Viscosity, yield stress, remolded strength, and liquidity index relationships for

sensitive clays
JACQUES
LOCAT
Groupe de recherche en ge'ologie cle l'inge'nieur, De'pnrtement de ge'ologie, Utziversite' Lnval, Sainte-Fay, Que.,
Canada GI K 7P4
AND

DENISDEMERS
Service des sols et chausse'es, MinistPre des Transports du Que'bec, 200 Dorchester Street South, Que'bec, Que.,
Canada G1K 521
Received March 21, 1988
Accepted June 16, 1988
The rheological behavior of some sensitive clays has shown that there are positive relationships between plastic viscosity,
yield stress, remolded shear strength, and liquidity index. Based on the various correlations, remolded strength values can be
predicted for soils with a liquidity index as high as 6. For a liquidity index varying from 2 to 5, the remolded undrained shear
strength and plastic viscosity vary from about 90 to 5 Pa and from 200 to 7 mPa . s respectively. It has been observed that most
sensitive clays behave either as a Bingham or a Casson fluid, the latter behavior being related to less sensitive clays of higher
pore-water salinities. Increasing the salt content from 0.5 to 30 g/L modified the rheological behavior of a single test soil from
that of a Bingham to that of a Casson type of fluid. Such modification in the pore-water salinity illustrates how soils can have
similar plastic viscosity and similar remolded strength but different yield stresses. The range of viscosity measured for
sensitive clays is very different from that of values obtained from back analysis of subaerial or submarine slides where viscous
flow can be expected.
Key words: sensitivity, clays, viscosity, yield stress, shear strength, salinity, liquidity index, submarine slide, landslide.
Le comportement rhCologique de quelques argiles sensibles a dCmontrC une relation positive entre les valeurs de viscositC
plastique, de limite liquide, de rksistance au cisaillement remaniCe et d'indice de liquiditC. En partant de diverses corrClations,
les valeurs de rksistance au cisaillement peuvent &trepredites pour des sols ayant des indices de liquidit6 aussi Clevis que 6.
Pour un indice de liquidit6 entre 2 et 5, la rksistance au cisaillement non drain6 remaniCe et la viscositC plastique varient
respectivement d'environ 90 B 5 Pa et de 200 B 7 mPa. s. I1 a CtC observC que la plupart des argiles sensibles se comportent
comme un fluide de Bingham ou de Casson, ce demier comportement correspondant aux agiles moins sensibles avec des
salinitCs d'eau interstitielle plus ClevCes. L'accroissement de la teneur en sel de 0,5 B 30 g/L a modifiC le comportement au
cours d'un essai, passant d'un type de fluide de Bingham B un fluide de Casson. Une telle modification dans la salinitC de l'eau
interstitielle illustre comment des sols peuvent avoir des viscositCs plastiques et des rCsistances au cisaillement semblables mais
des limites Clastiques diffkrentes. Le domaine de viscositC mesure pour les argiles sensibles est trks different de celui donne par
des valeurs obtenues d'analyse B rebours de glissements terrestres et marins oh l'on s'attend B des Ccoulements visqueux.
Mots cle's : sensibilitC, argiles, viscositC, limite Clastique, risistance au cisaillement, salinitC, indice de liquidit&,glissement
marin, glissement de terrain.
[Traduit par la revue]
Can. Geotech. J. 25, 799-806 (1988)

Introduction
Spectacular landslides like the Saint-Jean-Vianney (Chagnon
1968; Tavenas et al. 1971; Locat and Leroueil 1988), South
Nation River (Eden et al. 1971), and Rissa (Gregerson 1981)
have illustrated the great mobility of remolded sensitive clays.
The long run-out distances observed for these landslides were
related to very low remolded shear strength (or viscosity) of
the soil after failure. Very low remolded shear strengths are
also common for thawed permafrost soils (Watson et al. 1973;
Hutchinson 1974; Johnston 1981). In all cases, the behavior of
the remolded soil mass must be evaluated using flow properties
and parameters. Edgers and Karlsrund (1982) strongly pointed
out the critical role of the viscosity of the soil mass in submarine and subaerial slide dynamics. Hence, flow behavior
can be quite complex and various types of flow behavior can
exist depending on the soil type, pore-water salinity, mineralogy, and water content. The main types of flow are shown in
Fig. 1 (Couarraze and Grossiord 1983; Reiner and Scott Blair
1967), where viscosity corresponds to the slope of these
curves. Thickening liquids (curve 2, Fig. 1) are those for
Prinvd in Canada / IrnprirnC au Canada

