Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
PART
PAINTING-GROUNDS
CHAPTER
I.
II.
Ill
IV.
PANEL
CANVAS
PART
18
29
34
II
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
OILS
RESINS, WAXES,
',
SICCATIVES OR DRYERS
XIL VARNISHES
AND VEHICLES
xix
45
68
84
9!
IOO
106
125
130
CONTENTS
xx
PART
III
PIGMENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
WHITE PIGMENTS
YELLOW PIGMENTS
RED PIGMENTS
GREEN PIGMENTS
BLUE PIGMENTS
145
157
186
212
BROWN PIGMENTS
BLACK PIGMENTS
226
252
264
274
XXI. TABLES
XXII.
283
290
30 1
PART IV
METHODS AND RESULTS
*
XXIII.
PAINTING-METHODS
XXIV.
*
INDEX
325
342
359
383
e
THE
CHEMISTRY
OF
PAINTS
AND PAINTING
BY
(SIFOARTHUR
H.
CHURCH,
K.C.V.O., F.R.S.
FOURTH EDITION
REVISED AND ENLARGED
M1CROFORMSD BY
PRESERVATION
SERVICES
DATE
SEELEY, SERVICE
&f
CO. LIMITED
1915
HP
15 DO
o
LIBRARY
743221
.UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO
iSiiSLl
iDUftftl
TO
SIR
P.R.A.,
ENCOURAGED
ITS AUTHOR,
THIS BOOK
IS,
BY PERMISSION, DEDICATED.
"=^
PREFACE
appeared in the spring of 1890 two
years afterwards a second and revised edition was pub.
lished.
In 1901, when the work had been for some time
THIS handbook
first
its
contents
was
light
contended that
posed
many English
in
omitted.
German
in
Munich.
It
was
PREFACE
viii
my
original text
which he introduced
have
to
name Mr.
specially
Amongst
correspondents.
Scott Taylor,
J.
of
many
these
whose
Dr. A. P. Laurie,
in the
Of
to
my successor
Royal Academy
in the chair of
Chemistry
of Arts.
increased.
1
Bibliographical Notes
original
bound
'
material of no
to confess that
little
But
importance.
am
new
facts in recent
and
treatises.
On
and
my
own.
some consolation
to feel that
on
little
of the material as
this matter
it is
indeed
my
pages would not have taken place had not the paragraphs
and tables and comments been deemed of some value.
But
trust that
later as
having been
PREFACE
ix
'
The
No
more
ARTHUR H. CHURCH.
KEW GARDENS,
June
2,
1914.
An
made
to treat in orderly
sequence the various kinds of painting-grounds, the constituents of vehicles and varnishes, the pigments them-
It
artists,
whether they be
many
certain pigments
and varnishes
is
he
may
With
regard,
however,
to
the
tests
for
purity and
xii
that (in
recorded will be
The
tried, especially
have
little
time
sive.
own
siccative
pentine,
oil,
and so
and purifying his spirit of turThat the painter should test the
selecting
forth.
ments
'
not
for durability,
Titian
?'
other day.
may,
managed
me
oils,
and var-
and under
their
own
of going
to
their
works
to
be handed down in
hope, indeed,
it is
to students
am
probable
aware that
that this
manufacturing and
to those
who
refer to
pages
manufacturers
ing
yet
xiii
it
may
trust that,
volume
with advantage. It must be remembered that it is confessedly an elementary manual only, written with a definite aim, but covering a very
may
contains too
it
it
little
And
if
chem-
am
opinion in
made
the same
same
I felt
sure that
many an artist
like to ascertain at
met
in the
pages devoted to
trials of
pigments. Again, under the names of the individual pigments, discussed in Chapters XIII. to XIX., some of the
changes described
Thus
all
it
to
xiv
Much
which
have
Academy
it is
original material to be
found in the following pages has been long before the
artistic world,
some of the
making reclamations
say
its
way
this,
and
first
time,
some of
'
Chemical Aids
But
to Art,'
my
and
'
The Chemistry
my Academy
of
some have
named
in
my
Biblio-
standard
wish
my
personal
experience, but
many
xv
in
my
story with
same ground
One
recent
little
caused
brochure, which
lies
me some amusement
regret.
The
tells us,
when we
confess,
cadmium
red, first to
mix the sample with white lead before applying the usual
Chinese vermilion, he informs
The presence
it is
us, is
of sulphides of baryta
and lime
is
stated in
as
perhaps they
may be
stannate of cobalt,
soda,
powdered
is
flint,
Coeruleum, a
made
of carbonate of
directed to be
and oxide
of copper, its
two
essential
xvi
it is
offered to artists
and
art-students.
It is
satisfactory to
chemists are
know
now
J.
all
doing
volume
disposal which
ment
of
notice
many
its
will favour
may
pages.
me
am
interesting matters
amongst these
include
which
and chemists
edition of
my book,
may
may
will grant
further justify, by
trust that
me
means
their help,
of an
improved
be accorded to the
hope
first.
A. H. CHURCH.
KEW, March,
1890.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Blockx,
'
J.,
Peinture a 1'Huile.'
Pp.
98.
iv,
Gand,
1881.
'The Book
Cennini, Cennino,
Translated
of the Art.'
English by
J. Herringham, with
Notes on Mediaeval Methods by the Translator.
Pp. xxxviii, 288. London, 1899.
Church-Ostwald, Farben und Malerei.'
Pp. xii, 376.
Mrs.
into
C.
'
Mvinchen, 1908.
Eastlake, Sir C. L., 'Materials for a History of OilSeries II., pp. xv,
Series I., pp. xii, 561
Painting.'
;
432.
Field, G.,
Taylor.
'
1885.
Hurst, G. H.,
'
London,
by Noel Heaton.
Pp.
xii,
528.
1913.
Jametel, Maurice,
'
L'Encre de Chine.'
Paris, 1882.
Les
Lapparent, P. de,
Pp. 36. Paris [1900].
'
Laurie, A. P.,
'
The
Alterations
des
Couleurs.'
Pp.
Edinburgh, 1910.
xvii
xvi, 444.
London and
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
xviii
Laurie, A. P.,
Masters.'
'
of the
London, 1914.
Pp.
Peinture.'
xii,
Old
322.
Paris, 1912.
Ostwald, W.,
the
'
Translated from
Letters to a Painter.'
German by H. W. Morse.
on Water-Colours
of 14 diagrams.
Solomon, Solomon
Pp. xvi, 278.
'
(Blue-Book).
Pp. 78.
Appendix
London, 1888.
'
J.,
The
Practice of Oil-Painting.'
London, 1910.
Vasari, Giorgio,
S.
'
THE CHEMISTRY
OF PAINTS AND PAINTING
INTRODUCTION
THE
'
'
know
that the
INTRODUCTION
because
is
it
copal in
it
do not expect
to test their
comparative security by acquiring an elementary knowledge of the origin, the composition, and the characteristics of the various products with which their works are
An
constructed.
architect
is
INTRODUCTION
and varnishes.
Many
own make.
knows
little
or nothing.
new
'
'
may
refer the
INTRODUCTION
been prepared.
are described
with a brief
summary
of
PART
PA INTING-GRO UNDS
Paper, Vellum, Ivory. Chapter II. Plaster or Intonaco,
Canvas.
Stone, etc. Chapter III. Panel. Chapter IV.
Chapter I.
CHAPTER
As paper
is
and
constituents of drawing-paper.
Linen from the common flax (Linum usitatissimum}, and
in the form of r.-hite rags, should be the basis of the pulp
used
in the
making
of sound drawing-paper.
In actual
made
Thus, Japanese paper, prepared from the bastpaper-mulberry (Bwussonetia papyrifera), were
it made less absorbent by the introduction of a sufficiency
of size, would probably become an efficient, strong, and
purpose.
fibres of the
CONSTITUENTS OF PAPER
During
which water-
recovered
Stein
In the
written on felted vegetable fibre, that is, paper.
British Museum are two scraps of such paper, with
men who,
One
of these
'
127 grains
paste
indeed,
but
it is
made from
blotting or
ANALYSIS OF DRAWING-PAPER
is
not preserved.
ANALYSES OF DRAWING-PAPERS
ASH OF PAPER
io
ranges of temperature.
moisture of the paper is
the
of moisture
before hygroscopic
lished.
The
size
It
may be
in soda-lye, followed
Sometimes starch
with animal
tracted
size,
by means
is
the greater part of the size may be exof boiling distilled water, the solution
Ash.
The ash
or mineral
matter in paper
may
be
soil,
the ash greatly exceeds i per cent., twelve parts per hundred of paper being no unusual proportion. This 'filling'
FIBRE OF PAPER
'
'
What
is
put
down
is
it is,
when
pure, entirely
by no means without
in-
in fact,
fibrous materials
stand
much
The other
worrying.
the basis of ordinary
commonly forming
and permanence.
PAPER-MAKING
12
to this cate-
gory.
chloride of lime,
magnesium
'
in the size.
with suspicion. But the subject of the presence of chemiinnocuous, in the finished product of the
paper-mill may be relegated to the following paragraphs.
cals, injurious or
Paper-testing.
The
weak washes
sound standard
paper is taken for comparison this may be Whatman,'
but it should be first swilled in cold distilled water for
five minutes, and then hung up to dry.
In applying this
a
of
the
to
be
tested
and one of the
test,
strip
sample
standard paper should be laid side by side, and then the
sists in
applying to
its
'
made with
TESTING PAPER
across both strips by
means
13
The
of a broad brush.
pig-
Washes
show an
arise
How
acid.
is
pigments ?' This inquiry can, I think, be answered by applying the colour-tests already described, not
to sensitive
Other useful
1.
than
2.
*
261.
not more
TESTING PAPER
distilled water.
The
of aniline sulphate.
to size
dis-
alum
make the
solution
up
to
more mobile.
little
stiff-
necessary
water-colours.
ciated with the
The pigments become less intimately assosmooth surface of a hot-pressed paper than
Some
SIZE IN PAPER
15
they may be
metallic iron
bedded
from the machinery having become emThese particles appear grey, brown,
in the pulp.
;
they may be detected by placing a drop of oxalic
acid solution on the suspected spot, allowing it to dry, and
then moistening the place with a drop of a freshly-pre-
or black
difficulty
paper, caused
A solution of
known
As drawing-papers are sized in the sheet they occasionshow a peculiar defect arising from the irregular distribution of the size.
In such cases, when the surface is
ally
scraped
off,
revealed beneath.
but
it is
16
owing
warm
remains there.
apt to
Moreover,
decompose with
in
is
in the
is
very low.
comes appreciably
As
to vellum,
it
be-
stronger.
need be
little
said.
slightly, or
vellum
known
employed.
state
by pounding, grinding,
purpose the infusorial
or kieselguhr, may also be
this
as polishing silica,
17
se-
pigments into the pulp the latter are often made of inferior and mixed fibres, and sometimes contain lead-white
;
'
'
'
ever
its
'
'
'
'
is
often
made
is
CHAPTER
II
THE
consist mainly of mineral substances. However their constituents may be varied, in accordance with the process to
be used in painting upon them, the wall or backing upon
must be uniform
The
in grain, white,
and
free
from soluble
slaked lime
known generally
is
COMPOUNDS OF LIME
19
these
When
it
burnt
becomes
ate,
the
first
of
it
lime.
By this change, if it be effected in the presence of
a sufficiency of free water that is, if the hydrate of lime
be in the state of a firm paste the whole substance
becomes a hard crystalline solid, like an opaque marble.
this
hardening or cementing
powder, and
many
introduced.
Such
LIME-PUTTY
20
is
known
as
'
soluble
silica.'
To
duced
is
This
is
done
in a
it,
it
will
Some water will accumulate above the lime-putty, as it may be called, in these
it should be poured off or drawn off, from time to
jars
The jars are kept tightly closed to prevent further
time.
carbonation of the lime hydrate. This change, if carried
beyond a certain point, is undesirable, since the binding
and hardening powers of the lime would thereby be
lessened seriously, or even vanish altogether by its conversion into mild lime not more than one-third or at most
two-fifths of the lime should be converted into the carbonate.
The lime-putty thus prepared may be used for
and
intonaco with the certainty that it will not give
plaster
served in screw-top stoneware jars.
Much
still remains.
I have made many experiments with
samples from that source, and can speak with confidence
it
of
its
excellent quality.
FRESCO GROUNDS
21
'
the surface.
at
artist
can cover
in
the day. Upon the wet soft plaster the cartoon is laid, and
the outlines and other important parts pounced in, trans-
tion
must be
painting will
is
sifted sand, or
TEMPERA GROUNDS
22
same quantity
the whole
is
pera, as
its
pigments which
may be employed
is
warm
size.
in this
complete
it
being
method.
When
may be employed
first
treated with
paintings were,
however, executed upon a caustic lime ground, but the
pigments employed consisted chiefly of those natural
earths which are unaffected
flax,
The
ordinary ground for Italian and Spanish temperapaintings consisted either of whitening and size, or of
burnt gypsum (that is, plaster of Paris), stirred well with
* Professor
Materials of the Painter's Craft '
Laurie, in his
attributes
this
recommendation
as to the use of asbestos
(p. 138),
'
to Mr.
'
'
(p. 14)
TEMPERA GROUNDS
23
An
absorbent.
absorbent
owing
to the
decay of the
size.
always
in
first sized.
tempera.
ground
is
however,
the
first
suitable for
it
coat of oil-paint.
STEREOCHROME GROUNDS
24
first
introduction of this
of water-glass painting. Originally it was recommended to use an undercoat containing 2 parts of sharp
method
powder.
Upon
this
was
laid
the
which, within the last few years, have been again brought
forward by Herr Adolph Keim. Oxide of zinc may be
pressed by rolling into a soft freshly-laid lime and sandmakes an excellent ground for stereochrome
plaster,
cator.'
SPIRIT-FRESCO GROUNDS
25
Mr. Gambier Parry for that modified form of varnishpainting to which he gave the name of Spirit-Fresco is
identical with that required for true fresco. All the usual
'
'
saturating
it
with the
medium
is
commenced
that
is,
the lime in
carbonated.
it
To
should,
when
two parts
of the
medium (Chapter
materially.
it
when the
first
coat
is
dry.
painting
plaster.
con-
During the
last
26
large mural paintings have been executed either in Gambier Parry's medium or in the paraffin-copal medium.
Some
to receive them.
all
the
paintings
To
in
They
parations, dependent
upon
reactions between insoluble earthy and alkaline earthy
matters, such as china-clay, asbestos, and compounds of
lime and magnesia, with solutions of such salts as magnesium chloride, aluminium sulphate, and alum. There is
sometimes a lack of tenacity, and always a lack of toughness in these mixtures, but some artists find them to possess precisely the texture and absorptive character they
desire in grounds not only for tempera, but also for oil-
27
The
tained.
of oil-paint
dry.
While
still
warm,
it
When
may
be
sjate, the
(
28
grounds, that
is,
CHAPTER
III
PANEL
comparative
'
occur.
anc
Wood grown
in
soils, in
poor
temperate climates,
But oak
often proves treacherous, through irregular shrinkage; while poplar is too soft.
Italian painters employed, also, the wood of the stone
service-tree.
The
trial.
specific gravity of
wood
The
cause.
29
PANEL
30
Wood
tives, (4)
contains (i) water, (2) ligno-cellulose, (3) extracash or mineral matter. The water, in thoroughly-
and
lignose.
The
extractives belong to
two groups
The following
minoids, gum, and colouring-matters.
analyses of three kinds of wood in an air-dried state will
convey a fair idea of their constitution in 100 parts
:
Pine
-
12 '9
533
28-2
0-3
1-6
37
Then
spirits of wine, in
it is
liquid- varnish
Made by
boiling
PREPARATION OF PANELS
31
protected
is
twofold
;
PREPARATION OF PANELS
32
we
It
PREPARATION OF PANELS
33
and whitening.
CHAPTER
IV
CANVAS
THE
usual,
manu-
material
is
woven
in different
produce cloths of
The canvas
is first
this should
glue
addition of honey to the size is undesirable. The priming
consists of two coats, the first containing whitening and
size, the second lead white and linseed oil. Fuller primings
;
CANVAS
hydrogen peroxide
35
bleaching process.
Some
painters in
oil
pera-priming on their canvases. This priming may be prepared with a mixture of a strong, though elastic, size, with
whitening.
good composition of
this sort
may be made
satin -finish,
an
the
warm
artificial
is
When
dressed with a
this
was found to have shrunk more than i inch in one direction, and in the other direction rather more than half an
inch. The piece was somewhat crinkled, and had become
yellow in patches.
A
tions
few remarks as to the bearing of the above observaon some of the phenomena presented by oil-paintings
PRESERVATION OF CANVAS
36
same
there
is
is also obvious.
The absorption of
moisture by canvas occurs through the back, unless that
be also protected by paint. With the moisture deleterious
matter of the
fibre
and
size of the
the front and discolour the priming and even the picture.
An excess of damp and a high temperature are the chief
though
may not
it
may
When the first priming coat conadhere firmly to the sized canvas,
used
in the
water.
PRESERVATION OF CANVAS
should not exceed
drying
part
of non-drying
37
oil
to
20 of
oil.
The
strong.
other solution
One
in
is
methylated spirit.
should be applied once to the back of the canvas by means
of a broad stiff varnish-brush.
When the spirit has
evaporated, the coating of white lead ground in starch
paste previously
applied.
lating
into leather.
Corrosive sublimate prevents the development of mould or mildew, and is a good preservative
against the attack of animal organisms.
It
first
may
Many
of
viscose
treatment of canvas.
U The majority
of pictures
PRESERVATION OF CANVAS
38
canvas, though
and the
offer
questionable value. On the whole, the drawbacks to the use of canvas preponderate over its merits.
In this connexion special reference should be made to the
teristic is of
But the case is different in private rooms where the movement in question is practically unavoidable, and inevitably
leads to cracking in the course of time.
This change is
still further promoted
the
action
of
the
by
oxygen in the
When
'
i.e. t
The
its durability.
of
stability
pictures painted on canvas is enif the back be protected by a metallic coating, so
The
hanced
PRESERVATION OF CANVAS
39
become
metal.
When
it is
to paint
Perhaps marouflage
is
LINOLEUM
40
'
tooth
'
on successive coats of
years ago
Another material which seems to lend itself particuand monumental painting is linoleum.
This consists of a very strong fabric coated with a thick
layer of oxidized linseed oil mixed with cork-raspings and
other materials. It thus bears some resemblance to canvas
which has been primed for the reception of oil-colours, but
differs in its greater solidity and in the elastic substances
which it contains. The fact that the body of linoleum
II
larly to decorative
same substance
LINOLEUM
41
itself
may be
and so the
enhanced.
As
is
fracture
With
is
thus avoided.
The
canvas-backing
is
variety of linoleum
omitted
solid linoleum
in
which the
is
not suit-
ence of coach-builders
backs
may
And it must be
remembered that the sheet aluminium of commerce varies
somewhat in its composition and properties.
exposed to the external atmosphere.
'
'
42
WILLESDEN CANVAS'
from
soaking a piece of the canvas weighing 50 grains in distilled water overnight, pouring off the clear liquid next
morning, heating it to boiling, and adding a few drops of
for
work
in oil-colours.
PART
II
CHAPTER V
OILS
THE common
'
'oil
is
We
must
sanctioned by chemists.
exclude from the category of true oils petroleum and
an essential
The
difference.
be boiled and
distilled
named
thus
One molecule
may
by painters
The forma-
be expressed
in
words
of glycerin, reacting with three molecules of a fatty acid, yields one molecule of the glyceride
:
45
DRYING OILS
46
such salt
alkaline salt of the fatty acid has been formed
Alkaline soaps, namely, those of potash, soda,
is a soap.
in benzene, chloroform,
and
these circumstances
LINSEED OIL
47
We
it
yields,
though much
The
solvent
commonly employed
to
the pressure
is
applied to the
use in painting.
The bulk
of the oils of
commerce are
acids.
oils are
those of linseed,
LINSEED OIL
48
coloured.
some
strain pure.
may
One advantage
of this
white seed
is
The
in oil, containing
no
although, of course,
less
much
obtainable
by cold-pressure.
25 per cent,
brown
In
a hand-press about
Of the common or
come from Russia and
yield.
India.
The Russian seed is generally finer than the
East Indian it is, moreover, imported in a less mixed
and impure condition. By screening, the greater part of
the impurities are or may be removed, but it is sold on a
;
last-named, though
it
is
not otherwise
LINSEED OIL
49
45
The
common
linseed oil in
and
use
is
by
time.
It
deposit
traces of a cyanogenetic glucoside, being formed. When
thui bleached and clarified, the oil should be preserved
corked bottles
in
better
is
it
becomes
prevented.
varies very
which
will
filled
The
little.
quite full
the longer
specific gravity of
At 60 F.
