ADDITONAL INFORMATION: Navigational Aids

QUESTIONS:
The art of detecting the movements of a craft from one point to another
along a desired path.
The navigator fixes his position on a map by

ANSWERS:
NAVIGATION
NAVIGATIONAL BY
PILOTAGE

Also called as Astronomical Navigation. It is accomplished by

measuring the angular position of the celestial body.

CELESIAL NAVIGATION

The position of craft at any instant of time is calculated fro previously

determined position; the speed of its motion with respect to the earth with
the direction and time elapsed. It is the most common and widely used
method of navigation

NAVIGATION BY DEAD
RECKONING

Uses electromagnetic waves to attain a fix.

RADIO NAVIGATION

RADAR

RADAR OR RADIO
DETECTING AND
RANGING

Basically means gathering information about distant objects or targets

by sending electromagnetic waves at them and analyzing the echoes.

RADAR

Determines the maximum distance to the target to be measured.

PULSE REPETITION
TIME

Range beyond, which the objects appear as second return echoes.

MAXIMUM
UNAMBIGUOUS
RANGE

Band Name
UHF
L
S
C
X
Ku
K
Ka
V
N
A

Frequency Range (GHz)

0.3-1.0
1.0-1.5
1.5-3.9
3.9-8.0
8.0-12.5
12.5-18
18.0-26.5
26.5-40.0
40.0-80.0
80.0-170.0
ABOVE 170.0

The radar cross section or effective area of the target depends on the
frequency used
The target is small compared to the wavelength, its cross sectional area for
radar appears much smaller than its real

RADAR FREQUENCY

TARGET FREQUENCY
RAYLEIGH REGION

QUESTIONS:
The circumference of a spherical target is between 1 and 10 wavelenghts,
the radar cross section oscillates about the real one
For shorter wavelengths, the radar and true cross sections are equal.

ANSWERS:
RESONANCE REGION
OPTICAL REGION

The RADAR Cross Section of the target depends on

1.Polarization of the incident wave.
2.Degree of surface roughness
3.Use of special coatings on the target
4.Aspect of the target
Flat topped rectangular pulses.
To ensure that the leading edge of the received pulse is also close to vertical
for exact measurement of target range

PULSE
CHARACTERISTICS
LEADING EDGE MUST
BE VERTICAL

Is required for the voltage pulse applied to the magnetron anode. The
efficiency of the magnetron or other amplifier drops significantly if the
supply voltage is reduced

FLAT TOP

Is needed for the transmitted pulse so that the duplexer can switch the
receiver over to the antenna as soon as the body of the pulse has passed.

STEEP TRAILING EDGE

Use dipole or horn fed paraboloid reflectors or at least reflectors of

basically paraboloid shape.
Antenna Tracking

Sequential Lobing
The direction of the antenna beam is rapidly switched between 2 positions
Logical extension of lobe switching
A system using 4 horn antennas displaced about the central focus of the
reflector

RADAR ANTENNAS
1.LOBESWITCHING
TECHNIQUE
2.CONICAL SCANNING
3.MONOPLUSE
TRACKING
LOBE SWITCHING
TECHNIQUE
CONICAL SCANNING
MONOPULSE
TRACKING

Disadvantages
A.More complex motion of the antenna
B.Additional servomechanisms are required
C.More than one returned pulse is required
RADAR Display Method

Deflection modulation in the CRT screen.

1. A SCOPE
2.PLANPOSITION
INDICATOR
3.AUTOMATICTARGET
DETECTION
A SCOPE

QUESTIONS:
Intensity modulation
Sow the map of the target area
The brightness at any point on the screen indicates the presence of an
object there, with its position corresponding to its actual physical position
and its being measured radially out from the center
Direct feeding to the computer.

ANSWERS:
PLAN POSITION
INDICATOR

AUTOMATICTARGET
DETECTION

General Task of a Radar System

1.Search for targets
2.Track them once when they are acquired
Tracking Radar Systems

1.TRACKING IN ANGLE
2.TRACKING IN RANGE

A system that gives the angular position of a target accurately.

TRACKING IN ANGLE

Range information is continuously obtained.

TRACKING IN RANGE

Transmitting and receiving antenna are located at the same point

MONOSTATIC RADAR

Transmitter and receiver are located separately by quite large distances.

