Env-107 - Lecture note

Prof. Dr. Md. Anisur Rahman Khan (ARK)

WATER RESOURCES
Water is a marvelous substance-flowing, swirling, seeping, constantly moving from sea to land and back
again. It shapes the earth's surface and moderates our climate. Water is essential for life. It is the medium in
which all living processes occur. Water dissolves nutrients and distributes them to cells, regulates body temperature, supports structures, and removes waste products. About 60 percent of your body is water. You could
survive for weeks without food, but only a few days without water. Water also is needed for agriculture, industry,
transportation, and a host of other human uses. In short, clean freshwater is one of our most vital natural
resources.

Some Important Properties water

Water is a remarkable substance with a unique combination of properties:
There are strong forces of attraction (called hydrogen bonds between molecules of water). These attractive forces
are the major factor determining water's unique properties.
Water exists as a liquid over a wide temperature range because of the strong forces of attraction between water
molecules. Its high boiling point of 100C (212F) and low freezing point of 0C (32F) mean that water remains a
liquid in most climates on the earth.
Liquid water changes temperature very slowly because it can store a large amount of heat without a large change
in temperature. This high heat capacity (1) helps protect living organisms from temperature fluctuations, (2)
moderates the earth's climate, and (3) makes water an excellent coolant for car engines, power plants, and heatproducing industrial processes.

It takes a lot of heat to evaporate liquid water because of the strong forces of attraction between its molecules.
Water absorbs large amounts of heat as it changes into water vapor and releases this heat as the vapor condenses back to
liquid water. This is a primary factor in distributing heat throughout the world and thus plays an important role in
determining the climates of various areas. This property also makes water evaporation an effective cooling process,
which is why you feel cooler when perspiration or bathwater evaporates from your skin.
Liquid water can dissolve a variety of compounds. This enables it to (1) carry dissolved nutrients into the tissues of living organisms, (2) flush waste products out of those tissues, (3) serve as an all-purpose cleanser, and (4)
help remove and dilute the water-soluble wastes of civilization. Water's superiority as a solvent also means that
water-soluble wastes pollute it easily.
Water molecules can break down (ionize) into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH -), which help
maintain a balance between acids and bases in cells, as measured by the pH of water solutions.
Water filters out wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation that would harm some aquatic
organisms.
The strong attractive forces between the molecules of liquid water cause its surface to contract (high surface
tension) and to adhere to and coat a solid (high wetting ability).
These cohesive forces pull water molecules at the surface layer together so strongly that it can support small insects.
The combination of high surface tension and wetting ability allow water to rise through a plant from the roots to the
leaves (capillary action).
Unlike most liquids, water expands when it freezes. This means that ice has a lower density (mass per unit of
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volume) than liquid water. Thus ice floats on water. Without this property, lakes and streams in cold climates would
freeze solid and lose most of their current forms of aquatic life. Because water expands upon freezing, it can also (1)
break pipes, (2) crack a car's engine block (which is why we use antifreeze), (3) break up streets, and (4) fracture
rocks (thus forming soil).
Water is the lifeblood of the biosphere. It connects us to one another, to other forms of life, and to the entire planet.
Despite its importance, water is one of our most poorly managed resources. We waste it and pollute it. We also
charge too little for making it available. This encourages still greater waste and pollution of this resource,
for which we have no substitute.

Where Does Our Water Come From?

The water we use cycles endlessly through the environment. The total amount of water on our planet is
immense-more than 1,404 million km3 (370 billion billion gal). This water evaporate from moist surfaces,
falls as rain or snow, passes through living organisms, and returns to the ocean in a process known as the
hydrologic cycle. Every year, about 500,000 km3 or a layer 1.4 m thick, evaporates from the oceans. More
than 90 Percent of that Moisture falls back on the ocean. The 47.000 km' carried onshore joins some 72,000
km that evaporate from lakes, rivers, soil. and plants to become our annual, renewable freshwater supply. Plants
play a major role in the hydrologic cycle, absorbing ground water and pumping it into the atmosphere by
transpiration (transport plus evaporation). In tropical forests, as Much as 75 percent of annual precipitation is
returned to the atmosphere by plants.
Solar energy drives the hydrologic cycle by evaporating surface water, which becomes rain and snow.
Because water and sunlight are unevenly distributed around the Globe, water resources are very uneven.