(i5'6
therefore
kept, the
it is
C.)
good linseed
it is
-935
oil
a bottle
its
oil.
It
specific gravity at
in boiling alcohol or in
LINSEED OIL
So
permangan-
of air
it,
tried.
What-
which linseed
The chemical
oil
now
it
to
cold-
cent, of hydrogen,
hot-pressed
oil
by carbon disulphide,
in
oxygen.
It
LINSEED OIL
51
and
The
is also present.
empirical formulae of the three fatty acids of the
acids,
above-named glycerides
are, respectively
Linolenic Acid
Linoleic-
Oleic
C^H^C^.
C^H^Oj.
CjgH^O,,.
C 3 H 5 (O,C 18 H 31 O) 3 The relation of this glyceride to glycerin may be seen when the latter body is exIt is probable that
pressed by the formula, C 3 H 6 (OH)3
written,
Under
is its
certain circumstances,
it
and not
liquid
solvent, and in
;
it is
name
many
liquids
Linoxine is solid,
than linseed oil in any
linoxine.
is
insoluble.
Linoxine
LINSEED OIL
52
linseed
unoxidized
its
duct.
solidi-
made
clear.
the atmosphere.
During this process carbon dioxide and
other volatile organic compounds are formed and given
off,
while simultaneously there are produced solid, nonwhich constitute the dried and hardened
volatile bodies
oil.
These
by a further and
often
well-lighted walls.
it
sooty matters,
it
present which
is
must
not
arise
oil.
by an
alteration in
Indeed,
it
seems
to
something
be trace-
LINSEED OIL
53
oil
used
may
as a siccative or dryer.
be prepared without the
As
employment
of lead
compounds,
this is
Period
I.
only during
this is
The
till
it
Once
Period III.
fluidity,
U The processes
just described,
if
that
rise in
temperature.
Thus
The
rests.
oil,
still
amount
of
oxygen
still
needed to
LINSEED OIL
54
render
it
solid.
of importance;
it
and
oil,
is
known
is
much
oil
varnish.
may,
at the right
moment, a
if
the oxidation of
oil is light,
which acts
energetically.
On
common
in the
practice of artists
sun that
it
may
is
dry quickly.
The converse
prac-
LINSEED OIL
55
agency which may be used to hasten the oxidation of a drying oil is to be found in the presence of one
third
the best
Some compounds of
known of these active
lead and
manganese are
Innumerable
materials.
another, of certain
compounds
named.
Since
it is
In order to
and, indeed, actually injurious operations.
obtain a quickly drying oil it is requisite merely to dissolve
'
pounds dissolve
the dryer
LINSEED OIL
56
promoted.
It is
to the
is
'
This
rays, has been substituted for the light of the sun.
found in the mercury lamp, in which an electric spark,
is
oil,
some formic
the oxidation of
as described in
is
sour
LINSEED OIL
57
It
carbonic acid gas and water are also produced.
has been shown that there are many ways of bringing
air
named manganese
linoleate
cobalt resinate
tate
is
green
vitriol,
excellent result
is
On the
fall
below 40
above 100
C.
In a
fortnight's time, the oil will have become strongly siccative, so that when it is spread in a thin layer on glass, or
paper, it will dry up to a tough varnish within twenty-
four hours.
If the oil
by means
of a water-bath, at a temperature of
tained,
100 C., the change will occupy less time, and the product
will
be just as good
but
it is
not advisable to
boil
the
oil
58
use.
is
be more or
less
prolonged
oil
must
quent chapters of
this
book we
'
manganese
oil.'
To
the above
No satisfactory explanation
borate (and of
many
manganese
same
manganese may
action
The
effect:
it
is in
part catalytic.
increasing specific gravity of the
'
manganese
oil,'
59
is
ganese
in a vessel to
which atmospheric
has very
air
air is
of
siccative,
notice.
Into a
The
oil, agitation being avoided.
next day, the bottle, placed in as strong a light as possible,
is to be shaken frequently, the shaking being repeated
every day, until a drop of the oil, when tested, shows a
one pint of raw linseed
sufficient
part of the
funnel,
oil
to
run away.
The
In another similar
of linseed oil,
and some
60
or
i
10.
The hot-pressed oil has a
much stronger taste and odour than the cold-pressed oil.
The adulteration of linseed oil with other oils may be
test, nitric
oil
oil
known
test,
POPPY OIL
61
volatile
is,
this
matters,
insoluble
means
of testing
its
purity.
At
Name
of Oil
Linseed
Spec. Grav,
-
Gold-of- Pleasure-
*Cotton-seed-
Hemp-seed
Walnut
The
Poppy
four oils
This
it
F.)
Name
Spec. Grav.
of Oil
-
'926
'925
-930
Sunflower-seed
*Black Mustard-seed-
-930
*Ground-nut
'918
-931
*Colza-seed
-927
oil
is
is
Poppy-seed
-935
marked with an
Oil.
C. (60
15-6
oils
'921
'914
from
taste
charcoal
it
seed
Its
is -926.
oil
chemical composition
contains the
it
and
olein.
poppy
The
oil to
same three
it is
is
near that of
lin-
glycerides, but in
January
NUT
62
poppy
oil.
Poppy
oil
OIL
was introduced
Nut
Oil.
This
oil is
much
in the
same way
that cold-
pressed differs from hot-pressed linseed oil. The constituent glycerides of nut oil are the same in kind as those
of linseed
Nut
oil
oil,
ters
its specific gravity, '929, is intermediate between
that of linseed and poppy oil cold-pressed oil from the
Black walnut (Juglans nigra) has the specific gravity '922,
;
and
is
common
oils,
and the
oils
Perilla ocimoides
extracted in
63
to
demand
able drying
named
here.
This
is
Chinese
Wood
oil
A leurites cordata.
or
It is
Tung
oil
ob-
distinguished
probable that
it
may
it
has been
oils
hitherto described.
few observations
It is
may now
is
interpenetration of the
oil
between the
particles.
Thus
of the oil
itself.
And
it is
'
OIL IN PAINTS
64
ting for
raw
'
manganese
oil,'
more
more
of the latter
oil,
of the former.
this
change
is
cative
oil
in drying.
The
which
third action
it
oil
with
example of it known
normal flake-white, that
is hydrato-carbonate of lead, is ground in oil and afterwards exposed to the air, it gradually becomes very
hard much harder than the great majority of other oilpaints under the same conditions, zinc- white for example.
chemical nature.
The most
It is
striking
When
As
those varieties of
lead hydrate.
This view
is
65
the change, especially if the temperature be raised somewhat above the normal. If a collapsible tube, filled with
ordinary flake- white ground in oil, be tightly closed so as
to exclude the air and then be submersed, in water kept
hot, for a few days, the change in question is hastened.
it becomes impossible to extract from the
so
treated,
paint
by means of ether or other suitable
One
solvent, quite the amount of oil originally present.
could understand this result had the paint been allowed
Consequently
to absorb
air,
when some
linoxine, in-
would have been proWhatever the action may be, and whatever the
duced.
oil,
which
it
is
oil
with
As a
rule, the
densest or
to
in
weight of 22 pigments
OIL IN PAINTS
66
Name
to
According
C. Roberson and
of Pigment
According
Co
Newton (1901)
(1901)
White Lead
16
to
Winsor and
15
23
49
56
67
63
240
23
70
55
87
52
78
9
43
95
87
127
93
94
150
112
modes
oil.
The
OIL IN PAINTS
67
correspond in
oil
iustead of
'
manganese
oil, and adding to it a small
or oleate of alumina, or of beeswax,
raw
prevented by using
linseed
quantity of linoleate
or of hard paraffin wax or ceresin, having a melting point
not under 65 C. Some artists find it a good plan to keep
their tubes of vermilion
an inverted position
in
that
* Dr. H.
Stockmeier, of Nurnberg, found the following percentages of oil in certain oil-paints from different sources which he
analysed
....
Co.)
Light
Red (Winsor
Newton)
and
-
feld)
Chinese
41-9
Moeves)
Ochre
(G.
59 -2
B.
45
CHAPTER
VI
RESINS, WAXES,
The
water.
The term
volume
resin
'
resin
is
'
in its
'
'
'
making
vehicles
vegetable origin they contain besides carbon and hydrogen a not inconsiderable proportion of oxygen. They are
;
as gamboge, contain
sist of
and
and
AMBER
69
them
into fusion.
Most true
quantities of
of
of
aromatic
acids,
water,
colouring-matter,
crystalline
and of a volatile hydrocarbon or terpene. All these imtheir proper resinous constituents, small
carbonate of soda
The mixture
is
added
(i
and then
filtered
in the air
and
finally in the
a temperature of 110
water-oven
to 120
C.
may
sufficiently discussed
But it
names
given to several distinct substances, and that there are some
description of three kinds amber, copal, mastic.
will be shown presently that copal and mastic are
all
the resins on
its
AMBER
70
interments. At Naples
large
number
stance
tombs.
The
of the properties of this resin has been complete.
chief localities where amber is found are the Prussian
shores of the Baltic Sea (particularly between Konigsberg
and Memel) and the neighbouring plains; it has been
Museum
In the British
mass from
The dark
fossil resin
fact,
fossil resin of
different plants.
Goppert, so long ago as 1853, satisfied
himself that at least eight species of plants besides Pinites
he also
have afforded this fossilized resin
enumerated 163 species of plants as represented by remains
in amber
many others have been since recognised.
Amber has a specific gravity of about 1^07 its hardsuccinifcr
AMBER
ness
is 2-|
71
it is
scale.
In most
behaviour serves as a distinguishing test between amber and copal. When crushed amber is heated
in a retort it fuses at about 280 C. (536 F.), gives off
face
this
water, succinic acid, marsh gas, a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons (known as oil of amber), and, finally, at a very
compounds are
a little sulphur
(sometimes \ a part in 100) in organic combination.
Amber breaks with a conchoidal fracture. When fragments of amber are being ground or powdered they emit
On
an aromatic odour.
The
name
'
succinite.'
and later in the fifteenth century to sandarac only, when amber was designated as glas, or glassa.
In modern French amber is distinguished from ambre gris
as ambre jaune, although it is also known as karabe and
also to sandarac,
COPAL
72
It is
succin.
'
'
amber
is
The word
which belongs
West
and
is
at least semi-fossil
of streams.
soluble in absolute alcohol and in spirits of turThe other resin constitutes nearly the whole of
pentine.
the remaining part of the copal, and becomes soluble in
cent,
is
may
be shortened by keep-
COPAL
73
different
species
of Copaifera.
Much
of the
so-called
by another leguminous tree, Trachylobium Hornemannianum, which belongs to the same sub-order, Csesalpinese, as
Most of this Zanzibar copal occurs in a fossil
Copaifera.
or semi-fossil state in the earth near the roots of the trees,
or in places where the trees have formerly stood.
This
is covered when dug up with a semidull-brown crust when this powdery
and
opaque, rough,
coat is removed the remainder of the mass appears of a
fossilized
resin
this is
hard as the
fossil variety.
copal.
Its
chemical
COPAL
74
Hymenaa
of
The Bungo
tree
New
many
now
grow.
It is generally
transparent and yellower by keeping.
somewhat whitish, or streaked with opaque bands, when
first found.
It is cleaned and scraped and then sorted
low
varnishes, on account of
its
its
easy manipulation.
abundance,
its
price,
it
and
yields,
DAMMAR
which
or of
it
75
is inferior in
made
is
name
'
'
sal tree,
dammar
soft,
a similar resin
is
employed
in varnishes to
very much in composition and properties, although they resemble one another in their solubility in boiling alcohol and
The
easy alterability.
resin first
oil.
The
imparting an
MASTIC
76
agreeable
is
very
painting which
The
resin
now
still
dissolves in alcohol
belonging to
This tree occurs
(Pistacia Lentiscus),
in Scio
exudes
when
It is
so fragile that
may be
It yields
a tender
but glossy varnish, largely employed for the final protection of pictures in oil.
This varnish yellows with age,
COPALS
77
cabulica.
in the
The specific
solubility (xii being the least soluble).
so
much
of
these
copals depends
upon the relative
gravity
freedom of the several kinds from cavities and bubbles
that the figures for this character are not included in the
table.
It may, however, be mentioned that all these
resins are rather heavier than water, their specific graviranging from i'O35 to 1-07.
ties
Name
of Copal
Solubility
xii
ix
xi
v
vii
x
iv
ii
i
iii
viii
vi
and
durability.
78
There is a group
from coniferous
which
or
have
included
under the term
are,
been,
plants,
balsam. Strictly speaking, this designation should be
limited to those resinoid exudates which contain benzoic
or cinnamic acid, while the term oleo-resin, or, better still,
the term turpentine, should be given to those soft and semiliquid natural exudates which consist of terpenes assoThe word
ciated with bodies of resinous character.
Turpentines, Oleo-Resins, and Balsams.
many of them derived
of substances,
turpentine
is,
volatile
three
of
the preservative
to
influence
not without
assigned,
these bodies
that
experimental
they are noticed
here.
Venice Turpentine.
Under
this
It
name
comes
silver-fir,
WAX
79
with which
It is
it
Pinaster.
The
no
and bleaching
tion
in order to
fit it
The
first
prepared
may be
gen peroxide.
the
wax
is in
when
The
is to
WAX
8o
be re-melted.
Its
point raised
present in
all
wax with
It is
still
They
laid
on
in the
The
melted
state.
Wax
in several instances.
its
82
C.
cerotate.
PARAFFIN WAX
81
it
melts at 84
'
'
accompany the
necessary in
paraffin
wax
are
described so far as
its
compounds
at all upon
all organic
very few chemical reagents have any action
it.
On this account it presents for artistic
C 27 H 56 C 28 H 58>
c 3 o H 6o
CH,
C 24 H 50 C 26 H 52
,
The
belong.
melting-point
of paraffin wax oscillates within wide limits, say, from
30 to 80 C. The higher the melting-point the harder,
the heavier, and the less crystalline is the material. For
purposes, hardness and the absence of a tendency
artistic
soluble in
PARAFFIN WAX
82
are thus treated, they fall with a thud, and leave streaks
and spots upon the interior surface of the vessel. This
difference of deportment affords a ready means of distinguishing between a paraffin wax suitable for artistic
ployed
distillation,
treatment with
The
oil
its
processes em-
of vitriol, frac-
tional crystallization
known
PARAFFIN WAX
No. oj
CHAPTER
VII
THE
SIZE
GLUE
peculiar properties
owe
measure
their
to the
presence of chemical compounds which contain the element nitrogen. Now, this element is not a constituent of
insoluble,
less
prone
to change.
Indeed, the majority of them may be turned
into a substance which is virtually leather, a material
which
resists
decay
in the
This
WHITE OF EGG
85
We
on the average
White
Yolk
Water
Albumen,
51
Fat or Oil
Lecithin, etc.
...
The
white,
Vitellin, etc.
it
will
be seen,
'5
15-0
22-0
84-8
12 -o
g- o
...
i'o
-0-7
1-5
is
0-2
trace
2-3
characterized by the
in
'
whites
'
its
thinner.
COAGULATION OF ALBUMEN
86
or 75
C.,
it
men
albumen
to secure the
same
result
We
laid
We
YOLK OF EGG
87
in which paintings,
a medium, may be
fixed.
For, as we shall now proceed to show, egg-yolk
and size possess many characters in common with
because
it
way
size, as
albumen-solution.
we have
amount
it,
of this oil
is
large
cent, of a curious
many
there
is
compound
which has
seems to be
radicles and one
called lecithin,
fat.
It
is
a nitrogenous basic compound. Although lecithin resembles oils and fats in its behaviour to most solvents, it
yet differs from them in this one particular, that it is very
hygroscopic and swells up in water, forming a kind of
emulsion. Now, 9 parts of lecithin with 22 parts of oil
make up
it
SIZE
88
AND GLUE
the process
is
parchment,
and cleansed, in part upon the temperature and the duration of the extraction. If the temperature be too high, or
the boiling be much prolonged, the gelatin produced is
transformed partially into a substance which does not
gelatinize
is
when
its
aqueous solution
is
cooled.
Chondrin
SIZE
lagin, or chondrigen,
collagen into gelatin.
izes
on cooling just
AND GLUE
89
A
like
solutions.
Isinglass, vellum, and ivory-dust yield a size
which contains nothing but gelatin and a little mineral
matter the darker and stickier kinds of glue contain
many impurities, having been made from very varied
;
to crack
used
in
photography
amination.
the latter.
will often
chloride of lime,
A hot-water
embrown tumeric-paper.
may sometimes be purified and improved
Glue and
size
by cutting up the
pieces,
PRESERVATION OF EGG-YOLK
90
The temporary
solutions
of the
chapter,
then this
saturated
is first
made,
its
yolks,
no more
which
acetic
is
wanted.
camphor, which
will
CHAPTER
VIII
and are
up when left
any importance
therein for
some
The
time.
only
gum
of
in painting is gum-arabic.
This name is not, however,
exclusively applied to one variety only it is given to the
gums which exude from several species of Acacia. For
;
Mogador,
of India,
and
to
some extent
in many parts
grown
of that empire, the gum it yields is rarely, if ever, exported
thence, the so-called East Indian gum-arabic being really
taken from
is
Red Sea
ports to
re-
we
obtain the
gum employed as a
gum is known
This
feet.
GUM SENEGAL
92
gum from A
grades of
Senegal
of Acacia stenocarpa
and A.
Seyal,
Gum
magnesia
varieties,
An
analysis of a
'
The
arabic acid
C 12 H 22 O
1:1>
composition (C 89 142 O 74 ).
from Acacia Senegal, the only sort which ought to
be employed in painting, should be nearly free from colour,
and should dissolve in cold water without leaving an appre-
Gum
ciable residue.
Its watery solution should be clear, and
should give no colour with tincture of iodine, but an abundant precipitate with ammonium oxalate solution. If
GUM TRAGACANTH
93
oxalate shows the presence of calcium, a constant conI have found that the
stituent of the genuine gum.
samples of
gum sold
to
me
as
of a
more
pronounced yellowish colour than those bought as gumarabic and best Turkey the lumps varied more in size,
The
often contained air-bubbles, and were less fissured.
adhesiveness and toughness of these samples, moreover,
:
'
least
it
constituent of
servative
is
/?-naphthol.
and A.
adscendens.
tity of a
a small quan-
starch and
and
a
of
a
cellulose,
large proportion
mucilaginous body
which swells up in cold water, but does not dissolve.
gum
little
STARCH
94
tution,
for painting on
not very easy to prepare so as to be of uniform
A fairly good plan is to place the finelyconsistency.
linen
it is
stitutes
gum
serves as a binding
medium
to 2 per cent,
in the
gums from
making of
commonly
The Aus-
it is
put in artistic practice the
uncoloured or white starch should be selected. The
starch from rice, wheat, maize, or potatoes may be em-
ployed indifferently.
Arrowroot
may
also be used.
The
some
STARCH
95
must be reduced
if
nor sulphur,
it is,
and
liquefiable
more soluble
fitted
possess in a high degree the property of becoming insoluble in cold water after they have once become dry.
hydrochloric acid
is
until
it
no longer
STARCH
96
to litmus paper
the addition of
little
mould.
under
it
an excess
same way,
'
HONEY
97
tion.
sodium peroxide
is
much more
prepared by means of
and
always contains
12 to
8 per
cent.
Dextrin, or British
in
commerce,
is
we
select a
sists of
GLYCERIN
98
the
The
filtrate is
retort.
The aqueous
solution of laevulose
may
be
this sugar
from
oils
and
fats
by
distilling
them
in a current of super-
first
alkalies, or
taste
GLYCERIN
gg
crystals.
than one-third
its
air.
Com-
is
lead darkens
to
The
to use
am
given to
understand that
glycerin
them
It
may
it
less friable
prevents
brittle
etc.,
as painting-grounds.
means
of glycerin.
CHAPTER
IX
THE name
water by Professor
J.
first
applied
is
The
By
solid form,
appearance.
flints
WATER-GLASS
101
another
is
a soda
One
silicate,
of these
the third
in water-
a potash
is
is
a mixture
of these two, or a potash-soda silicate, called double waterThe solutions of the two former silicates as met
glass.
with in commerce vary a good deal in their relative proportions of silica and alkali ; it is not desirable that they
should contain so
chromy, and of
the process.
add a
Indeed,
it
process of painting.
aureolin,
The
fixative
silicates,
power
which
of water-
LIME-WATER
102
of lime
exist in stereochromic
work
doubtless
many
others are
They
been formed.
glass specially
problem of thoroughly examining a commercial waterglass solution for strength, purity, and due proportion of
silica to alkali, is too complex to be undertaken except by
a trained chemist.
Lime-water is the name given to the solution in water
of slaked lime, called in chemical language hydrate of lime,
LIME-WATER
with several times
its
bulk of
103
distilled water.
The
object
of this treatment
is
to dissolve soda
with vaseline.
