sandhi Accent.
17. 1. When two vowels combine so as to form a long
vowel or diphthong, the latter receives the Udtta, if either
or both the original vowels had it ; e. g. gt = agat ;
nudasv t ha nudasva t h a ; k v t = k v i t ; n n tara
= n ntara.
3
a. But the contraction of i is accented as 1, the enclitic svarita

( 1) having here ousted the preceding Udatta ; e. g. div1va div iva.
4
Retaining the secondary accent on the final syllable.

Such a shift is found i n nouns to indicate either a simple change
of meaning, e. g. jyha greatest, but jyeh eldest ; or a change of
category also, e.g. gmat rich in cows, but gomat name of a river;
rjaputr son of a king, but r j aputra h aving sons as kings.
Put when a Svarita on a final vowel is followed by an unaccented
initial vowel, it of course remains, e. g. kv^yatha kv iyatha.
In the RV. and A v . , but not in the Taittirya texts, which follow
the general rule.
RV. and A v . , but d i v 1 v a in the Taittirya texts.
This is the pralia or contracted svarita of the Prtikhyas.
2
SANDHI ACCENT
465
2. W h e n and with Udtta are changed to y and v,

a following unaccented vowel receives the Svarita ; e. g.
v y ^na = v ana. H ere the Svarita assumes the appear
ance of an independent accent ; but the uncontracted form
with the Udtta must almost invariably be pronounced in
the R V .
3. When accented is elided it throws back its Udtta
on unaccented e or o ; e. g. s n v ^gne s n v e g n e ;
v ^vasa = vo vasa. But when unaccented a is elided,
it changes a preceding Udtta to Svarita ; e. g. so ^ d h a m
= s a d h a m h .
1
7. Sentence Accent.
18. The Vocative, whether it be a single word or a
compound expression, can be accented on its first syllable
only.
a. It retains its accent only at the beginning of a sentence
or Pda, that is, when having the full force of the case it
occupies the most emphatic position ; e. g. gne, s u p y a n
bhava O Agni, be easy of access ; urjo n a p t sahasavan
O mighty son of strength. This rule also applies to doubly
accented dual compounds ; e. g. m t r v a r u O Mitra
and Vara. Two or more vocatives at the beginning of
a sentence are all accented ; e. g. d i t e , m t r a , v r u a
O Aditi, O Mitra, O Varua. Two accented vocatives are
sometimes applicable to the same person ; e. g. urjo napad,
4
This is the kaipra or quickly pronounced svarita of the Prtikhyas.

This is the abhinihita svarita of the Prtikhyas.
Here the svarita ( ) has ousted the preceding Udtta.
This applies to the second as well as the first Pda of a hemistich,
indicating that both originally had a mutually independent character,
which is obscured by the strict application of sandhi and the absence
of any break i n marking the accent, at the internal junction of the
Pdas of a hemistich.
The corresponding nom. would be rj npt shasv.
3 The nom. is mitr vru^.
1
APPENDIX
466
III
bhdraocie O son of strength, O propitiously bright one (both

addressed to Agni).
b. When it does not begin the sentence or Pda, the
vocative, being unemphatic, loses its accent ; e. g. p a t v a ^
agne divdive I d v a s t a r dniy v a y m I n m o
b h r a n t a masi to thee, O Agni, day by day, O illuminer of
darkness, bringing homage with prayer we eome ; a rjn
maha tasya gop hither (come), O ye two sovereign guardians
ofgreat order ; t n a m i t r v a r u v | t v d h v tasp |
through Law, O law-loving, law-cherishing Mitra and Varua ;
y d i n d r a brahmaaspate | a b h i d r o h c r m a s i |
if O Indra, O Brahman apati, we commit an offenee.
1
19. The verb is differently accented according to the

nature of the sentence.
A . The finite verb in a principal sentence is unaccented ;
e. g. a g n m H e p u r h i t a m I praise Agni the domestw priest.
This general rule is subject to the following restrictions :
a. A sentence being regarded as capable of having only
one verb, all other verbs syntactically connected with the
subject of the first are accented as beginning new sentences ;
e. g. t p h i , r u d h h v a m drink of them, hear our
call; t a r i r j jayati, k t i , p y a t i the energetic man
conquers, rules, thrives; j a h praj n y a s v a ca slay the
progeny and bring (it) hither.
b. The verb is accented if it begins the sentence or if.
6
H ere the second voc. is accented as in apposition, whereas i f it

were used attributively it would be unaccented as in htar yaviha
sukrato O youngest wise priest.
Accented because the first word of the Pada.
This might represent two vocatives addressed to the same persons ;
their accented form would then be : r j an, mha rtasya gop.
H ere the rule that the whole of the compound voc. must be
unaccented overrides the rule that the first word of the Pada must
be accented, i. e. here tvrdhv.
A n example of two independent unaccented vocatives.
A subject or object coming between two such verbs is generally
counted to the first.
2
ACCENT IN T H E SENTENCE
467
though not beginning the sentence, it coincides with the

beginning of a Pda ; e.g. ye v a v r , e r a t i j i h v y d n |
r e r i h y t e y u v a t v i p t i s n the covering lies (there);
he (Agni) moves eating with his tongue ; he kisses the maiden,
being the lord of the house ; t h te n t a m n | v i d y m a
sumatn m then may we experienee thy highest favours.
e. Vocatives being treated as extraneous to a sentence,
a verb immediately following an initial one, becomes the
first word of the sentence and is accordingly accented ; e. g.
g n e , jusva no h a v O Agni, enjoy our sacrifice. Thus
the sentence n d r a , j v a ; surya, jva ; d v , j v a t a O Indra,
live ; O Surya, live ; O gods, live contains three accented
verbs as beginning three sentences, while the three preceding
vocatives are accented as bîng at the head of those sen
tences, though syntactically outside them.
d. Sometimes the verb when emphatic, though not ^
beginning the sentence, is accented if followed by the
particles d or can ; e. g. dha sm no maghava cark
td t then be mindful of us, bountiful one ; n dev
b h a s t h a can (him) O gods, ye two never eonsume.
B . The verb of a subordinate clause (introduced by the
relative y and its derivatives, or containing the particles
ca and c d if; n d lest, h for, k u v d whether) is always
accented ; e. g. y yaj paribh r si what offering thou
proteetest; gh n gacha g h a p t n y t h ^ s a go to the
house that thou mayest be the lady of the house ; n d r a ca
m y t i no, n n a p a c d a g h n a a t if Indra be
gracious to us, no evil will hereafter reaeh us ; t v h balad
si for thou art a giver of strength. The relative may govern
two verbs ; e.g. y n s r y a j y t i b d hase t m o , jgac
ca v v a m u d i y r i b h n n the light with which thou,
O Sun, drivest away the darkness and arousest all the world
with thy beam.
The rule is subject to the extension that principal clauses in
form may be accented as subordinate in sense under the following
conditions :
4^8
APPENDIx III
a. The first of two clauses, if equivalent to one introduced by if^

or when ' is occasionally accented ; e. g. sm vapar eranti no
nro, asm k am indra rathno jayantu when our men winged with ste
come together, may our carjighters, Indra, win victory.
^. The first of two antithetical clauses is frequently accented,
especially when the antithesis is clearly indicated by corresponding
words like anyany, kaka, caca, va va ; e. g. prpra^,any
ynti, pry any sate while some go on, others sit down ; s caîdh
agne, pr ca bodhayaênam both be kindled, Agni, and waken this m
knowledge. When the verb of two such clauses is the same, it usually
appears (accented) in the first only ; e. g. dvipc ca srva no rksa,
otupd yc ca nah svm protect both every biped of ours and wh
quadruped is our own.
.y. The verb of the second clause is accented i f it is a 1. pers.
Subjunctive or 2. pers. imperative with a final meaning, and the
verb of the first clause is a 2. pers. impv. of II.gam, or y go ; e. g.
ta, dhya kvma come, we will ofier prayer ; tuyam gahi, kve
s sc pba come quickly, beside the Kavas drink thyfill.In B . the
the first clause is an imp v. of either -i or pri ; e. g. hiîd
ptva (B.) come, we will nowfiythither; prta td eymo ytraîm m
sur vibhjante come, we will go thither where the Asuras are divid
earth (B.). The second verb is, however, in similar passages not
infrequently left unaccented in B.
1
V e r b a l Prepositions.
20. A . I n p r i n c i p a l clauses the preposition, which is
detached and usually precedes but sometimes follows the
verb, is accented ; e. g. gamat may he come ; g v m p a
v r a j v d h i unclose the stable of the kine; j y e m a s
y u d h sp d ha we would conquer our adversaries infight;
g m a d v j ebhir s n a h may he come to us with booty.
a. W h e n there are two prepositions, both are independent
and accented ; e. g. p a p r y h i comeforth; p r i s p o n i
edire the spies have sat down around ; g n e v p a y a
bhat a b h ry O Agni, lookforthtowards (us) with ample
wealth.
1
This accentuation is more strictly applied in B. than i n V., and

among the sahits least strictly in the RV.
In B. the accented verb is either a subjunctive or a future.
2
V E R B A L PREPOSITIONS
469
a. When is immediately preceded by another preposition (not

ending in i) it alone is accented, both prepositions being compounded
with the verb ; e. g. sam kroi jvse th oufittest(them) to live ; but
prty tanuva draw (thy bow) against (them).
B. I n subordinate clauses the exact reverse takes place,

the preposition being generally compounded and unaccented ;
e. g. y d . . ni d atha when ye two sit down. It is, however,
often separated by other words from the verb, when it
commonly commences the Pda, or much less frequently
follows the verb ; e. g. v y m a m rjas who measured out
the two expanses ; y s t a s t m b h a s h a s v j m n t n who
with might propped earth's ends asunder. Occasionally the
preposition is detached and accented even immediately before
the verb ; e. g. y nuti p r i v d a n m o b h i who fully
knolvs tê offering with devotion.
a. When there are two prepositions, either both are com
pounded and unaccented or the first only is detached and
accented ; e. g. y y h i d e v p a r i p r a y t h for ye,
O goddesses, proeeed around ; y t r a ^ a b h i sanvmahe
where we to (him) together shout ; s y m ynti d h e n v a
to whom the cows come together.
a. very rarely both prepositions are detached and accented ; e. g.

pr yt stot . . pa grbhr e wh en the praiser lauds h im with song
VEDIc
INDEx
Th^s index contains all sanskrit words and affixes occurring in the
grammar, except the verbs in Appendix I, which can be found at
once owing to their alphabetical order. Indifferent words occurring
in examples of sandhi, of nominal derivation (Chapter vI), or of
Syntax, as well as i n Appendixes I I and III, are excluded.
The figures refer to paragraphs unless pages are specified.
ABBREvIATIONS
A. ^ adjective. act active. adv., adverb, adverbial. ao., aorist.
Bv., Bahuvrhi. cd compound. cj., conjunction. cond., conditional.
conj conjugation, -al. corr., correlative. cpv., comparative. cs.,
causative. dec., declension. dem., demonstrative. den., denomina
tive. der., derivative, derivation. ds desiderative. encl., enclitic.
Dv., Dvandva. f.n. foot-note. ft., future. gd., gerund. ij., inter
jection. indec., indeclinable. inf., infinitive. inj., injunetive.
inf., intensive. inter., interrogative. ipv., imperative. irr., irregu
larities. itv iterative. mid middle. N., nominative. n., neuter.
neg negative. nm., numeral. nom., nominal. ord., ordinal. par.,
paradigm. pel., particle. per., periphrastic. pf., perfect. ppf., plu
perfect. poss., possessive. pp., past passive participle. pr., present.
pri., primary. prn., pronoun, pronominal. prp., preposition, pre
positional. prs., person, personal. ps., passive. pf. , participle. red.,
reduplication, reduplicated. ref., reflexive. rel., relative. rt., root.
^b subjunctive. sec., secondary. sf., suffix. spv., superlative.
^ynt., syntactical. Tp Tatpurusa. v., vocative. vb., verb, verbal.
^v., with.
A , vowel, pronunciation of, 15, 1 a ; a, pronominal root, I l l ; 195 B 6 ;
initial, dropped, 5 c ; 156 a ;
accentuation of, p. 452, 8 B e ;
elided, 45, 2 b ; lengthened,
p. 458 ^.
162,1c; 168b; 171,1; 175 A 1 ; a-, augment, 128.
thematic, 140, 6 ; 141 ; 143, 5. 6 ; a- or an-, privative pel., i n Bv.
147, 149 ; change to 175 A 1 ;
cds., p. 455, 10 ca; in Karmadropped, 175 A 2 ; to be restored
dhrayas, p. 455, I.n. 2 ; p. 456,
after e and o, n. 437, a 7.
10 d 1 a.
472
VEDIC
INDEX
-a, sf. of 1st conj 125 ; pri. nom.

dant, pr. pt. eating, 85 (par.).
sf., 182, 1 b ; sec. nom. sf., ads, dem. prn. that, 112 ; adv.
182, 2 ; radical nom. stems in,
there, 178, 2 a.
97, 3 ; der. nom. stems in, 97.
addh , adv. truly, 179, 1.
am, attain, pf., 139, 6 ; 140, 3. 5 ; drk, h as seen, s ao. of drs, p. 161 ,
ri. ao. inj 148, 3, op., 148, 4,
f. n. I.
pre. , 148, 4 a.
adribhd, Tp. cd. mountain cleaving,
aktbhis, inst. adv. by nigh t,
77, 3 a.
178, 3.
dh, adv. th en, 179. 1 ; synt. use
akts, gen. adv. by nigh t, 178, 6 ;
of. 180.
202 D 3 a.
adhs, adv. below, 179, 1 ; prp., w.
ks eye, 80.
acc., abf., gen., 177, I. 3.
ksi, n. eye, 99, 4.
adhstt, adv. below, 179, 2.
akhkhalk, croak, 184 d.
agrats, adv. bejbre, w. gen., 202 D. dhi, prp. upon, w. loc abf.,
176, 2.
gram, adv. before, 1 78, 2.
dhvan, m. road, 90.
agru, f. maid, 100, II a.
an, breath e, pr., 134 A 3 a (p. 143 .
gre, loc. adv. in front, 178, 7.
grea, adv. in front, 178, 3 ; w. an, prf. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ., stems
in, 90, 1 ; irr. stems i n , 91 ;
ace., 197 c^.
influence of stems in, p. 78,
ahg, pcl. just, 180.
f. n. 15.
giras, m. a proper name, 83, 2 a.
prf. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
cha, prp. towards, w. acc 176, 1 ana,
;
anks, a. eyeless, 80.
197 B c.
anavh, m. ox, 81 ; 96 ; 96, 2.
j, m. driver, 79, 3 a.
anarvn, a. irresistible, 90, 3.
aj, stems in, 79, 3 b.
an, adv. th us, 178, 3 c.
ajvya, m. pl. goats and sh eep,
ana, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
186 A 2 ; accentuation of.
ngas, a. sinless, 83, 2 a a.
p. 457, e.
ani, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
josas, a. insatiable, 83, 2 a a.
ac, ward, adjectives in, 93; ac anya, gdv. sf., 162; 162, 6;
209, 6.
centuation, p. 459, c 4.
aj, anoint, pr 134 D 1 ; pf., Ianu prp. after, w. aec., 176. 1 ;
197 B c.
139, 6; 140, 1. 3. 5.
|
nyms, cpv. of nu small, 103, anudatta, in. lo^pitch accent, p. 448,
1 ; how marked, p. 449, 2 ; p. 450,
2 a. ^
tath, a. n.^t saying ' yes , 97, 2 a.3. 4.
anunsika, m. nasal, 10 f ; 15, 2 f.
tas, adv. h ence, 179, 2.
tf. prp. beyond., w. acc 176, 1 ; anustubh, f. a metre, p. 438, f.n.
2 ;^ p. 439, 3 b ; later form of.
197 B c.
p. 439, 3 b a.
atijagat1, f. a metre, p. 441, f.m 6.
atiakvar, f. a metre, p. 444, 10 a.
anusvara, m. pure nasal, 3f; 10 ;
atyasi, f. a metre, p. 445, 10 b.
15, 2f; 29 b; 39: 40 a ; 40, 2 ;
tra,^ adv. h ere, 179, 3 ; th en,
42; p. 33, f. n. I. 2, 6; 49b;
180.
66 A ; 67 ; for n, p. 163, f. n. 2 ;
tha, adv. th en, 179, 1 ; synt. use
144, 1.
of, 180.
ant, stems in, 85 ; sf. of pr. pt.
Atharvaveda, how
accented,
act., 156.
p. 449.
antr, prp. between, w. acc., abl.,
tho, adv. moreover, synt. use of, loc, 176, 2.
180.
antar , adv. prp. between, w. acc..
ad stems in, 77, 3 b.
177, 1 ; 197 B c.
VEDIC
INDEX
473
ntarena, adv. prp. between, w.aym, dem. prn. th is h ere, 111