Earth's Water Compartments

COMPARTMENT
Total
Oceans
Ice and snow
Saline groundwater
Fresh groundwater
Fresh lakes
Saline lakes
Soil moisture
Atmosphere
Marshes, wetlands
Rivers, streams
Living organisms

VOLUME
(1,000 km )
1,386,000
1,338,000
24,364
12,870
10,530
91
85
16.5
12.9
11.5
2.12
1.12

PERCENT
OF
TOTAL WATER
100
96.5
1.76
0.93
0.76
0.007
0.006
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.0002
0.0001

AVERAGE RESIDENCE
TIME
2,800 years
3,000 to 30,000 years`
1 to 100,000 years"
Days to thousands of years
Days to thousands of years`
I to 500 years '
I to 1,000 years
2 weeks to I year*
I week
Months to years
I week to I month
I week

The distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in which water resides,
sometimes briefly and sometimes for eons. The length of time water typically stays in a compartment is its
residence time. On average, a water molecule stays in the ocean for about 3,000 years, for example, before
it evaporates and starts through the hydrologic cycle again. Nearly all the world's water is in the oceans.
Oceans play a crucial role in moderating the earth's temperature, and over 90 percent of the world's living
biomass is contained in the oceans. Only a tiny fraction of the planet's abundant water is available to us as
fresh water. About 97.4 % by volume is found in the oceans and is too salty for drinking, irrigation, or
industry (except as a coolant). Most of the remaining 2.6% that is fresh water is locked up in ice caps or
glaciers or in groundwater too deep or salty to be used.
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Thus only about 0.014% of the earth's total volume of water is easily available to us as soil moisture, usable
groundwater, water vapor, and lakes and streams. If the world's water supply were only 100 liters (26
gallons), our usable supply of fresh water would be only 0.014 liter (2.5 teaspoons). Some good news is that the
available fresh water amounts to a generous supply. Moreover, this water is continuously collected, purified,
recycled, and distributed in the solar-powered hydrologic cycle as long as we do not (1) overload it with slowly
degradable and nondegradable wastes or (2) with draw it from underground supplies faster than it is
replenished. The bad news is that in parts of the world we are doing both.

Surface Water
Precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation (including
transpiration) is called surface runoff, which flows into streams, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs.
About two-thirds of the world's annual runoff is lost by seasonal floods and is not available for human
use. The remaining one-third is reliable runoff, which generally we can count on as a stable source of water
from year to year.
A watershed, also called a drainage basin, is a region from which water drains into a stream, lake,
reservoir, wetland, or other body of water.

Groundwater
The term groundwater usually refers to the water below the water table, where saturated conditions exist.
Some precipitation infiltrates the ground and percolates downward through voids (pores, fractures,
crevices, and other spaces) in soil and rock. The water in these voids is called groundwater. Groundwater is
one of our most important freshwater resources. Originating as precipitation that percolates into layers of
soil and rock, groundwater makes up the largest compartment of liquid, fresh water. The groundwater within
1 km of the surface is more than 100 times the volume of all the freshwater lakes, rivers, and reservoirs
combined.
Rain that falls on the land evaporates, runs off the surface, or moves below the surface and is transported
underground. Locations where surface waters move into or infiltrate the ground are known as recharge
zones. Places where groundwater flows or seeps out at the surface, such as springs, are known as discharge
zones or discharge points.
The upper surface of the groundwater is called the water table. Close to the surface, the voids have little
moisture in them. Plants get moisture from a relatively shallow layer of soil containing both air and
water, known as the zone of aeration. The unsaturated zone, or zone of aeration, lies above the water table.
In this zone, pores of rock and soil contain air and may be moist but not satu rated with water. Water that
moves into the ground from surface first seeps through pore spaces in the soil and rock known as the vadose
zone. This area is seldom saturated with water. The water then enters the groundwater system, which is
saturated (the voids are completely filled with water). Depending on rainfall amount, soil type, and surface
topography, the zone of aeration may be a few centimeters or many meters deep. Lower soil layers, where
all soil pores are filled with water, make up the zone of saturation, the source of water in most wells; the top
of this zone is the water table. The water table falls in dry weather and rises in wet weather.
Porous, water-saturated layers of sand, gravel, or bedrock through which groundwater flows are called
aquifers. Aquifers are like large elongated sponges through which groundwater seeps. Any area of land
through which water passes downward or laterally into an aquifer is called a recharge area. Aquifers are
replenished naturally by precipitation that percolates downward through soil and rock m what is called
natural recharge, but some are recharged from the side by lateral recharge. Groundwater moves from the
recharge area through an aquifer and out to a discharge area (well, spring, lake, geyser, stream, or ocean) as
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part of the hydrologic cycle. Groundwater normally moves from (1) points of high elevation and pressure to (2)
points of lower elevation and pressure. This movement is quite slow, typically only a meter or so (about 3 feet)
per year and rarely more than 0.3 meter (1 foot) per day.
When water is pumped from an aquifer, the water table is depressed around the well, forming a cone.
Depending on geology, it can take from a few hours to several years for water to move a few hundred
meters through an aquifer. If impermeable layers lie above an aquifer, pressure can develop within the
water-bearing layer. A well or conduit puncturing the aquifer flows freely at the surface and is called an
artesian well or spring. Most aquifers recharge extremely slowly, and road and house construction or water use
at the surface can further slow recharge rates. Contaminants can also enter aquifers through recharge zones.
Urban or agricultural runoff in recharge zones is often a serious problem. About 2 billion peopleapproximately one-third of the world's population-depend on groundwater for drinking and other uses.
Every year 700 km 3 are withdrawn by humans, mostly from shallow, easily polluted aquifers.