The
water
may
take up as
much calcium
carbonate of lime.
its
The
after a time.
It acts
energetically
bonic acid, forming carbonate of lime ( = calcium carbonate), and the bearing of this action, and of other
properties
of
caustic
lime
upon the
materials
and
BARYTA-WATER
104
XXIII.
uses, but cannot replace lime-water
a solution of hydrate of baryta,
barium hydrate, barium hydroxide, for these names all
belong to the compound, in distilled water. The distilled
in fresco-painting.
its
It is
be smeared with a
little
vaseline.
the bottle.
If the solution
be clear
it
be needed, a
on
the
funnel
should
be
during the
placed
glass plate
of
and
the
clear
filtrate
to
free
access
air,
prevent
operation
from the
bottle, as required
if
filtration
be preserved.
it
is
solution of
at 15
saturated at the
is called, is
air.
By
blowing
air
is
formed.
BARYTA. WATER
105
action
unchanged by lime.
CHAPTER X
SOLVENTS AND DILUENTS
THE
beyond
this,
is
is
It should
solution should be avoided as far as possible.
be noted that very hard waters tend to curdle or precipi-
these are
liquids
employed
in the
In
tures, not infrequently both variable and complex.
the following table the several definite compounds in-
06
SOLVENTS
which
boil at
107
the liquid
is
first
miscible
TABLE OF SOLVENTS
Formula
C4 H W 0.
an
ETHER
io8
from
more volatile
tial oils
plants,
we shall have
to consider
some
of the
odour.
mixture.
liquid
no
Great care
light
is
it.
it
(for varnish-making, etc.), but
can be got rid of by repeatedly shaking the crude ether
with water, whereby much ether also is dissolved away.
it
The water
by
ACETONE
109
sort
water, alcohol,
oils,
etc.,
It
wood-naphtha.
It
is
has a
miscible with
resins,
Commercial acetone
wood-spirit,
empyreumatic
is
oils,
and water.
which it
from a little oil of vitriol
from fragments of quick-
may be
purified
by
redistillation
lime.
is
a constituent of wood-
It is miscible
with water in
all
propor-
oil,
the remainder
no
ALCOHOL
A Icohol,
is
met with
in
commerce
Proof
and methylated spirit,
though of service in cleaning oil-pictures and for many
other purposes, ought not to be used in the preparation of
varnishes.
For this purpose pure alcohol, often called
practically free
from
all
absolute alcohol, is required but provided that it contains no water the presence of wood-spirit is no drawback
to its use.
In commerce, nearly absolute alcohol, made
;
both from
obtainable
spirits of
but
it
may be
filled
night
when
distillation
from a water-bath
is
then commenced,
be found that a spirit comes over which contains no more than one part of water in two hundred.
it
will
when a small
portion of
it is
shaken up with
its
own
some kinds of
BENZENE
in
is
diluent of the
Thiophene
vitriol
is,
than
is
Benzene thus purified can now be purBenzene is a mobile liquid, not miscible with
water, but dissolving readily in all proportions in most if
powerful acid.
chased.
now
not
all of
oils
the liquids
being described.
It dissolves
all
the softer
resins.
facture of varnishes.
Without further
trials
it
would be
unwise to employ
resins dissolved in
it
seem
to retain
much
of their original
TER PENES
112
made
comnonand
which
merits
of
the
pounds,
possess
cheapness
in reference to several other similar chlorine
inflammability.
But these
liquids
of
coniferous.
Some exudes
obtained by
artificial incisions.
of one or
is
more true
resins
in
which
more
oxygen
liquid hydrocarbons
which contain (as the name imports) nothing but carbon
and hydrogen, and therefore no oxygen. These hydrocarbons are called in chemical language tcrpenes, a term
by which they will be designated henceforth in the present
chapter. On distilling the crude turpentine or resins
alone or with water, or in a current of steam, the terpenes
distil over while the solid part remains behind
this, on
;
TERPENES
is
fusion,
called rosin
113
or colophony.
It
need not be
employed
in
making
certain
'
dryers,'
known
as resinates
We
terpenes.
lation,
these liquids
unravelled.
is
Even now
the chemistry of
We
those minute differences in chemical and physical properties by which the identity of individual terpenes is
established, but may confine our attention to their most
salient characteristics.
Of these none is more important
oxygen.
resinified
in fact,
in
a bottle
I
fre-
H4
TERPENES
full.
made
different
specimens
Some
place.
clear
grounds.
soft,
The
resin
and
sticky,
formed
is
contractile.
an unsatisfactory one
The
liquid decreases so
Spirit of tur-
Now,
if it
if it
be kept
it is
before
actually employed,
during the very time in which it is being used,
attract oxygen; so that though a great part of it will
escape by evaporation, the remainder will resinify on the
it
will,
canvas
itself,
oils
and hard resins which may have been used as the painting medium. It is clear, from all the above consideraought to be taken in selecting,
such a sort of spirit of turpentine
an
inferior spirit
may
be used, with a
minimum
Even
of dis-
if
TERPENBS
corks.
In this
way
115
may
be used
has been opened. Another precauA few small fragments of hard quick-
it
:
may be
employment
of
many
much
;
small bottles
is
required for use, any disintegrated particles of lime sinking readily to the bottom of the vessel.
Before giving details as to the sources and characterthe best terpenes, it may be useful to mention that
istics of
known
flask so as to cause a
changes
in the viscosity of
sooner or
remains
later.
clear,
and
TEE PENES
Il6
of spirit
it
from 155
not
very extensive
but
passes on
be named
American
Tada.
oil,
chiefly
from Pinus
palustris
and P.
TERPENES
Austrian
117
oil,
P. Pumilio.
Burmese
French
P. vulgaris, etc.
oil, from Juniperus communis.
Russian and Swedish oils, chiefly from Pinus
Juniper
and P.
sylvestris
Ledebourii.
Strasburg
oil,
from Abies
pectinata.
The above-named
From
have been
the following
1.
two
may be
mentioned.
It exists in
Pinene, with a boiling-point of 160 C.
forms, distinguished by their rotatory power on
polarized light
of German and
dextro-pinene
American
is
oil of
turpentine.
The
other
In consequence,
it is
more
TERPENES
Il8
3.
This terpene,
Limonene.
like
most of the
others,
a time.
Sylvestrene.
oil
of turpentine,
is
known
to occur
is
it
resinifies to
the
Its
about
From
that of
all
Here
it
may be mentioned that the presence of water
a terpene, or a mixed essential oil, may be detected by
the cloudiness which it shows when mixed with thrice
in
its
volume
of benzine or of petroleum-spirit.
To remove
from any of the less volatile liquids we
traces of water
TERPENES
19
have been considering, without having recourse to distillation from caustic potash, or from quicklime, the following simple procedure may be adopted A glass flask is
three-fourths filled with the liquid, and then it is kept at
:
a temperature of 110
present
is
to 120
C., so that
the moisture
in the
is
be obtained in commerce at a moderate price. Its offensive smell, partly due to compounds of sulphur, may be
lessened by adding to it some white lead and solid caustic
It contains amongst
potash, and afterwards distilling it.
other liquid constituents at least one terpene.
Its boilingpoint rises, as distillation proceeds, from 110 C. to 260.
solid
soluble in
all
the liquids
named
in
in the
is
objectionable, for
it
PETROLEUM -SPIRIT
120
of the lustre
the
ous shales,
etc.,
the more volatile portions which come over first constitute the liquids variously known as benzine, gasoline,
benzoline, ligroine, petroleum-naphtha, petroleum-ether,
and petroleum-spirit.
This liquid consists entirely of
6 to
C.
specific gravity,
-7.
or
paraffin-oil,
boils
to -82.
Solar-oil, lubricating-oil, vaseline,
are reached.
The
latter
should be carefully
PETROLEUM-SPIRIT
and very
121
and paints
which
boils
suitable.
It
formulae
C 6H
caution on account of
readiness with which
it
efficient.
stain.
Another variety of
by
H 14
dries
(C 8 18 ), heptylene (C 7
),
other hydrocarbons. This mixture
that just described,
energetic solvent.
it
is less volatile
is
than
a less
third variety boils between 130 and 170 and is availmany of the purposes for which turpentine-oil is
It is not advisable, in
employed.
opinion, to use
able for
my
to the
give
treacherous though seductive asphaltum.
It should be remembered that the various
petroleum
liquids just described do not resinify, nor do they leave
OIL OF SPIKE
122
any permanent
stain or
LAVENDER
the empiric formula C 10 18 O, are alcoholic in constitution while the third, known as citral, belongs to the
;
aldehydes. These and several other allied oxidized compounds, as well as a few ethereal salts known as esters,
enter largely into the composition of certain essential oils
will introduce a
occasionally used in oil-painting.
We
When
is
To
useless in
oil
and
spirit-fresco
solvent of resins
oil in its
it is
many
species of
OIL OF
ORANGE
123
This
alcohol.
oil
is
For a diluent
cneorifolia,
E. corymbosa, and E.
it is probable that
chosen with equal propriety,
our choice being guided by the odour of the sample.
Oil of Lemon.
Though the terpenes known as dextro-
dealbata.
oils
in oil-painting
may be
lemon,
is
remarkably rich
in
fruit, is
limonene (dextro-limonene).
This,
oil
pos-
Oil of Rosemary.
This oil varies in specific gravity
between -9 and -918. It contains about 20 per cent, of
an ester, bornyl acetate (C 12 H 20 O 21 ), and 6 per cent, of
borneol.
terpenes.
and two
CYMENE
124
The
known
cyminum. Its
lenzene, while
of these
scientific
full
its
name
constitution
CH 3 .C H .CH(CH 3
6
is
)2
This
is
is
paramethylisopropyl-
hydrocarbon
serves
the
same purpose as a
ployed.
168
CHAPTER
XI
SICCATIVES OR DRYERS
THE
terms
'
siccatives
classes of substances.
'
and
'
priate application of these words is to those metallic compounds which are used in order to increase the rate at
oils
salts
may be
included in the
foil, litharge
or lead protoxide, minium or red lead, lead peroxide, sugar
of lead or lead acetate, the basic lead acetate, and white
lead
itself,
purpose of
have
all
making
been used
MANGANESE DRYERS
126
ground in oil. I have seen one of the results of this commingling of sugar of lead with the medium or the paint
in the production of an immense number of small spots
in the picture, sometimes appearing through the surfacevarnish in the form of a white efflorescence.
This
efflorescence consists at first of lead acetate in crystals,
but these soon attract carbonic acid from the air and
to
oil is left in
upon
oil
car-
bonate of lead.
It will
may be
cause discoloration and darkening, when other and perfectly innocuous substances are available for producing
On this account we omit
the same siccative effects.
further reference to the lead
and are
drying
still
employed
oils, etc.,
MANGANESE DRYERS
127
Manganese
MnO
is used in
2
Manganese dioxide, the black oxide,
the form of a powder obtained by grinding the mineral
this compound is made
pyrolusite. As the effectiveness of
,
mended
The
difficulty of
making
picture-varnish,
more
drying.
One pound
be white
iron
is
if it
show
it
will
be necessary to treat
In order to
falls, and then to filter it again.
produce manganese borate, a boiling saturated solution
of pure borax is added to the manganese sulphate solution until no more precipitate falls.
The precipitate is
collected on a filter and washed with hot distilled water
precipitate
until the
of
DRYERS
ia8
The
paper.
place,
and
warmed with
linseed
oil, is
sufficient to render
an ounce
The
oxalate
Chapter V.).
in
same
be
used
the
may
way, and there are also met with certain manganese
resinates which may be employed similarly.
Cobalt
'
'
resinate
is
U The
the
maximum
addition
is
any further
form
manganese
unnecessary.
If the
in the
(p. 53), it
since
not only for rendering oils more quickly drying, but also
in admixture with some of those oil-paints which dry with
Being colourless they are well adapted for
difficulty.
Several
DRYERS
zinc or oxide of zinc,
sometimes added.
129
Another dryer
in
also
Most
Here
1T
may
not shared by the hydrocarbons of petroleum and of coalnaphtha, such as petroleum spirit, benzene, and toluene.
This, difference in
mind
if
we would
results of
diluents.
It may be well to remark in this place that many of
the volatile solvents, described in this chapter, are dangerously inflammable, and some are of a poisonous character.
CHAPTER
XII
WHEN
although
enough
it
for
has
many
some
uses in painting,
is
may
this
manner of two
materials, oil
and
resin,
both of which
ingredients
namely, a drying
resin.
oil,
and
intractable,
at least three
MASTIC VARNISH
131
or fat varnishes,
resin
and a
oil
as
We
de-
and
in
mastic in
spirit of turpentine,
oils
beyond 78 C.
14 ounces of mastic,
spirit of turpentine,
44
6
,,
,, powdered glass, or fine sand.
MASTIC VARNISH
I 32
covered with a ground-glass plate, but a specially contrived filtering apparatus has been designed for the purpose of preventing any escape of vapour during the process of filtration.
to this receipt
is
nearly
and leaves a brilliant glassy film when it evaporates on a smooth surface. But this film is very brittle, and
easily abraded by gentle friction even with the finger, in
colourless,
fact
it
consists of
little
well known.
To
resin,
obviate this
COPAL VARNISH
'
133
'
oil is,
just
named.
In
many French
is
recommended
to
employ
oil
'
bloom
'
than the ordinary kind, but if pictures are varnished in a perfectly dry atmosphere and kept therein
till the surface has hardened, the formation of bloom is
minimized
if not prevented.
copal spirit varnish may be made by the use of
acetone, or of ether (both water-free), or of absolute
The copal to
alcohol, light petroleum-ether, or benzene.
COPAL VARNISH
134
be dissolved
may be
either Sierra
Demerara
copal, or
The pow-
has
lost
in contact
Three measures of dry oil of turpenand the mixture submitted to distillation from a water-bath until three measures of the
acetone or other original solvent have been drawn over
an efficient condenser must be used. If it be desired to
is
nearly dissolved.
prepare a mixed
i
measure of
varnish
'
manganese
be used in lieu of the quantity of turpenabove mentioned, the distillation being then proceeded
turpentine
tine
'
may
with as before.
In another method of preparing copal (and amber) spirit
varnishes the resins duly prepared and powdered are
heated with the selected solvent under pressure that is, at
of amber,
used, but
COPAL VARNISH
The
preparation of
fat
or
oil
135
which the
difficulty
may
be lessened.
By
'
roasted or
If the copal or
first
fused, the
or less dark in
tint
it is
on
this
point.
of dried
'
'
COPAL VARNISH
136
is
seventy-two hours,
into a retort
sufficient to cover the mixture
and introduced
is
chloroform in quantity
added.
downwards
an appropriate
filtered.
twenty minutes.
Then
filtering
apparatus
little hot
is
available,
oil of
it is
turpentine
may
The
hard resins
COPAL VARNISH
lost
one quarter of
its
weight.
137
One way
of carrying out
in another
oil,
any portions
of linseed
oil,
tine
should attempt
not only
and
is
is
there
some chance
serious risk of
fire.
of partial
easier
An
heater,
'
'
COPAL VARNISH
138
Dammara
australis),
which
is
much
however,
is
is
inserted, should
copal varnish. This ought to be furnished by the varnishmaker himself, for artists' colourmen rarely prepare oil-
varnishes themselves.
An
in oil
based upon the fact that the solid hydrocarbon, naphthamanufacture of coal-gas, shares
139
two
is
oil of
pressure, with the altered copal of the necessary proportion of linseed oil ; and, secondly, the addition of spirit
of turpentine to thin the product, which is pale in colour
and yields a sound varnish. Hard copals treated by this
them
qualities of hardness
into varnishes.
may demand
technique of a painter
140
'
'
same
the
of
oil
obtainable.
The
flask
contents, and
oil.
substitute for it is
distinguished artists.
in the studio by mixing and warming
together strong copal varnish, poppy oil or linseed oil
and a trace of white wax.
many
sometimes prepared
Of megilp
a mixture of linseed
oil
141
brittle,
ounces of
oil of spike, or of non-resinifiable oil of turpentine in a glass flask plunged in water heated to the boilingpoint, and then pouring into it in a slender stream 4 ounces
It is of the highest
stant shaking, in the same way.
importance that the copal varnish used should contain a
If a thin varnish with much terpene
sufficiency of oil.
be employed in preparing this medium the pigments may
I have found this defect counteracted
lack coherence.
in inspissated or
medium
itself.
'
copal
blown linseed
The
'
paraffin-
by the
fresco
the
'
it
to
Moreover,
if
a painting executed
with this
SPIRIT-FRESCO
142
obviated
if
MEDIUM
till
to
(still
filter,
when all
of
oil
constant agitation.
the flask
is
now made to
boil,
time to time.
consistence
When
it is
at once
with wide mouths, holding 4 ounces apiece, are convenient) in which it is intended to preserve the medium
The
for use.
using
it
dilution of this
medium and
Methods.
the
mode
of
XXIII. on Painting
PART
III
PIGMENTS
Chapter XIII. White Pigments. Chapter XIV. Yellow Pigments.
Chapter XV. Red Pigments. Chapter XVI. - Green Pigments.
Chapter XVII. Blue Pigments. Chapter XVIII. Brown Pigments. Chapter XIX. Black Pigments. Chapter XX. Classification of Pigments.
Chapter XXI. Tables of Permanent and
Selected and Restricted
Fugitive Pigments. Chapter XXII.
Palettes.
CHAPTER
XIII
WHITE PIGMENTS
FLAKE- WHITE:
B lane de
WHITE
lead
White Lead
Plomb
was known
Blanc
Ceruse
Bleiweiss
d' Argent
Kremserweiss.
to the ancients.
face-powder
method
White
lead
'
'
'
crates,'
pound
of lead carbonate
Other pro-
less
145
10
FLAKE-WHITE
146
it
The
bonate intimately associated with one molecule of lead hydrate, and is represented by the formula 2PbCO 3 ,PbH 2 O 2
of the paint
two molecules
which
WHITE LEAD
The
147
(1)
lead
a.
b.
duct.
c.
d.
e.
/.
Lead
acetate.
means
This
operation, however, requires much manipulative experience, and, unless accurately performed, may lead to
erroneous conclusions.
(2)
Of
WHITE LEAD
148
Heavy
a.
spar, that
the same
is,
compound
Gypsum.
c.
China-clay.
The
or
fixe).
Whitening or chalk.
d.
e.
prepared (per-
artificially
Lead
first
Barium
sulphate.
of these adulterations is
sulphate, in the
heavy spar,
is
ment.
is very readily
loses 14^ per
example,
recognised.
cent, of its weight when strongly heated so as to drive off
Venice white, which
its carbonic acid and water, but
Pure
'
is
'
'
'
Hamburg
'
only of white lead, loses 4^8 per cent., and Dutch white,
of which three-fourths are barium sulphate, gives off no
is,
'
'
'
Crems,' or Cremnitz white,
3-8 per cent.
or ought to be, pure white lead. The complete solu-
more than
made use
Gypsum,
Whiten-
WHITE LEAD
ing dissolves in
all
practically insoluble.
149
and dissolves
is less liable
to
be
sul-
it is
true
and
it
is
The drawbacks
a paint are
its
in water.
examined,
it
when an
will generally
be found that
WHITE LEAD
150
all.
lights
examples illustrative of this point are referred to
This property
in Chapter XXIV. of the present volume.
:
able extent.
when
ex-
which
is
sul-
by means
This method
is
LEAD SULPHATE
ened
may
151
The
ment.
It is of
been heated.
Lead Sulphate.
perties
owing
poisonous pro-
lead.
ZINC- WHITE
152
much
anti-
to
be
pure lead carbonate free from any hydrate, but the great
majority of the specimens which I have examined are
nothing but flake-white of good quality. For general use
as a white pigment, both alone and in admixture, the best
flake-white, with all its defects, presents distinct advantages over pure lead carbonate free from lead hydrate.
ZINC-WHITE
The
Chinese white
Blanc de Zinc
Zinkweiss.
first
after
Leclairehad
ZINC- WHITE
We believe that
water-colour
many
it
oil
153
suitable for
So
early as 1834
form of
this
it is
essential
red-hot,
obtained.
bad
is
of
is
a bad dryer.
colour.
Instead of
ployed.
in oil
to crack
and
scale, besides
is
practically perfect,
BARYTA-WHITE
154
ground
There
draw-
The
is
is easily tested.
Heated in a
should yield no volatile product, and should suffer
no permanent change of hue. It should dissolve com-
tube,
it
in acid,
prepared,
BARYTA-WHITE
Permanent white
Blanc Fixe
Permanent
Weiss.
'19 is prepared,
and
is
The barium
sulphate
is
155
oil,
atIt
its
much
white
is
its
its
by
its
whiteness.