which the viscosity increases with shear rate. Fluidizing or

pseudoplastic liquids (curve 3) have an opposite behavior, as
the viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. Plastic or
"Casson" fluids (curve 4) are fluidizing bodies characterized
by a yield stress (or yield point) and slowly decreasing viscosity at higher shear rates. Other liquid-like materials reach a
constant viscosity, but only after reaching their yield
stress-these are called Bingham fluids (curve 5 , Fig. 1).
When looking carefully at Fig. 1, it becomes clear that viscosity values change greatly with shear rate, even for a given
material. As will be shown later, in most cases reported for
sensitive clays it appears that once the soil has reached its yield
stress, the viscosity can be considered constant.
Viscosity of sensitive clays was first related to remolded
undrained shear strength by Eden and Kubota (1961), who
used a rotating coaxial viscometer to measure their remolded
shear strength. Later, Hajela and Bhatnagar (1972) proposed
its use to measure the liquid limit of soils, by using the yield
stress value obtained from the viscometer. Since the liquid
limit of a soil is a measure of its remolded shear strength at a

CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, 1988

800

TABLE1. Viscometer characteristics

Sensors

MV-I

MV-I1

MV-I11

1198
0.023

46 1
0.009

225
0.004

4.2
2.7

14.0
8.0

Shear stress
Max. (Pa)
Min. (Pa)
Shear rate
Max. (s-I)
Min. (s-I)
Viscosity
Max. (rnPa.s) X 10'
Min. (mPa .s) x lo-'

1.4
0.89

Shear rate
FIG. 1. Major types of fluids: (1) Newtonian; (2) thickening;
(3) fluidizing; (4) Casson; (5) Bingham.

given water content, it became possible to use the fall cone for
that purpose (Garneau and LeBihan 1977). However, the
lower strength limit of the fall cone is at 73 Pa (equivalent to a
liquidity index of about 3); this is too high for many sensitive
clays having liquidity indexes between 3 and 6, or more.
Recently, Demers and Locat (1985, 1986), Torrance (1987),
and Locat et al. (1988) started using a viscometer on a more
routine basis and have presented positive relationships between
yield stress and remolded undrained shear strength (measured
by the fall cone).
The liquid limit of a soil varies with salinity (Torrance
1975). Kerr and Drew (1965, 1968), Bentley (1976, 1979),
Dixon (1982), Torrance (1984), and Torrance and Pirnat
(1984) have discussed the effect of salinity on the flow behavior of clay slurries. They observed that increasing the salt content of the pore water from low (less than 2 g/L) to high (above
5 g/L) values resulted in an increase in the yield stress.
Investigating the microfabric of clay slurries, Osipov et al.
(1984) have shown that the yield stress can decrease with
increasing shear rate, as the interaggregate links are broken
near the zone of shearing. Moore (1965) has indicated that, for
partially deflocculated suspensions, the hysterisis loop is very
large, as the restructuration rate is very slow. As for Bingham
fluids, these soils show linear shear stress - shear rate relationships at values above their yield stress.
In this paper, efforts are directed towards the understanding
of the flow characteristics of remolded soils to relate viscosity,
yield stress, remolded shear strength, and liquidity index in
order to provide a simple first approximation of the rheological
parameters of clayey soil.