Rivers, Lakes, and Wetlands

Fresh, flowing surface water is one of our most precious resources. Rivers contain a minute amount of water at
any one time. Most rivers would begin to dry up in weeks or days if they were not constantly replenished by
precipitation, snowmelt, or groundwater seepage.
The volume of water carried by a river is its discharge, or the amount of water that passes a fixed
point in a given amount of time. This is usually expressed as liters or cubic feet of water per second. The
16 largest rivers in the world carry nearly half of all surface runoff on the earth, and a large fraction of
that occurs in a single river, the Amazon, which carries 10 times as much water as the Lakes contain nearly
100 times as much water as all rivers and streams combined, but much of this water is in a few of the
world's largest lakes. Lake Baikal in Siberia, the Great Lakes of North America, the Great Rift Lakes of
Africa, and a few other lakes contain vast amounts of water, not all of it fresh. Worldwide, lakes are almost
as important as rivers in terms of water supplies, food, transportation, and settlement.
Wetlands-bogs, swamps, wet meadows, and marshes play a vital and often unappreciated role in
the hydrologic cycle. Their lush plant growth stabilizes soil and holds back surface runoff, allowing time
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for infiltration into aquifers and producing even, year-long stream flow. When wetlands are disturbed, their
natural water-absorbing capacity is reduced, and surface waters run off quickly, resulting in floods and
erosion during the rainy season and low stream flow the rest of the year.
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains only 0.001 percent of the total water sup ply, but it is the most important
mechanism for redistributing water around the world. An individual water molecule resides in the atmosphere
for about ten days, on average. Some water evaporates and falls within hours. Water can also travel halfway
around the world before it falls, replenishing streams and aquifers on land.
WATER USE
Clean, fresh water is essential for nearly every human endeavor. Collectively, we now appropriate more than
half of all the freshwater in the world. Perhaps more than any other environmental factor, the availability of
water determines the location and activities of humans on the earth. Renewable water supplies are
resources that are replenished regularly-mainly surface water and shallow groundwater. Renewable water is
most plentiful in the tropics, where rainfall is heavy, followed by midlatitudes, where rainfall is regular.
In contrast to energy resources, which usually are consumed when used, water can be used over and over if it
is not too badly contaminated. Water withdrawal is the total amount of water taken from a water body. Much
of this water could be returned to circulation in a reusable form. Water consumption, on the other hand, is
loss of water due to evaporation, absorption, or contamination.
Streams may be classified as effluent or influent. In an effluent stream, the flow is maintained during the dry
season by groundwater seepage into the stream channels from the subsurface. A stream that flows all year is
called a perennial stream. Most perennial streams flow all year because they constantly receive groundwater
to sustain flow.
An influent stream is entirely above the water table and flows only in direct response to precipitation. Water
from an influent stream seeps down into the subsurface. An influent stream is called an ephemeral stream,
because it does not flow all year.
Off-stream use of water refers to water removed from its source, such as river or reservoir, for use. Much of
this water is returned to the source after use. For example, the water used to cool industrial processes may go
to cooling ponds and then be discharged to a river, lake or reservoir.
Consumptive use is an off-stream use in which water is consumed by plants and animals or used in industrial
processes. The water enters human tissues or products or evaporates during use and is not returned to its
source.
In-stream use includes the use of rivers for navigation, hydroelectric power generation, fish and wildlife
habitats and recreation. These multiple uses usually create controversy, because it requires different conditions
to prevent damage or detrimental effects. For example, fish and wildlife require certain water levels and flow
rates for maximum biological productivity, these levels and rates will differ from those needed for
hydroelectric power generation, which requires large fluctuations in discharges to match power needs.