The
reaction
by which the
56
It
gum by
CHAPTER XIV
YELLOW PIGMENTS
YELLOW OCHRE
Yellow
Brown
Roman Ochre
Ochre
Oxford
Golden
Ochre
Ochre
Mineral
Ocre jaune
Gelber Ocker.
THE
distinction
is
it is nearly or quite
anhydrous
In
chemical
is, dry.
language, then, we may say
yellow ochre is a ferric hydrate, red ochre a ferric oxide.
that
But,
when we proceed
to
hydrates
There
other
compounds
are,
158
YELLOW OCHRE
of 75 per cent, in
some American
The
varieties.
three
may
Brown haematite, or limonite, consisting of two molecules of ferric oxide combined with three molecules of
HO
ferric oxide and three molecules of water, and is represented by the formula Fe 2 O 3 3H 2 O; the separate existence and permanence of a hydrate having this formula
,
it
It is
Alumina
7-1
9-0
13-2
6*3
Magnesia
Calcium sulphate
Undetermined
-
0-3
61-5
Silica
1-4
\"i
of composition.
YELLOW OCHRE
present in
them
159
;
the other
is
the
France, Italy, Germany and Spain. More recently excellent ochres have been obtained from the district of Dubbo
it
variety of yellow ochre
yields when heated to 8ooC.
a
fine
reddish
1,000
orange, brighter than that of the
red
from
produced
light
any other ochre.
:
Yellow ochre
by
is
first
of all
Thus
as
it is
liable to contain
YELLOW OCHRE
160
warmer
in
hue
after
change, however,
is
probably due in part to a slight loss of constitutional water from the ferric hydrate, and in part to
increased translucency.
It must be recollected also that
stop.
It is
are
'
compound
is
exposed to
light,
when used
Yellow ochre
is
little
make
had
enhanced by the addition of certain fugitive
YELLOW OCHRE
161
The
precipitate obtained.
Brown ochre
sienna
is
is
it
raw
brown are
is
common
Under the name of cyprusite a peculiarly bright lemoncoloured earth has been imported from Cyprus as a
it
consists essentially of a hydrated ferric
pigment
:
sulphate
it
artistic use.
is
CADMIUM YELLOW
162
CADMIUM
YELLOW:
Orient
Yellow
Yellow
Aurora
Daffodil
Orange Cadmium
Sulphide of Cadmium
Bvillant
de
Cadmium
Jaunt
Kadmiumgelb.
Jaunt
cadmium to 32 parts of
As commonly prepared, cadmium yellow is of
an orange hue when this compound separates slowly
from a solution, or is made in any way to take a dense or
contains 112 parts by weight of
sulphur.
aggregated form,
it
The orange-yellow
becomes
less red
when very
finely
to yellow.
ground,
Some
of
pigment
There
is
make any
sufficient to
ineligible.
are
two well-known
cadmium
yellow.
CADMIUM YELLOW
lead,
even
163
the product.
The
precipitate of
cadmium
sulphide, after
is
oil
is
then
Cadmium
in
CADMIUM YELLOW
164
metals.
Emerald green,
by cadmium
yellow and emerald green (Schweinfurt green) are absoChrome yellow and true Naples
lutely incompatible.
yellow are also darkened by admixture with cadmium
changes.
prepared a number of
cadmium
chloride.
lemon colour
in
hue from a
to a
samples were put into bottles and preserved in my laboraThey were never exposed to direct sunshine. On
tory.
distinctly paler
CADMIUM YELLOW
165
to
'
'
'
'
'
'
is in
a measure explicable
if
we
change.
effective protection
medium,
notorious. In oils
'
this fading of
'
of
CADMIUM YELLOW
66
changes.
free
owing
two
is
denser
4-5 to 4-8.
And
when
exposed
that of
yellow
many
is
the
name given
Daffodil
cadmium
Cadmium
Indian
yellows
yellow,
baryta
red.
are
CADMIUM YELLOW
167
yellows,
is
ammonium
it
of carbon
insoluby
which cadmium
its
sulphide dissolves.
Cadmium red and
lucent
cadmium orange are slightly transwhen compared with the paler and yellower varie-
ties of this
hues.
They work
miums
latter
pigment.
'
inconveniently slow.
'
A UREOLIN
168
AUREOLIN
Cobalt Yellow
Jaune de Cobalt
Kobaltgelb.
This remarkable
Origin and Composition.
discovered
was
by Fischer. It
yellow pigment
artificial
a comand
pound
potassium.
Usually
it is free from water, but it sometimes contains three
molecules, and is then represented by the formula
K 6 Co 2(NO 2) 12 3H 2 O. Other proportions of water also
is
salt, strongly acidified with acetic acid, with a concentrated solution of potassium nitrite, and keeping the
mixture warm.
Perhaps a pigment of
finer
hue
is
Wood
(in
the
A UREOLIN
K 2 NaCo(NO
2)6
,H 2 O.
Its
zeg
value as a pigment
is at least
much
affected
by caustic
ammonium
in cold water.
Aureolin is of a pure yellow colour, and is almost transparent whether used in water or oil painting. In oil some
samples dry with great difficulty, and become very dirty
if exposed to the air during the progress of desiccation
;
the exact
oil,
oil,
pre-
last
AUREOLIN
70
The
moisture.
be ground
in
poppy
oil.
latter
has
is
show
...
...
...
...
10
10
tube
trials
it
The
The presence
or
adulterated
LEMON YELLOW
171
and
violet or purple
there
is
Various
LEMON YELLOW:
Yellow
mer
Of
Barium Chromate
Baryta Yellow
Permanent Yellow Jaune d" Outre
Ultramarine
Zitronengelb.
works smoothly.
Lemon
yellow
is
often
made by mixing
solutions of
better plan
is
25! parts by
GAMBOGE
172
hydrogen, but
to this gas or to
impure
In
oils it is
Prussian blue.
Lemon
yellow
may be
used in fresco.
very often we may say genersubstituted for true lemon yellow, but it is less
Strontium chromate
ally
stable,
is
(for water-colour
work)
to partially disappear.
tion of
is
GAMBOGE
Gomme-gutte
This gum-resin
Origin.
is
Gummigutt.
obtained
in
various
(Desrouss.) and G.
parts of
elliptica.
India,
The
as G.
fine,
Cambogia
deep-coloured
GAMBOGE
173
is
gamboge
and
8 of
gum.
The
resin,
which
is
matter, may be easily obtained pure by crushing pipegamboge into fine powder, mixing it with a little water,
and then shaking up the mixture with ether the ether
;
colouring-resin
better to add a
is
From
recoverable by evaporation
but
it
is
drying-oil
before driving off the ether by
heat.
The coloured, semi-fluid
is
not trustworthy.
Some samples
light.
than others.
the
nine-tenths.
INDIAN YELLOW
174
intensity.
As an
oil-colour,
gamboge
it
To secure its permanence, admixture with oil alone does not, however, suffice a resin
such as copal, or Strasburg turpentine, or wax, or
Some of Sir Joshua
paraffin, must be used also.
;
oil-paint as
compounds,
and darkens.
INDIAN
YELLOW
Piuri,
Purree,
Peon
Jaune Indien
Indischgelb.
town
INDIAN YELLOW
175
fed
Indian yellow
is
an impure magnesium
salt of
euxanthic
The
Thus
purified,
minimum
if
poppy
oil
oil,
or
if
yellow ground in
have
lost
INDIAN YELLOW
176
Original intensity
After 2 years
After 5 years
After 7 years
After i o years
When
...
...
...
10
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
7
6
...
...
...
this water-colour
pigment
maintained
is
exposed to sunlight
in a state of perfect
dryness
two bases
directions
may
The
Dissolve
following
part of pure
Epsom
salts,
and 6 parts
sal-
MARS YELLOW
177
Orange
Artificial Ochre
Jaime
de Mars.
This pigment
It
ficially.
is
may
be
The
or lime.
salts of iron
vitriol
If green vitriol
(ferrous sulphate) or the ferric chloride.
be employed the precipitate formed gradually becomes
pound
(if
this
ferric
be green
calcium
sulphate, that
is,
Mars yellow
cluding
red,
All
NAPLES YELLOW
178
it
at various
temperatures.
NAPLES YELLOW
Jaune de Naples
Neapelgelb
Jaune cTAntimoine
Giallo di Napoli.
name three different substances are inThe pigment generally sold in England as
Naples yellow is an excellent imitation made by mixing
cadmium yellow or deep cadmium with a white, preferUnder
this
cluded.
'
'
by heating together
for
part
Babylonian bricks at
least 2,500
years old.
Persian
is
NAPLES YELLOW
179
genuine kind
liable to
is
in
darkness than in
light.
contact with
blackened.
knife, should
An
due
The darkening
owing to the
question
extreme hardness of the particles of the lead antimoniate,
however finely the material may have been ground, and
in
is
in part
to
attrition,
but
mental evidence
yellow, however,
in
is
injured
by and does
injure
Naples
some
of
importance.
YELLOW LAKE
i8o
YELLOW LAKE
Madder
Brown Pink
Italian
Pink
Citrine
Quercitron
Lake
Lake
Yellow
Gelber Lack.
The
The original
dilute sulphuric acid instead of with water.
colouring matter of the bark (quercitrin) is thus changed
into a
more
compound known
stable
as quercetin.
The
substance
is
;
known
species
R.
oleoides,
R.
saxatilis,
R. amygdalinus, R.
catharticus.
The
berrv.
BROWN PINK
181
The
Laque
Robert
kelgelb
...
Laque Robert
in tint
hell-
Lemon
yellow-
Pale straw
Smoke-grey
7
6
dun-
Laque brun-jaune
Laque brun-fonce
Pale yellow madder Deep yellow madder -
Deep lemon
Salmon -
Yellowish -grey
Pale orange
Greyish salmon
The same pigments used as glazing colours over flakewhite have faded to about the same extent, but their
in one or two cases, rather less marked.
brown pink is usually a deep quercitron
lake, although it was formerly made from the berries of
one of the kinds of buckthorn (Rhamnus) previously
named. I have never met with a specimen of it which
would stand a year's exposure to sunlight without suffer-
change of hue
The
is,
so-called
CHROME YELLOW
i8a
when
that in Mr.
W.
Simpson's
it
water-colour pigments, the brown-pink has suffered comHad a portion of the original
paratively little alteration.
cake-colour employed been preserved for examination it
might have been possible to have discovered the cause
of this
in question.
CHROME YELLOW
Chrome
Chrome
Chromate of Lead
Jaune de
Chromgelb.
also
VANADIUM YELLOW
183
their
colour.
pigment.
VANADIUM YELLOW.
It has been proposed to employ the beautiful goldenbronze crystals of meta-vanadic acid as a pigment. They
possess, when finely ground, an intense colour, like that
of a very rich golden ochre, but less earthy, and more
brilliant.
KINGS'
184
YELLOW
YELLOW
to
Orpiment
Jaune Royal
its
Konigsgelb.
inadmissibility of kings'
lead or copper.
It
was known
to the Egyptians.
PURE ORANGE
PURE ORANGE
Mangold
185
Alizarin Yellow
Alizarin
Orange.
Nitro-alizarin,
its
name
implies,
is
a derivative of
one of the least changeable of all organic pigments, and the chief tinctorial product of madder. There
is no doubt about the beautiful hue of this paint, a deep
brownish gold the trials first made as to its permanence
in oil promised well, but on continuing the exposure to
alizarin,
light of this
it
pigment ground
suffered considerably.
in oil
The
it
deterioration
it is
not
safe.
flake white,
CHAPTER XV
RED PIGMENTS
VERMILION
Cinnabar
Vermilion
Zinnober.
in
is
which
it
has been, or
is,
found.
mass
was formerly known as vermiculus, cinnabaris, cenobrium, and minium the last name is now appropriated
to red lead.
Vermilion and vermiculus are derived from
;
kermes, in
derived.
its
turn, the
186
VERMILION
187
known
'
'
milion, so
calls
it
'
'
'
of Vitruvius.
Theophilus
'
cinaper,'
'
it
stance,
is
'
^Ethiop's mineral.'
The
red substance
may
be
changed into the black, and vice versd, and this without
any loss or gain, or any alteration of chemical composition, the change being a physical or molecular one
The black substance is amorphous, the red
merely.
crystalline.
The pigment vermilion may be made by simply grinding selected pieces of native cinnabar, or it may be
obtained artificially by combining the two elements
sulphur and mercury.
All the
The
artificially
first
of these
may
is
the
On
mercuric sul-
VERMILION
88
warmed with a
little
melted sulphur
(which
is
in
an iron basin.
When
the combination
heat)
have united.
45
C. for
at
of
itself,
C.
It
VERMILION
189
is
of
is
arsenic)
whether
may be
owing
to
way
imperfect washing.
spurious vermilion,
solution.
It is
rubber.
'
but
'
moist
way
water-colour paint.
Thus
it
happens
VERMILION
igo
being equal, an orange-vermilion is inferior in permanence to a scarlet, and a scarlet- vermilion to one inclining
to crimson.
As an oil-pigment, vermilion does not dry
well, but suffers, especially
no change by
if it
be locked up in copal or
air
100 parts of
the dry substance require less than 20 parts of oil. Owing
to its great density, vermilion tends to separate from the
paraffin,
light or
impure
oil
in
This may be
places where this pigment has been used.
to the use by the illuminator of a sample of vermilion
due
adulterated with
change
work
minium
in the technique, as a
is
scribed.
VERMILION
Only when it contains impurities, such as
safely mixed.
free sulphur, does it darken flake-white.
Vermilion prepared from native cinnabar
in
fectly preserved
is
found per-
the flesh-tints of
is
The second
of
is
Mary
over
'
And
if
we
form.
crimson kind
mixed
in composition.
When
any vermilion
is
'
'
more
rosy,
MADDER PIGMENTS
90^
MADDER
Laque
de Garance
Some
Krapplack.
'
name
fourteenth century.
century) tells us that
milion,
and
it
clearly garance
is
'
sinopis,' in the
made from
that
middle of the
Now
is,
varancia.
madder
the
'Varancia'
is
in a British Museum
manuscript (Sloane, No. 416) which contains recipes of
the fourteenth century.
Besides sinopis (strictly, a red
'
'
earth),
in
English account-rolls of
'
'
time.
Mr. R. Hendrie,
in
his
notes to
'
Theophilus,
MADDER
193
matter of
From
'
madyr.'
haps, justified in concluding that the preparation of a kind
of liquid paint was intended.
it is
the Rubia
tinctomm of Linnaeus.
R. sikkimensis (Kurz.)
tirely
Europe.
We
cerning the
The
of
artificial
root of
IQO
MADDER LAKES
a$4
principles.
madder
Of such colouring
Both
ficially
C 14 H 8 O 4
C 14 H 8 O 5
1.
Alizarin,
2.
Purpurin,
alizarin and purpurin are now manufactured artifrom anthracene. This compound, which occurs in
HO
xanthin (C 14
HO
5)
and purpuro-
small proportion.
oxide,
commerce
'
it
has
MADDER LAKES
193.
in
gallon of water.
The
mixture
is
perature of 45
liquor
is
now
the
By
the
MADDER LAKES
igo
tints of rose
The
is adopted.
oxides of iron, manganese and copper, when used in association with more or less alumina as a base for receiving
the various colouring matters of madder, give other hues,
or other of the methods above described
names
are mixtures. For instance, burnt sienna and copper ferrocyanide have been found in samples of madder brown the
;
From
alizarin
(either natural or
salt or
some pure
'
aluminate, and then precipitating the lake by adding
dilute sulphuric acid or, better, a solution of alum.
The
commerce occurs as
either
that of purpurin,
Venetian red.
alizarin yielding
it is
bodies.
197
obtained.
The purpurin
residue,
it
are
now available
for the
madder lakes.' Some of these preparations when dissolved and then precipitated on a suitable basis, yield pigments of great richness and stability, others, especially
'
so far as their
'
colour-constituents
is
true
less affected
MADDER LAKES
198
by
it
Name
of Pigment
Original
Intensity
Change of Hue
= 10
Very
slight.
Much more
More
purplish.
purplish.
Smoke
more purplish.
grey.
Grey.
Slightly
more purplish.
More
bluish.
Somewhat
more
[blue.
puce.
Grey.
The
letters
a
pigments, which were in all cases moist colours
parallel but less complete series with cake colours gave
The five samples marked *
practically the same results.
'
'
'
are instances of exceptional stability, and are of importance as showing the possibility of obtaining some, at all
events, of the
madder pigments
in a satisfactory form.
MINERAL LAKE
199
the
same depth
of tint.
MINERAL LAKE:
Pink-Colour
Minerale
Potters'
Pink
Laque
Minerallack.
to obtain mineral
pigments of
This compound
may be made
in
many
ways.
In
some
stannic chloride.
The
precipitate
Still
is
moist,
collected on a filter
it
is
ground into a
paste with half its bulk of pure nitre and some stannic
The dry mixture is projected,
oxide, and allowed to dry.
little by little, into some nitre heated to low redness in a
crucible.
When
thoroughly with
water.
requires calcination for two hours at a high temperature in a luted crucible, in order to develop its colour,
LIGHT RED
200
the matter
hue and
is finely
less
ground.
It
appears
much
richer in
oil-colour.
W.
It
Burton, of
madder
or alizarin pigments.'
It is scarcely necessary
this account that Potters' Pink is not only a
permanent pigment which may be used in all methods of
to
add to
LIGHT RED:
Burnt Ochre
it is
without action
Rouge Anglais
Brun Rouge
Englischwt.
Light red
The
calcined.
temperature
at
When
material
is
Light red
the
desired tint
thrown
may
VENETIAN RED
201
its
of a few drops of
'
'
rouge Anglais
and
applied to artificially
'
Brun rouge
'
Crocus
Colcothar
Caput
Venetianischrot.
When
ferric oxide,
made by
upper portion
is
If
somewhat
The hue
brighter.
of Venetian red
nitre,
light red,
INDIAN RED
202
'
'
red,
to the
INDIAN
RED
Persian
Red
Indian
Red Ochre
Indischrot.
from India
is
a natural pro-
some has been prepared by calcination. Some socalled Indian red is imported from Ormuz in the Persian
Gulf; some is an English haematite from the Forest of
duct, but
Dean.
making an
artificial
Indian red
common
INDIAN RED
203
ture
is
it
is
ment known
way
little
may
aluminium
be enhanced
Indian red, when genuine, is a perfectly permanent pigment in all media, and is without action upon other colours.
It was extensively employed by the older masters of the
Indian red.
when a
over,
thin
it
RED OCHRE
204
of
RED OCHRE
Red Chalk
Miltos
Red Hamatite
Ruddle
Bole
Sinoper
Arrabida Red
Terra Rosa
Scarlet Ochre
Sinopis
Bolus.
Rubrica
in other
is ferric
ment
An
to
'
light red
Cumberland gave me on
oxide, 94*7; alumina, 2 o
'
is
variety
analysis, in
silica, 2-2,
now assigned.
of haematite from
100 parts, ferric
and moisture,
i'i.
INDIAN LAKE
But some almost equally
205
much
'
The
'
sinopis
brown
or yellow
brown
and
compound
of lime
ferric oxide.
The
but
ferric oxide,
it
is
owes
its
probably often,
artificial
product.
All the pigments described under the
title
'
red ochre
'
detecting
1
Indian
it,
reference should be
and
made
for the
to
method
of
red.'
INDIAN LAKE
Lac Lake
Lack-Lack.
INDIAN LAKE
206
body.
'
'
'
mineral
matters,
impurities,
from
it, it
as
and some
should be
well
as
several
dark-coloured
resin.
first
The
when
purified residue
De
work
of
'
COCHINEAL LAKES
207
merce at the present time. Their use in European painting seems to have been displaced, first of all by Indian
The colouring
lac lakes, and then by cochineal lakes.
matters produced by these three kinds of coccus are
closely allied chemically.
Lake
Purple Lake,
Cavmin Laque
Kavmin.
etc.
matter.
its
is
weight of colouring
a glucoside, to which
the
name
substance
carmine red.
The carmine of commerce is prepared directly from
cochineal, and is the most concentrated and purest form of
The
any of the pigments derived from this source.
methods of preparation differ, but in all the colouring
matter is extracted from the insects by means of boiling
water, with the subsequent addition of small quantities of
potassium oxalate, or cream of tartar
occasionally a small quantity of stannous chloride is employed also. The liquor, after a repose of some days or
alum, or
nitre, or
COCHINEAL LAKES
208
other impurities
of crimson lake
alizarin lake
may
crimson lake on
Whatman
this
paper
lost 8
per cent, of
its
was on April
original intensity
a second period of six hours'
;
12.
BURNT CARMINE
209
is
the sole
residue.
artist
who
its
permanency
BURNT CARMINE.
This preparation should rather be called
mine.'
made
is
'
roasted car-
it.