Methodology
The viscometer used in this study is a rotational rheometer
(Haake-Rotovisco, model RV-12), which is run in a steady
state regime. Sensors are composed of two coaxial cylinders.
The inner one, the rotor, is the mobile part, which is linked to a
gauge measuring the torque applied on the fluid. The outer
cylinder is fixed and insures the temperature control by means
of a liquid cooling system. The main specifications of the
apparatus are given in Table 1. The procedures followed for
viscometric measurements are described in Bentley (1976) and
Torrance (1987), and included three types of tests: (1) dynamic
response, (2) constant shear rate, and (3) hysteresis (Fig. 2).
The hysteresis test is the last one to be carried out. At the

beginning of this test, the shear rate is set to maximum and

then reduced, in regular steps, to a shear rate of 0 , and
increased again, in steps, to the maximum. At each step, after
15 s at a particular shear rate, a torque reading is taken, and at
the end of the test a hysteresis loop is traced (Fig. 2c).
Six different samples (Table 2) were tested for this work.
Four samples come from specific sites in the Champlain Sea
basin; they were tested at their natural pore-water salinity. The
fifth sample (Saint-Alban-2) is a subsample of Saint-Alban-1
for which the pore-water salt content was increased from 0.5 to
30 g/L. The sixth sample, named QuCbec, is a mixture of
several marine clay soils from the St. Lawrence Valley that is
frequently used in our laboratory as an internal standard for
various types of testing. These soils were selected to provide a
good range of plasticity index (1 1 - 37 %), sensitivity (8 - 82),
and clay fraction (19-75%). Table 2 summarizes their physicochemical characteristics. All samples were stored for less
than 2 years in a room at 95% relative humidity at 7C; they
showed no evidence of physicochemical modification due to
storage.
Work was done in four steps. First, natural geotechnical
parameters were determined for the various soils (Table 2).
Pore-water extraction was conducted according to the method
used by Torrance (1976): about 50 g of wet soil is placed in a
plastic cell and the water squeezed out by an air pressure
system and collected in a test tube. The salt content is measured
as NaCl equivalent, and is maintained constant during all the
tests on a given sample. Second, the liquidity index was slowly
increased while maintaining the salinity of the pore water constant by adding water of the same salinity. Third, after each
water content increase, a viscometric test was run (including
all the three phases described previously, as shown in Fig. 2)
and water content measurements taken before and after the
tests to detect evaporation or sedimentation of the mixture; no
significant variation was measured. Fourth, in parallel with the
viscosity measurement, the remolded undrained shear strength
was measured, whenever possible, and the salinity checked at
the end of the last test. All tests were run at a controlled temperature of 7 "C.
Although the behavior of some mixtures departs from that of
a Bingham fluid to that of a Casson fluid (Fig. I), calculations
for the viscosity were always done by taking the slope of the
last portion of the shear stress - shear rate curve (Figs. 2a and
2d). This portion normally corresponded to the portion of the
curve between shear rates of 58 and 512 rpm (Torrance 1987).
Resu!ts obtained with MV-I and MV-I1 sensors have shown no
evidence of a slippage plane developing within the soil material in the annulus located between the cylinder walls. Such a

LOCAT AND DEMERS

(I)
(I)

a,
C
(I)

a,

r
(I)

-2
-

200

100-

(e)

(f)

??
(I)

a,

(I)

Oo

260

460

Oo

Shear rate (s-')

10

20

Time ( m i n )

*
Oo

200

460

Shear r a t e (s-')

FIG.2. Flow characteristics of the two types of behavior observed determined using the dynamic response constant shear rate, and hysteresis
test for (a-c) the Saint-Alban-1soil (I, = 3.0, w = 82%, cur = 88 Pa) and (d-f) the QuCbec soil (I, = 2.4, w = 90%, cur= 190 Pa) (T is yield
stress).
slippage plane would give inconsistent results and yield lower
viscosity values.