Water conservation
Water conservation is the careful use and protection of water resources. It involves both the quantity of water
used and its quality. Conservation is an important component of sustainable water use.
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Agricultural use
Improved irrigation could reduce agricultural withdrawals by between 20 and 30%. Because agriculture is the
biggest water user, this would be a tremendous savings. Suggestions for agricultural conservation include the
following:
Pricing agricultural water to encourage conservation. Subsidizing water will encourage overuse.
Use of lined or covered canals that reduce seepage and evaporation.
Use of computer monitoring and schedule release of water for maximum efficiency.
Integration of the use of surface water and groundwater to more effectively use the total resource.
Irrigation at times when evaporation is minimal, such as at night or in the early morning.
Use of improved irrigation systems, such as sprinklers or drip irrigation, that more effectively apply
water to crops.
Improving land preparation for water application; that is improving the soil to increase infiltration and
minimize runoff.
Encouraging the development of crops that require less water or more salt tolerant so that less periodic
flooding of irrigated land is necessary to remove accumulated salts in the soil.
Domestic use
Domestic use of water accounts for only about 10% of total national water withdrawals. However, because
domestic water use is concentrated in urban areas, it may pose major local problem in areas where water is
periodically or often in short supply. Most water in homes is used in the bathroom and for washing clothing
and dishes. Water use for domestic purposes can be substantially reduced at a relatively small cost by
implementing the following measures:
In semi-arid regions, replacing lawns with decorative gravels and native plants.
Use of more efficient bathroom fixtures, such as low-flow flush and shower heads.
Turning off water when not absolutely needed for washing, brushing teeth, shaving and so on.
Using dishwashers and washing machines that minimize water consumption.
Using gray water ( from showers, bathtubs, sinks) to water vegetation.

Sustainability and Water Management

Water is essential to sustain life and to maintain ecologi cal systems necessary for the survival of
humans. As a result, water plays important roles in ecosystem support, economic development, cultural
values, and community well-being. Managing water use for sustainability is thus important in many
ways.

Sustainable Water Use

From a water supply use and management perspective, sustainable water use can be defined as use of
water resources by people in a way that allows society to develop and flourish into an indefinite future
without degrading the various components of the hydrologic cycle or the ecological systems that depend
on it. Some general criteria for water use sustainabilitv are as follows:

Develop water resources in sufficient volume to maintain human health and well-being.
Provide sufficient water resources to guarantee the health and maintenance of ecosystems.
Ensure minimum standards of water quality for the various users of water resources.
Ensure that actions of humans do not damage or reduce long-term renewability of water
resources. Promote the use of water-efficient technology and practice.
Gradually eliminate water pricing policies that subsidize the inefficient use of water.

A master plan for water management

Water management should be based on geologic, geographic and climatic factors as well as on the traditional
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economic, social and political factors. The management of water resources can not be successful as long as it is
naively perceived from an economic and political standpoint.
Surface water and groundwater are both subject to natural flux with time. In wet years, there is plenty of
surface water, and the near-surface groundwater resources are replenished. During dry years, specific plans
have to be taken to supply water on an emergency basis to minimize hardships.
Treatment of wastewater and reuse of such water during emergencies could be a wise decision. Finally plans
should be developed to use surface water when available and we should not be afraid to use groundwater as
needed in dry years.
A method of water management utilized by a number of municipalities is known as the Variablewater-source approach. For example, the city of Santa Barbara, California, has developed a variablewater-source approach that uses several interrelated measures to meet present and future water demands.
Details of the plan (shown in Figure) include importing state water, developing new sources, using
reclaimed water, and instituting a permanent conservation program. In essence, this seaside community has
developed a master water plan.

Water Management and the Environment

Many agricultural and urban areas require water to be delivered from near by (and, in some cases, not-sonear by) sources. To deliver the water, a system is needed for water storage and routing by way canals
and aqueducts from reservoirs. As a result, dams are built, wetlands may be modified, and rivers may be
channelized to help control flooding.
Wetlands may be defined as areas that are inundated by water or where the land is saturated to a depth of a
few centimeters for at least a few days per year. Wetlands is a comprehensive term for landforms such as salt
marshes, swamps, bogs, etc. Their common feature is that they are wet at least part of the year and as a
result have a particular type of vegetation and soil. Three major components used to determine the presence of
wetlands are: hydrology, or wetness; type of vegetation; and type of soil.