Two
years' exposure
wash of cake-burnt carmine on paper. The moist pigment had lost nine-tenths of its intensity at the end of
o
i
RED LEAD
210
sample of burnt carmine purchased of Messrs. Newthe year 1815 was found (as might have been
anticipated) to have retained its colour in the cake perfectly to the present year ; but a wash of it on paper
possessed no greater nor less degree of permanency than
a wash of the same pigment prepared by the same
man about
makers
in 1886.
RED LEAD
Minium
Orange
Mine Rouge,
Rosso Saturno.
Saturnine
Mennige
Mine
This beautiful orange-red pigment approaches in comcompound of two molecules of protoxide of lead
with one molecule of binoxide, and may be approximately
The paler and more
represented by the formula Pb 3 O 4
orange-tinted varieties contain an excess of protoxide of
position a
lead, often
considered as safe in
COBALT RED
This
oil.
Rose de Cobalt
Cobalt Violet
Kobaltrot.
this
oxide,
COBALT RED
211
'
'
'
'
artificial
cobalt arseniate
is
also
made by
oxidizing cobalt
CHAPTER XVI
GREEN PIGMENTS
TERRE VERTE
Green Earth
Erde
THERE
are
Verone
de
Grime
two rather
really distinct
furnish the
Terre
Terra Verde.
artists'
pigment,
known
to the north of
in cavities in
an amygdaloid rock.
The
best samples
varies
hue
it
in chemical composition.
From its greenish
has been assumed to consist chiefly of a ferrous
much
silicate
way
it is
that
is,
silicate of
But more
mainly a
ferric silicate.
TERRE VERTE
Water, given off at 100 C.
Water, given off at a red heat
Ferric oxide (Fe2 O 3 )
Ferrous oxide (FeO)
Alumina
Green earth
is
4*1
4-2
20-3
2-6
1*7
213
Lime-
Magnesia
Potash
Soda
....
-
i'i
5'6
5-4
2-3
Silica
517
it is
for the
in ancient
most part
fully oxidized.
Roman wall-paintings
(the
was
it
is
Most samples
found to be perfectly stable both in water-colour and oilIt is a semi-opaque or translucent pigment,
painting.
much
without
body in oil. It has no action on, nor is it
When used in
affected by, other permanent pigments.
oil
terre verte
214
laid over
liable to
it.
Some samples
of
become
slightly rusty
into contact with lime hydrate in true
when brought
Terre verte
is
known
as
Verona brown.
is
rarely adulterated.
a well-known firm of
is
rarely
artists'
Chrome
The
Sesquioxide
Vert
chromium, or chrome
The green
215
'
'
way
Two
way
bichromate
(free
from iron)
is
The sulphur method yields at once a good pigment, which needs nothing but a thorough washing, first
with very dilute sulphuric acid and then with water, followed by grinding, to fit it for use, but a second calcination
quioxide.
In order to prepare
required in the starch process.
oxide of chromium by the wet way, a solution of an
is
alkaline
chromate or bichromate
is
to
be reduced by
sulphur or other
chromium is
The hydrated sesquioxide
been washed,
hydrate
of
itself,
this
when
is
thrown down
after
having
substance
is
chromium
usually
VIRIDIAN
2i6
occurs in the form of a greyish-green powder of considerIt is quite permanent under all conditions of
able body.
available in
Green oxide of chromium is rather imitated than adulThis pigment when genuine is not altered in
colour either by ammonium sulphide or caustic potash.
But under the name of chrome-green mixtures of Prussian
blue and lead chromate are constantly sold. These preparations generally contain some barium sulphate, often a
terated.
mina.
'
justly applied
VIRIDIAN
Vert
de
Feuriges Chromoxyd.
wet,
VIRIDIAN
217
tained.
Viridian is, however, essentially a hydrated sesquioxide of chromium, having the formula Cr2 O 3 2H 2 O.
In the preparation of this pigment it often happens that
,
all
soluble salts.
would be
difficult to
now
best
known
should be called
little in
common
in England.
It is unfortunate that it
Vert Emeraude in France, since it has
with the poisonous emerald green of our
'
'
This pigment
is
in order to
when a yellow
solution
is
ob-
'
COBALT GREEN
2i8
'green cinnabar' and 'griiner Zinnober,' spurious pigments are constantly sold, the commonest of them consisting of
'
Mr.
Wm.
COBALT GREEN
Rinmann's Green
de Zinc
Vert de Cobalt
Vert
Kobaltgrun.
of zinc oxide
and
dried.
Method No.
amount
oxide,
EMERALD GREEN
219
permanent, and has no action on other pigments. Cobalt green is, in fact, one of the too-rare pigments
which is at once chemically and artistically perfect such
well, is quite
but Mr.
J.
Scott Taylor
reached from
tells
me
my own
trials,
EMERALD GREEN
Green
Cupvic Aceto-Arsenite
Schweinfurt
Schweinfurter Griin.
of
EMERALD GREEN
220
on continued
ebullition a de-
permanent
character
but
is,
measure abandoned.
Emerald green, if pure, dissolves perfectly
dilute
nitric
or
hydrochloric acid
in boiling
when
On
SCHEELE'S GREEN
SCHEELE'S GREEN
221
This pigment, discovered in 1778, is an arsenite of copper with an excess of copper oxide. It is best prepared by
dissolving, in separate portions of hot water, white arsenic
and blue
mixture
vitriol.
is
The
and
to the
of potassium carbonate.
is
in
every
way
It is
eminently poisonous.
a place on the palette of the artist.
pigment.
It
inferior to that
to specially prepared
but there are very many
other designations by which pigments of essentially the
same composition
are known.
They
are prepared by
MALACHITE
Green Verditer
Green Bice
Mountain Green
Vert de Montagne
Berg-
Malachitgrun.
and occurs
in
many European,
Asiatic,
African, and
MALACHITE
222
it
also occurs
colour.
blacken.
In admixture with
cadmium yellow
It is so easily injured
by impure
it is
air
liable to
when
un-
browned
it.
Malachite
VERDIGRIS
223
when
as a sediment.
charcoal, gently warmed at first in a long narrow testtube to drive off moisture, and then strongly heated a
dark sublimate of metallic arsenic will form on the cooler
;
VERDIGRIS
Basic
Copper Acetate
de Montpellier
Vert-de-Gris
Verdet
Gvunspan.
fourteenth century
'
'
'viride Graecum,'
or,
more
'
viride terrestre
simply, viride,'
earth that is, 'terre verte.'
'
'
verdigris was used by the ancient Romans as a pigment, and has been detected in the wall-paintings of
Pompeii. It occurs in early Italian tempera pictures
but it has frequently injured the gesso-ground on which
;
has been
it
laid,
and seventeenth centuries has been attributed to the changes which this pigment suffers in oil.
The medieval writers on the practice of painting endeavoured to show how the peculiar liability of verdigris
of the sixteenth
to
The
by
VERDIGRIS
224
early painters for the protection of verdigris from alteration, and the success of this precautionary measure,
is
more has
such acetates,
its
greenish blue, being dependent upon the relative proThe most blue basic acetate
portions of these acetates.
i molecule of copper acetate, and i of copper
with
the greenest has
hydrate,
5 molecules of water
twice as much acetate. Average verdigris contains in
contains
exposure to moist
The
arising
The
copper
is
An impure atmosphere
gen blackens verdigris
and by carbonic acid.
inadmissible
in oil,
it
it
As a
it
water-colour,
if
'
is
quite
locked up
'
acts energetically
is
very poisonous.
VERDIGRIS
For these reasons
its
225
employment
in artistic painting
ought to be abandoned.
pure, dissolves perfectly in liquor ammoniae,
or
any gypsum
barytes present as diluents or adulterants
If blue vitriol has been added to
undissolved.
remaining
Verdigris,
if
it
falsification
'
'
a favourable judgment
viridian
may
be passed
it
consists of
CHAPTER
XVII
BLUE PIGMENTS
ULTRAMARINE
THERE are
Blau
marked blue
colour,
which contain as
their essential
hue
'
'
many
in the
Andes
of Ovalla,
at Ditro, in Transylvania
Rio Grande; and in several regions
and China.
'
'
It is
which
it
occurs.
Very
fine lapis-lazuli
The
material, thus
ULTRAMARINE
227
disintegrated,
'
little rosin,
powder
linseed oil
being the last and the least valuable products, while the
deepest and finest pigments are deposited from the
earliest
wash- waters.
Optically, the superb blue of native ultramarine approaches more closely than the blue of any other pigment
to the pure
little violet
ULTRAMARINE
228
and that
is affected
by any
been
informed by an
have, however,
English landscape-painter in oil, who has largely employed
native ultramarine in the skies of his pictures, that he has
perfectly,
other pigments.
it
Was
in oil.
It
citric,
is
only by a combination of
may
a glass tube the powder retains its colour wholly or partially for an hour or more, while the best artificial pig-
ment
similarly treated
In the works
of
many
illuminated manuscripts, the permanence of true ultramarine may be seen. If in some cases it has acquired a
The
due
which
is
is
very high.
This
from
pigment
is
prepared.
is
made
ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE
229
ULTRAMARINE
ARTIFICIAL
Permanent Blue
liches
New
Gmelin's Blue
Blue
French Blue
Guimet's Blue
Kiinst-
Ultramarin.
to be
occurred.
By
successive improvements in
is
now produced
its
manufacno
at a cost of
made
It is chiefly
in
calcination
is
blue colour.
In preparing
pigment
it
artificial
must be very
finely
artists'
ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE
230
washed with water free from lime. The grinding not only
improves the colour, but renders working with the paint
less difficult to manage
the washing removes soluble
sulphates and certain sulphur-compounds, which are liable
;
The
curious result.
Weak
acetic acid,
and greenish-blue
compound
Some
it
is
oxygen
a
;
ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE
231
Some
conditions.
curious
derivatives
of
blue ultra-
'silver-ultramarine,'
marine
in
prepared
a solution of silver
marines rich in
alum
better
these
than those which are poor in this constituent
silicious ultramarines are sometimes sold under the name
:
of
'
Oriental Blue.'
Artificial
when properly
ultramarine,
prepared,
is
flake white,
No
ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE
232
the
first
case, nor
in the second.
artificial
presence
ammonia
If
chessylite
be
present,
its
may be
solution, while
When an acid
when
it
treated
it
As
The
mann's
ultramarines
known
as
'
Guimet's
'
and
'
Heu-
'
amounts
lilac,
in
manent pigments
may
be produced
of
some
green, violet,
are per-
artistic value.
They
are or
in the
its
The
commerce
/v
ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE
233
is
product
The
a greyish-white body.
in
powder.
These
tests
have
dis-
determined
quantity operated on
plan
is
to begin
two portions of
tive balance,
One
sample.
mixed, by
white paper, with 2 grams of pure kaolin the tints of
the several kinds are then compared.
For the other test
:
we
require a
number
large test-tubes,
The change
is
or loss of colour
is
scarcely necessary
test-glass should be
thoroughly stirred at regular intervals. To avoid this
necessity, and at the same time to improve the accuracy
COBALT
234
of ultramarine
allowed to
set, so that
easily recognised.
COBALT
Bleu de Thenard
Cobalt Blue
Kobaltblau.
silicate,
the
name
of these
of
is
'
cobalt
'
or
'
cobalt blue.'
The
best
known
then comes Leithner's or Thenard's blue, a cobalt phosphate on an aluminous base lastly, there is an aluminous
;
much
better
way
aluminium hydrate with a solution of cobalt nitrate, drying and then strongly igniting the mass. It may likewise
be prepared by precipitating a solution of sodium aluminate by means of cobalt chloride solution. Thenard's blue
may be prepared by mixing about 8 parts of aluminium
hydrate with i part of cobalt phosphate, both in the moist
condition, then drying and strongly calcining the mixture
;
formed.
The
work well in all media. They are unmoisture, and oxygen. The best samples
cobalt blues
affected
by light,
COERULEUM
of
them are
practically
235
permanent even
in
impure
air,
but
ammonium
If they
sulphide tends to discolour them.
appear changed in hue in any oil-paintings, the yellowing
of the admixed or overlying oil or varnish must be regarded
may
be used
in fresco-painting
alum
solution, nor
when
acids.
is
three-fourths
its
much
of fine quality
and
of
stability.
The
scapes.
CCERULEUM
Cerulium
Bleu
When oxide
of tin
is
Cerulean Blue
Coelinblau
Celeste.
tion
are other
ways
One
of these
precipitate,
and then
PRUSSIAN BLUE
236
Coeruleum
is
by gas or candle
PRUSSIAN BLUE
Blue
Prussiate
Bleu de Berlin
TurnbulVs Blue
of Iron
Chinese
Pariser-blau.
this
pigment can
The blue
excess of potassium ferricyanide solution.
is
washed
with
distilled
water
until
formed
precipitate
the wash-water begins to acquire a blue tint.
position of the pigment thus prepared is,
PRUSSIAN BLUE
It
con-
tains potassium,
'
and
237
is,
either of the other kinds of Prussian blue, while its solubility in water causes it to stain the paper on which it is
It
should invariably be
it
superior
One
kinds
of
of these con-
a small portion of the dry powdered pigment in a porcelain basin or iron tray, allowing the
brown residue to cool, and then throwing it into a little
sists in roasting
is
into
is
it
if
with
warm
becomes
distilled
some
of the
water on a Swedish
powdered blue
filter
the filtrate
blue.
No.
I.
by
by pouring potassium ferrocyanide
some
I.
may
pigment
is
it
also be obtained
The chemical
very complex, the simplest empirical formula
being Fe r (CN) 18 it will be seen that it contains no
water or
for
and
by precipitating a
time, or
238
This blue
of the salt.
III. Turnbull's
Blue.
is
The
chief constituent
of
I.
the
contains potassium.
it,
removed from
by stannous chloride solution, a substance being produced having the empirical formula
Fe5 (CN) 12 but containing some water. Or the same
body may be made by precipitating a solution of ferriit
to
II.,
Exposed to light, all the forms of Turnbull's blue, pure and impure, have a more decided tendency to become greenish or to fade than No. II.
Prussian blue.
The
in
scribed.
they
all
show a coppery
use
lustre.
The
artists'
is
The
insoluble
PRUSSIAN BLUE
form
239
'
thin
When
this
depth when the slip was exposed in air kept dry another
portion was reduced to 8-5 by four years' exposure in
A sample of Prussian blue (as
an ordinary frame.
;
ordinarily
the pure transparent pigment than in its tint with flakewhite. A second specimen, from another maker, similarly
maker
of Berlin,
Diesbach by name.
CYANINE
240
its
Antwerp blue is a
ment consisting of a
Alumina
is
CYANINE
stability.
:
Leitch's Blue.
it is
fairly
permanent, even
this
mixed pigment
in water-colour painting.
course, not adapted for use in fresco, as the Prussian blue in it at once yields rust through the action of the
It is, of
be recommended, as
artist
of ascertaining the purity and quality of the several components of his mixtures. In the case of cyanine, it
which
is laid
is still
INDIGO
241
Such a phenomenon
INDIGO.
Indigo has been used either as a pigment or a dye from
very early times in India and in Egypt. It is referred to
under the name oiindicum by Pliny; later on the Byzantine
writers called
it
azovium Romanum.
'
'
Indigo bagadel
as early as 1228 in
is named
is, indigo of Bagdad
the Marseilles tariffs in the early English accounts rela-
that
ting to painting
works (1274)
it
it
is
was designated
'
'
called
as
indebas.'
'
In
'
ind,'
inde,'
'
Endego and indico were used in the
ynde.'
It was first largely
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
imported from India into Europe in the seventeenth cen-
and
'
'
'
large
number
'
Indigo (C 16
H 10 N O
2
2)
shrub,
probably of
16
INDIGO
242
thrown on
dried.
to cloth-strainers,
The mineral
moreover, it is sometimes
Indigo is easily oxidized by a very large
number of substances rich in oxygen, yielding a yellow
product called isatine ; it is converted into a colourless
;
adulterated.
purifying indigo
indigo treated
alcohol.
by treatment
INDIGO
243
is
of an intense
and
is
Indigo
generally poor.
frequently receives
no
treatment
purifying
of water-colours.
and
finest
it is
processes of purification
graph.
No
leave, after
much more
slowly
when submitted
to
Original intensity
After two years
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
same time
altered,
in
the change
is
more con-
INDIGO
244
when
spicuous
varnish
it is
Locked up
mixed
in
in tint
with
copal or amber
The
fading
is
due to
oxidation.
Indigo
may
and
all
indigo.
marked
effect
upon
by a water-absorbing agent,
its
original depth of
INDIGO
245
in
grey.
The
effect, if
stability,
when exposed
appears that
'
refined
'
'
Bengal
Bengal,' and even to the indigotins obtained by the green
vitriol and glucose processes.
The
that
ment
INDIGO
246
when dry ground in oil. Another plan recommended (in a note, dated 1642) by Feltz consists in grinding the indigo with a little calcined alum this plan is,
the paste
its
natural impurities,
It is scarcely
legitimate plan.
abundant evidence
to
is the only
necessary to add that there
prove that in
De
Mayerne's day
painting unless
it
it is
indigo.
its
weight of fuming
oil
characterized
INDIGO
247
colour or
oil.
indigotin, in
will be
been compounded.
was
of copper
employed
permanent except
in the
SMALT
248
SMALT
Bleu de
It
potash,
generally contains, in 100 parts, silica, 65 to 71
and cobalt oxide, 6 to 7 parts: a little alumina
16 to 21
In the inferior varieties the oxides of
is always present.
;
iron
it
moderately
fine
is
ground into a
to the process
on a piece
CHESSYLITE
249
CHESSYLITE
Blue Verditer
A zurite
Mountain Blue
Bice
Cendres Bleues
Bergblau.
Perm, Siberia.
This blue pigment has been prepared
the natural substance
exposure to
impure
and
particularly
more
is
air.
far less
The
of
district of
artificially,
liable to
but
change on
ultramarine, has
= azurite),
was
largely the case between the thirteenth and sixcenturies, has kept its hue unimpaired to the
teenth
present day.
Under the
coloured paint
artificial copper hydrate along with some carbecomes greenish by exposure to sunlight or
a very moderate degree of heat. Like all similar artificial
compounds of copper it proves to be untrustworthy.
mainly of an
bonate.
It
there
BLUE PIGMENTS
250
EGYPTIAN BLUE.
known
who
has re-determined
its
parts of fine sand, 48 copper carbonate, 36 calcium carbonate, and 20 parts of fusion mixture.' A few grams
'
were submitted
to
definite
temperatures in an electric
furnace for
is
rather academic
MANGANESE VIOLET
251
MANGANESE VIOLET
Mineral Violet
Nurnbergerviolett
Permanent
Violet
is somewhat tedious.
It is
manganous chloride and phosphoric
acid, solutions of these compounds being mixed together,
evaporated to dryness, and then the residual mass fused.
The fused mass is broken up and boiled with a solution
brighter.
Its preparation
made by means
of
ammonium
of
carbonate.
The
turbid liquor
is
allowed
'
'
manganese violet separates it is removed by filtration and thoroughly washed and dried.
It appears to be essentially manganous metaphosphate,
although by no means pure.
Two other violet or purple pigments of a permanent
character have been already described. One of these is
precipitate of
violet
cobalt (page
(page 232).
CHAPTER
XVIII
BROWN PIGMENTS
RAW UMBER
Levant Umber
Umbra
Terre d'Ombre
Umbraun
Terra Ombra.
Exhibition of 1886.
It differs
C.
a red heat*-
lost at 100
lost at
(MnO 2
Lime
...
48 -5
Magnesia Alumina
Phosphorus pentoxide
19*0
Silica
4-8
8-8
Carbon
i'4
0*5
2-1
0-9
13-7
dioxide, etc.
0*3
Includes a
little
252
RAW UMBER
prized by artists.
It
253
Mn 3 O 4
ment known as
burnt umber.
This change of colour is
due to the passage of the brown ferric hydrate into the
red ferric oxide, and to an increase in the proportion of
the red-brown manganese oxide present.
Raw umber in
purified,
soon
Raw umber
is
which
it
of
But this
exposure to sunlight.
due to the presence of traces of brown
peaty acids, or humus substances, which occasionally
occur in the umbers from certain localities.
five
to
ten
deterioration
years'
is
'
Raw umber
colour
it
'
works and
in time,
owing
RA W SIENNA
254
chiefly
to
the
superimposed
by the umbers of
BURNT UMBER.
It has before been pointed out that raw umber, from
which burnt umber is prepared by calcination, is not an
ordinary ochre, but owes its colour in great measure to
of
not, however,
it
ferric hydrates.
RAW
SIENNA
Terre de Sienne
Terra di Siena
Rohe
Sienna.
RA W SIENNA
G. H. Hurst
('
Chem. News,'
255
gave three
CALEDONIAN BROWN
256
Raw
to
BURNT
SIENNA.
The
powder) of raw
peculiarity in a
liable to adulteration.
method
greens
of painting.