Results
Over 70 viscometric tests were carried out. An example of
shear rate - shear stress curves is presented in Fig. 3 to show
the gradual decrease in the yield stress as the water content, or
liquidity index, increases. These curves are used to compute
both viscosity and yield stress. By inspection of the various
curves, two types of fluids could be observed: Bingham and
Casson. The Berthierville and Saint-Alban-1 soils presented a
behavior closer to Bingham type of fluid (Fig. 2a). These soils
exhibited a pronounced thixotropic behavior noted by a continuous decrease of the shear stress at a constant shear rate
(Fig. 2b) and a large hysteresis loop (Fig. 2c). Soils of
QuCbec, Saint-Hyacinthe, and Saint-Alban-2 behaved more
like a Casson-type fluid, were only slightly thixotropic
(Fig. 2f), and could easily reach a stable torque value
(Fig. 2e). The Saint-Wenceslas soil, much coarser than the
others (Table 2), showed some shear thickening at a liquidity
index above 3 and at a shear rate above 200 rpm. In return, it
made viscosity computation less accurate.
Plotting the viscosity versus the yield stress (Fig. 4) shows
that at low values of yield stress, two tendencies exist, and
again, are related to the type of fluid behavior mentioned
above. Artificially increasing the salt content to 30.2 g/L transformed the rheological behavior of Saint-Alban-1 soil from
that of Bingham to that of a Casson-like fluid (Saint-Alban-2),
a feature also observed for other sensitive clays to Bentley
(1979) and Dixon (1982). The same distinction can be made
when the yield stress is correlated to the liquidity index
(Fig. 5); this is particularly true for a liquidity index greater

Shear r a t e (s-'1

FIG.3. A series of shear rate - yield stress curves obtained for the
Saint-Alban-1 soil for various water contents and at a salt content of
0.2 g/L (T is yield stress).
than 3. Here, for a given soil and salinity, the correlation is
quite good.
However, when correlating liquidity index (IL) and viscosity
(v), the distinction between the two type of fluids cannot be
made (Fig. 6). The scatter of the results, particularly for the
coarser grained Saint-Wenceslas soil, is larger than it is for the
other correlations presented. As observed before, the relation-

CAN. GEOTECH. J . VOL. 25, 1988

TABLE
2. Soil characteristics
Depth
(m)

Site
Berthierville
Quebec
Saint-Alban- 1
Saint-Alban-2
Saint-Hyacinthe
Saint-Wenceslas

6.1
-

2.3
2.3
4.3
3.6

( 2 ~ )St

w
(%)

1.38
2.04
0.20

39

47
41
71

0.77
0.52

8
82

82
35

25
-

w,

I,

(%)

(%)

SS
(m2ig)

CF
(%)

S
(g/L)

44.2
52.4
42.2
55.0
62.8
27.4

21
28
20
32
37
11

49
62
49
59
96
22

36
60
49
59
75
19

0.3
5.6
0.5
30.2
1.6
0.3

NOTE:SS stands for specific surface area; CF, clay-size faction; and S, salinity

!0' 10

0
2:

0
o*o

4+0

ccn

." ,+
+

A * Q

0 1 0 -1

cn
5

'=O

o 0

0
A

y*

--

omO

8-0
0

It

10

---

ST-ALBAN-1
ST-ALBAN-2
ST-HYACINTHE
ST-WENCESLAS

--

10

10

YIELD STRESS (Pa)

FIG. 4. Relationship between viscosity and yield stress.

~1

ST-HYACINTHE
+ ST-WENCESLAS
It

0 dl
1

10
10
YIELD STRESS (Pa)
FIG. 5. Relationship between liquidity index and yield stress.

10

LOCAT AND DEMERS

6-

--

5-

ir:

3
Cr

ST-HYACINTHE

z 45ii

- 35

7 2-

1 --

1 1 1 1

10

10

VISCOSITY (mPa-s)

'