Natural Service Functions of Wetlands

Wetland ecosystems may serve a variety of natural service functions for other ecosystems and for people,
including the following:

Freshwater wetlands are a natural sponge for water. During high river flow they store water, reducing
dow nstream flooding. Following a flood, they slowly release the stored water, nourishing low flows.
Many freshwater wetlands are important as areas of groundwater recharge (water seeps into the ground
from a prairie pothole, for instance) or discharge (water seeps out of the ground in a marsh that is fed
by springs).
Wetlands are one of the primary nursery grounds for fish, shellfish, aquatic birds, and other animals. It
has been estimated that as many as 45% of endangered animals and 26% of endangered plants either
live in wetlands or depend on them for their continued existence.
Wetlands are natural filters that help purify water: plants in wetlands trap sediment and toxins.
Wetlands are often highly productive and are places where many nutrients and chemicals are naturally
cycled.
Coastal wetlands provide a buffer for inland areas from storms and high waves.
Wetlands are an important storage site for organic carbon; carbon is stored in living plants, animals, and
rich organic soils.
Wetlands are aesthetically pleasing to people.

WATER POLLUTION
Water is a vital natural resource which is essential for a multiplicity of purposes. Its many uses include drinking
and other domestic uses, industrial cooling, power generation, agriculture (irrigation), transportation and waste
disposal. In the chemical process industry, water is used as a reaction medium, a solvent, a scrubbing medium,
and a heat transfer agent. As a source of life for man, plants and other forms of life it cannot be replaced.
Dozens of times a day those of us who live in the industrialized nations of the world enjoy a blessing
denied to 75 percent of the world population: abundant supplies of clean water. But water is essential for life on
earth. No known organisms can live without it. For centuries water has been used as a dumping ground for
human sewage and industrial wastes. Added to them are the materials leached out and transported from land by
water percolating through the soil and running off its surface to aquatic ecosystems. Thus the term water
pollution refers to "Water contamination by a variety of chemical substances or eutrophication caused by
several nutrients and fertilizers (Southwick, 1976)". U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare defines
water pollution as "The adding to water of any substance, or the changing of water's physical and chemical
characteristics in any way which interferes with its use of legitimate purposes".

Origin of Wastewater
Wastewaters can be classified by their origin as domestic wastewater and industrial wastewater. Any
combination of wastewater that is collected in municipal sewers is termed as municipal sewage. Domestic
wastewater is that which is discharged from residential and commercial establishments, whereas industrial
wastewater is that which is discharged from manufacturing plants. The pollutants in domestic wastewater arise
from residential and commercial cleaning operations, laundry, food preparation, body cleaning functions, and
body excretions. The composition of domestic wastewater is relatively constant.

Industrial wastewater is formed at industrial plants where water is used for various processes, and also for
washing and rinsing of equipment, rooms, etc. These operations result in the pollution of the products and
byproducts that are discharged, either deliberately or unintentionally into them.
Normally, wastewaters are conducted to treatment plants for removing undesirable components which
include both organic and inorganic matter as well as soluble and insoluble material. These pollutants, if
discharged directly or with improper treatment, can interfere with the self-cleaning mechanisms of water bodies.
The capacity for self-cleaning is due to the presence of relatively small numbers of different types of microorganisms in the water bodies. These microorganisms use as food much of the organic pollutants and break
them down into simple compounds such as C02 or methane, and the micro-organisms produce new cells also.
But often either a pollutant does not degrade naturally or the sheer volume of the pollutant discharged is
sufficient to overwhelm the self-cleaning process. Also, the microbial population can be destroyed by toxic
wastes build up and reach high enough levels that will prevent reestablishment of a microbial population. The
water quality thus becomes permanently degraded.
Various constituents of wastewater are potentially harmful to the environment and to human health. In the
environment, the pollutants may cause destruction of animal and plant life, and aesthetic nuisance. Drinking
water sources are often threatened by increasing concentration of pathogenic organisms as well as by many of
the new toxic chemicals disposed of by industry and agriculture. Thus, the treatment of these wastes is of
paramount importance.
The major sources of water contamination have been domestic, industrial, agricultural waste products,
solid wastes, heat and radioactive materials.