BISTATIC RADAR

The apparent freq. of electromagnetic or sound waves depend on the

relative radial motion of the source and the observer.
Postulated by Christian Doppler in 1842
Was given a firm mathematical basis by Armand Fizeau

DOPPLER EFFECT

Small radar sets consisting of a receiver a separate transmitter and an

antenna, which is often omnidirectional.
When another radar transmits a coded set of pulses at the beacon; i.e.

RADAR BEACONS

interrogates it, the beacon responds by sending back its specific pulse code,
thereby earning its name Transponder.
Application of RADAR Beacons
1.Identification friend or foe.(IFF)
2.Calculation of position like in lighthouse
Uses localizer glide and marker beacon transmitter to provide a slopping
glide path for instrument (blind) landing approach of an aircraft.

ILS (INSTRUMENT
LANDING SERVICE)

ILS Consists of
a.A VHF radio transmitter and antenna system using the same general
range as VOR (very high omnidirectional range) transmitters. (between
108.10 MHz abd 111.95 MHz)

LOCALIZER WHICH
PROVIDES LATERAL
GUIDANCE

b.Which provides vertical guidance is produced by ground base UHF

transmitter and antenna system, operating at the range 329.30 MHz to
335.0 MHz, with a 150 KHz spacing between each channel. The transmitter
is located 750 to 1250ft. down the runway from the threshold offset 400 to
600 ft. from the runway centerline.

GLIDE SLOPE
EQUIPMENT WHICH
PROVIDES VERTICAL
GUIDANCE

QUESTIONS:
c.Provides information on distance from the runway to identifying
predetermined point along the approach track. These beacons are lowpower transmitters that operates at a frequency of 75 MHz with 3 watts or
less rated power output. They radiate an elliptical beam upward from the
ground. At altitude of 1,000 ft., wide. At higher altitudes the dimensions
increase significantly

ANSWERS:
ILS MARKER BEACON

Marker
Code Light
Distance to
Modulated
Beacon
Threshold
Frequency
Outer
Blue
4 to 7 nm
400Hz
Middle
Amber
3,500 ft
1,300Hz
Inner
White
1,000Ft
3,000 Hz
d.Provides guidance to the pilot on an approaching aircraft to the runway.

MARKER BEACON
CHARACTERISTICS

A part of an approach light it flashes twice in second in sequence. It

distinguishes aeronautical ground lights in an aero dome to the lights in the
area
Provide sufficient guidance to the pilot during landing and take off
especially at night or zero visibility.

SEQUENCE LIGHTS

RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS

(YELLOW)

Provides information on the extremely runway when a landing aircraft is

intended to land.
Signifies the end of the runway and is placed on a line at right
the runway access.

RUNWAY LIGHTS
APPROACH LIGHTS
(WHITE)

angle to

THRESHOLD LIGHTS
(GREEN)
RUNWAY END LIGHTS
(RED)

Provides the indicating on the aircraft position relative to the optimal slope
during final approach to the runway.

PAPI LIGHTS
(PRECISION APPROACH
PATH INDICATOR)

-An airplane is talk down to a blind landing by means ground based search
precision radars
-This is an instrument approach system consisting of extremely high
precision microwave radar equipment that gives the position of an aircraft
in range, azimuth and elevation. It is primary designed to bring the pilot
through low overcast of low horizontal visibility so that he can make a
normal landing by visual contact. Skilled operations of this system in the
aircraft and on the ground permits emergency landing under conditions of
nearly zero visibility.
-Basically the ground equipment at the airport consists of two microwave
radar sets, which are usually installed in a single trainer placed adjacent to
the runway. One of the radars know as the search system, locates all
aircraft within 30 miles or so of the airport and thus provides a radar map
of the miles or so of the airport and thus provides a radar map of the
vicinity. It is the initial phase of the GCA and is accomplished with medium
range radar called plan position indicator.
-The other radar, called the precision system, provides continuous
information regarding the position of the incoming aircraft with respect to
the runway. The plane may thus be safety talked down along the sloping
glide path.

