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14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
Examples
14.5
i(t)
R
Pcu = Irms2 R
Example: filter inductor in CCM buck converter
L
i(t)
i(t)
iL
DTs
Ts
n
turns
Rc
i(t)
+
v(t)
Fc
Air gap
reluctance
Rg
ni(t)
(t)
Rg
lc
Rc =
c Ac
lg
Rg =
0 Ac
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
ni = R c + R g
Usually Rc < Rg and hence
ni R g
3
14.1.1
Given a peak winding current Imax, it is desired to operate the core flux
density at a peak value Bmax. The value of Bmax is chosen to be less
than the worst-case saturation flux density Bsat of the core material.
From solution of magnetic circuit:
ni = BA c R g
lg
0
This is constraint #1. The turns ratio n and air gap length lg are
unknown.
This is constraint #2. The turns ratio n, core area Ac, and air gap length
lg are unknown.
core
Total area of
copper in window:
nA W
Area available for winding
conductors:
K uW A
Third design constraint:
K uWA nA W
R=
lb
AW
l b = n (MLT )
where (MLT) is the mean-length-per-turn of the winding. The meanlength-per-turn is a function of the core geometry. The above
equations can be combined to obtain the fourth constraint:
n (MLT)
R=
AW
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
2
0 Ac n2
n
L=
=
lg
Rg
lg
0
K uWA nA W
R=
n (MLT)
AW
L 2I 2max
A 2c WA
2
(MLT) B max RK u
Right-hand side: specifications or other known quantities
Left-hand side: function of only core geometry
So we must choose a core whose geometry satisfies the above
equation.
The core geometrical constant Kg is defined as
A 2c WA
Kg =
(MLT)
10
Discussion
L 2I 2max
A 2c WA
Kg =
2
(MLT) B max RK u
Kg is a figure-of-merit that describes the effective electrical size of magnetic
cores, in applications where the following quantities are specified:
Copper loss
Maximum flux density
How specifications affect the core size:
A smaller core can be used by increasing
Bmax use core material having higher Bsat
R allow more copper loss
How the core geometry affects electrical capabilities:
A larger Kg can be obtained by increase of
Ac more iron core material, or
WA larger window and more copper
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
11
12
(cm 5)
13
(m)
14
AL
Core manufacturers sell gapped cores. Rather than specifying the air
gap length, the equivalent quantity AL is used.
AL is equal to the inductance, in mH, obtained with a winding of 1000
turns.
When AL is specified, it is the core manufacturers responsibility to
obtain the correct gap length.
The required AL is given by:
2
max
2
max
10B
AL =
LI
L = A L n 2 10 9
2
c
(mH/1000 turns)
Units:
Ac
cm2,
L
Henries,
Bmax Tesla.
(Henries)
15
LI max
n=
10 4
Bmax A c
16
K uWA
n
(cm 2)
Select wire with bare copper area AW less than or equal to this value.
An American Wire Gauge table is included in Appendix D.
As a check, the winding resistance can be computed:
n (MLT)
R=
Aw
17
()
To do this, we must
Find how to allocate the window area between the windings
Generalize the step-by-step design procedure
18
v1(t) v2(t)
n1 = n2 =
n1 : n2
rms current
rms current
I1
I2
v (t)
= nk
k
Core
Window area WA
rms current
Ik
: nk
Wire resistivity
Fill factor Ku
19
{
{
Total window
area WA
etc.
0 < j < 1
1 + 2 +
20
+ k = 1
Pcu, j = I 2j R j
Resistance of winding j is
lj
Rj =
A W, j
with
l j = n j (MLT )
WAK u j
A W, j =
nj
Hence
Rj =
n 2j i 2j (MLT )
Pcu, j =
WAK u j
n 2j (MLT )
WAK u j
21
(MLT)
+ Pcu,k =
WAK u
j=1
n 2j I 2j
j
Need to select values for 1, 2, , k such that the total copper loss
is minimized
22
cu,
3
Pcu,tot
u,
2
P cu,1
+..