acc 197 B c ^.
(par.) ; 195 B 1.
antasth, f. intermediate semi
aya
adv. th us, 178, 3 c.
vowel, 11.
antik, a. near, cpv. and spv. of, yt, h as sacrificed, s ao. of yaj,
p.'s6l, f. m 1.
103, 2 b.
ys, h ast sacrificed, 2. s. s ao. of
antikm, adv. near, w. gen.,
yaj, 144, 2.
202 D.
any, prn. a. oth er (par.), 120 a. ayta, nm. ten thousand, 104.
anytra, adv. elsewh ere, 179, 3. ar, stems i n , 101, 1.
anyth, adv. oth erwise, 179, 1. ar high grade of , 5 a ; low grade
of, 4 a.
anyedys, adv. ne^ct day, 179, 1.
ram, adv. suitably, 178, 2 a ; com
any ny, a. one another, concord
pounded w. verbs, 184 b ; synt.
of, p. 290, 2 ^.
use, 180 ; w. daf., 200 A 4 a.
anvc, a .following, 93 a.
p, f. water, 78, 1 ; 78, 1 a ; 96, 1. ar, a. devout, p. 81, f. n. 1 ; 99, 3.
rus, n. wound, 83, 2 c.
para, a. lower, 120 c 1.
apar y a, dat. adv. for th e future, are, praise, pf. 139, 6 ; pr. pt. 85.
rthya, adv. dat. for th e sake of,
178, 4.
200 B 5.
apar s u, loc. pl. adv. in future,
ardh, thrive, pf. 139, 6.
^ 178, 7.
arpya, cs. of r, go, red. ao.,
pas, n. work, 83, 2 a (par.).
149 a 3.
aps, a. active, 83, 2 a (par.).
arpit and rpita, pp. cs. of r, go,
apc, a. backward, 93 b.
pi, prp. upon, w. lee., 176, 1 b ; 160, 3.
rbuda, nm. ten millions, 104.
adv. also, eên, 180.
aryamn, m., a god, 90.
apsars, I. nymph, 83, 2 a.
abh, prp. towards, w. acc 176, 1. arv c, a. h ith erward, 93 b.
abhtas, adv. around, 179, 2 ; prp. arh, deserve, pf., 139, 6.
lam ^ ram, adv., synt. use of,
w. acc., 177, 1 ; 197 B c.
180.
abhinihita svarita, a Sandhi ac
alalbhavant, pr. pt. sounding
cent, p. 465, f. n. 2.
abhinth, a. piercing, 77, 2.
merrily, 184 d.
bhru, a. fearless, 98 a.
al, high grade of vowel , 5 a.
am, injure, pr 134, 3 c ; irr. red. lpa, a. small, cpv. and spv. of,
ao., 149 a 1.
l03, 2 b.
am, gd. in, 166; 210a; inf. in,
av dem. prn.this,112 a ^.
211, 2 a.
va, prp. down, w. abl., 176, 3.
ma dem. prn.this,112 a ^.
avagraha, m. nark of separation,
am, adv. at home, p. 110, f. n. 1 ; p. 454, 10 a.
178, 3 c.
vatta, cut off: pp. of d, 160, 2 b.
amd, adv. from near, p. 110, avni, f. stream, p. 82, f. n. 3.
f.n. 1.
avam, spv. lowest, 120 c 1.
^mI. dem. prn. those, N . pl. m., 112. avay j , f. share of oblation, 79, 3 a a.
amtas, adv. th ence, p. 109, f. n. 1 ; vara, cpv. lower, 120 c 1.
179, 2.
varena, adv. prp. below, w. abl
amtra, adv. th ere, p. 109, f. n. 1.
p. 209, f. n. 3.
amth, adv. th us, p. 109, f. n. 1. avs, adv. downwards ; prp. down
amuy , inst. adv. in th at way,
Irom, below, w. abl., 177, 3 ; w.
178, 3 c.
insf., 177, 2.
amba, v. O mother, p. 78, f. n. 6. avstd, adv. below, w. gen.,
aya es. sf., how added, 168, 1.
202 D.
474
VEDIC INDEx
avc, a. downward, 93 b.
asmka, poss. prn. our, 116 a.
vt, h as sh one, 3. s. s ao. of vas,asm ^ am, gen. pl. prs. prn. of us,
144, 2.
116 a.
vi, m. sheep, p. 81, f. n. 1.
svapnaj, sleepless, 79, 3 b.
1. a, reach, see a.
ah, say, defective verb, pf., 139, 4.
2. a eat, pr. stem, 134 E 4.
ha emphasizing pcl. just, 180.
ait v ant, pf. pt. having eaten, 161.hamsana, a. rapacious, synt. ed.,
atf. nm. eighty, 104.
189 B c.
man, m. stone, 90, 1. 2 (par.).
han, n. day, 90 ; 91, 2 ; as final
rait, 3. s. s ao. of ri resort, member of Bv. cds., 189, 3 c.
144, 2.
ahm, personal prn., I, 109.
avn, a. possessing h orses, p. ahamuttar,
64,
n. dispute for precc
f. n. 4.
dence, synt. cd 189 B c.
ast^ktvas, nm. adv. eigh t tinges,
ahampurv, a. eager to bejirst, synt
Î08a.
cd), 189 B c.
astadh , nm. adv. in eight ways,har, n. day, 91, 2 ; 101, 1.
^108 b.
harahar, every day, itv. cd. , 189 C a
asam, ord. eighth, 107.
hardivi, day after day, mixed itv.
a, nm. eight, 104 ; 106 b (par.). cd., 189 C a, f. n. 1 ; accentua
astcatvrim, ord. fortyeigh th , tien, p. 457, e a.
^07.
aharpti, m. lord of day, 49 d.
adaa, nm., 104 ; 106 c (par.).
ahi, m. serpent, 100, I a.
as, be, p r 134 A 2 b ; pr. pt. aef.,
hait, 3. s. s ao. of h.I. 144, 2.
156 a.
-as, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems ahortr, n. day and night, 186 A 2 ;
accentuation, p. 457, e.
in, 83, 2 a ; p. 453, 9 A a ; adv.
ahna = han, day, in cds., p. 275,
sf. w. loc. sense, 179, 3 ; abl.
f. m 3.
gen. inf. in, 163, 3 a ; 211, 3 a ;
changed to o, 145, 2 b.
X vowel, dropped, p. 206, f. n. 3 ;
asaku, dem. prn. that little, 117 a. low grade of, 5 c ; reduced to
asact, Bv. cd. unequalled, 85 b. or I. 148, 1 f; 160, 2 ; 169, 2 ;
to I. p. 190, 2 ; shortened, 19 a,
sikn, a. f. black, p. 86, f. n. 3.
I.n. 5; 147a 1; p. 273, f.m4;
asikn, f. name of a river, p. 86,
nasalized, 19 b,f.n. 1.
f. m 3.
, prp. on,w. loc., acc., abl., 176, 2 ;
sj, n. blood, 79, 3 b.
reverses meaning of gam, go,
asu, dem. prn. th at (there), 112
and d, give, p. 265, f. n. 6.
(par) ; synt. use, 195 B 2.
a, emphasizing pel., 180.
stam, acc. adv. h ome, 178, 2 ; w. , pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b; stems
verbs, 184 c.
in, 97, 2 ; sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ;
astamk, loc. adv. at home, 178, 7. stems in, 97 ; for a in sb
stohvam, 2. pl. s ao. of stu,
134 A 4 c ^ ; du. ending, p. 78,
f. n. 13 ; p. 81, f. n. I. 2 ; p1. n.
praise, 144, 2 a.
ending,
p. 78, f. n. 14.
asthi, n. bone, 99, 4.
ak loc. adv. near, 178, 7.
asma, prs. prn. stem, 109 b.
asmatr , adv. among us, 179, 3. tmn, m. seif, 115 b a.
asmtsakhi, Bv. cd. h aving us asd, adv. th en, 1 78, 5 ; synt. use,
180.
companions, 109 b.
dh, f. care, 100 C a f. n. 4.
asmad, prs. prn. stem in cds.,
an, pf. red., 139, 6 ; shortened,
109 b.
asmadrb, Tp. cd. lulling us, 109 b. 140, I.
VEDIC INDEX
475
ana, sf. of mid. pf., pr. 158 a, pf. tara, prn. a. other, 117 b ; 120, a.
159.
its, adv. from here,179,2.
ana, sf. of 2. s. ipv. act 125
ti, pel. th us, synt. use of, 180 ;
f. m 9 ; 134 E 4.
196 a ,S ; use i n Pada text, p. 25,
najn, pf. pl. mid., of aj,
f. n. 2 ; p. 26, f. n. I. 5.
itthm,
adv. th us, 179, 1 a.
anoint, 159.
nan, pf. pt. mid., of a, itth , adv. so, 179, 1 ; synt. use,
reach, 159.
180.
ni secondary nom. sf 182, 2.
d emphasizing pel 180 ; accents
pk, adv. in a miêd way, 79, 1.
verb, p. 467, 19 Ad.
bhu, a. present, 100, I I b.
idm, dem. prn. th is^ I l l ; asadv
y ana, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
178, 2 c.
id, adv. now, 179, 3 ; w. gen.,
yu, n. life, 98 a (p. 83).
D
2.
ayya,gdv. sf., 162; 162, 2 ; 209, 3.
rt, abl. adv. from afar, 178, 5. idnm, adv now, 179, 3 ^ ; w.
gen., 202 D 2.
r t tt, adv. from afar, 179, 2.
r, loc. adv. afar, 178, 7 ; prp. w. idh kindle, rt. ao. op., 148, 4 ; pf.
148, 6.
abI. or gem, 177, 3 ; 202 D a.
idhe, inf. to kindle, 167a (p. 191).
ry, f. a metre, p. 436, f. n. 2.
in, sec. nom. sf 182, 2 ; stems in,
vm, prs. prn. N . du., we two,
87 ; accentuation of, p. 454, B a.
109.
vayj, m. priest wh o ofiers th eindra vyu, du. cd., Indra and
Vyu, 186 A 1 ; accentuation,
oblation, 79, 3 a a.
vis, adv. openly, w. verbs, 184 b ; p. 457, f. n. 2.
inv, send, pr. stem, 133 A 2 b ;
w. daf., 200 A 4 b.
134 C 4 ^.
iha, spv. swiftest, 103, 2 ^.
im, dem. prn. stem,this,I l l .
s, f. prayer, 83, 2 b a.
imth, adv. in this manner, 179, 1.
u, a. swift, spv. of. , 103, 2 ^.
auy, inst. adv. swiftly, 178, 3 b. iya secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
yant, quantitative a. so much ,
as, m face, 83, 1.
st, abl. adv. from near, 178, 5.
118 b (par.).
sn, pr. pt. mid., of s, sit,
iym, f. dem. prn. th is, I l l .
158a.
Iran, 3. pi. mid. ending of ppf.,
sna, irr. pr. pf. mid., of s, sit,
140, 6.
158 a.
iva, encl. pcl. as if, like, 179, 1 ;
smk, poss. prm our, p. 113,
180 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
f. m 2.
is, wish, pr. stem, 133 C 2 ; pr. pt.,
^85.
I, vowel, low grade of e and y a, is, f. refreshment, 80.
4 a ; 5 a, b.
is, ao. suffix, 142 ; 145.
i , go, 134, 1 c a ; pr. system of su, f. arrow, 98 a (p. 82).
(par.), 132 (pp. 1301) ; red. pf. iprtm, n. Dv. cd. wh at h as
pt., 157 a.
been ofiered and given, 186 A 3 ;
I. prI. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; see.
accentuation, 457, e.
nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems in, 98.
isha, pri. spv. suffix, 103, 2;
i , connecting vowel, 89 a ; 145.
p. 453, 9 A b.
ij, stems in, 79, 3 b.
is, pri. nem. sf), 182, 1 b ; stems
, f. refreshment, 80.
in, 83, 2 b.
it, stems in, 77, 1.
ih, adv. h ere, 179, 1.
ita, pp. sf), 160, 3 ; always taken
by sec. verbs, ibid.
vowel, often changed toiy in
476
VEDIC
INDEX
sandhi, 57 ; low grade of y,

ace., 177, 1, f. n. 3 ; 197 B c ^ ;
5 b a ; ending of du. and of am,
p. 209, f. n. 3.
uncontracted in sandhi, 25 a,
d f. wave, 77, 3 a.
b c ; inserted in int. red. , 172 a ; ud, stems in, 77, 3 b.
173, 3; sec. nom. sf., 182, 2; dac, a. upward, 93 a ; north ward
stems in, 95 ; 100 b ; connecting
of w. gen., 202 D ^.
vowel, l44, 2 (s ao.) ; 145 b (is
udatta, m. rising accent, p. 448, 1 ;
ao.) ; 160, 3 a (pp.) ; 162, 4
p. 451, 6 ; how marked, p. 449,
^ (gdv.).
2 ; p. 450, 3. 4. 5.
1, f. praise, 80.
una, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
, praise, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b.
pa, prp. to, w. acc 176 b ; upon,
d k a, prn. cd. snch, 117.
w. loc., ibid.
d, prn. cd. such, 117.
upadhmanya, labial breathing, 3 g ;
da, prn. cd., 117, f. n. 4.
14 ; 15 ; 43, 2.
-ina, secondary nom. suffix, 182, 2.
upam, spv. h igh est, 120 c 1.
m, encl. pronominal particle,
para, cpv. lower, 120 c 1.
180 ; p. 452, 8 A a.
upri, prp. above, w. acc., 177, 1 ;
-m, ending of 1. s. is aorist,
197 B c.
145 c.
upristd, adv. bekind, w. gen.,
ya, secondary nom. suffix, 182, 2.
202 D.
-yms, prf. cpv. suffix, 103, 2 ; upnh, f. shoe, 81, f. n. 1.
p. 453, 9 A c.
bhaya, a. of both kin^ls, 120 c 3
(par.).
yiv s, pf. pt. act. of i go, 89 a.
vant, prn. derivative, so great, ubhaytas, adv. on both sides of
w. ace., 197 B c ^.
118 c.
is, rule, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b; ubhayadys, adv. on both days,
179, 1.
134 A 4 c ^.
ubhay , inst. adv. in both ways,
, m. lord, 79, 4.
var, a. able, concord of, 194 B 2 a ; 178, 3 c.
ur, ending of gen. s., 99, 1. 2 ;
w. inf., 216 (p. 365 ^) ; w. gen.
101; of3.pl. act.: impf. 134 A4c;
inf., 211, 3 a a ; 211, 3 b a ; w.
p. 125, f. n. 7; pf., 136; ppf.,
yd and op., 216 (p. 364 ^).
140, 6; s ao 143, 1 ; root ao.,
U , vowel, low grade of o and va
148, 1.
5 a, b.
ur a. wide, 98 c ; cpv. of, 103, 2 a.
u encf. pel. now, pray, 180 ; formuruvyc, a. farextending p. 54,
of, in Pada text, p. 25, f. n. 2 ;
f. m 1.
p. 452, 8 A b.
urviy , inst. adv. far, 178, 3 b.
u, stems in, 98.
urv, f. earth , du. of. p. 81, f. n. 14.
ukn, m. o, 90, 1 (p. 68).
un, m. a name, 97, 2 a.
uc be pleased, red. pf. pt., 157 a. uj, a. desiring, 79, 3 b (par.).
ucc, adv. on high, 178, 3 b.
s f. dawn, 80.
uccis, adv. on high, 178, 3 b.
us, f. dawn, 83, 2 a.
ut, stems in, 77, 1 .
us, f. elliptical du., dawn and
ut, cj. and, 180.
night, 193, 2 a.
ut cj. and also, synt. use, 180.
rnm, gen. pl. without cere
uttam, spv. h igh est, 103, 1 c.
bral , p. 43, f. m 1.
ttara, cpv. higher, 103, 1 c ; 120 c 1usnh, f. a metre, 81 ; p. 444, 1 ;
(par.).
p. 476, 11 A.
uttarat, abl. adv. from th e north ,us, pri. nom. sr., 182, 1 b ; stems
178, 5.
in, 83, 2 c.
ttarea, adv. prp. north of; w. us f. dawn, 101, 1.
VEDIC
INDEX
477
0^, vowel often changed to uv i n

as du. ending, 26 ; for az, 4 b ;
sandhi, 57 ; shortened to u,
134 A 2 b ; p. 149, f. n. 2 ; for
p. 274, f.m 1 ; pri. nom. sf.,
in s ao 143, 3 ; shortened before
182, 1 b ; stems in, 100 (pp. 88
a, p. 437, a 4.
90).
ka nm. one, 104 ; 105, 1 (par.) ;
uh, pp. of vah, carry, 160, 2.
120b.
ui1, insf. of ut, f. aid, p. 81, f. n. 4.
ekadh , adv. singly, 179, 1 a.
ud.han, n. udder, 91, 6.
ekapad verse, p. 441, f. n. 6.
udhar, n. udder, 91, 6; 101, 1.
ekavi, ord. twenty-jirst, 107.
urj, f. vigour, 79, 3 a.
ekaah, ord. si^vty-first, 107.
uramradas, cd., soft as wool, 83, 2kdaa,
a.
nm. eleven, 104 ; 106 c
urdhvth, adv. upwards, 179, 1.
(par.).
uh, consider, pr. stem, 133 A I.
ekda, ord. eleventh, 107.
uh, remove, 133 A 1 f. n. 2.
kn n vimat, nm. nineteen,
104 a ^.
, vowel, low grade of ar and ra,
kaika, nm. cd. one by one, p. 282,
5 a, b ; before y becomes r i , 58 ;
f. n. 4.
stems in, 101.
et, dem. prn. th is, 101 a 1 (par.) ;
,
pr., 133 C 2 ; 134 B 3 a ; a
correlative use, 195 B 4 a ; ^ well
ao., 147 c ; 148, 1 g ; root ao.
known, ibid. ; anaphoric use,
inj., 148, 3 ; root ao. op., 148, 4 ;
195 B 4 b ; w. following yd
root ao. pf., 148, 6.
that is to say, 195 B 4 a.
rgmn, a. praising, 87.
etd k a, prn. cd. such, 117.
c, f. stanza, 79 ; 1 p. 437.
etdr, prn. ed. such, 117.
rjivan, m. a name, 90 a.
et v ant, prn. derivative, so great,
v, send, pr 134 C 4
118c.
rtay, inst. adv. in th e right way,
ed i j . lo with acc 197 B c v.
178, 3 a.
rtaspati, m. lord of pious works,
ena, end. prn., h e, sh e, it, 112 a
p. 273, f. m 3.
(par.) ; p. 452, 8 A a.
t v an, a. regular, 90, 3 ; v. in en, inst. adv. inthisway, 178, 3.
vas, ibid.
enya, gdv. suffix, 162, 3 ; 209, 4.
tuth , adv. regularly, 179, 1.
secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
tus, adv. season by season, 179, eya
1.
rt, adv. prp. with out, 178, 7 ; w. ev, adv. th us, just, 179, 1 ; synt.
use, 180.
abl., 177, 3 ; w. acc., 197 B c a
evth, adv. just as, 179, I.
(p. 303).
evm, adv. th us, 179, 1 ; synt. use,
tvj, m. priest, 79, 3 f. n. 4.
180.
rdh, th rive, root ao. op., 148, 4 ;
evayvas, voc. going quickly, 90, 3.
pf., 148, 6.
rbhuksn, m. ch ief of th e Rbh us.esa, dem. prn.this,Sandhi of. 48 ;
^110 a 1; 195, 4 a.
90, f (p. 68).
before y becomes r or ur.
, vowel, low grade of al 4 a
E , diphthong, originally i, p. 22,
f. n. 3 ; high grade of I. 5 a ;
sandhi of final, 21 ; internal
sandhi of, 59 ; unchangeable
O, diphthong, originally u, p. 22,

f. n. 3 ; high grade of u, 4 b ; low
grade of, 4 a; internal sandhi
of, 59 ; for az, 15, 2 k a ; p. 47,
f. n. 3 ; for ath, p. 47, f. n. 3 ;
4 b ; stem in, 102, 2 ; shortened
before a, p. 437 a 4.
okivs, pf. pt. act. of uc, 89 a.
tave, dat. inf. to weave, 167 b 4.
478
VEDIC INDEx
am, adv. quickly, 103, 2 a.

kya, inter. prn. who^ 113 b.
iha, spv. very quick, 103, 2 a. kaya, inst. adv. how ^ 178, 3 c.
0han, pr. pt. of uh consider, 158 a.krna, ear, compounded w.
184 c.
AT, diphthong, low grade of, 5 d ; karmadhraya, poss. cds., 188 ;
1 89 d ; accentuation of. p. 455,
10 dl.
Sandhi of. 59 ; stem in, 102.
ais, inst. pf. ending, p. 78, f. n. 9. krma n, n. work, 90, 2 (p. 69).
kasip, m. n. mat, 98 a.
AU diphthong, low grade of, 5 d ; k ca, indefinite prn. any one,
119 b.
k can, indef. prn. any, 119 b.
sandhi of, 59 ; stem in, 102.
k cid, indef. prn. any, 119b.
au, ending of 1. 3. s. pf. act.,
kkd, f. palate, 77, 3 b.
136, 4 ; of N . A . d u p. 59,
kkubha pragtha, m. a kind of
f. m 2 ; p. 78, f. n. 13.
mixed strophe, p. 446, 11 B 1.
Kthaka Samhit, accentuation
K , insertion of transitional, 35.
of, p. 450, 3.
ka, inter. prn. wh o^ 113.
k m am, adv. at will, 197 A 5 a.
ka, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sec. k m ya, adv. dat. for th e sake of,
nom. sf., 182, 2.
^200 B 5.
kakd, f. summit, 77, 3 b.
ks, f. cough , 83, 1.
kakbn, f. peak, 78, 2; a metre, k, inter. prn. stem i n cds., 113 a.
p. 444, 3.
kikki , i j . , 181.
katam, inter. prn. a. wh o^ (of kikkir , i j . , 181 ; w. kr, tear to
many), 117 b ; 120 a.
tatters, 184 d.
katar, prn. a. wh ich (of two)'?, kikar, m. servant, 113 a.
117 b; 120a.
kimtv, synt. ed. asking garru
kti, nm. du. h ow many^ 113 a; lously, 189 B c.
118a.
km, inter: prn. what^ 113 ; inter.
katidb , inter. adv. h ow many pc]. wh y^ 178, 2 a ; 180.
times' 179, 1.
kyant, prn. der. how greats 113 a ;
katpay, a. greatly swelling, 113 a. 118 b.
kathm, inter. adv. how 179, 1 a. kla, adv. indeed, synt. use, 180.
kth , inter. adv. how ^ p. 354, 2 a ; kdt, prn. cd. what like^ 117.
216, 2 a.
k v ant, prn. cd. how far^ 118 c.
kd, inter. prn. what^ 113.
ku, inter. stem in derivatives,
kdartha, a. h aving wh at purpose 113
^ a.
113 a.
kumar1, f. girl, 100, Iba (p. 88).
kad, inter. adv. wh en^ 179, 3 ; kuvtsa, some one. synt. cd.,
p. 354, 2 a ; 216, 2 a.
189 B c.
kadru, f. Soma vessel, p. 89, f. n. 3.
kuvd, inter. per, 180 ; p. 354, 2 a ;
knina, spv. smallest, 103, 2 b.
216, 2 a ; accents verb, p. 467,
kanisth, spv. youngest, p. 95, 19 B .
f. m 3.
kba, inter. adv. wh ere ^ 113a;
kniys, cpv. lesser, 103, 2 a ; 179, 1.
younger, 88.
kr, make, 127, 4 a ; pr. system,
kanya, f. girl, p. 96. f. n. 3.
132 (par.) ; anomalous pr. stem,
kprth, n. penis, 77, 2.
134 C 4 ; pr. pf., 85 ; pf .^8, 2 ;
km, adv. well, synt. use, 180.
pf. pf., 157 ; 89, 1 (par.) ,. a ao.,
kam, pcf. used after n, s, h,
transfers, 147 a 2 ; root ao
180 ; p. 453, 8 B d.
148, 1 b (par.) ; op., 148, 4 ; inj.,
VEDIC
INDEX
479
148, 3 ; pt 148, 6 ; sb., 148, 2