It is available for
Some
may be made by
fine
use in every
and permanent
foliage-
sienna.
CALEDONIAN BROWN.
This brown, although a natural earth, presents very
the appearance of burnt sienna.
It contains a
much
When
calcined
it
loses its
is
a per-
VANDYKE BROWN
manent and innocuous pigment, which
and tempera painting. It is said
for oil
is
is
well adapted
brown
257
is
VANDYKE BROWN.
Three brown pigments pass
name
of
The
Vandyke brown.
second
is
colcothar
in
first is
The
first
innocuous, but the third kind will not resist the prolonged action of light, becoming paler and redder in the
course of time.
The
powder is heated in a
change in colour and great
its
shows.
in the
test-tube, as well as
loss of
weight which
by the
it
then
in
being called
the colour-value of
the
perishable variety
is
incomsort.
17
CAPPAGH BROWN
258
these earths
is
becomes darker,
exposure.
is
Some
duller,
and decidedly
less alterable
by
now sold
changed by gentle
We have met
with some specimens of Cassel earth which proved practically permanent in oil, but even these faded quite
distinctly when exposed to strong light after having been
mixed with flake-white.
roasting
CAPPAGH BROWN
B., slightly
less alterable.
Euchrome
Mineral Brown,
contains ferric hydrate and ferric oxide, with a consideramount of one of the oxides or hydrates of manganese.
It gives off a good deal of water when heated to 100 C.,
able
BISTRE
259
Water,
Water,
lost at
lost at
100 C.
a red heat
18*7
It is
...
Alumina
Lime
Silica
2'6
-
Phosphorus pentoxide(P2 O 8 )
4-6
0-4
in the
In this way it
these metals into their higher oxides.
exceed
that
the
added
ioo,even when
percentages
happens
it
be
it
be
ground in oil. It is an innocuous pigment, but its permanence has scarcely been sufficiently tested. A rub of
Cappagh brown
one month,
exposure
lost
for five
BISTRE
months more.
Bister
Brauner Lack
Russbraun.
ASPHALT UM
260
powder
is
then ground with suitable quantities of gumwater and glycerin, and preserved in the moist state. To
the residue
is
ASPHALTUM Bitumen
:
Mineral Pitch
Mummy
Antwerp Brown
Mumie.
Avlona, in Albania,
etc.
ASPHALTUM
261
which contain the smallest proportion of the abovedescribed hydrocarbons, for to the presence of these the
treacherous character of asphalt as a pigment is due. On
this account the hardest, most earthy and most brittle
'
'
Mechanic
of Oil-Colours' (1787),
and safe product.
satisfactory
little
it
asphalts made from coallargely sold in lieu of the original and genuine
product. The disadvantages attending the use of these
coal-tar browns and of ordinary asphalt are two-fold.
It is superior to the imitative
tar,
now
by reason
of their easy
but they are liable to stain contiguous pigments
of their solubility in oil or varnish.
When
more
solid paints.
ASPHALTUM
262
'
Mummy,'
as a pigment,
is inferior
to prepared, but
superior to raw, asphalt, inasmuch as it has been submitted to a considerable degree of heat, and has thereby
lost some of its volatile hydrocarbons.
Moreover, it is
usual to grind up the bones and other parts of the mummy
together, so that the resulting powder has more solidity
and
is less
would
be.
for
twenty years.
It is
century.
with
gum and
PRUSSIAN BROWN
263
PRUSSIAN BROWN.
This pigment, as usually met with
in
commerce, con-
it
may be removed by
a thorough
potassium.
and
if
product,
and
still
dried.
hot, is
Prussian
colour of considerable
character.
permanent.
In hue
it is
rich
warmer than
asphalt.
It is quite
CHAPTER XIX
BLACK PIGMENTS
INDIAN INK
Chinese Ink
Japanese Ink
Encre de Chine
Chinesische Tusche.
in
China
cloves,
or rose-water.
is
derived from the imperfect combustion of oil or of pinewood. The oils chiefly used are those of Sesamum indicum, Canndbis sativa, and Dryandria covdata; but in
some
A.D.
powder.
many
kinds
from
264
INDIAN INK
265
some hundreds,
repeated blows
at
from a
least
The
more intense
is
it
the
yields
opaque
white pigments.
The
made
homogeneous
in
China.
they show a
Those having,
in tint
INDIAN INK
266
come
next,
and
in straight lines,
The slight
sloping cavity has been hollowed out.
tooth,' or roughness of the surface, greatly helps the
rubbing-down of the ink.
strong wash of this ink, on
'
become
extent
some
paler, less
of the
is
Indian ink
France.
lie
fair
success in
The
in
total
;
but
Japan-
LAMP-BLACK
267
quality.
LAMP-BLACK
Noir de
Houille
When
and
products in question.
oily
sometimes
naces,
employed
in
collected in
its
large
the soot
first
de-
candle
will
Lamp-black
carefully
made
is
an unalterable pigment
CHARCOAL-BLACK
258
but
With
the
origin,
which
as
compounds
of carbon,
CHARCOAL-BLACK
Black
When
Blue-Black
Now
non-resinous
de Vigne
Vine-Black
Frankfort-
Rebschwartz.
woods and
woody
tissues
are
strongly heated in crucibles or other almost completelyclosed vessels, the residue contains the greater part of the
its form.
As
made
contain
some
soluble mineral
ground
in oil.
Amongst the
best materials for producing these charmay be named the hard shells or
CHARCOAL-BLACK
269
Frankfort-black.
When charcoal
IVORY BLACK
270
IVORY BLACK
Waste ivory,
Noir
in the
d'lvoire
Elfenbeinschwartz.
if
cents, of carbon.
On exposure to the air, ivory black
absorbs, not only the gases of the atmosphere, but also a
very considerable proportion of moisture. On this account
being ground in
should
its
always be thoroughly
dried.
decolourizing power
when placed
in contact
oil,
with moist
organic pigments, it is better adapted for use in oil painting than with water colours. This decolourizing property
belongs also to the animal blacks obtained by charring
black,
made from
BLACK LEAD
Plumbago
Graphite
the mineral
may
diamond is another
be taken as a good representative of the
Graphit.
Graphite
is
commonly known
GRAPHITE
in reality contains
no
lead,
and
271
is in
no way related
to
that
metal.
or ash.
broken into small fragments in order that obviously contaminated bits may be rejected before the material is
ground. Inferior qualities of graphite may be purified
by being coarsely ground, and then heated with strong
hydrochloric acid to remove iron and alumina. After
washing, the thus-far purified material should be placed
in a leaden or platinum vessel and gently warmed with
a solution of hydrofluoric acid to remove silica. The
with
graphite, after this treatment, is to be washed
abundance of water, and ground to a very fine powder,
which is then ready for admixture with gum water or,
after drying,
with
oil.
The
addition of a
more manageable
oil
little
china clay
tends to produce a
paint.
on other pigments.
Graphite is sometimes adulterated with charcoal or
lamp-black.
pigment
When
freed from
SEPIA
272
above-named adulterant.
SEPIA.
The dark-brown
Sepia
officinalis,
common
hydrochloric acid
cantation, and
dried.
is
is
is
the least
It is not,
it
It
suffers
SEPIA
273
And
is
atmospheric oxygen.
Sepia is not employed as an
oil colour.
There are several grey pigments which, being compounded of other paints already described, need hardly
be mentioned here. Amongst these are neutral tint and
Payne's grey, which in water-colour are still prepared
by commingling indigo, crimson lake, and ivory black,
bur which have been replaced in oil by artificial ultramarine, ochre and ivory black an entirely trustworthy
Slate grey, prepared from a rather soft and
mixture.
very dark-coloured
in artistic quality
slate, is
and
in stability.
CHAPTER XX
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS
THE
He
and opacity,
and
these
terms
are
conventional
comparative
although
only, since no pigment is perfectly transparent, none
Another basis of classification, and a
perfectly opaque.
also takes into account transparency
none
of these
stability, will
at present
we
be considered
Ts
I Artificial
i
ORGANIC PIGMENTS.
"
Animal
'
Artificial
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS
275
dis-
tinction
mineral,
is
or amorphous,
substantive or adjective. There are difficulties in carrying out these schemes of classification, and it will be
found that distinctions of physical character are utilized
to the best purpose when connected with such a chemical
classification as is offered below.
The
ELEMENTS
COMPOUNDS
;
MIXTURES
is this
as yellow ochre,
After
still
and Prussian
is
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS
276
no pretension to completeness.
the following nine groups
venient, has
I.
ELEMENTS
Contain carbon.
Gold.
Platinum.
GROUP
Ivory black
Charcoal black
Lamp black
Indian ink
Silver.
Aluminium.
Graphite
GROUP
Zinc white
Green oxide of 1
.
chromium
Burnt umber
Cobalt green
Cobalt red -
II.
ZnO.
^r a r\
u3
<-..
Oxide * of Fe
{I and Mn.
-
CoO.wZnO.
CoO,MgO.
OXIDES
suggest
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS
GROUP
Yellow ochre
Raw sienna
Raw umber
IV.
Fe2O 8,H 2 O.
drates
Fe
of
HYDRATES
Emerald oxide"!
f
f
of chromiumJ
Mountain blue t
CuH,O 9
-j
and Mn.
GROUP V.
Flake white
Whitening
CARBONATES
2PbCO 3 ,PbH 2 O 2
CaCO 3
GROUP
VI.
of Fe. K,
Terreverte
277
(Silicate
I
CuCO 3 ,CuH 2 O 2
Chessylite
Malachite
2CuCO 3l CuH 2 O 2
SILICATES
of
f Silicate
Smalt
Co
and K.
Mg.
GROUP
Baryta yellow
Strontia yellow
Chrome
yellow
GROUP
VII.
BaCrO 4
SrCrO 4
PbCrO 4
CHROMATES
Chrome
red
Zinc chromate
VIII.
BaSO 4
PbSO 4
Naples yellow
Contains Pb,
Sb, O.
..
Tungsten green
.
Manganese
r.
= XT-Nurnberg
tungstate.
Manganese
violet
i
violet
Yellow lake.
Gamboge.
Pure orange. *
Rose madder. *
Madder carmine.
Rubens madder.
*
Madder red.
Purple madder.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Brown madder.
Scarlet alizarin.
Crimson
alizarin.
'
'
Chromium
IX.
Contains
Schwemfurtgreenj Cu> Ag
K 6 Co2 i2NO
GROUP
Baryta white
Lead sulphate
Aureolin - -
Indian yellow.
Pb2 CrO e
ZnCrO 4
metaphospnate.
SULPHIDES
278
One
of
the chief
lessons
a general
rule, exert
be
to
members
from
learnt
The
is
this
of each class, as
This
oxides of
explained easily.
Group II., having
already taken up the full complement of oxygen which
they can acquire under ordinary conditions, are not likely
to be oxidized
character.
produced
in
may prove
The
useful
GROUP
ELEMENTS.
drawings
in
altered in
hue from
fine
drawing
GROUP
is
pure platinum.
moreover, not
liable
to
affect
other pigments,
being
practically inert.
GROUP
III.
SULPHIDES.
Some
of these
may give up
Thus
cadmium yellow blackens emerald green, producing
copper sulphide. One of these pigments, vermilion, is
sulphur to the metallic bases of other pigments.
279
states,
essential
of the former
may be
GROUP
VI.
SILICATES.
inert
little
On
change
is
GROUP VIII.
num-
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS
28o
One, a
relationship have been thrown into this group.
is
insoluble
and
inalterable
another, potassium
sulphate,
;
notably on indigo.
contain lead or copper
GROUP IX. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. This group inmany more pigments than any other not one of
:
cludes
to the
its
are so
producing a
under
for
to sunlight
media
in oily
and resinous
is
Here
deportment.
is
list
and physical
differences of
which
Molecular rearrangement
Vermilion
cadmium
sul-
phide.
Subsidence
...
...
Smalt.
Volatilization
...
...
Solution
...
...
...
Kings' yellow.
Strontia yellow
Fusion
...
...
...
Asphalt.
Oxidation
...
...
...
Reduction ...
...
...
Sulphuration
aureolin.
green.
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS
281
been sketched
artist,
and yet
seems to merit
it
refer to the
number
amongst these
he
will
are no
molybdenum, or vanadium. Coloured insoluble compounds indeed exist of all these elements several of such
compounds have been proposed and even employed as
;
other
pigments, but instability or injurious action upon
the
from
candidates
these
palette
pigments has banished
of the artist.
CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS
282
cited as
examples
to
the latter
all
Substantive pigments are homogeneous, definite substances, simple or compound, but not separable into two
bodies, having differing optical qualities.
On
the other
is
as on a background.
it
is
extended
CHAPTER XXI
TABLES OF PERMANENT, FUGITIVE, AND ALTERABLE
PIGMENTS
BY
be observed
in the
same hue.
TABLES OF PIGMENTS
284
For when we leave the practically unalterwe have to deal with a number of
which
fall
preparations
by irregular and often barely recognisable steps from the almost permanent to the hopelessly
One example of this difficulty in classification
fugitive.
must suffice aureolin is almost worthy of a place in
discussion.
Class
I.,
permanent pigments
practically
CLASS
CLASS
II
III
White
Baryta white.
Zinc white.
Flake white.
Yellow
Yellow ochre.
Raw
Aureolin.
sienna.
Baryta yellow.
Naples yellow.
Cadmium
orange.
Yellow madder.
Strontia yellow.
Brown pink
Chrome
j
yellow.
Cadmium
j
Kings' yellow.
Indian yellow.
yellow.
yellow
lake.
Gamboge.
Zinc chromate.
TABLES OF PIGMENTS
CLASS
CLASS
II
285
TABLES OF PIGMENTS
286
In order to adapt the foregoing classified table to watersome changes and additions must be made.
colours,
vermilion
and when
is
it
free
has published.
The
that of stability
the figures prefixed to the names of
the individual pigments indicate the degree of perma-
is
nence,
unchangeable, while 45
TABLES OF PIGMENTS
287
Zinc white.
Flake white.
Yellow ochre.
i.
i.
Naples yellow.
i.
Ivory black,
Terre verte.
i.
Cadmium
i.
Green ultramarine,
Raw
I.
i.
i.
i.
i.
(deep).
sienna.
Red ochre.
Mars red.
Venetian red.
Burnt Italian earth.
i.
13.
Raw
16.
Vandyke brown.
31.
32.
33.
Zinc chromate.
Pale cadmium.
Orange chrome.
Burnt umber.
8.
Viridian.
Cobalt blue,
Artif. ultramarine.
10.
Mars
1.
Indian yellow.
2.
Ivory black.
Mars brown.
3.
Burnt sienna.
17.
9.
Prussian blue.
Madder carmine.
38.
42.
Brown
violet.
12.
Emerald green.
26.
Madder
doree.
'
rose
'
III
35. Asphalt.
36.
madder
lakes.
24.
Indian red.
II
18 to 23. Various
umber.
chrome.
7.
i.
CLASS
30. Pale
6.
Cobalt green.
Mars yellow.
Mars orange.
i.
CLASS
Malachite green.
4.
5.
pink.
Vermilion.
Burnt carmine.
44.
Yellow lake.
Carmine.
45.
Crimson
43.
lake.
that this
TABLES OF PIGMENTS
288
when
exposure to light
is
concerned,
it
may happen
that
some
connexion
when exposed,
have passed
CLASS
I.
PERMANENT
Zinc white.
Madder carmine.
Ultramarine.
Aureolin.
Pink madder.
Rose madder.
Purple madder.
Brown madder.
Rubens' madder.
Manganese
Cadmium
yellow.
Yellow ochre.
Raw
sienna.
Baryta yellow.
Mars
yellow.
Vermilion.
Venetian red.
Light red.
Indian red.
Oxide of chromium.
Alizarin lakes.
Cerulean blue.
Cobalt blue.
Cobalt green.
Viridian.
Crimson madder.
CLASS
II.
violet.
Cobalt violet.
Prussian brown.
Caledonian brown.
Cappagh brown.
Burnt umber.
Burnt sienna.
Vandyke brown.
Bone brown.
Black lead.
Blue black.
Ivory black.
MODERATELY PERMANENT
Flake white.
Indian yellow.
Leitch's blue.
Chrome
Green cinnabar.
Emerald green.
Prussian blue.
Malachite.
Asphaltum.
Rose doree.
Brown
yellow.
Naples yellow
tative).
Kings' yellow.
(imi-
Antwerp
blue.
pink.
TABLES OF PIGMENTS
CLASS
Citron yellow
(ZnCrO 4 ).
Yellow
lake.
Gamboge.
Primrose yellow.
Carmine.
III.
FUGITIVE
289
CHAPTER
XXII
tible of change,
for
whether
it
commingling
If
much mixing
And
match
in
hue
parent pigment opaque, but the reverse operation is impracticable. Scumbling of one opaque colour thinly over
another which
is
also
290
SELECTED PALETTES
291
vermilion,
madder carmine
to his
emerald green,
virid-
ian;
to
his
may yield with white two difon salmon, the other on rose.
artist in
mixed
and the mixed hues to which they give rise by commixTo this set of
ture with one another in twos and threes.
he adds another, in which these pigments
experiments
are mixed, after the same manner, with those belonging
to the first series.
will
As
SELECTED PALETTES
2Q2
many
few
artists
hues shown
in their
works.
italics.
pounds, and by the use, in the same picture, of incompatible media and methods, executed many works between
the years 1770 and 1775 with one or other of these five
restricted
ments
i.
palettes,
Flake white.
SELECTED PALETTES
W.
Flake white.
Naples yellow.
Yellow ochre.
Terre verte.
Light red.
Indian red.
Lake.
Blue verditer.
Raw sienna.
Cadmium
i, 2, 3.
Aureolin.
Vermilion.
pigments, twenty-eight in
Flake white.
293
all
Raw
umber.
Burnt umber.
Black.
Field'syermilion.
Vermilion.
Light red.
Venetian red.
Ultramarine.
Ultramarine
Indian red.
Madder carmine.
Antwerp
Pink madder.
Rose madder.
Green oxide
ash.
Cobalt.
blue.
Vine black.
Ivory black.
Brtnvn madder.
Raw umber.
Burnt sienna.
Terre verte.
chromium.
Emerald green.
Thomas Wright,
and,
it is
to be
Vermilion.
Naples yellow.
Brown pink.
Burnt ochre.
Indian red.
Light red.
Carmine.
Lake,
Burnt lake.
Terrace-urn blue.
Ivory
Ultramarine.
Prussian blue.
Lake azure (?).
black.
Naples yellow.
Yellow ochre.
Vermilion.
Cobalt blue.
Venetian red.
Antwerp
Burnt sienna.
blue.
Raw sienna.
W.
Ivory black.
yellow.
Flake white.
Raw umber.
Vandyke brown.
Yellow ochre.
Vermilion.
Raw
Rose madder.
Purple lake.
sienna.
Raw umber.
Cobalt blue.
Vandyke brown.
Ivory black.
The
Chinese white
Lemon
Gamboge.
Yellow ochre.
Vermilion.
Light red.
Indian red.
Raw
Madder
yellow.
sienna.
lake.
Terre verte.
Cobalt.
Ultramarine.
Ultramarine ash.
Smalt.
Madder brown.
Raw umber.
Burnt sienna.
Burnt umber.
SELECTED PALETTES
294
Sir
John
Indian
lake.
RESTRICTED PALETTES
2.
Flake-white, cadmium
295
vermilion,
yellow,
ultra-
marine, ivory-black.
instead of five,
is
indeed,
for the
'
it is
'
fitted
With No.
first
we may
therefore regard
it
pose will be a
little less
originals, since
these hues will have been produced by the increased absorption of certain elements of the incident white light
Hamerton (Portfolio,
was constituted
of
1876, p. 132),
which
flake-white,
ochre,
for pale
restricted palette
by imitating with
modified by
its
constituents
give some
my own
Naples Yellow.
many
of his results, as
exact.
RESTRICTED PALETTES
296
Lemon
Yellow.
Flake-white,
trace of viridian
cadmium
yellow, with a
less brilliant
Cadmium Orange.
less brilliant.
Light Red.
Venetian Red.
mine, a
little
Cappagh brown
exact.
viridian
less translucent
artificial light.
Prussian Blue.
Ultramarine, black, a trace of viridian
lacks the translucency and depth of the original.
Raw
Sienna.
Yellow ochre, aureolin, Cappagh brown.
Burnt Sienna. Madder carmine and Cappagh brown,
with a trace of vermilion less translucent.
:
Malachite.
White,
cadmium
yellow,
yellow ochre,
viridian, ultramarine.
Terre Verte.
Cobalt
White, aureolin,
Green.
viridian, ivory-black.
white.
Indigo.
very close.
Vandyke Brown. Cappagh brown, with
carmine and a little ivory-black.