GROUND CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)

-On the final approach leg, the controller, using precision scopes, takes
control. He also broadcasts verbal instructions, principally concerning
attitude and lateral deviation from the desired glide path, and guides the
pilot virtually to the end of the runway
-On the final approach the GCA operator uses precision approach radar
(PAR), short-range precision radar that indicates the proper glide path for
descent.
QUESTIONS:
-Are low frequency transmitters operating into an omni directional
vertically polarized antenna. Usually place at the ILS outer and middle
marker beacon sites where it is known as compass locator.
-Are beacons sending its signal equally well in all directions. It a lowfrequency beacon with a frequency range of 200kHz to 415kHz. The
reception range of the radio beacon is at least 15 nautical miles and it
transmits 2 to 3 letters of identification signal from the Morse code 8 times
per minute. NDB provides a radio station for use by aircraft. The
equipment in the aircraft consists of an ADF or radio compass, which gives
the pilot information in the form of a pointer indicating the bearing of the
NDB transmitter. The pilot can thus fly courses to or from the NDB. If dual
ADF equipment is provided on an aircraft, it is possible to fix position by
combining the informations provided by two NDBs

ANSWERS:
NON DIRECTIONAL
BEACONS (NDB)

An equipment that provides information of the distance between an aircraft

and the VOR station. Together with VOR, they provide the information
necessary for enroute naviugation.

DME (DISTANCE
MEASURING SYSTEM)

DME Components
Sends out signals to ground station.

TRANSCEIVER

Built within the transceiver that measures time interval that elapsed until
the response.

INTERNAL COMPUTER

Use for both transmission and reception. It is very small mounted on the
underside of the aircraft.

ANTENNA

Incorporate digital readouts of frequency, DME and ground speed

information
DME displays information in the form of
-Expressed in nautical miles
-Expressed in knots

DME CONTROLS

DISTANCE TO THE
STATION
AIRCRAFTS GROUND
SPEED

-Expressed in minutes

TIME TO STATION

-A radio facility providing bearing information to and from such facility at

all azimuth within its service area. It provides an unlimited number of
visual course legs through the phase comparison of a cardiodshaped
rotating radiation pattern with a fixed 30-cps reference signal.

VERY HIGH
FREQUENCY OMNI
RANGE (VOR)

VOR components
1. The VOR signals are received on the antenna normally located on
the vertical stabilizer or on top of the fuselage. This antenna
resembles a V lying in a horizontal plane. The VOR receiver

VOR RECEIVER

converts signals from the antenna to the readings displayed on the

navigation indicator.
QUESTIONS:
2. The VOR navigation indicator gives the pilot aircraft position
information by means of three components,
A. The track selector sometimes called the ________________ or
_____. Used to rotate the azimuth ring, which displays the VOR
track.

ANSWERS:
NAVIGATION
INDICATOR
OMNIBEARING
SELECTOR (OBS)

B. Indicates whether the track will take the pilot to or from the station

TO-FROM/OFF FLAG

C. Shows the pilot the position relative to the track selected and
indicates whether the radial is to the right or left when the aircraft
heading agrees generally with the track selector.

TRACK DEVIATION
BAR(TB)

3. A needle that you could think of as a line that runs through the
station and points in the direction of the selected track that divides
the area around the VOR station into halves

TRACK ARROW

4. Is a line perpendicular to the track arrow and intersecting it at the

station. It also divides the VOR reception area to additional sectors

REFERENCE LINE

-A microwave pulse system that provides highly accurate bearing and range
information from a shipboard or ground radio.
-Like the VOR-DME system, the TACAN system provides an aircraft with
continuous distance (range) and bearing (azimuth) information from a
ground beacon station, located within a line-of-sight range up to 195
nautical miles.
1. TACAN operates completely in the UHF band from 962 to
1213 megacycles
2. The system has a total of 126 channels in the UHF band,
each being capable of providing full service for over 100
aircraft.
3. It provides compass direction with less than one degree error
and is capable of indicating true distance from the ground
station within about 600 feet
4. TACAN can use a very small ground station antenna which
permits its installation on Air Force Mobile units and Navy
carriers
TACAN Components
1) The airborne set is a radio set that could be turned to 126
channels and has a special range and azimuth circuit. It is
generally provided with two indicators, one for showing the
range in nautical miles, the other for indicating the bearing
(azimuth) of the aircraft on the station.
2) This is a beacon that could be triggered by distance
interrogation pulse coming from an airborne radio set.
When trigged, it will respond by sending out synchronized
reply pulses and also identifies itself aurally in International
Morse Code characters

TACTICAL AIR
NAVIGATION (TACAN)

AIRBORNE
INTERROGATORRESPONSOR

GROUND OR
SHIPBOARD SURFACE
BEACON

QUESTIONS:
-Is a facility consisting of two components or is referred to as a
combination of a VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) and a TACAN
(Tactical Air Navigation) therefore deriving its name VORTAC. This
system is an ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) Rho-Thela
system implemented by co-locating VOR and TACAN stations. VORTAC
provides three individual services, VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth and
TACAN distance measuring capability at one sight.