pre. 148, 4 a, impv. 148, 5, pt.
(par.) ; impv., 148, 5 ; ps. ao
148, 6 ; ao. ps., 155 ; gd., 165 a.
155; ff., 151 b (par.); ft. pf., gm, f. earth, 78, 3.
85; 151 b 2; prc., 148, 4 a.
gamdhye, dat. inf. to go, 167 b 7 a.
k:^t, a. making, 77, 1.
g, sing, sis aorist, 146.
kt cut, pr., 133 C 1 ; ft., 151 a. gthn, m. singer, 87.
ktvas, nm. adv. times, 108 a.
gyatr stanza, p. 438, 3 a; tro
k p , f. beauty, 78, 1.
chaic, p. 439, 3 a a.
krp, lament, pr. stem, 133 A 1.
gr, f. praise, 82,f.n. 5 ; a. praising,
kr, drag, red. ao., 149, 1.
82, f. n. 6.
k, scatter, pr 133 C 3.
gggulu, n. bdellium, 98 b.
kip, be adapted, red. ao., 149, 1. gua, high grade (of vowels), 5 a;
kvala, a. exclusive, 120 c 3.
5 a a ; 17 ; 17 a ; 19 a ; 21 ; in
krand, cry out, pf., 137, 2 d ; a ao., dec, 98; in conj., 125, 1. 2 ;
147 b ; red. ao 149, l ; s ao.,
127, 1. 2; pr. stem, 133 A 1 ;
144, 5.
134, 1 c ; 134, 1 c a ; pr. pt. mid.,
kram, stride, pr. stem, 133 A 1 ; 158 a ; a ao., p. 167, f. n. 3 ; a
root ao., 148, 1 d; inj., 148, 3 ;
ao., 147 c ; 148, 1 g ; red. ao.,
is ao., 145, 1 (par.).
149 ; s ao., 143, 1. 2. 3 ; is ao.,
krc, m. curlew, 79, 1.
145, 1 ; ps. ao., 155 ; ft., 151 a ;
krudh, be angry, red. ao. inj., 149, 3. gdv., 162, 1 b, c ; cs., 168, 1 ;
kru, cry out, sa ao., 141 a.
168, 1 c.
ksp, f. night, 78, 1 ; gen. adv. ofguh, h ide, pr. stem, 133 A 1 ; sa
â night, 202 D 3 a.
ao., 141 a.
ksm, f. earth, 78, 3 ; accentuation gh, f. hidingplace, 81.
ôf, p. 458, c 1.
gh, pp. of guh, hide, 160, 2.
ksar,fiow, s ao., 144, 5.
gr, waken, red. ao., 149, 1 ; 149 a 1 ;
k, f. abode, 97, 2.
îpv 149, 5.
kip, throw, red. ao. inj., 149, 3. gbh, f. seizure, 78, 2.
ksp,f.jinger,78, 1.
g, swallow, pr. stem, 133 C 3 ;
ksdb, f. hunger, 77, 4.
red. ao., 149, 1.
ksbh, f. push, 78, 2.
go, m. bull, f. cow, 102; 102, 2
ksaipra, a. quickly pronounced sva(par.) ; accentuation of, p. 458 c 1.
rita accent in SandhI. p. 465, gmant, a. possessing cows, 86.
gon, a. winning cows, 77, 5.
f. n. 1.
gdha, rt. ao. of ghas, 148, 1 g.
ku, whet, pr. stem, 134, 1 a.
gdha, pp. of ghas, eat, 160, 2 a.
gn, f. divine woman, 97, 2.
Kh, n. aperture, 97, 3.
khan, dig, pf., 137, 2 b ; ps. stem, grabh, seize, is ao 145 b ; pr.
system, 132 (par.) ; pr. stem,
154 d.
khlu, emphasizing pel., indeed, 134 E 2 ; pf., 137, 2 c ; es., 168,
irr. 5.
180.
grabh , dat. inf. to seize, 167 a
kb,f.^well,97, 2.
(p. 191).
khidv s, oppressing, 157 b.
grah, seize, pr. stem, 134 E 2, 4 ;
khy, see, a ao., 147 a 1.
pf., 137, 2 c ; ps., 154, 6.
Gam, go, pr. stem, 133 A 2 ; pf., gr v an, m. pressing stone, 90, 1. 3.
137, 2 b ; 138, 7 ; 140, 3 ; pf. pt glu, m. f. lump, 102 ., 102, 5.
157 ; per. pf., 139, 9 a ; a ao.,
147 a 2 (transfers) ; s ao 144, 3 ; Gha, emphasizing end. pel., 180 ;
rf. ao., 148, 1 a: op., 148, 4
p. 452, 8 A b.
480
VEDIC
INDEX
ghnighnat, pr. pt. int. of han,

.I before conj. s, 63 (p. 41, f. n. 3).
kill, 85 b.
jgat, a. going ; n. inanimate worl
ghas, eat, pf., 137, 2b; pf. pt.,
85 b.
157a; rf. ao 148, ld; des.,
jagat, f. a metre, p. 442, 7.
171, 5.
jaganv s, pf. pt.act. of gam, 89 a.
ghrtvant, a. having ghee, 86 (p. 64jagmiv
,
s, pf. pt. act. of gam,
f. n. 3).
go, 89 a.
ghnnt, pr. pt. of han, kill, 85.
jajiv s, pf. pt. of j, 89 a.
ghr, smell, pr. stem, 134 B 3
jan, beget, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ; pf.,
137, 2 b ; red. ao., 149, 1 (par.);
Ca, cj. and, syntactical use, 180 ;
pr. stem, 154 d; ps. ao., 155 a 1 ;
if, w. sb., p. 360 o ; p. 452, 8 A b ;
cs. pt 85.
467, 19 B.
janayit , a. creative, 101, 2 b.
cakv s, pf. pt., h aving done, 89
jni, f. wife, 99, 1 a.
(par.),
cakr. f. wh eel, 100 I a (p. 86, jnitr, f. mother, 101, 2 c.
jans, n. birth , 83, 2 c.
f. m 1).
ckus, n. eye, 83, 2 ; 83, 2 c ; a. jm, f. earth, 78, 3.
jamat, palatalized ao. pt. of gam,
seeing, 83, 2 c.
go, 189 A 2 a (p. 280, f. n. 4).
catr, nm.four, 104; 105, 4 (par.),
jars, m. old age, 83, 2 a a.
caturth, ord. fourth, 107.
cturdaa, nm. fourteen, 104 ; 106 cjviha, spv. quickest, 103, 2.
jvys, cpv. quicker, 103, 2.
(par.).
jah, 2. s. pr. ipv. of han, strike,
caturdh^, adv. in four ways, 108 b.
cturvaya, nm. der. fourfold, 108 c. 134 A 2 c; p. 41, f. n. 1.
cats, nm. adv. four times, 108 a. j, m. f. child, 97, 2.
catustri, ord. thirty-fourth, 107.j n u, n. knee, du. of, p. 81, f. n. 14,
15.
catvri, ord. fortieth, 107.
jpva, es. of j i , conquer : red. ao.,
catvrit, nm. forty, 104.
can, pel. not even, synt. use, 180 ; 149 a 3.
jraya, den. play th e lover, ps. ao
accents verb, p. 467, 19 A d.
155 a 2.
cru, a. dear, 98 a, c.
j i , conquer, pf., 139, 4 ; pf. pt.,
1. ci, gather, pf 139, 4.
157 b a; rt. ao. inj., 148, 3;
2. ci, note, pf., 139, 4.
cit, perceive, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c a ; s ao., 144, 5; ft., 151 a; es..
pf. pt., 157 b a ; rt. ao., 148, 1 d ; p. 196, f. n. I.
jt, a. conquering, 77, 1.
s ao 44 5.
jinv, quicken, pr. stem, 133 A 3 b ;
ct, f. thought, 77, 1.
cid, pel. even, synt. use, 180 ; 134 C 4 ^.
jihvmulya, guttural spirant, 3 g
p. 452, 8 A b.
14; 15 j ; 43, 2.
cic, ij. wh iz.^ 181.
j, overpower, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
cd, cj. if, synt. use, 180 ; w. op
jv t ave, dat. inf. to live, 167 b 4.
p. 366, 5 ; p. 467, 19 B.
cyu, stir, pf 139, 8 ; red. ao., juhu, f. tongue, 100, I I a ; sacrifici
spoon, ibid.
149, 1 ; inj., 149, 3 ; op., 149, 4.
ju, hasten, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
Ch, doubling of, 51 ; produces ju, a. speeding, 100, I I a.
length by position, p. 437, a 3.
j , waste away, pr. stem, 133 B 2.
cna pr. stem sf., 133 A 2 ; 133 C 2. jman, a. victorious, 90, 2.
cnand, seem, s ao., 144, 5.
jgu, a. singing aloud, 100, I I a.
chndas, n. metre, p. 436, f.n. 1. japt, pp. es. of j, know, p. 185,
chid, split, pf. pt., 157 a ; rt. ao.
f. n. 3.
inj., 148, 3.
j, know, pr. stem, 134 E 3 ; pr.
VEDIC INDEx
481
pt., 85; rt. ao. op., 148, 4; sis

tanu, f. body, p. 89 (par.) ; self,
ao., 146.
115^b.
jnapya,cs. of j: red.ao., 149a 3.
tandr1, f. weariness, p. 88 a.
js, m. relative, 83, 1.
tap, h eat, pf., 137, 2 a ; 138 b ;
jy, f. bowstring, 97, 2.
140, 1 ; s ao., 144, 2 ; red. ao.
jy y s, cpv. greater, 88 ; 103, 2 a. sh, 149, 2.
jyha, spv. greatest, 103, 2 ; astpus, a. h ot, 83, 2 c.
final member of Bv. cd., 189, 1 b. tam, faint, pr. stem, 133 B 3.
jyeh, spv. eldest, 103, 2.
tama, sec. spv. sf., 103, 1 ; 117 b;
jyi s , n. ligh t, 83, 2.
120 a ; 182 ; ord. sf., 107 ; ad
verbs formed w., p. 301 ^; ac
T, interposed in sandhi, 36 a ;
centuation of, p. 454, 9 B b.
40, 1 ; in gdv., 162, 1 d ; deter
tr, f. star, 82, f. n. 5 ; 82 b.
minative sf., 77, 1 ; 182, 1 a ; tar, loc. inf. of stems in, 167, 4 b.
187 A a (in cds.) ; stems in
tara, sec. cpv. sf., 103, 1 ; 117 b ;
secondary, 77, 1.
120 a ; 182, 2 ; adverbs formed
t, dem. prn. that, 110 (par.) ; in
w., p. 301 ^.
syntax : position of, 191 j ; as
trhi, adv. th en, synt. use, 180.
corr., 195 B 3 ; w. prs. prns.,
tavstara, cpv. stronger, 103, 1.
195 B 3 b a ; w. dem. prns.,
tavi, dat. inf. in, senses of.
195 B 3 b ^.
211, 1 b ^; accentuation of,
ta, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sf. of
p. 452, 7.
pp 160.
tavy, gdv. suffix, 162 ; 162, 5 ;
tams, sh ake, pf., 137, 2d; a ao
209, 5.
147 b.
tvys, cpv. stronger, 103, 2 a.
tak, dem. prn. th at little, 110 a 3 ;tas, adv. sf., w. abl. sense, 179, 2.
117 a.
tasthiv s, pf. pf. of stha, 89 a.
ttas, adv. th ence, synt. use, 180. tsmad, abl. adv. th erefore, 180.
tti, nm. der. so many, 118 a.
ta, secondary nom. sf., 182, :2.
tatpurusa compounds, 100, I a ;
tt, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems
187, 2 a ; w. acc. sense, 187 A 1,
in, 77, 1 ; adv. sf. w. abl. sense,
inst A 2, dat., A 3, abl., A 4
179, 2 ; ending of 2. s. pr. ipv.
gen. , A 5, loc. , A 6; as possessives,
act., p. 125; 133 A 4 ; 133 C 3 a;
189, 2 ; accentuation of, p. 456, 2.
134 C 4 ^; 168 e, f. n. 2 (cs.).
ttha, adv. th us, 110 a ; 179, 1 ; tti, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
synt. use, 180.
td, adv. th us, 178, 5.
td, adv. th en, th ith er, synt. use,
tad, prn. cd. such, 117.
180.
tdra, prn. cd., such, p. 113,
tdapas, Bv. cd. accustomed to th atf. n. 4.
uôrk, 110 a.
tavak^, poss. prn. thy, 116 b.
tad, adv. th en, 179, 3.
t v ant, prn. der. so great, 118 c.
tad n m, adv. th en, 179, 3 ^.
ti nm. a. sf 118a; pri. nom.
tan, stretch , pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ; sf., 182, 1 b.
pf 137, 2 a, b; 140, 1. 2; s ao.,
t i r a c 1 , m. a man's name, 100, I b.
144, 2 ; 144, 5; ri. ao., 148, Id; tirs, prp. across, w. acc 176, 1 ;
ps. stem, 154 d.
197 B c ; adv. across, 179, 2 ;
tn, f. succession, 77, 5; accent, aside, compounded w. verbs,
p. 458, c 1.
184 b.
tana, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
tiryc, a. transverse, 93 a.
tana, ending of 2. pl. impf. and
tk, a. sh arp, 103, 2 ^.
ipv., 133 A 5.
t k ys, cpv. sh arper, 103, 2 ^.
tnu, a. th in, 98 c.
^ t, pcl.then,but, synt. use, 180.
482
VEDIC INDEx
tu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.

triubh, f. triple praise, 78, 2
tud th rust, pr., 125, 2 ; 133 C 1 ; (par.) ; a metre, p. 438, f. n. 1, 2 ;
pf., 138, 1.
p. 441,5; triplets, p. 446, 11 A.
tum acc. inf. in, p. 194; 211, 2 b. trs, nm. adv.thrice,108 a ; 179, 1 ;
tur y a, ord. fourth, 107.
w. gen., 202 D 3.
tuvisvn, a. roaring aloud, 77, 5. tredh , nm. adv. in th ree ways,
tr, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems
108 b.
In, 101. 2 ; p. 453, 9 Ad.
tva dem. prn. many a one, 112 a a
trca, m. n. triplet, p. 446, 11 A.
(par.); p. 452, 8 A a.
trt y a, ord. th ird, 107 ; 120 c 3.
tv, pess. prn., th y, 116 b.
trp, be pleased, pr. stem, 133 C 1. tva = tvm, thou, in derivatives
trj, a. th irsty, 79, 3 b.
or as first member of a cd.,
trh crush, pr. stem, 134 D 2.
109 b.
t cross, pr. stem, 133 B 2 ; 133 C 3. tva, see. nom. s.uffix, 182, 2 ; sf.
te, end. dat. gen. s. of tvm, thou,
forming gdv 162 ; 162, 4 ;
109 a; p. 452, 8 A a.
209, 2.
tjiha, spv. very sharp, 103, 2. tvc, f. skin, 79, 1.
tjys, cpv. sh arper, 103, 2.
tvad, prs. prn. as first member
tna, inst. adv. th erefore, 180.
of a ed., 109 b.
Taittirya Aranyaka, accented,
tvdyoni, a. derived from thee, 109
p. 448, 1.
tvana, see. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
Taittirya Brahmana, accented,
tvm, prs. prn. th ou, 109 (par.).
p. 448, 1 ; p. 449. ^
tvyata, Tp. cd. presented b^f th e
Taittirya Samhit,how accented ,
109 b.
p. 449.
tv, end. prs. prn. ace. of tvm,
tos, abf. gen. inf. in^ 167, 3 b ;
109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
211, 3 b.
tva, suffix of gd., 163, 2,. 210.
tta, syncopated pp. of d, give, tvya, suffix of gd., 163, 3 ; 210 ;
160, 2 b.
added to es. stem, p. 189, f. n. 1.
tna, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
tvav, emphasizing pel., 180.
nu, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
tv v ant, prn. der. like thee, 118 c.
tmn, m. self, 90, 2.
tvi, be stirred, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c.
ty, dem. prn. th at, 110 a 2; tvs, f. excitement, 80.
195 B 5.
tvi,suffix of gd., 163, 1 ; 210.
tya sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
tvi, pel. but indeed, 180.
tya gd. suffix, 164 ; 165 ; 210.
tsar,approach stealthily, s ao., 144, 5.
tyaj, forsake, pr. stem, 135, 4.
tyd, dem. prn. n. as adv., 195 B 5.
Tha, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; see.
tra, prf. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
nom. suffix, 182, 2.
tra, adv. sf. w. loc. sense, 179, 3 ; tham, adv. suffix, 179, 1 a.
^ loc., 179, 3 a.
th, pri. vom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
tray, nm. der. th reefold, 108 c. th, adv. suffix of manner
tr, protect, s ao. op., 143, 4.
(=inst.), 179, 1.
tr, m. protector, 97, 2.
tr, prf. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
Da, bite, pr. stem, 133 A 4.
trf. nm. th ree, 104 ; 105, 3 (par.) ; dkat, ao. p. of dah, burn, 85 b.
in Bv. compounds, p. 455, 10 e, d. daksinats, adv. fromth
eright,
trit, nm. thirty, 104; 106 d
179,^ 2 ; w. gen., 202 D.
(par.).
daksinatr , adv. on th e righ t,
trdh, nm. adv. in th ree ways, 17's, 3.
108 b.
dksinena, adv. south of w. ace.,
trivt, a. th reefold, 77.
197 B c^; p. 209, f. n. 3.
VEDIC
INDEX
483
dagh, reach , rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; dip, shine, irr. red. ao., 149 a 1.
ipv., 148, 5 ; pre., 148, 4 a.
drgh, a. long, 1 03, 2 a.
datt, pp. of d, give, 160, 2 b ; dghna, pr. pt. mid. of duh,
134 B 3
milk, 158 a.
ddat, pr. pt. of d, give, 85 b.
dus, spoil, cs. future of, 151 a a.
dadh, n. curds, 99, 4.
dura, a. hard to cross, 50 b.
dadhk, adv. boldly, 80.
duha, a. hard to resist, 50 b.
dadh, a. bold, 80.
dus, adv. in cds., sandhi of, 49 c ;
dnt, m. tooth, 85 a.
accent of, p. 455, 10 c a.
dabh, harm, pf., 137, 2 a.
duh, milk, pr. stem, 134 A 4 b ;
dm, n. (^), house, 78, 3.
134 A 4 c c^ ; sa ao 141 a ; s ao.
dam, adv. suffix of time, 179, 3.
op., 143, 4.
dmpati, m. lord of the h ouse,dhana, pr.pf., mid. of duh, 158a.
78, 3 a ; p. 273, f. n. 3.
duhitr, f. daughter, 101, 2.
dvys, farther, 103, 2 a.
du, f. gift, 100 I I a.
da, nm. ten, 106 c (par.).
dbha, a. hard to deceive, 49 c.
dataya, nm. der. tenfold, 108 c. d , a. not worshipping, 49 c.
daam, ord. tenth, 107.
dh , a. malevolent, 49 c.
dsyave vka, m. Wolf to the Dasyu,
dua, a. hard to attain, 49 c.
as a name, 200 A 2 a
du a, a. hard to destroy, 49 c.
dah, burn, s ao 144, 5 ; s ao. pt dutr, f. messenger, p. 88 a.
143b; 156a; ft., 151 a; pf.,
dur, a. far, cpv. of, 103, 2 d.
151 b 2.
durm, adv. far, 178, 2.
1. da, give, pr. stem, 134 B 1 b ;dr t , abf. adv. from afar, 178, 5
134 B 3 a ; 134 B 3 ^ ; pf. pf., dur, loc. adv. afar, 178, 7.
157; 157 b a; s a c 144, 3; dr tear, s ao. op 143, 4; rt.ao.
a ao., 147 a 1 ; rt. ao^ inj.,
^148, 1 d.
148, 3; op., 148, 4; ft., 151 a; drka, sf. in prn. cds. like, 117.
pp., 160, 2 b.
drs, see, pf. pt., 157 ; rf. ao. inj.^,
2. d, cut, s ao., 144, 3 ; op., 143, 4. ^148, 3 ; pt., 148, 6 ; a ao., .147 e ;
d, m. giver, 97, 2.
ps. ao., 155.
d, adv. suffix of time, 179, 3.
d f. look, 63 b (f. n. 1) ; 79, 4.
dtr, m. giver, 101, 2 (par.).
dr, sf. in prn. cds. = like, 117.
dnm, adv. suffix of time,
drs, to see, dat. inf., 167 a (p. 191).
179, 3 ^.
drd, f. nether millstone, 77, 3 b.
d m an, n. giving, 90, 2.
drh, makefirm,pr. stem, 133 C 1.
d r u, n. wood, 98 a (p. 83).
dya, gdv. to be given, 162, .1 a.
davan, n. giving, 90, 3.
Devatdvandva cds accent of,
d, f. worship, 79, 4.
p. 457, e ^.
dat, pr. pt. worshipping, 85 bdevtt,
;
f. divine service, 77, 1.
156 a.
devatt, Tp. cd. given by th e gods
div s, unred. pf. pt., 157 b.
160, 2 b.
dv s, unred. pf. pt., 157 b.
devadrync, a. godward, 93 (p. 73,
didkya, ds. gdv. worth s to be f. n. 1).
seen, 162, 3.
devas, adv. to each of the gods
div, play, fourth conj. class, 125, 3.
179, 1.
div, m. f. sky, 99, 5 (p. 85,f.n. 1). dev c, a. godward, 93 b.
dv, inst. adv. by day, 178, 3.
dev1, f. goddess, 100 I b (par.).
divdive, itv. cd. day by a^y dev, m. husband's brother, 101, 1.
189 C a ; 200 B 3 a.
dehf. 2. s. pr. ipv. act. of da, give,
d, f. direction, 63 b (T. n. 1) ; 134 B i b .
79, 4.
ds, n. arm, ^3 1.
484
VEDIC
INDEX
dyv, m. f. sky, 99, 5 (p. 85, f. n. 1). ^ 1. dh, put, pr. stem, 134 B i b ;
dy v ah, N . pl. th e (three) h eavens,
^ 134 B 3 a; 134 B 3 ^ ; pf.,
193, 3 a.
137, 2e; 138, 3; a ao., 147 a 1 ;
dyv, elliptical du. h eaven and rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; op., 148, 4 ;
earth, 193, 2 a ; 186 B 3 a.
ipv 148, 5 ; ps. ao., 155.
dy, m. day, 98 d ; m. f. sky, 99, 5 2. dh, suck, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
(par.).
dh, adv. sf. of manner, 179, 1.
dyut, sh ine, pf., 139, 8 ; s ao., dhi, compounds in, 98 d.
144, 5 ; red. ao., 149, 1 ; irr.
dhi 2. s. ipv. act. ending,
red. ao., 149 a 1.
134 C 4 ^.
dyt, f. brilliance, 77, 1.
dhk, ij. Jie w. acc., 197 B c ^.
dy, m. f. sky, 102 ; 102, 3 (par.) ;
dh, f. th ought, 100, I a ; 100, I b
accentuation of, p. 458, c 1.
(par.).
dyus, m. N . of dy, sky, 99, 5 ; dhuk duh F s, N . s. milking, 81 a.
voc., accentuation of, p. 457,
dhr, f. burden, 82, f. n. 5.
11a.
dhurd, a. being on the yoke, 49 d.
draghmn, m. length, 90, 2.
dhurh, a. bearingtheyoke, 49 d.
dr g hiha, spv. longest, 103, 2 a. dhr, h old, irr. red. ao., 149 a 1 ;
dr g hys, cpv. longer, 103, 2 a.
inj., 149, 3 ; ipv 149, 5 ; ps.
dr, n. wood, accent, p. 458 c 1.
stem, 154 d ; cs. ft, 151 a a.
drh, m.jlend, 81.
dhj, a. bold, 79, 3 b.
dv, nm. two, 104 ; 105, 2 (par.).
dhd, f. nether millstone, 77, 3 b.
dvandv, n. pair, 189 (p. 282,
dheh, 2. s. pr. ipv. acf. of dh,
f. n. 4) ; compounds, 186 ; ac
put, 134 B i b .
centuation of, p. 457, 10, 2 e.
dhmt, n. smithy, 101, 2 b.
dvay, nm. der. twojold, 108 c.
dhyai, inf., used elliptically,
dv d aa, nm. twelve, 104 ; 106 c 211, 1 b ^y.
(par.).
dhruk druh4s, N . s. h ating,
dvpac, ord.fiftysecond,107.
81 a.
dvr, f. door, 82 (f. n. 5) ; 82 a.
dhva, ending of 2. pl. mid.,
dvi, nm. tuo, i n cds. and der.,
133 A 5.
105, 2 (f. n. 2) ; in Bv. com
dhvas, scatter, a ao., 147 b.
pounds, p. 455, 10 c a.
dhvam, 2. pl. ending, cerebra
dvit , adv. doubly, synt. use, 180.
lized, 144, 2 a.
dvit y a, ord. second, 107.
dvidh, nm. adv. in two ways, ^, dental nasal, never cerebra
108 b; 179, 1.
lized in ghn = han, in cds.,
dvipad, f. stanza of two verses, 50 c^ ; inserted, in N . s 79, 4 a,
p. 441, 5 a.
in N . pl. n. of as, is, us stems,
dvipad virj, f. a metre, p. 437,
83 ; loss of : in pr., 134 A 2 c,
f. n. 2 ; p. 443.
p. 121, f. n. 1, 134 A 4 a, in
dvi, hate, sa aorist, 141 a.
final an stems of Karmdh
dv, f. hatred, 80.
rayas, 188, 2 a, of Bahuvrhis,
dvs, nm. adv. twice, 108 a ; 1 79, l ; 189, 4 a i n ant, 156 a ; stems
in radical, 77, 5 ; influence of
w. gen., 202 D 3.
stems in, 98 ; 98 a.
Dh, stems in, 77, 4.
n, pel. not, 180 ; w. sb., 215 C 2 ^ ,
dhak dah + s, N . sing., 81 a.
w. inj. (ff.), 215 c 1, w. op.,
dhksat, s ao. pt. of dah, burn,
p. 362 a p. 364
w. pre., 217 ;
85b; 143, 6.
like, 180.
dhnvan, n. bou^, 90, 3.
na, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; pp.
dhart, n. prop, 101, 2 b.
sf., 160.
VEDIC
INDEX
485
nkis, indee. prn. no one, never,