Fw. 6. Relationship between liquidity index and viscosity

yield stress and the remolded shear strength as measured with
the Swedish fall cone (Fig. 7). For a given soil, the relationship is almost linear (on this log-log diagram (Torrance
1987)), and it is used later on, for each sbil, to compute extrapolated values of the remolded shear strength (cur) below
the lower limit of the Swedish fall cone (i.e., 73 Pa). These
extra~olatedvalues are then added to the measured values of
the remolded shear strength and are coupled to liquidity index
values, giving the relationship presented in Fig. 8. Such a relationship can provide an estimate of the remolded shear strength
calculated for a soil with a liquidity index as high as 6 (the
lower limit of sensors used with this viscometer). This is
equivalent to an extension, at higher liquidity index, of the
relationship proposed by Leroueil et al. (1983), shown in
Fig. 8 (curve B) as the dashed line. The relationship resulting
from various tests results is given by curve A in Fig. 8 and can
be written as

ST-ALBAN-2
ST-HYACINTHE

n
w

10

10

10

10

REMOLDED SHEAR STRENGTH (Pa)

FIG. 7. Relationship between yield stress and remolded shear

strength.
ship for a given soil is still quite good. At higher plastic viscosity, the relationship deteriorates as the operational limit of the
viscometer sensors is approached. Of interest are the results for
the Saint-Alban soil, which, at the various salinities, show
similar viscosity - liquidity index relationships. As a first
approximation, the following relationship, plotted as a curve in
Fig. 6, can be used to compute the plastic viscosity of a soil
with values of liquidity index between 1.5 and 6:
For each soil, a good correlation was obtained between the

This relationship would be valid for a liquidity index between

1.5 and 6. The relationship proposed by Leroueil et al. (1983)
is quite similar and has values of 25.9 and 2.27 for the coefficient and exponent respectively. Equation [2] can now be used
to compute the sensitivity of sensitive clay soils having a
remolded undrained shear strength lower than 73 Pa.

Discussion
Viscosity measurements
There is very little information in the literature about the viscosity of remolded sensitive clays. Eden and Kubota (1961)
reported a viscosity of about 76.0 mPa. s for an Ottawa soil
having a liquidity index of about 2.3. This is in the range of
what could be predicted from [I]. More recent data on liquidity
index and yield stress are plotted in Fig. 9, along with the
range of data presented here. Included are results of Bentley
(1979), Dixon (1982), and Torrance and Pirnat (1984), which

804

CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, 1988

10

'

10"

REMOLDED SHEAR STRENGTH (Pa)

FIG. 8. Relationship between liquidity index and remolded shear strength (solid line, curve A, represents the linear regression line of our
results and the dashed line, curve B, is from Leroueil et al. (1983) and is extrapolated at values of the liquidity index higher that 3).
1

1
1

I
I

1
I

were obtained with a similar apparatus. All the published

results fall within the range of those presented in Fig. 5.
Bentley (1979) mentioned that, for non-Newtonian systems,
apparent viscosity has little physical meaning unless shear
stress and shear rate conditions are specified. By inspection of
laboratory results presented here, and elsewhere (Dixon 1982),
it appears that, for a given water content, a stable plastic viscosity can be computed for shear rate values above 100 s-I. It
is interesting to note that, for the viscometer used here, such
shear rates are approximately equivalent to a velocity of
10 mls, which is in the range of those observed for various
debris flow slides (Edgers and Karlsrud 1982). Johnson and
Rodine (1984) and Edgers and Karlsrud (1982) present viscosity values back-calculated from various subaerial and submarine slides. By applying a viscous flow model to these
various slides, they found viscosity values varying from 100 to
1499 Pa.s. For example, Edgers and Karlsrud (1982)
calculated viscosities of 190 and 810 Pa. s for the Rissa and
Saint-Jean-Vianney slides respectively, for velocities of 7 10 mls. Based on the average liquidity index (more than 2) of
these soils, [I.] would yield viscosity values less than 0.2 Pa. s.
Without discussing in detail these results, it clearly illustrates
the large discrepancy between laboratory and back-calculated
field values of viscosity, and the need for field and laboratory
calibration of these models.