ANSWERS:
VORTAC

-Range station that provide four aircraft course legs (the overlapping of
two figure 8 pattern)
-The low frequency radio range depends on the superposition of two figure8 directional antenna patterns at right angle with each other. These patterns
provide ON-Course signals. Which interlock with those of surrounding
station to form easily followed airways. When two vertical antenna towers
are properly fed with radio frequency energy they produce two figure-8radiation patterns. This makes production of on course signals simpler and
easier. Radio range stations operate on frequency between 200 kHz and 400
kHz
-Four sector are does created by this towers, between which are four
regions that overlap each other. In these regions, both signals from tower
are present. Signal in this overlapping zones are heard as continuous tones
called on course signals. This is accomplished by keying, making signal
blend rather than be heard individually. As long as an aircraft files over this
zone where on course signals are present, pilot would hear continuous
signals.
-If two pairs of vertical tower are placed in a square patterns at right angles
to each other. The fifth center tower is used for transmitting weather
reports. With two figure-8 patterns available the production of on course
signals become a simpler matter. The code signal A is transmitted over one
pair of diagonally opposite towers and the code signal N is transmitted over
the pair of tower. In this way four signal zones, called sectors, are produced
two of which carry the A signal, while other two carry the N signal.
Between the four sectors there are regions of overlapping

LFR (Low Frequency

Range)

-Directly above a radio range there exist an area where practically no signal
is heard. This area has the shape of inverted cone, and is known as the
Cone of Silence. A pilot passing through the cone of silence would know
that he was directly over the range station. Whose signal he had been
receiving

CONE OF SILENCE

Long Distance Navigation System

A.
Station Reference
1. Navigational aids installed in therapira.

B.

2. Fix determined by measurement of the angle of arrival of the

emission from the ground by employing interferometric
techniques in the satellite
Self Contained: CNS; INS

Operates on the principle of hyperbola.

GROUND REFERENCE
SATELLITE
REFERENCED

HYPERBOLIC SYSTEM

QUESTIONS:
Provides hyperbolic lines of position through the measurement on the
difference in times of transmission of radio signals from two or more
synchronized transmitters at fixed point. When synchronized signals are
received from two transmitting stations, the difference in the times of
arrival is constant on a hyperbola having the two transmitting stations as
foci. The measured time difference locates the receiver on the hyperbolic
line of position for that time difference. Another pair of transmitters
provides another hyperbolic line of position. The intersection of the lines of
position provides a navigational fix

ANSWERS:
HYPERBOLIC
NAVIGATION SYSTEM

-An electronic method of determining ship position by the reception of

signals from transmitting stations of known location
-Radio signals consisting of short pulses are continually transmitted from a
pair of shore-based stations. These signals are received abroad the ship by
means of a specially designed receiver. The difference in time of arrival of
the two signals is measured by means of an indicator associated with the
receiver. The measured by means of an indicator associated with the
receiver. The measured time difference is used together with special tables
or charts to determine lint of position on the surface on the earths surface.
Two line of position obtained from two pairs of transmitting stations
intersects at a given Loran fix.

LONG RANGE
NAVIGATION
(LORAN)

The ground waves of a Loran A transmitter with a peak power of 100 kW

can be received over sea at a distance of 500 to 700 nautical miles, and at a
distance of Up to 1100 nautical miles with ground and sky waves. Over
land these distance are considerably shorter

LORAN A SYSTEM

Operates at lower frequencies of 100 kHz. At this frequency, ground waves

of a 300 kW transmitter can be received up to 1200 nautical miles.