nij, wash , s ao., 144, 2; int.,
180 ; 113, f. n. 2.
174 (par.).
nkm, adv. prn. never, 180.
nitym, adv. constantly, 178, 2.
nktam, ace adv. by night, 178, 2;nd, f. contempt, 77, 3 a.
197 A 5 a.
nidh, m. treasury, 98 d.
naktay , insf. adv. by night, 178, 3 a.
nimrc, f. sunset, 79, 1.
nad, f. stream, 100, I a ; 100, Iba. niyta, n. a h undred thousand,
ndh, f. bond, 77, 4.
104.
nnnd, m. husband's sister, 101,nirj,
1.
f. bright garment, 79, 3 a.
nnu, adv. by no means, 180.
nth, f. destroyer, 81.
npt, m. grandson, 101, 2, f. n. 5 :ni, lead, pf., 138, 4 ; s ao. ipv.,
101, 2 a.
143, 5 ; ft., 151 a.
npt, m. grandson, 101, 2 ; 101, 2 a.ni, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
nb, f. destroyer, 78, 2.
n or n, adv. now, synt. use, 180.
nam, bend, pf., 137, 2 a.
nu, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
nmas, n. obeisance, w. kr, 184 c.nu, conj. class formed with,
namasy, den., 175 B (par.).
127, 3.
nm, m. a name, 100, I ^.
nud, push , rt. ao. inj 118, 3 ;
nva, a. new, cpv. and spv. of,
ft. sb., 151 b I.
103, 2 ^.
nde, dat. inf. to push , 167 a
nva, nm. nine, 104 ; 106 c (par.). ^ . i ^ .
navat, nm. ninety, 104; 106 d nu cid, adv. never, w. op.. 216, 2 a a
(par.).
(p. 362).
nvadaa, nm. nineteen, 104 ;
nnm, adv. now, 178, 2 a ; 180.
106 c (par.).
nr, m. man, 101, 1 ; accentuation
navadha, nm. adv. in nine ways
ôf, p. 458, c I.
108 b.
nrt, f. dancing, 77, 1.
navam, ord. ninth, 107.
nviha, spv. newest, 103, 2 ^.
nd, neg. pel. certainly not, lest,
nvedas, a. cognisant, 83, 2 a a.
180; th at not w. sb., 215
nvyas, cpv. nen)er, 103, 2 ^.
(^p. 355 a); accents verb, 467,
nvyasa, inst. adv. anew, 178, 3.
19 B.
nvyas, cpv. newer, 103, 2 a.
ndina, spv. nearest, 103, 2 b.
1. na, reach, rf. ao., 148, 1 d, inj.,ndistham, adv. nearest, w. gen.,
148, 3, op., 148, 4.
202 D.
2. na, be lost, red. ao,, 149, 1 ndyas,
;
adv. nearer, w. gen.,
irr., 149 a 2.
202 D.
n, f. night, 79, 4.
ndyas, cpv. nearer, 103, 2 b.
nas pin. us, acc., daf., gen., pf., nma, prn. other, 120 c 2 (par.).
109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
nau, end. du. prn. us two, 109 a ;
nah, adv. for not, by no means, 180.
p. 452, 8 A a.
nhus, m. neigh bour, 83, 2 c.
nu, f. sh^p, 102 ; 102, 4 (par.).
n, conjugations class formed
nyn's, a. downward, 93 a.
w., 127, 5.
nyrbuda, n. a hundred millions,
n^, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
104.
n n dh, a. having diverse intentions,
ns, original ending of acc. pf. of
^100, I a.
a stems, 97, f. n. 8 (p. 78).
nma, adv. by name, 178, 2 ; 180 ;
Fakti, stanza, p. 440, c ; triplets,
197 A 5 a.
p. 446, 11 A.
nmth, adv. by name, 179, I.
pac, co^k, pf., 137, 2 a.
ns, f. nose, 83, 1.
pnca, nm.five, 104; 106 c(par.).
ni pri. nom. suffix, 182, l b.
486
VEDIC
INDEX
poadaa, nm.fifteen,104 ; 106 c paribh, a. surrounding, 98 d.

(par.).
paribhu, a. surrounding, 100, I I a.
paoadba, nm. adv. infiêways, prtta, pp. of parid, give away,
108 b.
160, 2 b.
pacam, ord.jifth , 107.
prena, insf. adv. beyond, w. ace.,
pact, nm.fity, 104.
.âI.jly,fall, pf., 137, 2 a; 137, 2 b a ; 197 B c ^ ; p. 209, f. n. 3.
pf. pf., 157 a ; red. ao., 149 a 2, parvas, adv. joint by joint, 179, I.
pas = spas, see, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
ipv., 149, 5.
patya, iterative vb. jly about, 168. p, f. sight, 79, 4.
paut p , a. delighting in cattle, 78, I
pti, m. h usband, lord, 99, 1 ; ac
centuation of, in cds., p. 456, 2a. paumnt, a. possessing cattle, 86
ptir dn, m. lord of the lôuse,(p. 64, f. n. 3).
pac, adv. behind, 178, 3 b.
78, 3 a.
ptn, f. wife, lady, 99, 1 ; as f. forpact, abl. adv. from behind,
178, 5 ; w. gen., 202 D.
pti when final member of Bv.,
pac t t, adv. from behind, 179, 2.
189, 4 e.
1. pa, drink, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ;
pth, m.^path , 77, 2.
134 B 3 rf. ao. pre., 148, 4 a ;
pthi, m. path, 99, 2 c^.
ipv., 148, 5.
pad, walk, precative, 148, 4 a.
2. pa, protect, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c.
pd, m.foot, 77, 3 a.
i n i , m. a grammarian, 15.
padapatha, m. Pada te^t, 2 ; 25 c Fa,
f. n. I. (p. 26) ., p. 25, f. n. 2 ; pad, m.foot, 77, 3.
41a; p.33,f.n.5; p. 37, f. n. 5 ; pada, m.foot, compounded w. gd.,
184 c ; quarter stanza, verse, 1
' p. 64, f. n. 3 ; p. 67, f. n. 4 ;
18 a ; 48 ; p. 436, I.
p. 205, f. n. 3; p. 206, f. n. 2;
pp, a. bad, cpv. of, p. 96, f. n. I.
p. 451. 10 a.
pan, admire, pf 137, 2 b.
p p ys, cpv. worse, p. 96, f. n. 1.
pnthan, m. path, 91, 1.
pitr, m. father, 101, 2 (par.).
pntha, m. path, 97, 2 a.
pitr, elliptical du fath er and
pnyam^, cpv. more wonde,ful, mother, 186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
103, 2 a.
pinv, fatten, 133 A 3 b ; 134 C 4 ^.
papiv s, pf. pt. of pa, drink, 89 a. pis, adorn, pr. stem, 133 C I.
paptiv s, pf. pf. of pat,fiy,89 a. ps, f. ornament, 79, 4.
paya, cs. sutfix, 168 d ; irr. 2.
pucalu, f. courtesan, p. 89, f. n. 1 .
para, a. ulterior, 120 c 2 (par.) ; pus, m. man, 83, 1 ; 96, 3.
higher, as final member of Bv., pr, f. stronghold, 82 (par.).
189, 1 b.
purauih, f. a metre, p. 444, 2.
param, spv. farthest, 120 c 1.
purs, adv. before, 179, 3 ; prp.
pars, adv. beyond, 179, 3 ; prp. w. before, w. loc., aec., abl., 176, 2 ;
acc., 177, 1, inst., 177, 2, abl.,
202 D ; compounded w. verbs,
177, 3.
184 b.
parstd, adv. prp. after, w. gen., purstd, adv. in front, 179, 2 ;
177, 4, f. n. 1 ; above, 202 D.
prp. in front of, w. gen., 177, 4 ;
prc, a. turned away, 93 b.
202 D.
pardi, dat. inf. to give up, p. 79,pur , adv. formerly, w. pr
f. n. 1 ; p. 191.
212 A 2 a ; w. sma, 180 ; prp.
pri, prp. around, w. acc. and abl., before, w. abl., acc., insf., 177, 3 ;
176, 1 a.
179, 3
prijman, a. going round, 90, 1 a.puravt, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
paritas, adv. round about, 179, 2 pur,
;
a. much, in Bv. compounds,
prp. around, w. acc., 177, 1.
p. 455, 10 c a.
VEDIC INDEx
487
purutr , adv. in many places,prathamaj, a. jirstborn, 97, 3.

179, 3.
prathimn, m. width , 90, 2.
purudh , adv. variously, 179, 1.
pram, dat. inf. to form, 167, 1,
puro, m. sacrificial cake, 79, 4 a.f. n. 2 (p. 191).
pu purify, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
prayj, f. offering, 79, 3 a.
pu.rpati, m. lord of the stronghold,
prayta, nm. n. million, 104.
^49 d.
pravt, f. height, 77, 1.
purva, a. prior, 120 c 2 (par .) ; pra, ask, pr. stem, 133 C 2.
p. 454, 10.
prahye, dat. inf. to send, 167 a
purvtha, adv.formerly, 179, 1.
(p. 181).
purvam, adv. formerly, 178, 2.
pra, j^ll, irr. pf., 136, 4 ; s ao.,
pnrvavt, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
114, 5.
pun, m. a god, 90 (p. 68).
pr k tt, adv. fromthefront, 179, 2.
pr cross, pr. stem, 134 B 3 a ; s ao.prc, inst. adv. forwards, 178,3 b.
ipv., 143, 5 ; red. ao., 119, 1 ; pr n c, a. forward, 93 b.
loc. inf., 167, 4 c.
pratr, adv. early, w. gen., 202 D 2.
prks, f. satiation, 80.
prataritvas, v. of van stem, 90, 3.
pre, mix, s ao 144, 4. 5.
prdr, adv. beforethedoor, w. bhu,
pch, a. asking, 79, 2.
184 b.
prch, dat. inf. to ask, 79, 2 ; pr, f. dispute, 79, 4.
^167 a (p. 191).
priy, a. dear, 97, 1 (par.) ; sec.
prthiv1s, f. pl. th e (three) earth s, cpv. of. 103, 1.
^193, 3 a.
priyadh , adv. kindly, 179, 1.
pth, m. a man, 100, I b (p. 87). premn, m. love, 90, 2.
pr'sant, (pt.) a. spotted, 85 a.
pryms, pri. cpv. of priy, dear,
pjill, pr.stem, 133 B 2, 134 E 4 a ;
103, 2 a ; f. of. 88, f. n. 1.
rf. ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; red. ao. ipv.^ prha, spv. deorest, 103, 2 a.
149, 5 ; ps., 154, 4, f. n. 2 ; es., plu float, red. aerist, 149, 1.
168, irr. 5.
psr, f. victuals, 82, f.n 5.
pya,jill up, sis aorist, 146.
prakhyi, dat. inf. to see, 97, 2
Fh, ij. crasl^ 181.
(p. 79), f. n. 1.
phf. ij. splash l 181.
pragtha, m. mixed strophe, p. 446,
11 B.
B, ij. truly, 181.
pragrhya, uncontractable, vowels,
bat a, ij. alas l 181.
246; 24, f.n. 2. ; p.437,f.n. 3.
bandh, bind, pr. stem, 134 E 3, 4 ;
prach, ask, s aorist, 144, 5.
pf., 139, 1 ; ft., 151 a ; ps
pratarm, acc. adv. furth ermore,
154, 5.
197 A 5 b ^.
prti, prp. against, w. ace 176, 1 ;babhru, a. f. brown, 100, I I b.
197 B c.
brhiha, spv. very lofty, 103, 2 a.
pratimi, dat. inf. to imitate, 97, 2,bahirdh , adv. outward, 179, 1 ;
f. m 1.
^
prp. from out, w. abl., 177, 3.
prttta, pp. of pratid, give back,bah, a. much, in Bv. compounds,
160, 2 b.
p. 455, 10 c a.
pratntha, adv. as oold, 179, 1. bahutr , adv. among many, 179, 3.
pratnavt, adv. as of old, 179, 1. bahdh , adv. in many ways,
pratyc, a. turned towards, 93 179, 1.
(par.) ; w. acc., 197 B a.
bahuvrhi (a. h aving much rice)
pratham, ord.jlrst, 107 ; 120c 3.
compounds, 100, I a ; 189 ; as
prathamam, adv. aec. first,
substantives, 189, 3 ; ending
l97A5ba.
modified, 189, 4 d ; suffixes a,
488
VEDIC
INDEX
ya, ka, i n added to, 189, 4 b, c; bhd, f. destroyer, 77, 3 a.

accentuation of, p. 455, 10 c.
bh, f. fear, 100, I a.
barhata pragtha, m. a kind of
bhi,fear, s ao., 144, 2 ; rt. ao. inj.,
muced strophe, p. 446, 11 B 2.
148, 3, pt., 148, 6 ; red. ao.,
bal, ij. dash t 181.
149, 1 ; cs., 168, irr. 3.
bibibbhav^nt, pt. crackling, 184 d.bhsaya, cs. frigh ten : red. ao.,
bibhyat, pr. pt. ofbh,fear, 85 b.
149 a 3.
bbhatsu, ds.a. loathing, 100, II ba bhk, ij. bang.^ 181.
f. n. 3.
bhuj, enjoy, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3.
budh, wake, ao 141 ; rt. ao. pf., bhuj, dat. inf., to enjoy, 167 a
148, 6 ; red. ao.. 149, 1 ; ps. ao.,
1^1).
155.
bhurj, f. arm, 79, 3 b.
brhat, f. a metre, p. 444, 3 b ; bhuv, inf. to be, 167 a (p. 191).
^p. 446, 11 A.
bh, be, as representing first class
Bhadrayaka Upaniad, ac
of the a conj 125, 1 ; pr. system
cented, p. 448, 1.
of, 132 (par.); pf., 139, 7 ;
hrhant, (pt.) a. great, 85 a ; cpv. 140, 3. 4. 5 ; pf. 157; rf. ao.,
of, 103, 2 a ; accentuation of,
148, 1 c (par.), inj., 148, 3, pre,
p. 459.
148, 4 a, op., 148, 4, ipv., 148, 5 ;
bodh, 2. s. ipv. rt. ao. of bh, be
red. ao., 149, 1, pt., 151 a ;
and budh, wake, 148, 5 ; cp. 62,
per. ft., 152.
f. n. 1.
bhu, f. earth, 100, I I a ; II b (par.).
bru, speak, pr. stem, 134 A 1 c a bhumn,
;
m. abundance, 90, 2.
134 A 4 c a.
b human, n. earth , 90, 2.
bhumi, f. earth, 98 a.
Bha, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
bhuyas, cpv. adv. aec. more, 178, 2.
bhagavattara, cpv. more bounteous,
bhuys, cpv. more, 88 ; becoming
103, 1.
more, 103, 2 a ; as final member
bhgavant, a. bounteous, 86.
of Bv., 189, 1 b.
bhaj, sh are, pf., 139, 1 ; s. ao. op., bhuyiha, spv. greatest, 103, 2 a.
143, 4; red. ao 149, 1 ; cs., bhurid v attara, cpv. a. giving more
154, 6 a.
abundantly, 103, 1.
bhaj, break, pr. stem, 134 D 1 ;
pr. pt., 85 ; ps., 154, 5.
M , final, before vowels, 41, some
bhadrapp s , N . pi. Dv. cd., the
times dropped, 41 a ; before
good andthebad, 186 A 2.
consonants, 42; 42, I. f. n. 1 ;
bhart, a. supporting, 10I. 2 b.
unchanged in internal sandhi,
bharbharbhavat, impf. became 68 ; becomes n 68.
confounded, 184 d.
prn. stem of first prs. in der.
bhala, pel. indeed, p. 452, 8 Ab. ma,
and cds., 109 b.
bhavn, m. Tour Honour, w. 3. ma,
pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; see.
prs. s., 195 A c.
nom. sf., 182, 2 ; p. 454, 9 B c.
bhvys, cpv. more, 88.
mhiha, spv. most liberal, 103, 2.
bhas, ch ew, pr. stem, 134 B 3 ; maghvan,
a. bountiful, 91, 5.
134 B 3 ^.
bhasd, f. hind quarters, 77, 3 b. maghvant, a. bountiful, 91, 5,
f. n. 3.
bhj, a. sharing, 79, 3 a,f.n. 3.
bhmit, den. pp. enraged, 160,mtkta, Tp. cd. done by me, 109 b.
matts, adv. from me, 179, 2.
3, f. n. 2.
mad, be exhilarated, pr. stem,
bh^, n. ligh t, 83, 1.
bhid, pierce, rt. ao., 148, 1 d ; ini 133 B 3 ; rt. ao. ipv., 148, 5.
mad, prn. stem of ls^ prs.,
148, ^. ^
109 b
vEDIC I N D E X
489
madntara, cpv. more gladdening,