Salinity and jlow behavior

Increasing the pore-water salinity of a sensitive clay is
known to increase the remolded shear strength (Bjermm 1954;
Bjermm and Rosenqvist 1956; Torrance 1975; Quigley 1980;
Locat 1982; Locat and Lefebvre 1986). A similar control of
salinity on the rheological properties was presented here and
elsewhere (Dixon 1982). The various correlations between the
rheological and geotechnical parameters are satisfactory. The
viscometric behavior of the various soil samples can be
described by either a Bingham or a Casson type of fluid; in
most cases, the material is plastic. For the Saint-Alban soil, an

Yield stress (Pa)

FIG. 9. Comparison of results on liquidity index - remolded
strength relationships from other sources (the solid lines indicate the
upper and lower limits of the results from the present work).

increase in the salt content from 0.5 to 30.2 g/L changed the
rheological properties from those of a Bingham type of fluid to
those of a Casson type of fluid. This test also illustrates (Fig. 5)
that, at the same liquidity index, leaching would reduce the
yield stress. Figure 10 presents a conceptual model that
describes the changes in the rheological behavior observed for
the Saint-Alban soil. This soil, at the same liquidity index, can
have two values of yield stress. As the salinity is increased
above the coagulation point (van Olphen 1977; Locat and
Lefebvre 1985) the flow behavior evolves from that of a Bingham to that of a Casson type of fluid. In nature, the leaching
process would follow a path in the opposite direction. In the
present case of Saint-Alban, it can be shown that for the liquidity index - remolded shear strength relationship, an increase

805

LOCAT AND DEMERS

submarine slides, which often involve coarser material (Edgers

and Karlsrud 1982).

Conclusions

Remolded shear strength

The results presented in this paper can lead to the following

general conclusions. First of all, it is very interesting to note
that viscometric testing can now be camed out on a routine
basis and that repetitive results can be obtained and compared.
The viscometer can provide a good tool to relate remolded
shear strength to liquidity index and viscosity. For sensitive
clays having a liquidity index between 1.5 and 6 , a good correlation exists between the liquidity index, the viscosity, and the
remolded shear strength. Changes in the salinity of the pore
water affect not only the remolded shear strength but also the
viscosity and the yield stress. Finally, more work is needed to
relate field and laboratory measurements of viscosity in order
to calibrate models used in analysing submarine and subaerial
slides.

Acknowledgements
This research was made possible by the financial support
of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
of Canada and the cooperation of the technicians and engineers
of the Groupe de recherche en gCologie de 1'ingCnieur of
the Department of Geology at Laval. In particular, we would
like to thank M.-A. BCrubC, J.-Y. Chagnon, P. GClinas, and
S. Leroueil for commenting on the manuscript and A. Masson
for editing.

Yield stress
FIG. 10. Conceptual model representing the behavior of the SaintAlban soil as the salinity is increased from 0.5 to 30.2 g/L (see the
text for explanation).
in the salinity results in an increase in the remolded strength as
along segment AB (Fig. 10a). It is more complex for the
liquidity index - yield stress relationship. If the salinity is initially below the critical coagulation point and then increases
above it, at constant water content, it will shift from point C on
the "Bingham" curve to point D on the "Casson" curve and
with continued salinity increase, the yield stress - liquidity
index relationship will follow the Casson curve. Such modifications of the rheological properties with increasing salinity
would result in a change in the soil microfabric from a dispersed to a flocculated state (Moore 1965; van Olphen 1977;
Bentley 1979; Sacks 1985). Such a test was not performed on
the other soils; this conceptual model will therefore need wider
verification.
Applying these results to landslides indicates that for the
Saint-Alban soil, at the same liquidity index or viscosity, the
continuation of the flow, after failure, will be more easily done
in a dispersed state than in a flocculated state, as the yield
stress is lower. This is an important consideration in the analysis, or prediction, of run-out distances in sensitive clays
(Lebuis et al. 1983) or for submarine slides (Edgers and
Karlsrud 1982). For subaerial and submarine flow slides, both
the viscosity and yield stress must be known if flow dynamic
behavior is to be understood. Such correlation is still limited to
fine-grained soils, so its application cannot be made for all

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L. 1954. Geotechnical properties of Norwegian marine
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K., and LEBIHAN,
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