LORAN C SYSTEM

The advantage of Loran D over Loran A is that ground stations and

transportable and can therefore be quickly deployed. This mobility is
gained
atthe expense of the substantially reduced radiated power (30 kW inherent
in the somewhat smaller transmitter and lower antenna lowers (400ft. or
120m) to partially compensate for this reduction in radiated power. Loran D
is configured to use 16-phasecoded pulses 500s part in each group. Loran
D phase code is different but compatible with Loran C. pulse sampling is
carried out near the signal peak because sky-wave delays are greater at
short
range.
-Continuous wave hyperbolic system operating in the 70 to 130 kHz band.
-A hyperbolic navigation system, which establishes a line of position from
measurement of the phase difference between two continuous-wave signals

LORAN D

-A navigation system developed by US navy in 1957. it is a Hyperbolic

system which works in the very low frequency region and has a very long
base line of the order of 7,000 km.
-A global radio navigation system developed by the U.S. Navy. It provides
position information by measuring the phase difference between signals
radiated by a network of transmitting stations

OMEGA

Operates from 20 to 85 Mhz

DECCA

GROUND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING (GEE)

QUESTIONS:
A system used abroad navy ships for sonic and ultra sonic under water
detection, ranging, sounding, and communications.

ANSWERS:
SOUND NAVIGATION &
RANGING (SONAR

Alerts the flight crew of possible conflicts with other airplanes in the same
TRAFFIC ALERT &
area. TCAS tracks these other airplanes or intruders, if equipped with a Air COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) or a Mode S ATC
SYSTEM (TCAS)
transponder
TCAS Provides 2 Types of Collision Avoidance Alerts they are

TRAFFIC ADVISORY
(TA)
RESOLUTION
ADVISORY (RA)

Shows the relative position of any intruder airplanes.

TA

Shows a vertical maneuver to avoid a possible airplane collision

RA

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Is a worldwide navigation radio aid which uses satellite signals to provide
accurate navigation information.

The architecture of the system is composed of 3 parts called segments:

NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
TIME & RANGING
GLOBAL POSITIONING
SYSTEM
SEGMENTS

Composed of 24 satellites, arranged in six orbital planes of four satellites

each on a circular orbit.
-55 inclination to the equator
-An attitude of approximately 20200km with an orbital period of 12
sideral hours
These satellites give
-Provides satellite position
-Provides constellation data
-Provides atmospheric correction

SPACE SEGMENT

Composed of four monitor stations and one master control station which
tracks the satellite, compute the ephemeris, clock corrections and control
the navigation parameters and transmit them to the GPS users.

CONTROL SEGMENT

The four monitor stations are located at

-Kwajalein
-Hawaii
-Ascension Island
-Diego Garcia
-The master control station is located at Colorado Springs
-GPS is funded by and controlled by the U.S. Department of Defense
(DOD). While there are many thousands of civil users of GPS world-wide,
the system was designed for and is operated by the U.S. military
-GPS provides specially coded satellite signals that can be processed in a
GPS receiver, enabling the receiver to compute position, velocity and time.
-Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions in three
dimensions and the time offset in the receiver dock
-Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS

GPS IS A SATELLITE
NAVIGATION SYSTEM

QUESTIONS:
-GPS Global Positioning System
-Instantaneous position
-Velocity
-Time information
-NAVSTAR- Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging
-Nominal altitude of 20,200 Kms
-55o inclination
-24 satellites with 4 SVs in each plane
-6 orbital planes
-GPS is based on a system of coordinates
-World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84)
-Anytime, anywhere, and in any weather
-Highly accurate measurement
-GPS has almost endless application

ANSWERS:
WHAT IS GPS

MAIN ADVANTAGE OF
GPS
DISADVANTAGE OF GPS

-Measurement becomes less accurate when affected by SA and AS

-GPS A NEW CONSTELLATION
-GPS Nominal Orbit Planes
-GPS Constellation
-24 satellite with min. of 21 operating 98% of time
-6 orbital planes
-55 inclination
-20,200 km above the earth surface
-11 hrs. 58 min. orbital period
-Visible approximately 5 hrs. above the Horizon.
-Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System
-Global Navigation Satellite System
-21 satellite in 3 orbital plane
-3 on orbit system
-L-band

GLONASS

-Navigation Signal Timing and Ranging GPS

-24 Orbits 4 spans
-6 plans, 4 satellites each.

NAVSTAR