2. m, bellow, pr. stem, 134 B 3^ ;
103, 1 a.
red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
mdhu, a. sweet, 98 (par.).
3. ma, exch ange, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
madhyam,
spv.
middlemost,ma, f. measure, 97, 2.
120 c^l.
ma, encf. prs. prn. acc. s., me,
madhy , inst. adv. in th e midst, 109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
1 78, 3 b ; 211, 3 b.
ma, prohibitive pcf. not, 128 c;
man, th ink, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;
180 ; w. inj., 215 c 2 a ; never
pf., 137, 2 b ; s ao., 143, 3 ; irr.
w. ipv., 215 b a.
11I. 3.
makis, prohibitive prn. pcf. no
man, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ;
one, never, 113, f. n. 2 ; 180.
stems in, 90 ; p. 453, 9 Ae.
mkm, prohibitive prn. pel. no
mnas, n. mind, 83, 2.
one, 180.
manuvt, adv. like .l1fanu, 179, 1. matr, f. mother, 101 2 (par.).
mnus, m. a name, 83, 2 ^.
matra, f. du. moth er and fath er,
mant, see. nom. sf.. 182, 2 ; stems
186 B 3 a.
in, 86.
mtarvan, m. a name, 90 a.
manth, shake, pr. stem, 134 E 3. m t al, m. a name, l00, I b.
mntha, m. ch urning stick, 97, 2 a.mtrtama, f. spv. most moth erly,
manmas, adv. each as h e is
103, 1 e.
minded, 179, 1.
mna, sf. of mid. pt 158.
mmaka, poss. prn. my, 116 a.
mmak, possessive prn., 116 a.
mamasaty, n. dispute as to owner
mmpay, synt. cd., a plant,
ship, synt. cd., 189 B c.
189 B c.
maya, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
m v ant, prn. der. like me, 118 c.
mart, m. stormgod, 77, 1 .
mas, m. month . 83, 1.
martsakhi, a. h aving th e Îaruts
mas, n.fiesh,83, 1.
as friends, 99, 2 a.
mi, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
martyatr , adv. among mortals,
mitradh , adv. in a friendly way
179, 3.
179, 1.
marmrjnya, int. gdv. to be glori mitr , m. du. .^fitra and Varua,
fed.l62,3.
186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
malmalbhvant, pt. glittering, mitr s as, m. pl. ^ .llIitra, Varua,
184 d.
Aryaman, 193, 3 a.
masmak, crush , 184 d.
miths, adv. wrongly, 179, 3.
mas, vocatives in, 86.
mthu, adv. wrongly, 179, 3
masi, 1. pf. ind. ending, fre
min, stems in, 87.
quency of, p. 125, f. n. 2.
mih, sh ed water, ft., 151 a; inf..
masmas kr, crush , 184 d.
167 (p. 191).
mah, a. great, 81.
mh, f. mist, 81.
mahant, a. great, 85 a (par.) ; mi, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
mhv s, a. bountiful, 157 b.
accentuation of. p. 459.
mmamsit, pp. of des. of man,
mahs, a. great, 83, 2 a a.
mah , a. great, 97, 2 a ; for mahat think, 160, 3 f. n. 2.
in Karmadharayas and Bahu milhstama, spv. most gracious,
vrhis, p. 275, f. n. 1.
103, i b.
mahpankti, a metre, p. 440 d.
muc, release, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ; s
mahimn, m. greatness, 90, 2.
ao. opt., 143, 4 ; rt. ao., 148, 1 a;
mah, inf. to be glad, 167 a
prc 148, 4 d.
(I.. 1 ^ .
md f. joy, 77, 3 a.
m. destroyer, 82, f. n. 6.
1. ma, measure, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a mr
;
murdhn, m. head, 90,
root ao. ipv., 148, 5.
490
VEDIC
INDEX
1. mr, die, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; ps. ytkama, a. desiring what, 114 a.
154 d.
yatkarn, a. doing what, 114 a.
2. mr, crush, pr. stem, 134 E 4 a. ytra, adv., synt. use, 180 ; 215
mre, injure, s ao. op., 143, 4.
(p. 358) ; w. op., 216 (p. 366).
mc, f. injury, 79, 1.
y th, adv. as, 114 a ; 179, 1 ;
mrj, wipe, pr. stem, 134, 1 b ; sa loses accent, p. 453, 8 B a ; cj.
ao., 141 a.
in order that, 180 ; 216 (p. 365) ;
md, f. clay, 77, 3 a.
as, so that, 215 (p. 358).
yd, prn. what, 114 ; wh en, so tha
mdh, f. confiict, 77, 4.
w. sb 215 (p. 357) ; wh en,
mr, touch, sa ao., 141 a.
mr, neglect, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3.
178, 2 a ; wh en,if,180 ; if w.
op., 216 (p. 363 ^y 1 ; p. 365 ^) ;
mrsmrs kr, crush , 184 d.
in order that, 216 (p. 364 a) ; th a
me, encl. prn. dat. gen. s. of
w. op., p. 364 ^ ; w. cond. 218
ahm, 109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
mdha, m. sacrifice, accent of, in (p. 368).
yad, adv. when, 179, 3 ; cj., 180 ;
cds., p. 454, 10.
w. sb 215 (p. 359, 4) ; as soon
medhs, n. wisdom, 83, 2 a a.
as, w. op., 216 (p. 366, 4 ^).
:M.aitrya Sahit, accentua
ydi,
ci. if, when, 180; if, w. sb.,
tion of. p. 450, 3.
215 (p. 359, 5) ; if, w. op., 216
na, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
myaks, be situated, rt. ao 148, 1 d.(p. 364).
yaddevaty, a. h aving wh at deity
114 a.
Y , interposed in ps. ao 155 ; in
yant, prn. sf. expressing quantity,
cs 168 ; irr., 4.
118 b.
y, rel. prn. who, 114 (par.).
yam, stretch, pr. stem, 133 A 2,
ya, gdv. sf., 162 ; 209, 1 ; gd. sf.,
135, 4; pf., 137, 2 a; 139, 2 ;
210; den. sf., 175; sec. nom.
gd., 165 ; s ao 144, 5; root ao.
sf., 182, 2.
ipv 148, 5.
yamsnya, ao. gdv. to be guided,
yrhi, adv. wlên, w. op., 216
162, 3.
(p. 366, 4 ^).
yak, rel. prn. who, 114 b ; 117a. yviha, spv. youngest, 103, 2 a.
ykt, n. liver, 77, 1.
yas, n. glory, 83, 2 a.
yaj, sacrifice, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf., y low grade of, 4 a.
137, 2 c ., sa ao., 141 a ; s ao ya, go, si aorist, 146.
144, 5 ; root ao., 148, 5 ; pt. ft.,
ya, gd. sf., 164 ; how added,
151 b 2.
104, 1.
yajivs, pf. pt. act. of yaj,
yams, cpv. sf., 103, 2 a ; stems
sacrifice, 89 a.
^ în, 88.
yjiha, spv. sacrificing best, 103, y
2. d, adv. as far as, 178, 5 ; cj.,
yjyms, cpv. sacrificing better,180 ; so long as, w. sb., 215
103, 2.
(p. 359, ^6) ; in so fur as, first
y a j a n 1 , a. leading th e sacrifice,member of synt. cd., 189 B a.
100, I a.
yd, prn. cd. what like, 114 a ; 117.
yajaprya, a. sacrificeloving, 100,
ydra, prn. cd. what like, 117,
I a.
f.n. 4.
yat, stretch, pf 137, 2 a.
y v at, cj. as long as, 180.
yatama, prn. a. who (ofmany), 117b;
yvant, prn. der. as great, 118 c.
120 a.
1. yu, unite, pr. stem, 134, 1 a.
yatar, prn. a. who (of two), 117 b2. ; yu, separate, 133 A 2 ; 134 B 3 a.
120 a.
yu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems
yti, nm. der. as many, 118 a.
in, 98 a.
VEDIC
INDEX
491
yuj, join, pr. system, 132 (pp. 136 rath t ama, spv. best ch arioteer,
7); root ao. ipv., 148, 5; ff.,
103,1.
15l a.
rn m. joy, 77, 5 ; accentuation
yj, m. companion, 79, 3 a.
of, p. 458, c 1.
yudh, fght, root ao. ipv 148, 5 ; ran, 3. pf. ending i n ppf., 140, 6 ;
ds. pr. pf., 85.
in root ao 148, 1 ; 148, 1 h.
ydh,f.fight,77, 4.
randh, make subiect, a ao., 147 b.
yuva, prs. prn. you two, 109 b.
rabh, grasp, pf., 137, 2 a.
yuvatf. f. young, 95 c.
rbhyams, cpv. more violent,
yvan, m. youth , 90a; 91, 4 ; f.
103, 2 a.
of. 95 c; cpv. of. 103, 2 a;
ram, rejoice, red. ao. sb 149, 2
accentuation of. p. 458, c 1.
inj., 149, 3 ; sis. ao 146.
yuvm, prn. ye two, 109.
ram, 3. pf. mid. ending in ppf.,
yuvay, a. desiring yon two, 109 b. 140 b (p. 158, f. n. 1) ; in root
yuv v ant, prn. der. devoted to you ao 148, 1 ; 148, 1 h .
tu.o, 118 c.
rayntama, spv. a. very rich ,
103, 1 a.
yusma, prn. you (as first member
rariv s, red. pf. pt. of r, 89 a.
of a cd.), 109 b.
yusmaynt, prn. der. desiring you, ramn, m. rein, 90, 2.
r low grade of, 4 a ; 5 b a.
109 b.
r, give, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ;
yum k a, poss. prn. your, 116b.
134 B 3 ^ ; s ao. op 143, 4,
yusm k am, prn. (G. pl.) of you,
ipv. , 143, 5 ; root ao. ipv., 148, 5.
l i e b.
yum v ant, prn. der. belonging toraj, m. king, 79, 3 a.
rjan, m. king, 90.
you, 118 c.
rtr, f. nigh t, as final member of
yym, prs. prn. ye, 109.
cds., 186 (p. 269), f. n. 2 ; 189 A
yeyajmah, synt. cd 189 B b.
(p. 279), f. n. 3.
yodhn, pr. pt. of yudh figh t, rdh,
succeed, s ao 144, 2; red.
158 a.
ao.
sb
149, 2 ; red. ao. inj.,
yan, f. woman, 90.
149, 3.
ys, n. welfare, 83, 1.
rstr n m, G. pl., 65 (p. 43),
^f. n. 1.
R, original final, 46, f. n. 1 ; rarI, m. ruler, 100, I b.
49 d ; before r, 47 ; two r
ri, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
sounds in same syllable avoided^
ric leave, s ao., 144, 5 ; root ao.
39, f. n. 4 ; r inserted in conj.,
inj., 148, 3 ; red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
134, 1 c ; stems in, 82.
rip, f. deceit, 78, 1.
ra, low grade of, 4 a (p. 4).
ri, hurt, red. ao. op 149, 4.
ra, prf. nom. sf., 182, lb; sec.
r, f. injury, 80.
nom. sf., 182, 2.
rihnt, (pt.) a. weak, 85 a.
rakss, m. demon, 83, 2 a.
ru, cry, pr. stem, 134 (p. 142,
raghudr, cd. a. running swiftly, f. n. 1).
98 ^
ru, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
raghuy ,
inst. adv. rapidly,
ruk, N . of ruh, a. mounting, 81 a.
178, 3 a.
rue, sh ine, red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
ratnadh t ama, spv. best bestowerrc,
of f. lustre, 79, 1.
ruj, break, root ao. inj 148, 3.
treasure, 103, 1.
rthaspti, m. lord of the car. 187 rud, weep, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
rudh, obstruct, s ao 144, 5.
(p^ 273, f. n. 3).
rathr, m. f. ch arioteer, 100, I arp, f. earth , 78, 1.
(p. 86 ; 87, par.).
| rant, (pt.) a. brilliant, 85 a.
492
VEDIC
INDEX
ruh, ascend, sa ao., 141 a; 168 vpustara, cpv. more wonderfu

irr. 2, f. n. 1.
l03,1.
ruh, I. sprout, 81.
vpus, n. beauty, 83, 2 c.
rpm, ace. adv. in form, 178, 2. vam, vomit, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
re, 3. pi. mid. ending, pr.,
vam, adv. suffix, 179, 1.
134 C 4.y; pf., 136a, f. m 1.
vaym, prs. prn. we, 109.
ri, m. f. wealth, 102 ; 102, 1 (par.).vyas, n. vigour, 83, 2 a a.
vra, a. choice, spv. of, 103, 2 a.
vrya, dat. adv. according to wish
L a , sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
178, 4.
lakm1, f. mark, 100, I a (p. 88).
lghyams, cpv. lighter, 103, 2 a. varimn, m. width, 90, 2.
lghu, a. light, cpv. of, 103, 2 a. vriha, spv. most excellent, 103, 2
widest, 103, 2 a.
labh, take, pf., 137, 2 a.
vryas, cpv. wider, 103, 2 a.
lip, smear, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
varjiv m s, pf. pf. aef. of vrj,
lup, break, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
twist, 157 b.
vriha, spv. highest, 103, 2 b.
V a , low grade of, 4 a.
va, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; adv. vrys, cpv. higher, 103, 2 b.
vrsman, n. height, 103, 2 b,f.n. 5.
sf., 179, 1.
vas, desire, pr. stem, 134 A 2 a.
vaght, m. sacrificed 85 b.
vac, speak, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf., 1 vas, dwell, pf., 137, 2 c ; 's ao.,
144, 1 ; s ao., 144, 2 ; red. pf.
137, 2 c ; 138, 8 ; red. ao. irr.,
pt., 157 a.
149 a 2, op., 149, 4, ipv., 149, 5 ;
2. vas, wear, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ;
ps., 154, 6 ; ps. ao., 155.
vane, move crookedly, ps., 154, 5. 135, 4 ; pf., 139, 2 ; cs. ft.,
151 a a.
vaj, m. trader, 79, 3 b.
3. vas, sh ine, pr. stem, 133 C 2 ;
vat, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems
in, 77, 1 ; adv. sf., like, 179, 1 ; s ao., 144, 1 ; s ao., 144, 5 ; root
ao., 148; 1 d.
advs. in, 197 A 5 b ^ (p. 301).
vad, speak, pr. stem, 135, 4; pf., vs, m. (?) abode, 83, 1.
vas, end. prs. prn. A.D.G.pl.you,
137, 2c; ps., 154, 6.
109 a; p. 452, 8 A a.
vdhar, n. weapon, 101, 1.
van, win, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ; vas, v. in, 86 ; 89 ; 90, 3 ; 94, 3,
f. n. 3.
135, 4 ; pf., 137, 2 b ; 139, 2 ; s
ao. op., 143, 4 ; s ao., 144, 3 ; vsiha, spv. best, 103, 2 a.
sis ao., 146; root ao. ipv., 148, 5,. vsu, n. wealth, 98 a ; spv. of, best
103, 2 a.
ds), 171 (p. 200), par.
vn, n.('.') wood, 77, 5 ; accent, p. 458vasuvn, a. bestowing wealth , 90,
c 1.
vstos, gen. adv. in the morning,
van, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ;
178, 6 ; 202 D 3 a.
nouns in, 90, 1. 2; fem. of, 90 vsys, cpv. better, 103, 2 a.
(p. 59, f. n. 2) ; 95 c ; sec. nom. vab, carry, pr. stem, 135,4; pf
sf., 182, 2; v. in, 94, f. n. I.
137, 2 c ; s ao., 144, 2 ; 144, 5 ;
vand, f. longing, 77, 3 b.
root ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; ps., 154, 6 ;
vanarsd, a. sitting in the wood,ps. sb 154 b ; ps. ao., 155 a 1.
49 d.
vaht, f. stream, 85 b.
vant, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems v, low grade of, 5 b a.
in 86 ; pf. pf. act. in, 161 ; v, weave, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
205, 1 a.
v, encl. cj. or, 180 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
vap, strew, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf., vs, sf. of red. pf. pt., 157 ;
137, 2c.
pf. pt. in, 89 (par.).
VEDIC
INDEX
493
vis, f. settlement, 63 b,f.n. 2 ; 79, 4

va:, f. speech, 79, 1.
vê, inf. to speak, 167 a (p. 191). (par.).
viivas, unred. pf. pt. of vis,
Vjasaneyi Sahit, how ac
enter, 157 b.
cented, p. 449.
vt, N . sing. of vah, carrying, visvie, itv. cd. in every house,
189 C a.
8 i a.
vipti, m. lord of the house, 49 a.
vt k ta, n. a disease, 184 d a.
vm, prs. prn. du. we two, 109 ;vva, prn. a. all, 120 b (par.) ;
accent in cds., p. 454, 10.
p. 452, 8 A a.
vam, encf. prs. prn., A. D. G. du., visvtra, adv. everywhere, 179, 3.
vivth, adv. in every way, 179, 1.
you two, 109 a.
vivad n m, adv. always, 179, 3 ^.
vr, m. protector, 82, f. n. 6.
vivdh, adv. in every way, 179, 1.
vr, n. water, 82, f. n. 7.
, adv. always, 179, 1.
vrkary, a. producing water, 49 vivh
d.
vp, f. summit, 78, 1.
vv, pel. certainly, 180.
vvac, a. allpervading, 93 a.
va, bellow, red. ao 149, 1.
v, m. bird, 99, 3 a ; accent, p. 458, Visarjanya, m. spirant, 3 g ; 14 ;
15; 27 ; 31 ; 32; 37; 43; 43, 3,
c I.
f. n. 4 ; 44 ; 48 ; 49 c ; 76 ;
viat, nm. twenty, 104 ; 106 d sandhi of final, 43 ; 44 ; some
(par.).
times becomes before gutturals
vie, sift, red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
and labials, 43, 2 a ; dropped,
vij, tremble, root ao. inj., 148, 3.
43, 3 a ; 45, 1 ; 45, 2 a ; 48 ;
vij, f. ('^) stake, 79, 3 a.
changed to r, 44 ; 46.
vitarm, adv. more widely, 178, 2.visp, m. spy, 79, 4.
1. vid, know, Unred. pf 139, 3 ; v, m. receiver, 100, I a.
ao. ps., 155.
vr, m. hero, accent of, in com
2. vid, 7ind, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ;
pounds, p. 454, 10.
134 A 4 c a ; a ao., 147, 1 (par. ) ; 1. vr, cover, pr. stem, 134 C 3 ;
a ao. op., 147, 4 (par.).
root ao 148, 1 d, inj., 148, 3,
vid, f. knowledge, 77, 3 a.
ipv., 148, 5, pf., 148, 6 ; red. ao.,
vdna, and vidn, pr. pt. mid.
149, 1 ; es. ft., 151 a a.
of vid, .find, 158 a.
2. vr choose, root ao. inj., 148, 3.
vidara, cpv. wiser, 103, 1 b. vrj twist, sa ao., 141 a; root ao.,
vidv s, pf. pt. knowing, 157 b. ^148, 1 d, op., 148, 1.
vidhart , a. meting out, 101, 2 b. vt, turn, ft., 151 a ; red. pf. pt.,
vdhe, inf. to pierce, 167 a (p. 191). ^157.
vin, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems vt, f. host, 77, 1.
in, 87.
vtratra, cpv. a worse Vrtra, 103, 1.
vn, prp. with out, w. acc., 197 c a
vtrahn, a. Vrtraslaying, 92.
(p. 303).
vrddh, pp. grown up, cpv. of,
vp f. rod, 78, 1 ; accent, p. 458, ^103, 2 b.
cl.
vrddhf. f. strong grade of vowels,
vp, f. a river, 63 b,f.il. 2 ; 79, 4. ^5 a; 5aa; 17; 17 a; 19b; 22;
vipr, f. drop, 80.
23 (for Gua) ; 128 b ; in pr.
vbhvas, v. radiant, 90, 3.
stem, 134, 1 a (irr.) ; in pf. stem,
vibh , a. eminent, 100, I I b.
136, 2. 3 ; in s ao., 143, 1 ; in
is ao., 145, 1 ; in ao. ps., 155 ;
vbhvan, a. fdrreaching, 90, l a .
in gdv., 162, l b ; 168, 1 c.
virj, I. stanza of three verses,
p. 441, 5 a.
vdh, grow, red. ao., 149, 1.
viviiv s, red. pf. pt. of vis, vdh, f. prosperity, 77,^; a. strength
enter, 89 a ; 157 a.
ening, 77, 4.
494
VEDIC
INDEX
vraav, Bv. cd. having stallions

ayutr , adv. on a couch, 179, 3.
as steeds, 52 a.
ard, f. autumn, 77, 3 b.
v an, m. bull, 90.
l, ij. clap t 181.
vrsntama, spv. most manly,aayn, pf. pt. mid. of , lie,
^103, 1 a.
159 a.
vdi, f. altar, loc. of, 98 (p. 81), syams, cpv. more requent,
f. n. 6.
103, 2 ^.
vedhs, m. ordainer, 83, 2 a a. avattam, spv. most constant,
veht, f. barren cow, 85 b.
103, 1.
vi, emphasizing pel. indeed, 180. savadh , adv. again and again,
vaitlya, n . a metre, p. 436, f.
179, 1.
n. 2.
svant, a. constant, 103, 2 a.
vhave, dat. inf. to carry, 167, 1 b 4.
-sas adv. sf. w. distributive sense,
vyac, e^nd, pr. stem, 134 B 2 ;
179, 1.
135, 4.
sharpen, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ;
vyadh, pierce, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
134 B 3 a.
vy, envelope, pr. stem, 133 B 1as,
; order, pr. stem, 134 A 4 a; a
a ao., 147 a 1.
ao., 147 a 1.
vy t ta, opened, pp. of viada,s, m. ruler, 83, 1.
160, 2 b.
sat, pr. pt. instructing, 85 b ;
vrac, cut, pr. stem, 133 C 2.
156 a.
-vraska, a. cutting, 133 C 2, f. n. 2. ras, n. head, 90, 1 a.
vr, f. troop, 97, 2.
i, pp. of s, order, 160, 2 b.
vr d hantama, spv. being mostikanar, a. helping men, 189 A 2 b.
mighty, 103, 1 b.
, lie, pr. stem, 134, 1 c; 134 A4ca;
vr,f.finger,79, 4.
pf., 139, 7 (f. n. 1).
rn, n. head, 90, 1.
S, stems in, 79, 4.
sue, shine, red. pf. p t 157 b a ;
-sa, see. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
as, praise, ps., 154, 5.
c,f.fiae,79, 1.
ak, be able, pf., 137, 2 a ; root ao.ci, a. bright, 98 (par.).
ipv., 148, 5.
ubh, shine, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ;
kt, n. excrement, 77, 1.
root ao. pt 148, 6.
akvar, f. a metre, p. 440 d ; bh, f. splendour, 78, 2.
p. 441, f. n. 6.
u, swell, red. pf. p t 157 b a.
c, f. might, 100, I b.
ocs, n. glow, 83, 2 b.
atkratu, a. having a hundred
candr, a. bright, 50 a.
powers, 98 (p. 82), f. n. 6.
nath, pierce, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ;
atatam, ord. hundredth, 107.
red. ao., 149, 1.
^tad v an, a. giving a hundredfold,
rath, slacken, red. ao. ipv., 195, 5.
^ 90.
rad, heart, compounded with
atapatha Brahmana, accentua
verbs, 184 b.
tion of, p. 448, 1 ; p. 451, 5.
raddh, inf. to trust, 167, 1,f.n. 2
satm, nm. a hundred, 104 ; 106 d
(par.) ; concord of, 194 B 1 b.
ram, be weary, pr. stem, 133 B 3.
atas, adv. by hundreds, 179, 1.ri, resort, root ao. inj., 148, 3 ;
atruh, a. slaying enemies, 97, 3. red. ao 149, 1 ; ps. ao 155 ;
nais, adv. slowly, 178, 3 b.
cs., 168 c,f.n. 1 (p. 196).
sap, curse, pf 137, 2 a.
r, f. glory, 100, I a.
m, n. happiness, 78, 3.
sru, hear, pr. stem, 134 C 3 ; root
yna, pr. pt. mid. of , lie,
ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; ps. ao., 155.
158 a.
rt, a. hearing, 77, 1.
VEDIC
INDEX
495
sreis, adv. in rows, 179, 1.