It is
much madder
resources at the
self to
trials
of its
3,
capacity are
RESTRICTED PALETTES
297
in
294),
zinc-white
vermilion,
zinc-white
ment
= Chinese
of vermilion
(A.)
Section I.
includes
13 pigments.
298
RESTRICTED PALETTES
between our imitations and the original pigments which they are intended to replace are rather those
of lessened brightness, translucency, and depth than those
differences
of hue.
PART
IV
CHAPTER
XXIII
PAINTING-METHODS
As
and
be necessary to do
than
present chapter
give a summary or
view
the
of
each
of
method of employgeneral
chemistry
III. of this
more
volume,
it
will not
in the
Methods
may be
thus
302
oil
present in addition.
Tempera-grounds
rigid, tenacious, and firm
they need not be dry,
organic pigments are to be used, they should not
or fat
is
must be
but
if
'
to test-papers.
Three kinds
these tests
positions
particles to
be exactly neutral-
TEMPERA-PAINTING
303
in this
of oil in egg-yolk
is
'
'
was
was
at the
air.
same time
afforded against
FRESCO-PAINTING
304
2.
In fresco -painting
painting-ground
in
an aqueous
When
water
is
in the
this
some
plasters
is
produced.
Some
of
the pigments.
FRESCO-PAINTING
in
305
every case.
secco
the plaster
is
some measure,
beginning work
is
is far
but the
from
same
the
though resulting
;
expression
'
painting in
'
secco
is
generally employed to
Schedula,'
Book
I.
chapter xv.).
Tne
and exposed
for centuries.
But
in air
in their place.
FRESCO-PAINTING
306
True
come
Siena, began
some works
in fresco,
which he finished
in
it
For the
lime.
Although
it
which
is
This remark
found to have
FRESCO-PAINTING
it
307
is
earthenware
to those of steel.
Asiatic P"resco.
the
method
lime
is
'
:
Museum,
preparation of
may
:
On
made
into a
Pigments such as an
irou red, malachite, a charcoal grey and an ochre, sometimes mixed with the cream of burnt gypsum, were then
As
its
content of gypsum.
for
From
dissolved in water.
ployed is an alkaline silicate
have
improved the
time to time different experimenters
STEREOCHROMY
308
The
constituents and preparation of paintinggrounds adapted for this process have been discussed in
Chapter II. The pigments should be treated, as recom-
duced.
Opinions
differ
but
it is
essential that
if
distilled
is
shortly afterwards
if neces-
water ; and,
and the
salts
is
OIL-PAINTING
309
employed
stereochromy are more limited in number
even than those available in fresco-painting, and consist
chiefly of natural oxides and earths, the artificial oxides
and hydrates of chromium and iron, cobalt green, ultrain
methods
is
is
The
When
by means of a
If
between
hygroscopic equilibrium have been established
the wall and the air, the gelatin will remain flat if the
;
air,
OIL-PAINTING
310
them gradually
in
oil-colours
venient
means
able.
but
The
If
The changes
*
By linoleic acid is here meant the mixture of fatty acids
obtainable from raw linseed oil.
OIL-PAINTING
constituents during the
summarized
(a)
The
311
painting process
may be
thus
oils
in
air,
increasing
when
a layer of a drying
;
of
oxygen by the
employed
linoxine.
oil
a sub-
Now this
product
is
which
in colour,
of wine.
'
'
linolein
into
'
linoxine
'
this
change
the terpenes.
for
some time
after the
OIL-PAINTING
312
In a properly-proportioned medium
be balanced, or rather more than
the
balanced, by
expansion of the oil present. Hence the
of
desirability
associating a varnish (or a resin dissolved
becomes
fissured.
in
oil,
in this
method
of
painting.
may be produced.
An important precaution to be observed in
matters as
the 'conduct'
The
and so
if
more
a picture
is to
OIL-PAINTING
oil
313
less
some
oil
and
volatile
be
no
ing, will
of
'
'
power
become much
suffer injury
'
is
it
separately spread,
to travel towards the
is
cadmium yellow
perhaps owing to
In consequence, the production of spots of black sulphide of copper occurs chiefly,
if not entirely, on that side of the oil-layer which is in
its solubility in
the medium.
3M
OIL-PAINTING
solution of
amber
power of
which the
test
to harden in a desiccator
page 66.
is
OIL-PAINTING
'
'
315
'
with
any cleaning operation to which the picture may be afterwards subjected. The question of the kind of varnish to be
an oil-picture has been much discussed.
Our choice lies between a strong irremovable varnish, and
a weak one capable of being abraded by friction, or of being
finally applied to
copal or amber
and thinned with turpentine, and mixed with
dissolved in
little oil,
oil
constitutes a strong, hard, irremovable protecand becomes a part of the picture itself.
such application
will then
to a mini-
ment
of
oil
never varnished.
The
SPIRIT-FRESCO PAINTING
3i6
He
desired to exclude
from that generally employed in oilpainting rather in the proportions than in the nature of its
Thus in working with it we shall find that
ingredients.
spirit-fresco differs
its
binding character
is
oil
chemical alteration at
first,
of exudation or
bloom
it
but merely
is
although
produce a kind
solidifies,
liable to
Chapter
II.).
The method of
involves the
and
ground
with
in oil
oil
may
medium
generally
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
317
are to be preferred.
The medium may be diluted to any
desired consistency with spirit of turpentine or with oil
of spike, but no dilution further than that
required to
This
result
is
been ground
a
little
5.
extra
The
Water-colour Painting.
medium, or where
to the latter.
moisture
from
the
air,
is
however, useful, when employed in moderation, for preserving the pigments in working condition, and in counterused
acting the tendency of gum to crack. The media
of aqueous
painting, consisting wholly
solutions, afford very slight protection to the pigments
In the presence of the moisture of the ground
used.
in water-colour
cent, of water)
(paper often contains naturally 10 per
abundant
have
and of the air, water-colour pigments
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
318
possible, but
Thus
agents.
also
(vermilion, for
instance,
cannot
oil-painting
comes
it
be
safely
used
as
in
water-colours.
to be of linen-pulp, and
from -bleaching substances, from anti-
from
chlors,
'
filling,'
of iron,
it
will
still
contain
face
the paper-fibres.
and
One
when washes
itself
contains
it
The size in a water-colour drawing betime partly coagulated and insoluble the gum
merely dries. Instances are known where the size has
impracticable.
comes
in
in
mon
sixth
group
material.
the
perished.
Pastel,
is
The
above-named substances
(Chapter
I.);
PASTEL-PAINTING
319
of charcoal is
very precarious, the paper
is
generally
generally
made with a
medium: Pound
15
a white precipitate
may form
pour
off the
somewhat
PASTEL-PAINTING
320
with the
fixative.
the ground
is
however, the
work
will
drawings which
last better
damp.
H Since the
must be taken
to test their
to
PASTEL-PAINTING
321
chemical
between
interaction
mixed together
in the
non-existent.
Details concerning the making at home of pastelcrayons will be found in W. Ostwald's Letters to a
Here we need add
Painter,' English edition, pp. 22-27.
only the following memoranda Excellent pastel-grounds
'
may
Or
the
fabric,
same
such
moist
'
water-colour
is first
As
SILVER-POINT DRAWING
322
violet,
ultramarine with a
little
drawings
is
compounds
liable to
in
impure
The
silver.
silver in silver-point
The blackening
of the high
is
hydrogen peroxide
in ether.
in
consequence
of the gold
fortable manipulation.
Pastel or coloured chalk drawings frequently
show a
PASTEL-PAINTING
323
can easily account for the pure and fresh air of old pastel
drawings, knowing that they have been carefully mounted
and framed, and that there has been no oil or resin to
yellow and darken the pigments. But how can the remarkable state of preservation in which the carnations are
found in so many examples be explained ? Has the
'
'
is
seems
In the eighteenth
it
'
to
'
'
PASTEL-PA INTING
324
minimum.
The mode
described further on
pages 356-357.
at
CHAPTER XXIV
THE STUDY OF OLD PAINTINGS AND DRAWINGS
The
materials,
in great
impossibility of
is
important data.
to
325
pictures
in
the
National
CHANGES IN PICTURES
326
and Albert
to paintings
available
in
works
fragmentary
oil,
in fresco in
seeking.
It will
in painting-grounds, to
many
of the
traced to dark-coloured
old pictures are connected with the medium, the pigAll these matters have been
ments, or the varnish.
OLD PAINTINGS
327
and
to
pigments to
which the earlier painters were restricted were not only
few in number, but were mainly of mineral origin. At
the first glance one sees that the Italian artists of the
thirteenth century, and of the first half of the
fourteenth,
worked almost exclusively in natural inorganic pigments,
two of which stand out in their works in startling prominamely, vermilion and ultramarine; and their
pigments were nearly all opaque or semi-opaque. The
absence of any pure and brilliant yellow, opaque or
nence,
transparent,
characteristic.
In the works of
colours
is
more
is
another noticeable
in those of
many
of the
besides those of mineral origin, namely, animal and vegetable pigments in considerable variety, became more
on.
And
number
of pigments,
that one
and to
of composition, rather
modern paintings.
But the second point to which reference has been made
deterioration of
OLD PAINTINGS
328
is
The
whose work
is
executed
in the
same
safe
manner, and
hundreds of years, provided, of course, that the paintingground be satisfactory. But this careful mode of painting
does not suit the temperament, nor is it capable of
expressing the ideas of many artists. The thick impasto
and loaded colour, the effective brush-work, the juicy
pencil, and the dashing haste of several painters often
prove to be elements of danger.
The third point, concerning which a few remarks seem
advisable, is connected with the use of flake-white. There
are many old oil-paintings in which the only perfectlypreserved parts of the work are those in which flakewhite has been used with considerable freedom. Here
the continuity of the layer of pigment is intact, elsewhere
there are cracks and roughnesses and scalings-off. To
is the preservation of the high lights and of
the paler flesh-tints attributable ? The association of
hardness and cohesiveness which these parts show is
what cause
always prepared
in
329
This substance
lead ground in
is, the entire mass of the whitewhich has become solid, tough, and
that
oil
No
other pigment in
the admixed
oil to
common
anything
Now
use
is
capable of solidifying
there are
modern preparations
of
'
and
siccatives
in solution,
and then
ground
in oil
?'
Many
years ago
tried to
answer such
a question as this by means of experiment. I was actuated by a desire, based on theoretical considerations, of
I
preventing altogether the formation of lead-soaps.
lead
zinc
with
oxide,
pure
comparative experiments
carbonate, and the Dutch-made lead hydrato-carbonate,
tried
or ordinary flake-white.
alone we are
which
thoroughly with
distilled
330
The
ground
in linseed
spread
canvas
in duplicate series
;
were
and
primed
paper,
upon glass,
was kept in a dark box, the other was
strong light. So decided was the superiority
one
exposed to
oil.
set
abandon
was
reluctantly compelled
to
my
way.
containing
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
331
The darkening
cious,* but
is
Sometimes
become
or dotted with a crimson lake, but the latter has disappeared, leaving nothing but a slight gummy appearance
has disappeared.
An
to
OLD PAINTINGS
332
violet.'
somewhat
'
green bice
work
faded,
was
OLD PAINTINGS
Bennozzo Gozzoli, School
333
of (fifteenth century).
No.
The
The
fifteenth century).
in this picture
Tobias
No. 781.
seems to
in
No.
1,045.
The
fine
(in
the robe of
No. 1,143.
This
OLD PAINTINGS
334
is not unusual
the two pigments are closely related chemically, and are not likely
to react upon or injuriously affect each other.
In the National Gallery there are ten portraits in waxpigments from the Hawara Cemetery in the Fayum,
Egypt. A few of these portraits from this Cemetery are
on canvas, but the great majority on panels of wood.
There is a rich purple paint in several of these works, a
purple which one might perhaps be inclined to identify
with Tyrian purple from Purpura lapillus and other molluscs, but which the examination of certain specimens of
ancient pigments leads one to conclude to be a madder
;
derivative.
for
the time
The pigments,
one of the
Hawara graves by
Professor
W. M.
Flinders
OLD PAINTINGS
335
copper
silicate,
known
as Egyptian blue.
As
'
may
'
'
notice how,
a group of small clouds near the top of the picture,
where vermilion and lake have been introduced, the
in
is
now
a pale yellowish
brown.
No.
'
OLD PAINTINGS
336
We
colour of the chair, the curtain, and the table the hues
of all or some of these parts must have altered.
;
pinkish grey, and clashes with the flesh tints. This work
was probably painted about 1669.
William Hogarth (1697-1764). No. 289. This portrait
of Hogarth, painted in 1758 by himself, affords some in-
OLD PAINTINGS
317
'
is
ochre, slightly
well preserved
embrowned; the
is
indigo,
and the
The
Thomas
large.
Philippe de
Champaigne
(1602-1674).
No.
119.
This
WATER-COLOUR DRAWINGS
338
was hard.
Museum
the
W. Hogarth
(1697-1764) will
repay careful study from the point of view now being
preserved oil-paintings by
considered.
to
which attention
is
now
shown
called
in the
a sailor's clothes.
is
now
stain.
No. 685.
An
iron red
(1775-1837).
No.
1,358, 1874.
WATER-COLOUR DRAWINGS
339
In this
The
are now too pale for the trees dotted upon them,
the
through
fading of sap-green and gamboge, which have
been used in painting the grass. The shadows under the
hills
The
This
No. 142, 1890.
John Cristall (1767-1821).
drawing seems to have kept its hues well, and affords
a good example of the style of colouring of the period
and school to which it belongs.
This
Jacob Xavery (painted in 1757). No. 15, 1872.
has faded woefully. The sickly peaches and spectral
crimson lake, gamgrapes proclaim the evanescence of
boge, and indigo.
is
'
left of
other flowers
'
its
hue have
fled.
340
No. 381.
in great force in clouds
show themselves
Hot
iron
reds
and elsewhere
of crimson lake.
harmony with the architectural features, some of the pigments in which must have faded. These drawings should
be compared with others by the same artist which hang
beside them, and in which the blues of the skies, as well
some of the pigments in other parts, have faded. Here
as
it
may be
pigment being, of course, of comparatively recent introBut the want of harmony in such drawings
duction.
furnishes evidence at the
of
many
change
in
lemon yellow.
The hawthorn-blossom in
1,470,
WATER-COLOUR DRAWINGS
341
1869, has lost the faint rosy blush that was once visible
in some of the flowers
a delicate hue which I can distinctly recall.
suffice.
the mount.
the 'Dieppe' of
J. S.
Cotman (No.
same kind
CHAPTER XXV
CONSERVATION OF PICTURES AND DRAWINGS
IT is generally conceded that a finished oil painting is
best kept in such a position that it is exposed to daylight
of just sufficient intensity for it to be well seen, the direct
beams
In darkness, or even
'
of the work.
But there is
introduce
no
need
to
these
evanescent
pigments,
really
for every nuance the artist can desire may be produced
with paints having a sufficient if not perfect degree of
The question of artificial lighting here
permanence.
comes in. Against oil lamps, properly constructed and
managed so as to avoid the production of smoke and
the same opinion may be
soot, nothing can be urged
as to destroy the
'
keeping
lamps.
less safe,
stable pigments.
But the
342
CONSERVATION OF PICTURES
be seen
343
air
impinge
Moreover,
directly upon the front or back of a painting.
this is not a mere question of temperature, for such
currents of air
For
if
freshly-warmed
air,
air, is
comparatively dry
panels or canvases,
it
a due supply
picture and air can be maintained only by
the
latter
comes in
before
air
warmed
to
the
of moisture
contact with the painting ; the warmer the air the more
CONSERVATION OF PICTURES
344
it is
sufficiently dry not to deposit
water upon the picture. For the purpose of regulating
the hygroscopic condition of the atmosphere in a picturegallery, the introduction of a dew-point thermometer is
advisable.
And there is another contrivance by means
of
the air gets too dry, the strips will rise, owing to their
loss of water
when excess of moisture is present, they
will sink.
So long as the equilibrium of the beams to
;
the ends of which the strips are attached remains practically true, the air may be regarded as in a satisfactory
hygroscopic condition.
tion
it
nor in defect
But
deserves.
it
by currents of
cold, moist
may
be urged against
it
glass,
from an
whatever
artistic point
gaseous impurities
in
the
air.
345
applied
to
American leather
the
cloth, or
nearly as effective.
to the mounting and
of
water-colour
On no account must
paintings.
framing
the back of the paper on which a drawing is executed
is
come
PRESERVATION OF DRAWINGS
346
Thus
is
arranged
for,
air, is
not possible.
increased
number
of pigments
The
mentioned here.
was described
It
in
a letter to the
The recom1856).
mendation is to enclose each work in a light wooden
frame, under a glass, the interior surface of which is prevented from coming in contact with the drawing by
means of a raised mount. A number of such frames
(five to fifteen) are kept together in cases, which can be
carried or wheeled to any part of the room where the
drawings are to be studied. Each frame slides vertically
editor of the
Times
(October 28,
or to
smoke and
dust.'
He
PRESERVATION OF DRAWINGS
ence to such exposure in a
(November
13, 1858), in
of both the
Louvre and
347
Museum
officers
refuse to
works of Turner
am
prepared to
name an example
in
preservation of missal
exquisite
paintings,
when
the
'
its
LIGHTING OF PICTURE-GALLERIES
348
'
augment the
Experiments on a small
siderably
of
list
permanent
pigments.
scale prove that several fluorescent substances, such as a solution of quinine sulphate,
In the
first
edition
'
:
picture-galleries.'
glass
Sir W.
it
LIGHTING OF PICTURE-GALLERIES
349
fading
tective glasses
are needed.
found
of transparent screens
In
be
my
entitled
'
this
The Preparation
Spectacles.'
We
gas are less to be dreaded than those caused by the products of gaseous combustion. These products are sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, and the
Thence
is formed at the same time.
with
these
corrosive
laden
moist
a
results
atmosphere
hot,
compounds. The water- vapour condenses into the liquid
form and dissolves a part of the acids named above the
moisture which
AIR IN PICTURE-GALLERIES
350
pure
air,
come.
is
The
useful.
It is
liquid particles
astonishing
suspended
in
how
a yellow fog
may
and
be strained
RESTORATION OF PICTURES
351
occasional renewal.
lead in
Moist white
powder reduced
that
lead,
is,
white
to a paste
by admixture with
water, will absorb the sulphuretted hydrogen as well as
the sulphuric and sulphurous acid present in town air.
And
if
To
the reader
is
The
their restoration.
their profession, or
who have
'
restored
'
pictures.
hands and
feet,
that exquisite
RESTORATION OF PICTURES
352
Then
surface.
safe,
alter,
same
and
their
At the
generally becoming darker and yellower.
time, the skill of some restorers in the matter of
relining,
method
is
it is
very
The object of
rarely applicable with safety and success.
this method is the renewal of the transparency and continuity of the varnish by a process of re-solution in situ.
With this intention, the picture is exposed in a closed
shallow box to the action of the vapour evolved from
But this
hardens, and leaves a shining coat of resin.
discoloured
and
sinking into the
being necessarily
cracks of the paint, makes them more prominent, while
air,
resin,
there
old,
should be
RESTORATION OF PICTURES
taken, and
its
crumb broken up
nished with a
353
lid
it is
important that no pieces of crust,
and no fragments of crumb which have become hard
by
drying, should be introduced. Then the crumbs should
be shaken out, in portions at a time, from the canister on
to the varnished surface, and rolled
gently thereon by
;
fresh
of the mastic-powder.
gentle rotatory movement of
the ends of the fingers soon reduces the old varnish-layer
to powder, which is then removed by means of a soft
may be
moistened with
of carded cotton.
distilled
When
phere. Sometimes a little dragon's blood, or other warmcoloured resin, is added to the mastic-varnish, in order to
prevent the cold and raw look which a picture which has
toned varnish frequently presents. An oil-
REMOVAL OF VARNISH
354
has received, a year after completion, the thinnest possible layer of drying-oil containing a little copal- varnish,
and then, after the lapse of a twelvemonth, its final coat
mended
it
is
the only
the chafing process, we may add that it is sometimes advisable to re- varnish a picture with fresh mastic before
commencing to remove the old a day or two afterwards
;
The
is
liquid usually
water.
It
is
applied by
means
of
wads
of
it,
some artists introduce layers or touches of watercolours in their oil-pictures these are almost certain to
be affected by spirits of wine. Sometimes further injury
that
to
RESTORATION OF PICTURES
them
coloured
brown
varnish.
355
are
is
this case,
when
is
If
applied, a general
water-colours are
unless this change has been allowed for during the pro-
RESTORATION OF PICTURES
356
When
and
in
less
The
to the
smoky
air
Attempts
to clear the
clouded portions of an injured fresco by means of distilled water or aerated distilled water are usually attended
with a preparation of hard paraffin-wax. This preparawhich has the consistency of an ointment, is made
tion,
by
melting together 4
(melting-point above 150
tine,
and 15 parts of
parts
F.),
toluol.
of hard paraffin-wax
part of spirit of turpen-
When
and then
RESTORATION OF PICTURES
allowed to remain until
357
volatile constituents
its
have
tion of
films are
when
cleansing
spirits of wine.