.+
cu,k
Copper
loss
Pc
1 1
23
There is a choice of 1
that minimizes the total
copper loss
(MLT)
+ Pcu,k =
WAK u
j=1
n 2j I 2j
j
1 + 2 +
+ k = 1
f ( 1, 2,
, k, ) = Pcu,tot( 1, 2,
where
g( 1, 2,
, k) + g( 1, 2,
, k)
, k) = 1
j=1
24
Lagrange multipliers
continued
Optimum point is solution of
the system of equations
Result:
(MLT)
=
WAK u
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
1
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
2
m =
j j
= Pcu,tot
nI
j j
An alternate form:
m =
V mI m
VI
n=1
nI
j=1
n mI m
n=1
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
k
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
25
j j
Interpretation of result
m =
V mI m
VI
n=1
j j
26
Example
PWM full-bridge transformer
i1(t)
n1 turns
i2(t)
}
}
n2 turns
n2 turns
n2
I
n1
i1(t)
i3(t)
n2 I
1
i2(t)
I
0.5I
0.5I
0
i3(t)
I
0.5I
0.5I
0
0
27
DTs
Ts
Ts +DTs
2Ts t
i1(t)
I1 =
1
2Ts
2T s
i 21(t)dt =
n2
I D
n1
0
n
n2 I
1
I2 = I3 =
1
2Ts
2T s
0
i 22(t)dt = 12 I 1 + D
i2(t)
I
0.5I
0.5I
0
see Appendix A
i3(t)
I
0.5I
0.5I
0
0
28
DTs
Ts
Ts +DTs
2Ts t
m =
V mI m
VI
n=1
j j
1 =
1+
1
1+D
D
1
2 = 3 = 12
1+
D
1+D
29
Numerical example
Suppose that we decide to optimize the transformer design at the
worst-case operating point D = 0.75. Then we obtain
1 = 0.396
2 = 0.302
3 = 0.302
The total copper loss is then given by
2
(MLT) 3
Pcu,tot =
n jI j
WAK u j
=1
(MLT)n 22 I 2
=
1 + 2D + 2 D(1 + D)
WAK u
30
+
v1(t)
iM (t)
i2(t)
Rc
v2(t)
LM
R1
R2
+
n1iM (t) +
(t)
Rg
ik (t)
vk(t)
: nk
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
Rk
31
14.4 Examples
14.4.1 Coupled Inductor for a Two-Output Forward
Converter
14.4.2 CCM Flyback Transformer
32
IM
Transformer model
n1 : n2
i1
Vg
iM
LM
vM
+
D1
C
0
i1(t)
IM
i2
Q1
0
i2(t)
n1
I
n2 M
0
vM(t)
0
33
Vg
DTs
Specifications
Input voltage
Output (full load)
Switching frequency
Magnetizing current ripple
Duty cycle
Turns ratio
Copper loss
Fill factor
Maximum flux density
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
Vg = 200V
20 V at 5 A
150 kHz
20% of dc magnetizing current
D = 0.4
n2/n1 = 0.15
1.5 W
Ku = 0.3
Bmax = 0.25 T
34
n2 1 V
IM =
= 1.25 A
n 1 D R
I1 = IM D
i M = 20% I M = 0.25 A
n
I 2 = 1 I M D
n2
i M
1+ 1
3 IM
i M
1+ 1
3 IM
= 0.796 A
2
= 6.50 A
I M,max = I M + i M = 1.5 A
I tot = I 1 +
n2
I = 1.77 A
n1 2
Vg DT s
LM =
2i M
= 1.07 mH
35
1.77 A
1.5 W 0.3
1.5 A
10 8
= 0.049 cm 5
36
1.09 cm 2
10 4
= 0.44 mm
n1 =
=
L M I M,max 4
10
Bmax A c
n2 =
1.07 10 3 H 1.5 A
0.25 T 1.09
cm 2
10
n2
n
n1 1
= 0.15 59
= 8.81
= 58.7 turns
Round to
n2 = 9
n 1 = 59
37
Wire gauges
1 =
0.796 A
I1
=
= 0.45
I tot
1.77 A
2 =
9 6.5 A
n2 I 2
=
= 0.55
n 1 I tot
59 1.77 A
1 K uW A
3
=
1.09
10
cm 2
n1
K W
A W2 2 n u A = 8.88 10 3 cm 2
2
A W1
38
Core loss
CCM flyback example
B-H loop for this application:
B(t)
B(t)
Bsat
Bmax
Bmax
Hc(t)
vM(t)
Minor BH loop,
CCM flyback
example
B
Vg
n1 A c
Vg
DTs
BH loop,
large excitation
dB(t) vM (t)
=
n1 A c
dt
39
Vg
dB(t)
=
n1 A c
dt
2 59 1.09
cm 2
Hz
z
100k
150k
kHz
200
400
Hz
10 4
0.1
20k
B =
50kH
kHz
Vg
B =
DT s
n1 A c
Hz
= 0.041 T
0.04
W/cm3
0.01
0.01
= 0.25 W
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
40
0.041
0.1
0.3
B, Tesla
41
2.
42