sajas, a. united, 83, 2 a a.
ryas, cpv. better, 103, 2 a.
saj, h ang, pr. stem, 133 A 4.
srha, spv. best, 103, 2 a ; 189, 1 b. satobhat, f. a metre, p. 444, 3 c.
rhatama, double spv., 103, 1 c. satym, adv. truly, 178, 2.
sloka, m. a metre, p. 439, 3 b a.
satr , adv. in one place, 179, 3.
svn, m. dog, 90 a ; 91, 3 ; accen sad, sit, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ; pf.,
tuation of. p. 458, c 1.
137, 2 a, f. n. 2 ; a ao. ipv.,
varu, f. mother-in-law, 100, II b, a,147, 5; red. ao 149, 1.
f. n. 1.
sdam, adv. always, 179, 3.
vas, blow, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
sd, adv. always, 179, 3.
vs, adv. tomorrow, 179, 3.
sadvas, adv. today 179, 3.
svit, be bright, s ao 144, 5.
sadys, adv. today, 179, 3.
sadha, adv. together, 179, 1 (p. 212).
s stems in, 80.
sadhryc, a. converging, 93 b
, nm. suc, 65 c, f. n. 2 (p. 43).
4^, f. n. I.
, nm. si^c, 104 ; 106 a (par.).
san, gain, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;
a, nm. si^cty, 104.
red. pf. pt., 157.
ah, ord. si:cth , 107.
san, loe. inf. of stems in, 167,
asa, nm. sixteen, 104 ; 106 c 4c.
(par.).
sna, a. old, cpv. of, 103, 2 a.
oha, nm. adv. in si^c ways, 108 b.
sanj, a. old, 79, 3 b.
sant, abl. adv. from of old, 178, 5.
S, changed to t, 83, 1 a ; 89 ;
sani loc. inf. in, 211, 4.
171, 5 (ds.) ; 144, l (s ao.) ; loss
sanitr, prp. apart from, w. ace.,
of. 133 B I. 144, 2 a, i n s ao.,
177, 1 ; 197 B c.
144, 6, between consonants,
sanutr, prp. far from, w. abl.,
148, 1 g ; of N. in cds., 189, 1 l^ ; 177, 3.
adv.^sf., 179, 1 ; ao 142 ; 143 ;
snt, pr. pt. of as, be, 85.
stems in, 83.
samtar m , acc. adv. closer togeth er,
sa, dem. prn., 110 ; sandhi of,
197 A 5 b ^.
48 ; pleonastic formulaic use of,
sanm, f. favour, 78, 3.
180.
snys, cpv. older, 88 ; 103, 2 a.
sa, sf. of ao., 141 a ; of ds., sap, serve, pf., 137, 2 a ; red. ao.
169, 1. 2 ; pri. nom. sf., 182, l b.
inj., 149, 3.
sak, dem. prm,thatlittle, 117 a. saparnya, den. gdv. to be adored,
sakt, nm. adv. once, 108 a ; w. 162, 3.
gen., 202 D 3.
sapt, nm. seven, 104 ; 106 c (par.).
skthi, n. thigh, 99, 4.
saptat, nm. seventy, 104.
sksant, s ao. act. pt. of sah,
saptath, ord. seventh, 107.
overcome, 85 ; 156 a.
saptdaa, nm. seventeen, 104 ;
sakha for skhi, in cds., 188, 2
106 c.
(p. 275), f. n. 2 ; 189, 4 d.
saptadh , adv. in seven ways, 108 b.
skhi, m. friend, 99, 2 ; in Bahu saptam, ord. seventh , 107.
vrhis and Karmadhrayas,
sama, indef. prm any, 119 a (par.);
188, 4 d f. n. 1 ; in governing
p. 452, 8 A a.
cds., 189 A 2 a (p. 280), f. n. 3.
samaha, adv. in some way or oth er,
sac, follow, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ;
179, 1 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
1 3 4 B 3 ^ ; 134B3; pf., 137,2a; samn, a. similar, 120 c 2 (p. 117).
137, 2 b ; s ao. op., 143, 4 ; root samudrI. f. oceanic, 100, I a (p. 86),
ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; red. pf. pf.,
f. m 1.
157 a.
samprasrana, m. distraction, 5b;
sc, prp. with , w. loc., 177, 5.
17a,f.n.2; 6 9 c , f . m 2 ; 8 9 ; 91,
496
VEDIC
INDEX
3. 4. 5 ; 96, 2 ; 99, 5, f. n. 1 ; pr. smaveda,

accentuation
of,
stem, 133 B 1 ; 133 C 2 f. n. 1 ;
p. 450, 4.
134 A 2 a ; 134 B 2 ; 134 E 2 ; saym, adv. in the evening, 178, 2.
135,4; 137, 2 a, f. m l ; 137,2c;
syprtar, adv. evening and
139,2; 154,6; 160,2; 160,3a;
morning, accentuation, p. 475 e a.
inf., 167, 1, f. n. 3; cs., 168,
shv s, unred. pf. pt. act., pre
irr 5.
vailing, 157 b.
samyc, a. united, 93 a ; w. ace., si, 2. s. ind. ending = ipv.,
197.
215 b^.
samrj, m. sovereign ruler, 49 b. sih1, f. lioness, 100, I a (p. 88).
sarh, f. (^) bee, 81.
sic, sprinkle, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
sart, f. stream, 77, 1.
sic, f. h em of a garment, 79, 1.
srva, prn. a. wh ole, 120 b (par.). sim, dem. prn., 100, 3 a.
sarvad , adv. always, 179, 3.
sir1, m. weaver, 110, I b.
sarvaht, a. offering completely,
sis aorist, 142 ; 146.
77, 1.
s d ant, pr. pt. of sad, sit, 85 .
scat, pr. pt. of sac, follow, 85 b, sm, encl. prn. pcl., 180 ; p. 452,
8 A a.
f. n. 5.
su, impel, pr. stem, 134. 1 a (p. 142).
sact, m. pursuer, 85 b.
sah, overcome, 140, 3 a ; s. aosu, press, root ao. part., 148, 6 ;
144,3; o p 1 4 3 , 4 ; i p v l 4 3 , 5 ;
pr. pf., 85.
pt., 143, 6 ; pf. pre., 150 a ; ft.,
s, su, adv. well, 180 ; in Bv. eds
151 c ; s ao. pt. act., 156 a.
p. 455, 10 c a.
sh, m. conqueror, 81 ; a. îctoriot,:s,
sud s , a. liberal, 83, 1.
81 a (par.).
sudhr, a. wise, 100, I a, f. n. 4.
sah, prp. with , w. inst., 177, 2 ; sup, a. clarifying well, 98 d.
adv, 179, 1.
sumd, prp. with , w. inst., 177, 2.
shantama, spv. most victorious,
sumedhs, a. infligent, 83, .2 a a.
103, 1 b.
surabhntara, cpv., 103, 1 a.
shas, inst. adv. forcibly, 178, 3. sur d has, a. bountiful, 83, 2 a a.
sahsra, n. th ousand, 104 ; 106 d suv s tu, f. a river, 98 a.
(par.) ; concord of, 194 B i b .
su, bring forth , pf., 139, 7 ; ft.,
sahasratam, ord.thousandth,107
151 c ; ps. inj., 154 b.
(p. l02),^f. n. 2.
su, m. begetter, 100, II a.
sahasradh , nm. adv. in a thousand sud, put in order, red. ao. ipv.,
ways, 108 b.
195, 5.
sa.kasras, adv. by th ousands,sr,jtow, a ao., 147 c ; ft., 151 a.
179, 1.
srj, emit, s aorist, 144, 4. 5.
shyas, cpv. stronger, 103, 2 a. sbhar, m. a name, 100, I b.
sa, bind, root ao. ipv., 148, 5.
skand, leap, root ao 148, 1 d.
skm, prp. with , w. insf., 177, 2. skambh, makefirm,134 E 3.
sk t , abl. adv. visibly, 178, 5.
sku, tear, pr. stem, 134, 1 a
sc, a. accompanying, 79 (p. 54), (p. 142), f. n. 1.
f. n. 1.
stan, thunder, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b.
sdh, succeed, red. ao. sb 149, 2 ;stambh, prop, pr. stem, 134 E 3. 4 ;
înj 149, 3.
red. pf. pt., 157.
s d hiha, spv. straigh test, 103, 2 a.star, m. star, 82, f. n. 5 ; 82 b.
s d hu, a. straight, spv. of, 103, 2 a. stavan, pr. pt. mid. of stu
sdhuy ,
insf. adv. s^raigf^t praise, 158 a.
^178, 3 b.
stu, praise, pr. stem, 134, 1 c a ;
snu, m. n. summit, 98 (p. 81., pf 138, 5 ; s ao., 143, 1. 2 (par.) ;
f. m 13 ; 98 a.
ft. pf., 151 b 2 ; ps. ao., 155.
VEDIC
INDEX
497
stbh, f. praise, 78, 2.

svad, sweeten, red. ao. inj 149, 3.
st, star, accentuation of, p. 458, svan, a. sounding, 77, 5.
c 1.
svap, sleep, pr. stem, 1 34 A 3 a ;
str, strew, ps., 154, 3, f. n. 1 ; s ao. pf 135, 4; 137, 2 c; pf. pf.,
op., 143, 4.
157 ; red. ao., 149, 1.
str1, f. woman, 100, I b ^ (p. 88). svaym, ref. prn., 115 a.
sth, stand, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ; svyukta, Tp. cd. seifyoked, 115 ca.
134 B 3 ^ ; a ao 147 a 1 ; root
svar, sound, s ao., 144, 5.
ao 148, 1 a (par.), op 148, 4,
svr, n. ligh t, 82, f. n. 7 ; 82 c ;
pf., 148, 6 ; red. pf. pt., 157.
accentuation of, p. 458, c 1.
sth , a. standing, 97, 2.
svarabhakti, f. vowel element, 15 d.
sthat, a. stationary, 101, 2 b.
svarita, m. (enclitic) falling accent,
sthpya, cs. of sth, stand : red.
p. 448, 1 ; p. 451, 6; how
ao., 149 a 3.
marked, p. 449, 2; p. 450, 3.4.
sthir, a.firm,cpv. of, 103, 2 l^. svrcaksas, a. brilliant as ligh t,
sthyms, cpv. most steadfast, 49 d. ^
103, 2 a.
svrpati, m. lord of heaven, 49 d.
sn, summit, accent, p. 458, c 1. svar, a. winning light, 49 d.
snu, distil, pr. stem, 134, 1 a svrti, f. acquisition of light, 49 d.
(p. 142), f. m 1.
svsoeis, a. selfradiant, 83, 2 b.
snu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
svsr, f. sister, 101, 1.
spas, see, pr. stem, 133 B 1 ; pr.
sv d iha, spv. sweetest 103, 2 ^.
pt., 85.
sv d ys, cpv. sweeter, 103, 2 ^.
sps, m. spy, 63 b, f. n. 2 ; 79, 4.
svd, a. sweet, cpv. and spv. of,
spr, win, root ao., 148, 1 d.
103, 2 ^.
sprk, N . of -spr, touching, 81 a. ^vid, encl. emphasizing pel., 180 ;
sprdh, f. battle, 77, 4.
p. 452, 8 A l^.
spr, touch, sa ao., 141 a ; red. ao.
sb 149, 2 ; inj 149, 3.
sma, encl. emphasizing pcl 180 ; H treated like aspirate cerebral,
w. pur and pr., 212 A 2 b ;
69 c ; like dh, 69 d ; reverts to
p. 452, 8 A b.
guttural, 92 (p. 72) f.n. 1, in pr.
sma, prn. element, 110.
stem, 134 A 2 c, 158a ; stems in,
smd, prp. with, with inst., 177, 2.
81.
sm, remember, ps., 154,. 4, f. n. 1. ha, end. emphasizing pel., 180;
sy, dem. prn. th at, Sandhi of,
p. 452, 8 A b ; w. pur a and pr.,
48.
212 A 2 b a.
sya, ft. suffix, 151.
ha, a. slaying, 97, 3.
syde, inf. tofiow,167 a (p. 191). tha, adv. suffix, 179, l ^.
syand, fiow, pf 135, 4 ; s ao.,
han, slay, pr. stem, l34 1 c a ;
144, 5 ; red. ao., 149, 1.
134 A 2 c ; 134 B 3 ^ ; pf.,
syu, f. th read, 100, I I a. .
137, 2 b; 139, 4; pr. pf. act
srams,fall, a ao., 147 b ; red. ao.,
156 a; gd., 165 a.
149, 1.
han, a. slaying, 77, 5 ; 92.
srj, f. garland, 79, 3 a.
hnta, ij. come.^ 180; 181.
sravt, f. stream, 85 b.
hay, ij. come t 181.
srs, 2. s. s ao. of srj, emit, 144, 2. havsmant, a. ofiering an oblation,
sridh, f. foe, 77, 4.
86.^
src, f. ladle, 79, 1.
has, laugh , pr. stem, 134 B 3.
sru, f. stream, 1 00, I I a.
hsta, m. h and, compounded w.
sv, poss. prn. own, 115 b, c (par.) ;
gd., 184 c.
116c; 120c 2.
hastin, a. having hands, 87 (par.).
498
VEDIC INDEx
h, go away, pr. stem, 134 B 1 ahu,

; call, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; ps
s a o 144, 2. 5; 146.
154 a (par.), ipv., 154 b (par.),
hi, cf. for, 180 ; accents verb,
impf., 154 c.
p. 467, 19 B.
hr, take, s ao., 144, 5.
hi, ending of 2. s. ipv. acf.,
hrtts, adv. from the hea^t, 179, 2.
134 C 4 ^.
hrd, n. heart, 77, 3 a.
hi^, injure, pr. stem, 134 D 1.
hf. ij. ô : 181.
hi, ij. compounded with kr, do, hys, adv. yesterday, 179, 3.
hvar, be crooked, pr. stem, 134 B 2 ;
184 d.
hit, pp. of dha, put, 160, 2 a.
s ao., 144, 2 ; red. ao. inj., 149,3.
hinv, im^.oel, pr. stem, 133 A 3 bhv,
; call, pr. stem, 133 B 1 ; a ao.,
134 C 4 ^.
147 a 1.
him, n. cold, 78, 3.
hrayavamattama, spv. best L ^ d , 3 b ^y (p. 3), f. n. 1 ; 11 d a ;
unelder of the golden aê, 103,^ 1.
15, 2 d; 15, 2 i.
hruk, ij. away 181.
h, be ang^y, red. ao., 149, 1.
Dh h, 3 b ^y (p. 3), f. n. 1 ; 15, 2 d;
hu, sacrifice, pr. stem, 134 B 3 a.
15, 2 i ; produces length by
hurk, ij. away, 181.
position, p. 437, a 3.
GENERAL INDEx
The abbreviations occurring in this index have been explained at
the beginning of Appendix I and of the vedic Index.
The figures refer to paragraphs unless pages are specified.
Ablative, syntactical use of, 201 ;
lack of, p. 452, 8 ; i n dee.,
w. verbs, 201 A 1 ; w. substanp. 457, 11 a ; p. 475, 11 a ; i n
tives, 201 A 2 ; w. adjectives,
the sentence, p. 464, 18 ; verbal,
201 A 3 ; w. numerals, 201 A 3 c ;
pp. 459--62 ; of augmented
w. adverbs, 201 A 4 ; w. pretenses, p. 459^ 12 a ; of pr.
positions, 176 a, b ; 177, 3 ;
system, p. 459, 12 b ; p. 460,
expresses tbe reason, 201 b.
pf. 12 c.
Abl.-gen. inf., 167, 3 (p. 194) ; Accented particles, position of,
synt. use of, 211, 3.
191 f.
Absolute eases, 205 : loc., 205, 1 ; Accusative, syntactical use of.
gen., 205, 2.
197 A ; w. verbal nouns, 197 B ;
Accent, 16 ; 71 a ; 77, 5, f. n. 1 ;
w. adjectives, 197 B a ^ (p. 302) ;
82 b f. n. 1 ; 82 c, f.n. 2 ;
w. adverbs, p. 303, ^ ; w. inter83, 1 b ; 85 ; 89 ; 93 a, f. n. 1 ;
jections, p. 303, ^ ; w. preposi97, 2, f. n. 2 (p. 79) ; 100, 1 a ;
tions, 176, 1 ; 177, 1 ; 197 B c
100, 1 b, f. m 3 ; 100, I I ;
(p. 303) ; adverbial, 178, 2 ;
100, I I b ; 102, 2, f.n. 1 ;
197, 5; double, 198; inf.,
103, 1. 2 (f. n.113); 104, f. m 6 ;
167, 2 ; 211, 2.
104a, b; 106; 107 ; 125, 1. 2 ; Action nouns, 182, 1.
126 a ; 127, 1. 2 ; 128 ; 131 ; Active voice (Parasmaipada), 121.
134, 1 c ; 134 A 4 b (f. n. 1) ; Adjectives, 86 ; 87 ; 88 ; 93 ; 95 c ;
136 ; 141, 1 (f. n. 3) ; 148, 5 ;
120 ; 186 B ; w. insf., 199, 2 a, b ;
154; 155; 158 a; 159 a 4 ;
w. gen., 202 C ; w. inf., 211, 1 b ;
162, 4 ; 164 ; 167, 1 b,f.n. 1 ;
211, 3 a a; 211, 3ba.
169; 172; 175; 175 A2 f. n. 1 ; Adverbial, suffixes, 179 : w. inst.
189 A, f. n. 2 ; 195 B b ; double,
sense, 171, 1 ; w. abf. sense.
167 b 5 ; 185, f. n. 1 ; 186 A 1 ; 179, 2 ; w. loe. sense, 179, 3 ;
p. 452, 7 ; p. 456, 2 ^ ; shift
particles, 180.
of. 5 ; 72 a ; 85 b ; 100, I b, Adverbs, 180; compound, 197 A 5
f. n. 3 and p. 87; 112, f. n. 4 ;
b
^ (p. 301) ; compounded
112 f. n. 1 ; 189 ; 199 A b a ;
w. verbs, 184 b, w.gd., 164, 1 a ;
p. 454, 10 ; p. 458, 11 c ; p. 464,
numeral, 108 a^c; prepositional,
16 ; pp. 448-69 ; musical, p. 436;
177; w. gen., 202 d.
p. 448, 1 ; methods of marking,
Agent, expressed by inst., 199, 2 ;
App. III, 2--5 ; of single words,
nouns, 101, 2 ; 152, f. m 1 ;
p. 451, 6 ; Greek, p. 451, 6 ;
182, 1 ; w. gdv., 209, 1 a 3,
500
GENERAL
4, 5 a ; w. inf. in ps. sense,