If
any cloudiness of
still
may be tried.
The treatment of an injured
largely diluted,
fresco, in
accordance with
Mr. James
may
Ward
He
painting in his book Fresco Painting,' on page 30.
there says that this fresco is in a perfectly sound con'
'
dition,
first
and
is
painted
sion as to the
permanence of
fresco
had he seen
this
An example
damaged
This
be here cited.
oil-painting on a plaster ceiling may
at Greenwich,
House
work, in the Saloon of the Queen's
RESTORATION OF PICTURES
35
'
to the plaster
is
CHAPTER XXVI
TRIALS OF PIGMENTS
THE
permanence,
But
for the
we must be
in
in
a position to
atmosphere
been exposed, and the nature and amount of the solar or
In
other radiations to which they have been subjected.
the great majority of these trials accurate data as to
*
to
TRIALS OF PIGMENTS
360
precedented, care
conditions, physical
numerous references
XXII.
also
to
to
them
in
there are
Chapters XIII.
by which
permanency may be
To some of
now
TRIALS OF PIGMENTS
361
W.
Sir
Joshua Reynolds
tested,
In the
results.
first place,
From
or meaningless, yet something useful remains.
the experiments made in 1772 we may gather the following facts
a measure
lake with
at the most,
M.
brown
discolorations.
362
Mars brown,
sienna,
to be permanent.
His
Whatman
Whatman paper,
must be given as
affected.
is
C and
employment
TRIALS OF WATER-COLOURS
colours.
The numerical
363
CHANGES
Name
of
Exposure
28
M.
M. Aureolin
M. Aureolin
C.
C.
M.
M.
C.
Gamboge
Gamboge
Gamboge
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Indian
lake
...
lake
...
madder
madder
madder
...
yellow
Indian yellow
Indian yellow
M. Indian yellow
M. Pale cadmium
M. Vermilion
M. Vermilion
M
M
WATER-COLOURS
Months of
Pigment
Aureolin
M.
M.
M.
M.
IN
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
M. Carmine
M. Crimson lake ...
M. Burnt carmine ...
...
C. Pink madder
...
M. Rose madder
...
M. Rose madder
...
M. Rose madder
M. Madder carmine
M. Madder carmine
M. Purple madder ...
in these estimations.
Residual
Residual Depth
= 10)
(Original
10
62
10
82
28
28
82
62
82
28
28
62
28
28
60
82
82
62
82
28
28
28
28
28
62
...
Hue
and Remarks
Verges on orange[yellow.
9
7
Yellowish grey.
Pinkish grey.
Pale buff.
Blackish.
Black.
Pale grey.
Greenish grey.
Pinkish grey.
82
62
82
28
pale wash.
364
365
of
these two
In his Modern
Professor O. N. Rood's Experiments.
Chromatics,' pages 90 and 91, Professor Rood gives the
results of a few trials which he made as to the effect on
'
Cadmium
366
The
little
of Pigment
Chrome yellow
Red lead - -
Slightly greenish.
13.
Hooker's green
2.
Less orange.
14.
Gamboge
3.
Naples yellow -
Slightly
Bistre
brown.
Fades, yellower.
Darkens; brownish.
Fades slightly.
Fades slightly.
Fades slightly.
Fades slightly.
Fades slightly, pur-
15.
16.
1.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Rose madder
....
n. Sepia
12.
Prussian blue
Professor
change
Name
Nature
of Change
of Pigment
greenish
....
Brown madder
17.
Neutral
1 8.
Vandyke brown
19.
Indigo
tint
....
Yellow lake
23.
Crimson lake
Carmine - -
plish.
Fades slightly.
Fades somewhat.
Rood adds
24.
little
affected
Nature
of Change
More bluish.
Fades, greyish.
Fades, greyish.
Fades.
Fades.
Fades, greyer.
Fades.
Fades greatly.
Fades
greatly
brownish.
greatly
brownish.
Fades
Fades out.
Fades out.
brown madder,
by an exposure
W. N.
On September 4,
Hartley's Experiments.
late
W.
N.
the
Sir
1886,
Hartley read, before the
British Association at Birmingham, a paper on 'The
Fading of Water Colours.' His trials as to the effect on
pigments of a comparatively brief exposure to intermittent
sunshine in pure air may be thus summarized. Washes on
the best drawing-paper were the subject of the experiments
Gamboge. Pale washes were completely bleached in
three days in a week strong washes were much lightened
in colour, and rendered dull, even three hours' exposure
producing a very visible effect.
Crimson lake. Six hours' exposure to sunlight and air
:
367
pale
wash became
wash appearing
perceptibly paler.
exposed to the
air.
intermittent sunshine
days,' does not
and
indigo.
'
into,
to inter-
368
mittent sunshine.'
demanded with
similar alteration is
sunshine in free
air.
showed, indeed,
in
my
lectures
vacuum
hue
It
that
When
sealed
is still
general.
W. N.
Hartley found
are bleached
muddy
by
yellow
artificial ultra-
He
and
light, to the
the
369
salts
am
in sulphuric acid to
W.
events
it
when kept
W.
Mr.
in an urban atmosphere.
Simpson's Experiments.
Some washes
of
cards as to divide
section
in
was preserved
each
one
was exposed
a house in London
As they
morning.
were not tightly framed, the cards became a good deal
discoloured by the absorption of noxious vapours and
dirt.
The
Name
results
were
Nature
TRIALS OF PIGMENTS
370
It will
for
the most
agreement with those recorded by other experimenters the chief exceptions are marked with a star.
part in
Vermilion
on the part of
tion.
to
explana-
than usually well, but they often exhibit large differences of stability.
Nor must it be forgotten, in assigning
values to the above results, that this trial of fifteen years'
exposure was not of the severest kind. Although, on the
one hand, there was the imperfect exclusion of an inLondon atmosphere, on the other hand, the
energy of the solar radiation was much reduced by the
jurious
prevalent condition of the smoky air, while the intermittent and capricious sunshine of the Metropolis never
fell on the trial cards after ten a.m.
The
One
late
set
consists
now
of eleven
cakes
or
fragments
which
all
bear the
name
of
371
On making
One cannot,
Abney
to the Science
same changes
ments.
was
In
used.
all
In
372
there
is,
statement
of water.'
Were
if
so, at
The
general
results
of
this
first
series
of trials are
373
374
An atmosphere
no change.
by exposure to the
by
for
In a twelfth series
three weeks, all light being excluded.
of trials, the pigments were exposed in a picture-frame
under glass in such conditions, and to such an amount of
might be taken to represent the ordinary circumstances in which pictures are kept. The frame was
exposed from August 6, 1886, until May 6, 1888, to very
light, as
light,
375
Gamboge,
indigo,
marked
of tone
where
in the report,
Here, as
else-
we
known,
by Prussian blue which has been bleached by
sunlight.
of
376
which there
is
no
The
question.
following tabular statement gives the
proportion of artists, per 100, who use the eleven perishable pigments named below
:
Gamboge
Indian yellow
Vermilion
...
Carmine
Crimson lake
Purple madder
Brown madder
...
...
...
Brown pink
Vandyke brown
Sepia
Indigo
...
...
...
...
70
...
24
...
Faded
Faded
70
8
22
28
...
Gone black.
74
...
...
...
...
...
74
...
65
...
52
...
to 7.
to 6.
Faded
Faded
Faded
represents
8
tint,
lightest
to 8.
to 3.
to 7.
Gone.
Faded
Faded
Gone.
Gone.
the
the
The washes
pigment were fully
exposed for twenty uwo months.
darkest.
J
I of
I
to 8.
to 8.
We
three of
a less severe
trial
(p.
45)
same
'
'
the
more
How much
fugitive colours
'
377
'
colours.'
If painted
But
this condition
the hues.
An
commenced
* In the
preceding brief resume of certain parts of the South
Kensington Report no reference has been made to an argument,
if a certain
x. to xv., in which it is contended that
developed in
tint be exposed to an intensity of radiation which we will call 100,
and which bleaches it in, say, i hour, then, if a similar tint be
to it
exposed to an intensity i, it will require 100 hours' exposure
'
to effect the
same
bleaching.'
The
378
'
'
windows
in
We
reference must be
mation
made
to the original reports for inforas to the results of six months' and of thirteen
Pigment
10)
379
380
may
be described here.
plete series
the compreserva-
Paris,
and Schoenfeld of
Specimens of
Diisseldorf).
for further
examination and
Some of the chief results obtained are given
analysis.
in the annexed table; a few remarks on the changes
observed in some of the pigments which had been mixed
each pigment were reserved
Years of
Exposure
Yellow ochre
...
Residual Depth
(Original = TO)
...
10
...
Change of Hue
and Remarks
Browner; more
translu-
cent.
Aureolin
...
Indian yellow
...
...
...
None.
...
...
...
Slightly brownish.
(true)
...
10
...
None.
...
...
Greyish
...
...
...
...
...
Scarlet lake
...
...
Naples yellow
...
...
7
8
...
...
...
salmon when
mixed with flake white.
Dirty pink when mixed
with flake white.
Lost much yellow.
Lost much yellow.
Warm
Warm
TRIALS OF OIL-PAINTS
Years of
Exposure
TRIALS OF OIL-PAINTS
382
varieties of
'
uncommon.
some cases
in differences of
also.
nuance
INDEX
Barium chromate,
ABNEY,
,,
sulphate, 148
Baryta- water, 104
white, 148
,,
yellow, 171
Bassorin, 94
Albumen, 85
Alcohol,
no
Beeswax, 79
crimson, 194
lakes, 196
orange, 185
yellow, 185
Alterable pigments, 283 et seq.
Alum in paper, 12, 14
Alumina, hydrate, 50
linoleate, 67, 190
oleate, 67, 190
Aluminium, sheet, 39, 41
Bell's
pigments, 264
Bleaching oil, 56
Bleu lumiere, 249
Blockz, J., 361
Blue, Antwerp, 240
,,
black, 269
oil of, 71
varnish, 135
acetate, 355
alcohol, H2
medium, 140
Benzene, in
Bistre, 259
Bitumen, 260
Amber, 69
Amyl
171
hydroxide, 104
,,
cobalt, 234
Egyptian, 250
indigo, 241
late,
pigments, 226-251
Prussian, 236
Turnbull's, 238
verditer, 249
Brown, Caledonian, 256
Cappagh, 259
,,
pigments, 252-263
362
Anti-vermilion, 189
Arabic acid, 92
Arnold paper, 9
Arrabida red, 204
Arsenic sulphides, 184
Asbestos, 26
in plaster, 22
Asphaltum, 260
Aureolin, 168
Aurora yellow, 166
,,
pink, 181
Vandyke, 257
Burlington Club trials, 378
Burnt carmine, 209
lime, 19
sienna, 256
Azurite, 249
umber, 254
Burton's cobalt, 235
,,
383
INDEX
Cadmium,
,,
green, 225
pale, 162
red, 1 66
Collodion, 37
Conservation of pictures, 38^ seq., 342
Copal, Angola, 73
Benguela, 73
Kauri, 74
oil of, 139
oil-varnish, 135
,,
pebble, 72
Sierra Leone, 72
,,
spirit varnish, 133
West Indian, 74
,,
Zanzibar, 73
Copals compared, 77
Cotton paper,
Cowdi resin, 74, 138
Cremnitz white, 148
Crimson lake, 208
yellow, 162
Calcium carbonate, 19, 23
,,
hydroxide, 19
,,
oxide, 19
silicate, 20,
304
Camphor, 119
Canada balsam, 79
Canvas, 34
back
,,
of, 37
preservation of, 36-39
priming
of,
34
Willesden, 41
Cappagh brown, 258
Carbon bisulphide, 108
Cyanine, 240
lead, 145
lime, 19
Carbonates, 277, 279
Cymene, 124
Carmine, 207
Cassel brown, 258
Cellulose,
vermilion, 189
white, 152
Chloroform, 109
Chromates, 279
Chrome
Coccus
cacti,
ilicis,
207
207
Cyprusite, 161
Dammar, 74
Dextrin, 97
Dextrose, 97
Diluents, 106-124
Dipentene, 118
Distilled water, 106
Dryers, 55, 57, 125
Egg-medium, 85
Egyptian blue, 250
Elements, 275, 276, 278
Elemi, 142
Emerald green, 219
Emerald oxide of chromium, 216
Emulsions, 87
Epichlorhydrin, in
Esparto, 12
Ether, 108
Ethereal hydrogen peroxide, 17, 151
Eucalyptol, 123
Eucalyptus oils, 122
Ferrocyanides, 236
Flake white, 145-151, 328
action on
Freeman's white, 151
oil,
64, 328
INDEX
Frescoes, protected and
restored, 356
Fugitive pigments, 284, 287, 289
Galleries, picture, 38, 342,
349
142, 315
Gamboge,
385
Kermes
lake, 207
Kieselguhr, 16
Kings' yellow, 184
Kowdi, 74, 138
172
Gelatin, 10, 88
Geraniol, 107
Laevulose, 97
Gesso, 32
Lapis
Lamp-black, 267
Glue, 35, 88
Glycerides, 51
Glycerin, 51, 98
Gold-point, 322
Graphite, 270
Green, chrome, 214
madder, 285
oxide of chromium, 214
ultramarine, 232
verditer, 221
G m
arabic, 91
British,
226
dryers, 55, 59
oxychloride, 152
red, 210
sugar of, 125
sulphate, 151
white, 145-151
Lecithin in egg-yolk, 87
Leitch's blue, 240
97
Cape, 94
Senegal, 92
Suakim, 92
tragacanth, 93
22, 23, 27
Gypsum,
Honey, 97
Hydrate of alumina, 50,
Hydrates of copper, 249
yellow, 171
Light, action of, 56, 342-349, 358-382
red, 200
Lime, burnt, 19, 20
carbonate, 18
caustic, 19, 22
hydrate, 19
mild, 19
-putty, 20
slaked, 19
sulphate, 23, 27
-water, 19, 102
194, 208
35, 151
or hydrates, 279
Hydrogen peroxide,
Hydroxides
lazuli,
and
Linoleic acid
linolein, 51
Linoleum, 40
Illuminated manuscripts, 190, 331
Indian ink, 264
lake, 205
red, 202
Linoxine, 51
Linseed, 47
Linseed on, 47-51
57
60
siccative,
yellow, 174
Indigo, 241
testing,
,,
white, 48
Litmus, 13
Lovibond's tintometer, 359
brominated, 247
synthetic, 247
Infusorial earth, 16
Madder brown,
compounds
205
Ivory, 19
black, 270
of,
157,
177, 200-
196, 198
lakes, 194
rose, 198
Malachite, 221
Manganese
borate, 57
dryers, 57
25
INDEX
3 86
Manganese
oil,
58
resinate, 57
251
Manuscripts, illuminated, 190, 331
26
Marouflage,
violet,
,,
Mars
203
yellow, 177
Mastic, 76
,,
varnish, 131
Mediums, 139-142
Megilp, 140
Mercury lamp, 56
Methylated spirit, 109
Mineral lake, 199
,,
pink, 200
violet, 251
Mixed varnishes, 130
Mummy, 262
violet, 177,
,,
Oils, drying, 46
fixed, 45
Painters' materials,
307
distemper, 22, 301
,,
,,
Gambier Parry,
25,
309
oil, 309
Newman's
37-40, 52-
55. 319-321
O. W. paper, 9
Oxides, 276, 278
pastel, 318-321
,,
stereochromy, 24,
307
tempera, 22, 301
,,
Nut-oil, 62
water-colour, 317,
,,
362
Ochre, chrome
in, 161
Perigord, 159
red, 204
yellow, 157
on paints, 63
amber, 119
Oil, action
Panels, 29
preparation of, 30
Paper, 7
acid in, 13, 369
,,
alum
analyses of, 9
ash of, 10
copal, 119
drying, 46
eucalyptus, 122
extraction, 47
in egg-yolk, 87
in paints, 65
lavender, 122
lemon, 123
linseed, 47-51
,,
fibre in,
,,
linen, 9, 1 1
size in, 10, 14
manganese, 58
,,
nut, 62
,,
Varley, 17
water in, 9
,,
wood-pulp
orange, 123
painting, 309
poppy, 6 1
rosemary, 123
semi-drying, 46
siccative, 46, 57
turpentine, 112
tung, 63
varnishes, 135
Oils, essential, 122
,,
,,
cotton, ii
sugar, 17
testing, 12
Turner, 17
in, 12, 17
,,
paste, 356
Parchment, 16
Pastel painting, 318-321
Payne's grey, 273
INDEX
Peroxide of
hydrogen, 150, 338
Petroleum spirit, 120
Phellandrene, 117
Pigments
classified,
274
raw, 254
interacting, 275
Silicates, 277,
Pinene, 117
Piuri, 174
Plaster, 18-28
late,
369
Slate-grey, 273
Smalt, 248
Soane Museum,
brown, 263
Punicin, 247
Purple, Tyrian, 247, 334
Purpurin, 194
151,
338
Solvents, 106-124
*1
bpike,
Raw
279
Platinum-point, 322
Poppy oil, 6 1
,,
387
Sepia, 272
Report, 371
'
oil of,
122
Spirit-fresco grounds, 25
medium, 142
sienna, 254
umber, 253
Red lead, 210
,,
ochre, 204
pigments, 186-211
Starch, 94
Resin, 68
Stone, 18, 27
Strasburg turpentine, 78
Straw in paper, 12
Substantive pigments, 281
soluble, 95
Stein, Sir Aurel, 8, 28, 307
Stereochromy, 24, 101, 307
amber, 69
anime, 73, 74
copal, 72-77
cowdi, 74
Supr-paper, 17
Sulphides, 276, 278
Sylvestrene, 118
dammar, 75
kauri, 74
mastic, 76
sandarac, 75
Resinates, 55, 59, 69, 113
Restoration of pictures, 351
Restricted palettes, 294-298
W.
adulterated, 214
Testing paper, 12
pigments,
Sandarac, 75
varnish, 76
Scheele's green, 221
Schweinfurt green, 219
Selected palettes, 290
xi
turpentine, 115
Toluene, in
Turnbull's blue, 238
Turner paper, 17
Turpentine, 112
oil of,
373
218
method, 301
Terpenes, 112-123
Terre verte, 212
viii,
116
Strasburg, 78
Venice, 78
Turpentines, 112
Ultramarine, 226
,,
artificial,
ash, 227
229
INDEX
388
Water
Vanadium
drawings, 345
paper, 9, 317
69
lime-, 19, 102, 304
Water-colour method, 317
Water-glass, 100
Wax, bees', 79
Brazilian, 80
in
in resins,
Ceresin, 81
Chinese, 80
yellow, 183
Varley paper, 17
Varnish, amber, 133, 135
,,
copal, 133-140
mastic, 131
oil, 131, 135
sandarac, 133
spirit, 131, 133
paraffin, 81
paper,
White-lead, 145
artificial,
187
Wood,
native, 186
tested, 189
29-33
pulp, mechanical, 17
109
spirit,
Museum,
348
338,
lake,
manganese, 251
ochre, 157
ultramarine, 232
Viridian, 216
Viscose, 14
pigments, 157-185
,,
BILLING
378
Vernalis, 218
Victoria and Albert
9, 12, 371,
action on oil, 64
adulteration of, 147
Venice turpentine, 78
Verdigris, 223
Verditer, 221, 249
,,
Japanese, 81
-painting, 80
Whatman
Varnishes, 130-139
Vellum, 16
Venetian red, 201
Vermilion,
in
AND
oxide, 152
sulphate, 129
sulphide, 154
white, 152
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TREMEARNE, Major A. J. N.
Tailed Head-Hunters of Nigeria.
Demy
TURNER, CHARLES
C.
Aerial Navigation of To-day.
With Seventy
Forty-five
and a Map,
i6s. nett.
Illustrations
and Diagrams.
WAERN,
B.Sc.
The
Oxford.
TORDAY,
i6s. nett.
Sweden.
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
TOFT, ALBERT,
With
Svo.
55. nett.
C.
La
John
WEALE, W.
WEEKS, JOHN
Among Congo
Among
sewed,
2s. 6d.
Svo.
With
Cannibals.
Demy
40
Illus.
WELCH,
nett
H.
Fifty-four Illustrations
and a Map, i6s. nett.
and Map.
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C.,
Colour, and
many
other Illustrations.
WICKS, MARK.
To Mars
via the
Moon.
An
The Ways
R. W., M.Sc.
of the South Sea Savage.
16
With Sixteen
Astronomical Story.
Illustrations
WILLIAMSON,
and Diagrams.
43
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55
Is