211 b .S.
Analogy, 97, f. n. 5 (p. 77) ; of an
stems, p. 78, f. n. 15 ; ofr stems,
99, 1, f. n. 1; 139, 6 (pf.);
p. 273, f. n. 3.
Anaphoric use of t 195 B 3 b ;
of et, 195 B 4 b.
Antithetical clause, accentuation
of, p. 468, ^.
Aorist, 1419 ; meaning of, 213 C ;
accent of its moods, p. 460, 12 d.
Apodosis in conditional sentences,
216 (p. 364, ydi 2) ; 218, 1.
Apposition, position of, 191 d ; in
^ descriptive compounds, 188, 1.
Arayakas, 1.
Archaisms in compounds, 49 ; 50.
Article, nonexistent, 192 ; in
cipient in B., 195 B 3 b.
Articulation, phonetic position of,
29.
concord
of, 3 c ; 194
B 1;
Aspiration,
initial, 40,
centuation
535of,; p.
of 457,
, 5311a b; a.
of h, 54 ; of
g, d, b, 55; loss of, 62; 62,
f. n. 1 ; thrown back, 62 a ;
134 B 1 b ; thrown forward,
62 b ; loss of initial , 141 a, f. n. 1
(p. 160) ; 143, 6 ; 148, 1 g.
Aspirates, 15, 2 ; 30, 2 ; avoidance
of two, 55, f. n. 1.
Assimilation, 16 ; 29 ; 32 ; 33 ;
34 ; 37 ; 38 ; 40, 1. 3 ; 43, 3 ;
60a.
Attraction of acc. by dat., 200 B 4 ;
of acc. by gen. inf., 211, 3 b a ;
in gender and number, 194, 3.
Attribute (adj. or gen.), position
of, 191 e.
Aufrecht, Prof., 2, f. n. 1 ; p. 33,
f. n. 6 ; p. 38, f. n. 1.
Augment, 15, 1 c,. 23 c; 128;
lengthened, 128 a ; 140, 6 ; 141
a ; 148, 1 d ; sandhi of, 128 b ;
accented, p. 459, 12 a.
Avesta, p. 67, f. n. 4 ; 134, 2 b ;
137, 2 a (f. n. 2) ; p. 436, f. n. 3 ;
p. 438, f. n. 1 ; p. 439, f. n. 3 ;
p. 440, f. m 1 ; p. 441, f. m 5;
p. 442, f. n. 1.
Benedictive (or Precative), 150.
INDEX
Brahmanas, 1 ; 2 ; 28, f. n. 3 ;
76 b, f. n. 1 ; 79, 3 a, f. n. 3 ;
97 a a,. p. 78, f. n. 9; 107
(p. 102), f. n. 1 ; 113 a ; 22 a a ;
139, 5 ; 139, 9 a ; 149 ; 154, 6 b ;
161, f. n. 6 ; 162, 4, f. n. 1 ;
163, 1, f. n. 1 ; 166, 167 ; 168 ;
172 ; 190 ; 191 ; p. 452, 7.
Break, metrical, p. 440, 4 B . .
Breathing b, 7 a 4 ; 15, 2 i :
29 c ; origin of, 13 ; becomes k
before s, 69 a ; treated like gh
before t, th, dh, 69 b.
Cadence, p. 436 ; p. 438 ; p. 440,

4 B ; trochaic, p. 440, 4 B ;
p. 442, 6 ; p. 443, 8 a.
Caesura, p. 436; p. 440, 4 B ;
double, p. 442, 7 a.
Cardinals, 104--6 ; intermediate
between decades, 104 a ; as
Dvandvas, 186 A 2 f. n. 3 ;
1
a,
b
;
ac
Case-endings, 16 a ; normal, 71 ;
sometimes retained in com
pounds, 187 a ; 188, 2. 3 ; 189, 2.
Case-forms, adverbial, 178 : nom.,
I ; acc., 2 ; insf., 3 ; dat., 4 ;
abl., 5 ; gen., 6 ; loc., 7.
Cases, 70 c ; strong, 73 ; position
of, 191 c ; synt. use of, 196--205.
Causal sense of inst., 199 A 3 ; of
abl., 201 B.
Causative, 124 ; 168 ; tenses and
moods of, 168 c ; sense of ao
149 ; sf. dropped, 154, 6 a ;
160, 3 ; sf. partly retained in
red. ao 149 a 3 ; ft., 151 ; synt.
use of. 198 A 3.
Cerebral sibilant , 12 o ; i n dee.
and conj., 64 a ; z, 8, f. n. 1 ;
II c ; 49 c (in cds.).
Cerebralization, of ch, 63 d ; of j ,
63 ; of s, 63 b ; of dentals,
15, 2 k a ; 64 ; 69 c ; of n, 10 c ;
65 ; 66, 2 b ; of n i n cds., 50 c ;
65 a ; 65 b ; of n i n external
Sandhi, 65 c ; of initial d, n in
cds., 49 c ; of dh, 160, 2,f.n. 1 ;
of s, 50 b ; 67 ; 81 a, f. n. 2 ;
83, 2 b, 2 c ; of s in vb. eds
GENERAL
67 a ; of s in nom. cds., 67 b ;
of s in external sandhi, 67 c ;
of Visarjanya, 43, 1 a ; 43, 2
a ; absence of, 67, f. n. 1, 3, 4 ;
92, f. n. 1.
Cerebrals, 3 b .v ; 29 a ; internal
sandhi of, 64 ; 65 ; 67 ; origin
of, 8 ; pronunciation of, 15, 2 d ;
stems in, 80.
Changeable consonant stems,
8496 ; irregularities of, 96 ;
peculiarities of, 94 ; fem. of, 95.
Cognate accusative, 197, 4.
Collective Dvandvas, 186 A 3.
Comparative Philology, 17, f.n. 2 ;
p. 451, 6.
Comparison, degrees of, 103 ;
implied in compounds, 188, 1, a ;
189,verbs,
1 a ; 189, 2 a. 200
w.
participles,
accent
rives, Compounded
A
2,
w.
of. p. 462, 13.
Compounds, 1849 ; classification
of, 185 b ; gender of, 185 a ;
verbal, 184 ; doubly accented,
p. 452, 7 ; accentuation of,
p. 454, 10.
Concomitance, expressed by inst.,
199 A.
Concord, 194.
Conditional, 153 ; synt. use of,
218 ; in rel. clauses, p. 368, 2 ;
in periods, 218, 1 ; w. yd and
op p. 363 ^v 1 ; w. ydi if,
p. 364, 2 ; w. cd if, p. 366, 5.
Conjugation, 12175 ; first, 125 ;
graded, 124 ; paradigms of pr.
system, 132 ; second, 126.
Conjugational classes, 124 ; 125 ;
127 ; irregularities of, 133 ;
134.
Conjugations, two, 124 ; secon
dary, ibid. : accentuation of,
p. 461, 12 e.
Conjunctive particles, 180.
Connecting vowel a 147 ; 149 ;
I. 89a; 136a; 140,5; 157 a, b ;
160, 3; 162, 4. 5 ; 163, 1. 2 ;
169 ; 1, 140, 6 ; 143, 1.
Consonant, endings w. initial
(bhyam, bhis, bnyas, su), 16 a ;
73 a ; stems, 7596.
Consonants, 614 ; changes of,
INDEX
501
32 ; 37 ; classification of, 29 ;
30; doubling of, 51 (ch) ; 52
(, n ) ; final, 27; 28; 31; 3 2 ;
33 ; 76 ; loss of, 15, 2 k ; 28 ;
61 ; 90, 2 ; 96, 3, f. n. 2 ; 101 ;
144 ; 148, 1 d (ao.) ; 160, 2
f. n. 1 ; quality of, 30 ; un
changeable, 60, 1.
Contracted
vowels
restored,
p. 437 a, 6.
Contraction, 83, 2 a a (p. 59) ;
133, 3 a (pr.) ; 137, 2 a (f. n. 1.,
2 c (pf.) ; 149, irr. a 2 (red. ao.) ;
171. 3 (ds.) ; 171, 3 a (ds.) ;
after secondary hiatus, 48 a.
Couplets, p. 446, 11.
Dative, syntactical use of, 200:
AI.
w.
substan
adjectives,
A
3,
w. adverbs, A 4 ; of advantage,
200 B 1, of purpose, B 2, of time,
B 3 ; double, 200 B 4 ; adverbial,
200 B 5 ; for gen., 97 a a ; 98 a ;
f. n. 8; 100, I b ^ (p. 88),
f. n. 2 ; 100, II b a (p. 89^,
f. n. 1.
Dative inf., 167, 1 : in e a, in
ase b 1, in aye, b 2, in taye,
b 3, in tave, b 4, in tavai, b 5
b 5 a, in tyai, b 6, in dhyai,
b 7, in mane, b 8, in vane, b 9 ;
synt. use of, 211, 1 ; w. ps.
force, 211, 1 b a (p. 335).
Declension, 70120 : of nouns,
74T02 ; of numerals, 1047 ;
of pronouns, 10920 ; accent in,
p. 457, 11 a.
Demonstrative pronouns, 11012;
synt. use of, 195 B ; concord^
of, 194 B 3.
Denominative, 124 ; 175 ; ao.,
175 B a ; ft., ibid. ; pp. ibid.
Dental : n, sandhi of final, 35 ;
36 ; 39 ; 40 ; 42, 3 a ; 52 ;
66 A 1 ; 66 A 2 ; s changed to
t or d, 9 a ; 66 B 1 ; disappears,
66 B 2 ; inserted, 40, 2.
Dentals, 3 b ^ ; 9 a ; 10 a (n) ;
15, 2 e ; 29 a ; palatalized, 37 a ;
38 ; 40 (n) ; 63 a ; cerebralized,
64 ; stems in, 77.
502
GENERAL
INDEX
Derivative verbs, 16875.

gdv 162 ; 209 ; synf. use of,
Descriptive compounds, 188 ;
214 ; of es., 168, 1 e ; peri
accent of, p. 455, 10 d 1.
phrastic, 152 ; accent of, p. 461,
Desiderative, 124 ; 169 ; 170 ;
12 e.
171 ; ao., 171 a (p. 201);
pp ibid. ; gd., ibid. ; of cs Gender, 70 a ; rules of, 183 ; of
168 e (p. 197), f. n. 4.
compounds, 185 a ; in syntax,
Determinative compounds, 185 b ;
194 ; attraction in, 194, 3.
187 ; dependent, 187, 2 a ; de
Genitive, synt. use of, 202 : w.
scriptive, 187 ; accent of,
verbs, 202 A, w. substantives, B,
p. 455, 10 d.
adjectives, C, adverbs, D ; w.
Devanagar character, 2, f. n. I.
prepositions, 177, 4 ; adverbial,
Dialects, 11 c.
178, 6 ; 202 C 3 a ; absolute,
Dimeter verse, p. 438, 2.
205, 2 ; partitive, 202 A d ;
Dipthongs, 3 a ; 4 b.
possessive, 202 B 2 a ; objective,
Dissimilation, 96, 2 ; 134 C 3 ;
202 B i b ; subjective, 202 B 1 a.
174 a.
Gerund, 122 c ; 163^6 ; accentua
Distance, expressed by acc.,
tion of, p. 464, 15 ; compounded
197 A 3.
w. adv., 165 ; w. noun, 165 ;
Dodecasyllabic verse, p. 442, 6.
syntactical use of, 210.
Doubling of eh, 51 ; of and n,
Gerundive, 162 ; synt. use of,
52.
209.
Dravidian sounds, 8.
Geal of an action, expressed by
Dual, synt. use of, 193, 2 ; com.
the acc.. 197, 1 ; 198, 3 b ; by the
pounds, 186 A 1 : elliptical,
loc., 204, 1 b, c; 198, 3, f. n. 2.
186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
Governing compounds, 185b; 189;
as substantives, 189, 1 a ; w.
Elision of initial a, 11, 1 a, b, c ;
suffixes a orya, 189, 1 b ; accent
19 b, f. n. 1 ; 21 a, f. n. 4 and 6.
of, p. 455, 10 b.
Emphatic words, synf. position
Grammarians, H indu, 5 a.
of, 191 a.
Gutturals, 3 b a ; 6 ; 7 b ; 15, 2 b ;
Enclitics, 109 a; 112 a; p. 452,
29 a ; changed to palatals, 7 b a ;
8 A ; synt. position of, 191 h ;
reversion to, 92 ; 134 A 2 c ;
195 A b.
160, 1 b ; 160, 2 ; 171, 4.
Endings, i n dec., 71 ; i n conj.,
131 (table) ; ofpf., 136 a.
Haplology, 15, 2 b.
External sandhi, 1755.
Hard (surd, voiceless) sounds,
30, 1 ; 32 ; 33.
Feminine, formation of, 73, f. n. 1 ; Hemistich, 16 ; 18 a ; p. 438,
of changeable stems, 95 ; of u
f. n. 2 ; p. 439 b ; p. 440 C ;
stems, 98 c (p. 83) ; 10I. I b ;
p. 44I. 5 ; p. 443 ; p. 449, 2 a ;
of tr stems, 101 c ; of sec. epv.
accentuation of, p. 465, f. n. 4.
and spv. stems, 103, l e ; of
HendecasyUabic verse, p. 440. 4 B.
ordinals, 107 ; special endings
Hiatus, 15, If;
16; 21 b ; 22 ;
of (in and stems), 100, I b ;
24; 45; 48; 49; 97, 1, f. n. 11 ;
97, 1, f. n. 5 ; suffixes, 183 a.
avoidance of, 16 ; in compounds,
Final consonants allowable, 27 ;
49 ; restored, 18 b ; 19 a, f. n. 4 ;
28 ; 31 ; 61 ; 76.
20 ; 21b; secondary, 22 a ; 48 a
Final dative, synt. position of,
(avoided).
191 k, a 1.
High grade syllables (e o, ar, al),
Frequentative, see Intensive.
5 a ; (ya, va, ra), 5 b ; (y, v,
Future, simple, 151 ; pt. ps.
r), 5 b a ; of i and u, 4 b ; 5 a, b.
G E N E R A L INDEx
Historical present, 212, 2.
Hypothetical clauses, 216 (under
yd, p. 363, and ydi, p. 364) ;
218.
^03
Intensive, 124 ; 127, 2, f. n. 1 ;

1724 ; moods of. 174, 24 ; pt.,
174, 5; impf., 174, 6; pf., 174,
6 a ; cs ibid.
Interchange of vowel and semi
vowel, 134 C 3 ; 167, 1 9, f. n. 4 ;
171, 2.
Interjections, 181 ; 184 d.
Interrogative pronoun, 113 ; synt.
position of, 191 k.
Iranian, Old, 11 c, d ; 15, 1 a.
Irregularities, of vowel sandhi,
23 ; of consonant sandhi, 48 ;
49 ; in declension : 91 ; 92 ; 96 ;
98 a ; 99 (i and u stems) ; in
conjugation : 133, 134 (pr.
stem) ; 156 a 157 b a (pr. pt.
act.) ; 158 a (pr. pt. mid.) ; 139
(pf.) ; 159 a (pf. pt. mid.) ;
144 (s ao.) ; 145 ac (is ao.) ;
147 ac (a ao.) ; 149 a (red. ao.) ;
151 c (ft.) ; 155 a (ps. ao.) ; 168,
p. 197 (es.); 17I. 1 (ds.); 174
(int.).
Iterative. verbs, 168 ; compounds,
185 b ,189 C : accent of, p. 454,
10a.
Imperative, 122 a ; formation of,

122 a a ., endings of, p. 125 ;
root ao., 148, 4 a 5 ; is ao
145, 5 ; sis ao., 146, 5 ; pf.,
140, 4 ; first persons wanting,
121 ; syntactical use of, 215.
Imperfect, inflected, 132 ; ps.,
154 c ; syntactical use of, 213 B.
Indeclinable, words, 17681 ;
synt. position of, 191 fi ; par
ticiple ( gerund), 210.
Indefinite pronouns, 119 b.
IndoEuropean period, p. 451, 6.
IndoIranian, 8 ; 11 c ; p. 442,
f. n. 1 ; period, p. 436, f. n. 3.
Infinitive, 1 ; 122 d; 167 ; accent
of, p. 463, 14 ; characteristics
of, 167 a ; synt. use of, 211 ;
w. ps. force, 211, 1 b a, b.
Initial consonant, loss of. 50 a,
f. n. 5 ; 134 A 2 b ; 171, 6.
Injunctive, 122 a ; 128 c ; forma
tion of, 122 a a ; root ao., 1 48, 2 ;
is ao., 145, 3 ; sis ao., 146, 4 ; Labials, 3 b ^ ; 9 b ; 29 a ; ste1s
s ao., 143, 3 ; a ao 147, 3 ;
in, 78.
pf., 140, 2 ; synt. use of, 215 B.
Length by position, p. 437 a 3.
Insertion, of vowels : i , 134 A 3 Lengthening, of vowels, 15, 1 c ;
(pr. stem) ; , 134 A 2 b (impf.),
15, 2ka; 143, 1. 3 (s ao.); 155
172 a (int.), 173, 3 (int.), 174 b
(ps. ao.) ; p. 280, f. n. 5 ; of
(int.) ; of consonants : k, 35
reduplicative vowel, 139, 9 (pf.) ;
(in sandhi), t, 36 a, 40, 1 (in 171, 6 (ds.).
Sandhi), n, 66 A 2 (in N . pl. n.), Local sense of instrumental,
105, 4 (G. pl.), p. 100, f. n. 1
199 A 4.
(G. pl.), n or na, 127, 3 (pr.
Locative, sing. in and u (un
stem), y, 155 (ps. ao.), 168
contractable), 25 b ; inf., 167, 4
irr. 4 (cs), r, 134, 1 c (pr.
(p. 195) ; 211, 4 ; synt. use of,
stem), , 40, 1 a (in Sandhi),
203 ; local sense, 203 A 1. 2
s, 40, 2 (in sandhi), 134 C 4,
temporal sense, A 3, adv. sense,
f. n. 1 (pr. stem), 150 (pre),
A 4 ; w. verbs, 204, 1 ; w. nouns,
, 168, irr. 4 (es.).
204, 2 ; w. adjectives, 204, 2 b ;
Instrumental, synt. use of, 199 :
w. prepositions, 1 76, 2 ; 204, 3 ;
w. verbs, 199 B 1, w. nouns,
205, 1.
B 2, w. numerals, B 2 c, w.
Long vowels pronounced as two ..
prepositions, B 3, 177, 2; adv.
p. 437 a 8.
use of. 178, 3 ; 199 A 6; ex
Loss of sounds : of initial a 21 a ;
presses means or agent, 199 A 2;
45, 2 b ; 134 A 2 b ; 156 a ; of
p. 309, a, ^.
medial a (see Syncope) ; of
504
GENERAL
medial u, 134 C 1 ; 134 C 4, f. n.

2 ; of final n, 90 (N. s.) ; 94, 2
(N. s.) ; of radical nasal, 137, 2 d
(pf.) ; 133 A 4 (pr. stem) ; 160, 2
(pp.) ; 165 a (gd.) ; of n i n 3. pl.
ending, p. 125, f. n. 4 ; 156
(pt. act.) ; of visarjanya, 45 ;
48; of s (N. s.), 100, Ib (p. 87).
Low grade vowels, 4 a ; 5 b, c, d.
Mgadh dialect, 11 c.
Mantras, 1.
Manuscripts, age of. 2.
Masculine suffixes, 183.
Max Mller, p. 33, f. n. 6 ; p. 38,.
f. m 1.
Metathesis, 11 ca ; 103, 2 a (cpv.) ;
144, 4 (s ao.) ; 167, 2 b (inf.).
Metre, 1 ; 16 ; 18 b ; 19 a ; 20 ;
21; 22 a; 41 a; 49; 52;
191 ; 194 B 1 ; Appendix II,
pp. 43647.
Middle, stem, 72; 73 a, b ; 101, 2,
note; 185a; voice, 121; endings,
131 (p. 126).
Monosyllabic stems, accentuation
of, p. 458, c 1.
Moods, 122 a ; 140, 114 (pf.) ;
171, p. 200 (ds.); synf. use of,
21518.
Multiples, formation of, 104 b.
Multiplicatives, 108 a, c ; w. gen,,
202 D 3.
Mutes, 3 b.
Nasal, loss of, 89 (pf. pt.) ; 133
(pr.) ; 134 D ; 134 E 3 ; 137, 2 d
(pf.) ; 139, 1 ; 140, f. n. 4 ;
144, 3 (s ao.) ; 147 irr. b (a ao.) ;
148, 1 e (rt. ao.) ; 149 (red. ao.) ;
154, 5 (ps.),. 167, 1, f. n. 5
^nf.) ., 160, 2 (pp.) ; 165 a (gd.) ;
171, 1 (ds.) ; 188, 2 a ; insertion
of, 79, 3 a, f. n. 2, 3; pure,
10 f; sonant, 4 a ; 127, 4 a ;
134C4a; 143, 4, f. m 3 ; p. 163,
f. n. 3; p. 185, f. n. 1.
Nasalization, 19 a, f. n. 5 ; 19 b,
f. n. 1 ; 24, f. n. 2 ; 79, 3 a,
f. n. 2 ; 133 C 1.
Nasals, 3 ; 10; 15, 2 f; 29 b;
final, 35 (in sandhi).
INDEX
Neuter, 73 b (changeable stems) ;
97, 1 a (a stems) ; 98 a (i and u
stems) ; 101, 2 b (tr stems) ;
suffixes, 183 b ; synI. use of.
194 A 1 ; B 2 b.
Nominal
compounds,
1859 ;
characteristics of, 185.
Nominal stem formation, 1824.
Nominal verb forms, accent of,
pp. 4624.
Nominative, synt. use of, 196 ;
predicative, 196 a ; w. ti =
ace., 196 a ^ ; for voc., 196 c a.
Nouns, declension of, 74102 ;
classification of, 74.
Number, 70 b ; 121 a ; synt. use
of. 193.
Numeral, as first member of poss.
cd., 189, 3 c ; derivatives, 108 ;
adv. w. gen., 202, 3.
Numerals, 1048.
Objective genitive, 202 B i b .
Octosyllabic verse, p. 438, 2.
Opening of a verse, p. 438, 2 ;
p. 440, 4 B.
Optative (Potential), 122 a; forma
tion of, 122 a a ; pf., 140, 3 ;
s ao., 143, 4 ; is ao., 145, 4 ; si
ao., 146; 3; aâo., 147, 4; rt.
ao., 148, 4 ; synt. use of, 216.
Oral tradition, 2.
Order of words, 191.
Ordinals, 107 ; fem. of, ibid.
Palatal, aspirate ch, 7 a 1 ; 13 ;
old sibilant z, 15, 2 k a ; and
ch before s, 63 b ; spirant y
15, 2 g ; sibilant 12 a, inser
tion of, 40, 1 a.
Palatalization of n, 63 c.
Palatals, 3 b ^ ; 29 a ; two series
of, 7 ; new, 7 b ; old, 7 a ; 81 a ;
before gutturals, 63; before s,
63b ; revert to gutturals, 139, 4 ;
140, 6, f. n. 2 ; 148, 1 h, f. n. 8 ;
157 b a ; 157 a, f. n. 2 ; 160, 1 ;
160, 1 b; 171, 4; represent
gutturals
in reduplication,
129, 3 ; nominal stems in, 79.
Participles, 156-62 ; 122 b ; act.,
85 ; 156 ; 157 ; mid. and ps
GENERAL
INDEX
505
158-62 ; pr., 85 ; 156 ; pr. mid

Precative (Benedictive), 150 ; pf.,
158 ; pr. ps 154 c ; pf. act.,
140,^- 3 a ; rt. ao 148, 4 a ;
89; 140, 5 ; 157; pf. mid.,
synt. use of, 217.
159; ao. act., 85; 156; a ao
Predicative adjective, concord of,
147, 6; ft. act., 85; 151 b 2 ;
194 B 2 ; noun, synt. position
156; ft. mid., 158; pp 160;
of, 191 b.
ft. ps. pt. (gdv.), 162 ; indee.
Prepositions, 176 ; adverbial,
(gd.), 163; fem. of pr. and ft.,
176, 1 ; adnominal, 177 ; com
95 a, b; synf. use of, 206 10 ;
pounded w. roots, 184, 2 ; syn
characteristics of. 206 ; durative
tactical position of, 191f; synt.
sense of pr., 207 a ; pr. = finite
accentuation of, App. III, 20.
verb, 207 ; w. gen. absolute,
Present, system, 123--34 ; tense,
205, 2 ; w. loc absolute, 205, 1 ;
synt. use of, 212 A ; stems,
pp. as finite verb, 208 ; pp. used
plurality of, 212; forff., 212A3;
periphrasticany, 208a, b; mean
pt. = finite vb., 207, expressing
ing and construction of ft. ps.,
duration, 207 a ; accentuation
209 ; construction ofindec., 210.
of, p. 459, 12 b; p. 458 c (pr. pt.).
Partitive genitive, 202 B 2 b.
Primary endings, 131 ; nom. suf
Passive, 121 ; 154 (par.) ; 155
fixes, 182, 1 ; 182, 1 b : accentua
(ao.) ; pr. stem, 121 ; 154 ; sb.,
tion of, p. 453, 9 A .
154 b ; cs. stem, 154, 6 a ; past
Principal clause, verb unaccented
pt. finite vb., 208 ; w. as and
in, App. III, 19 A .
bhu -- periphrastic mood or
Pronominal adjectives, 105, 1 ;
tense, 208 a, b.
107, f.n. 4 ; 120 ; declension :
Past tenses, meaning and synt.
109-20 ; its influence on nouse of, 213.
minal forms, 97, f. n. 1, 2
Pentasyllable verse, p. 442, 8.
(p. 77) ; 120.
Perfect, 135-40 ; endings of, 136 ; Pronouns, 109-20 ; personal, 109 ;
paradigms of, 138 ; irregularities
demonstrative, 110--12 ; inter
of. 139 ; moods of, 140 ; synt.
rogative, 113 ; relative, 114 ;
use of, 213 A ; act. pt. unre
reflexive, 115 ; possessive, 116 ;
al u plicated, 157 b ; pf. mid.,
compound and derivative, 117
159 ; pt. ps., 160 : formed w.
18 ; indefinite, 119 ; syntactical
both ta and na 160, 1 a ; ac
use of, 195.
centuation of, App. III, 12 c.
pronunciation,
ancient,
15 ;
Periphrastic forms : ft., 152,
Greek, of sanskrit words, ibid. ;
forerunners of, 152, f. n. I.
of vowels, 15, 1 a ; of diph
sense of, 214 B ; pf., 139, 9 a.
thongs, 15, 1 b ; of consonants,
Personal pronouns, 109 ; limited
15, 2 ; of I. 15, 2 g.
use of, 195 A.
Proper names, 189, 3 a ; 189 A 2 ;
Phoneticians, native, p. 448, 1.
193, 2 a, 3 a; 200 A 2 ^.
Pluperfect, 140, 6 ; meaning of.
Prosodical rule, 18 b f. n. 1 ; 25a.
213 D.
Prosody, rules of. p. 437 a.
Plural, elliptical use of, 193, 3 a ; Protasis, 216 (w. yd, p. 363, and
loose use of. 193, 3 b ; Dvandvas,
ydi, p. 364) ; 218, 1.
186 A 1.
Purpose, expressed by dative,
Possessive, compounds, 185 b ;
200 B 2.
189 ; gen., 202 B 2 a.
Potential, see Optative.
Prtikhyas, 11 ; 15, 1 a, b, d ; Radical vowel lengthened, 143, 1 ;
15, 2 ; 15, 2 e g, i, j ; 42, 2,
145, 1 ; 155 ; 171, 6 ; shortened,
f. n. 2 ; 51 ; p. 465, f. n. 1.
119; 171, 6; 174.
506
GENERAL
INDEX
Reason, expressed by inst., I of palatals before consonants,

199 A 3 ; by abl 201 B .
63 ; of dentals after cerebrals,
Reduplicated root as nom. stem,
64 ; 65 ; of dental n before y,
182, 1 a.
v, s, 66, 1. 2 ; of dental s, 66 B ;
Reduplication, general rules of,
67 ; of m before y, r, 1, v, 68 ;
129, 116 ; special rules of, 130
of h before s t, th, dh, 69;
(pr.) ; 135, 14 (pf.) ; 149 a, b
3. i n compounds: 4950; 185
(ao.); 170 (ds.) ; 173 (int.);
(p. 268) ; archaisms in, 49a,b,c,d.
w. an, 139, 6 (pf.) ; w. repeated Sanskrit, Classical, 1.
nasal, 173, 3 (int.) ; w. inserted
Samhit text, 2 ; 15, la; 16.
nasal, 174 a (int.) ; of vowel in
sahits, 1 ; 2.
second syllable, 149, irr. 3 ; Schroeder, Prof. L . v p. 450,
171, 6 a ; dropped, 139, 3 (pf.) ;
f. n. 3.
157 b (pf. pt.) ; 171, 6 (ds.).
second Aorist, 1479.
Relatives, synt. position of, 191 k.
Secondary, endings, 131 ; nom.
Restoration of elided a, 21 a, f. n.
suffixes, 182, 2 ; accentuation
5, 6.
of, p. 453, 9 B ; shortening of
Rhotacism, l l c, d.
, , 5 e.
Rhythm, quantitative, p. 436, 1 ; semivowel r, originally cerebral,
iambic, p. 436; p. 438 ; p. 440,
15, 2 y.
4^.
Semivowels, 3 c ; 11 ; 15, 2 g ;
Rhythmic, rule, 136 a, f. n. 3 (pf.);
17 B 1 ; 20 ; 29 c ,. pronounced
139, 9, f. m 2 (pf.) ; 149 (red.
as vowels, p. 437 a 5.
ao.) ; tendency, 50 d.
Sentence, 16 ; 190 ; accent,
Rigveda, 1 ; 2.
p. 464, 18.
Root, as nom. stem, 182. 1 a ; ao
Sibilants, 3d; 7 a 2 ; 12 ; 15, 2 h ;
148.
29 d ; assimilation of 12, a, b ;
Roots, two or more used i n in
loss of, 15, 2 k ; 66 B 2 ; traces
flexion of same vb., 212 ; secon
of soft, 7 a 3 ; 8; 15, 2 h ;
dary, 134 C 4 a.
15, 2 k ; 15, 2 k a ; 29 d.
Singular number, strict use of,
SandhI, 1669; accentin,p. 464,17 ;
193, 1.
nature of, 16 ; 1. external, 16
Sociative sense of inst., 199 A 1.
55 : of vowels, 18 ; 19 ; 20 ; of
Soft (sonant, voiced) sounds,
diphthongs, 21 ; 22 ; irr. vowel,
30, 1.
23 ; absence of vowel, 246 ; of
Space, extension of, expressed by
consonants, 2755 ; of final k,
acc., 197, 3.
, t, p before n or m, 33 ; of
spelling, misleading, p. 437, a 9.
final t before 1, 34, before pala
Spirants, 3 g ; 14 ; 15 ; 29 e.
tals, 38 ; of final nasals, 35 ; of
Stanzas, p. 437 ; simple, pp. 438
final dental n, 36 ; 39 ; 40 ; of
43 ; mixed, pp. 4435 ; irr.
final m, 41 ; 42 ; 42, 3 a and
mixed, p. 445, 10 b a, ^ ; strophic,
f. n. 5 (ambiguous) ; of final
pp. 4467.
Visarjanya, 43 ; 43, 2 a and
Stem formation, nominal, 182.
3 ; 44 ; of the final syllable
Stems, classification of nominal,
ah, 45, 2 ; 46 ; 48 ; of the
74 ; ending in consonants, 74
final syllable , 45, 1 ; 46 ; of
96 ; unchangeable stems, 75
final r, 46 ; 47 ; 2. internal :
183 ; nouns with two, 858 ;
5669 ; of vowels, 57 ; 58 ; of r,
nouns with three, 8993 ;
58; 154, 3 ; of , 58 ; 154, 4 ;
ending i n vowels, 97102 ;
of diphthongs, 59 ; of conso |
accentuation
of
nominal,
nants, 60 ; 61 ; of aspirates, 62 ; |
p. 453, 9.
GENERAL
Strong stem, i n declension, 72 .,
73 ; 97, 2 a ; in conjugation,
124 ; 126 (pr.); 134 (pr.) ; 136
(pf.) ; 143 (s ao.) ; 145 (is ao.) ;
148, 1 (rt. ao.) ; i n weak forms,
134 B 3 a ; 134 C 4 ^ ; 148, 5.
strophe, p. 437.
Subject, synt. position of, 191 a ;
exceptional position of, 191 k a 2.
subjective genitive, 202 B 1 a.
Subjunctive, 1 ; 122 a ; formation
of, 122 a a ; 140, 1 (pf.) ; 143, 2
(s ao.) ; 145, 2 (is ao.) ; 146 (sis
ao.) ; 147, 2 (a ao.) ; 148, 2 (rf.
ao.) ; synt. use of, 215 C.
Subordinate clause, verb accented
in, App. III. 19 B .
Substantives compounded w. gd
164, 1 a ; 184 c ; w. participle,
184 c.
Suffixes, primary, 182, 1 ; secon
dary, 182, 2 ; 16 a ; s and t of
2. 3. s. irregularly retained,
28 a a (cp. f. n. 3).
Superlative suffix in tama, 103, 1 ;
in istna, 103, 2.
Sutras. 1; 97 aa; 166.
Syncope, 78, 3 a ; 90, 1. 2. 3 (an
stems) ;T33, 3a(pr.) ; 134 A2c
(pr.) ; 134 B 3 (pr.) ; 137, 2 b
(PI.) ; 139, 2 (pf.) ; 148, 1 e, g
(rt. ao.) ; 149, irr. a 2 (red. ao.) ;
156 a (pr. pf.) ; 157 a, f. n. 1
(pf.pt.); 160, 2 a (pp.); 171,3
(ds.) ; p. 458, 2.
syntactical compounds, 185 b ;
189 B .
Syntax, 1; 190218; charac
teristics of vedic, 190.
Temporal sense of acc., 197 A 2 ;
of inst 199 A 5 ; of dat.,
200 B 3 ; of gem, 202 D 3 a ; of
loc, 203, 3.
Tenses, 122 ; synt. use of, 21214.
Terminations, see Endings.
I'han expressed by abf., 201 A 3.
Time, acc. of, 197, 2 ; inst.
of, 199 A 5 ; dat. of, 200 B 3 ;
ên. of, 202 D 3 a; loc. of,
203, 3.
INDEX
507
Tmesis of compounds, 185 (p. 267,

f. m 1) ; 186 A 1.
Transfer stems, i n pr. system,
130 a, f. m 4 ; 134 C 4 ^ ;
134 E 4 a ; in ppf., 140, 6 ; in
ao 147 a, b.
Triplets, p. 446, 11.
Unaccented pronouns, 109 a ;
112 a ; 195 b ; synt. position of,
191 h; 195 b.
Unaspirated consonants, 30, 2.
Unaugmented forms, 128 c.
Unchangeable consonant stems,
7583.
Un reduplicated pf. forms, 139, 3 ;
139, 3 a; 157 b.
Upaniads, 1.
vedas, 1 ; 2.
vedic language, 1 ; sounds of, 3.
velars, 3 ba; 6; 7 b; 15, 2 b.
verb, concord of the, 194 A 1 ;
synt. position of. 191 a ; w. two
s. subjects, 194 A 2 a ; w. more
than two, 194 A 2 b ; w. subjects
of different numbers, 194 A 3 ;
w. subjects of different persons,
194 A 3 ; synt. accent of.
p. 466, 19 ; loses accent, p. 452,
8 B b.
verbal compounds, 65 a ; 184.
verbs governing two acc., 198 ;
insf., 199 B 1 ; dat., 200 A 1 ;
abf., 201 A 1 ; gen., 202 A ; loc.,
204, 1.
vocative, 71 a ; 72 a ; 76 a ; 94, 3 ;
98 b ; for predicative nom
196 c ; accent of, p. 457, 11 a ;
p. 465, 18 ; loses accent, p. 452,
8 B a; compound, p. 466,
f. n. 3, 4.
voices of the verb, 121.
vowel shortened before vowel,
p. 437, a 4.
vowel declension, 97102 : stems
in a, , 97 ; i n i , u 98 ; irr.
i , u stems, 99 ; in , u, 100 ; i n
r, 101 ; in ai, o, au, 102.
vowels, 3 a ; 4 a ; classification
of, 17 ; changed to semivowels,
.-08
GENERAL INDEx
20 ; coalescence of, 18 ,. 19 ;
contraction avoided, 19 a,
f. n. 2 ; 24 ; 25 ; 26 ; gradation
of, 5 ; loss of, 15, 1 e ; 127, 4
f. n. 3 ; 134 A 2 b; 134 C 1 ;
145 a ; long by position before
oh, 51 ; lengthened, 47 ; 69 c
(cp. f. n. 4) ; 78, 1 a ; 78, 2 a ;
82 (I. u) ; 83, 2 (N. pl. n.) ;
83, 2 a (N. s. m. f.) ; 85 a(mahat) ;
86 (mat, vat stems) ; 87 (in
stems) ; 90 (an stems) ; 92
(han) ; 94, 1 (N. s.) ; 96, 1. 2 ;
131 (p. 125), f. n. 1 ; 133 B 3 ;
144, 3 ; 145, 1 ; 145, 5 a ; 149 ;
151 c; 154, 2 (ps.) ; 155 (ps.
ao.) ; 160, 2 c (pp.) ; 162, 1 e
(gdv.); 169, 1 (ds.); 171, 1
(ds.) ; 173, 2 a (inf.) ; 175 A 1
(den.) ; lengthened i n com-
pounds, 49 e; 50 d ; shortened,
89 (pf. pt.) ; 94, 3 (voc.) ; 129, 6
(red.) ; 133 B 1 (pr.) ; 149 (red.
ao.) ; 174 (inf.) ; 187 a a (p. 273) ;
shortened i n compounds, 50 e ;
shortened before other vowels,
18 b; 18 b f. n. 1 ; 19a, f. n. 5 ;
20, f. n. 2 ; 26 b; 100, I a
(p. 86^ f. n. 2 ; nasalized, 15,
2f; 19 a, f. m 5; 19 b,f.n, 1 ;
terminations beginning w 76 ;
stems in, 97-102.
Weak stem, in dec, 72; 84; i n
conj., 134 A 2 (pr.) ; 137, 1 (pf. ) ;
160, 2 (pp.) ; in first member
of compounds, 185 a.
Weakest stem, 72 ; 73 b.
Weber, Prof. A., 2, f. n. 1.
Writing, introduction of, 2.

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Macdonell, Arthur Anthony

A Vedic Grammar For Students

Oxford : Clarendon Press 1916

THE ROYAL DANISH ACADEMY

meet this demand as soon as I could. The present volume

survey of Vedic sounds as enabling the student to understand

a practical work ; but the exact source of any particular

appropriate place within the body of the Vedic Grammar, are

Mr. J . C Pembrey, Hon. M . A . , Oriental Reader at the

March 30, 1916.

Relation of Vedic to SanskritOral tradition and

External Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of Con

ConditionalThe Passive Participles GerundIn

PrepositionsAdverbial Case-forms Adverbs formed

Primary SuffixesSecondary Suffixes GenderVerbal

II. Vedic Metre

III. The Vedic Accent .

25, line 24, for am i t i read am ti.

1. Vedic, or the language of the literature of the Vedas,

is fully dealt with, because it illustrates the construction of

The text of the Vedas, with the exception of Aufrecht's and

(y) seven cerebrals : h , and . h and h. ;

This is much the rarest class of mutes, being scarcely half as

u is an original vowel ; e. g. m d h u (Gk. p^0v) honey.

d u v o y wishing to give (beside d u v a s y ) ; s h o v a n

b. The S a m p r a s r a a series. H ere the accented high

^,. Similarly the long syllables y, va, r are reduced to 1, , r ; e. g.

d. The a i and au series.

S. The cerebrals are entirely secondary, being a specifically

b. The labials as a rule represent the corresponding I E .

z ( = s or old palatal zh), the soft form of , has always disappeared

initially, medially, and finally ; e. g. mt I. mother, n m an

e. The labial m as a rule represents I E . m ; e. g. n m an,

b. The semivowel v is constantly written for u before

a. Metathesis of r takes place when r would be followed by or h

d. The semivowel 1 represents I E . 1 and i n a few instances

was descended from an Indo-Iranian one i n which rhotacism

Medially it is regularly, and initially very frequently,

gutturals (k, kh). Upadhmnya (on-breathing) is the bi-labial

as containing an r i n the middle. This agrees with ero,

1 A term used in the Prtikhyas and meaning vowel-part '.

e. Loss of vowels. W i t h very few exceptions the only

Examples are: refreshment; tur a b h i b h t y j ;

z, z h (cerebral) have entirely disappeared, they have generally

s sit, s order, the sibilant has disappeared without a trace :

Combination of F i n a l and I n i t i a l Vowels.

The Vddhi form of (which would be l) does not occur.

EXTERNAL VOWEL SANDH I

a. The contraction of + a and of + occasionally does

Because of the prosodical rule that a long vowel is always

b. coalesce with Gua vowels to Vddhi ; e. g. i b h i

a instead of contracting with e is sometimes nasalized before it :

EXTERNAL VOWEL SANDH I

written and pronounced ; i n s n v gne (i. 1^) it must be

b. before every other vowel (or diphthong) would naturally

a. The (secondary) hiatus caused by the dropping of y

Because e and 0 were originally = i and u.

b. The preposition p r (in the R V . ) with initial i in

( ^) asmai. This may remain before i as i n h r i v a ,