Domestic Water Pollution

Domestic water requirements differ from season to season and from rural to urban areas. We use more water in
summer than winter. Water consumption in cities is greater than rural areas. Factors like standard of living and
habits of the people determine the per capita use of water. In Bangladesh the per capita consumption of water in
both rural and urban areas is generally not known because citizens in addition to municipal supplies do use
private wells, rivers and lakes for their water demands. Per capita consumption of water has been assumed to
increase with the standard of living however, water services are available only for 2 to 3 hours per day. As a
result per capita water use has declined in many cities due to tremendous growth in their population.
The starting point of domestic water pollution is urbanization. It is rapidly progressing throughout the
world. Urban waters often have elevated nutrient levels, specially phosphorus. Many urban water surfaces are
covered with a thin film of oil and grease. In a planned city the run off is channeled into two ways. In the first,
storm and domestic sewers are separate systems. In the second, storm and domestic sewers are combined. The
leakage of sewers is very common in big cities. The consumption of this water by poor people specially those
living in slums close to sewers leads to diseases that often take the shape of an epidemic.
Domestic water pollution is mainly caused by sewage. Sewage is defined as the water-borne waste derived
from home, animal or food processing plants and includes human excreta, soaps, organic materials, different
types of solids, waste food, oil detergents, paper and cloth.
They are the largest group of water pollutants. Water pollution is caused by uncontrolled dumping of waste
collected from villages, towns and cities into ponds, streams, lakes and rivers. A major ingredient of most
detergents is phosphate. Phosphates support luxurious growth of algae. Algae withdraw large quantities of
oxygen from water. It becomes detrimental to other organisms. Domestic waters are the primary sources of
water pollution.
The domestic sewage contributes to the largest amount of waste.
The huge discharge of sewage allows following events that lead to water pollution.
1) Depletion of Oxygen Contents: The aerobic bacteria present in water are responsible for the decomposition
of organic matter. The quantity of oxygen utilized by the bacteria for the degradation of organic substance is
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called biological oxygen demand (BOD). Thus BOD value can be used as an indicator of water pollution.
Alongwith BOD, the quantity of oxygen dissolved in a water body (DO), indicates the quality of bio-life in a
water system. DO below 4 to 5 ppm is detrimental to the system.
2) Promotion of Algal Growth: Stimulation of heavy algal growth and shift in the algal flora to the blue green
algae, leading to the formation of obnoxious blooms, floating scums or blankets of algae results into
eutrophication. Most of the algal bloom do not seem to be utilized as food by the invertebrates or zooplankton,
thereby, minimizing the predatory control. Biological decomposition of such algal masses in turn leads to
oxygen depletion. In a poorly oxygenated condition, fish and other animal die and clean river is turned into a
stinking drain.
3) Spread of Infections/Diseases: Micro-organisms, usually viruses, bacteria, some protozoans and helminthes
occur in water bodies as a result of sewage disposal. Consumption of contaminated water causes water borne
infectious diseases.
Water borne infectious diseases in man.
Viruses
Bacteria
Protozoa
Helminthes

Viral hepatitis, poliomyletitis

Cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery, diarrhoea
Amoebiasis, giardiasis
Roundworm, hookworm, threadworm

Presence of Escherichia coli in water indicates the degree of water pollution as describe below Heavily polluted
Polluted
Slightly polluted
Satisfactory
Drinking water

10,000 / L
1,000/ L
100 / L
10/ L
3/L

Industrial Water Pollution

Pollution mainly caused by the discharge of industrial effluents into the water body is known as industrial
pollution. These effluents contain a wide variety of inorganic and organic substances such as oils, greases,
plastics, plasticizers, methylic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, pesticides, heavy metals and acids. Major
industries of the country are located on or near the coastline or riversides.

The discharge of industrial wastes results into the following 1) Organic substances deplete the oxygen content.
2)Inorganic substances render the water unfit for drinking and other purposes.
3)Acids and alkalies adversely effect the growth of fish and other aquatic
organisms.
4) Dye change the colour of water and affect the aquatic life.
5) Toxic substances cause serious damage to flora and fauna.
6). Oil and other greasy substances interfere with the self purification mechanism
of water.
Agricultural Water Pollution
Water pollution can be caused by agricultural wastes such as fertilizers, pesticides, soil additives and animal
wastes that are washed off from the land to the aquatic system through irrigation, rainfall and leaching. Average
all over the world is 54 kg/ha. Netherlands alone uses 709 kg/ha.. The demand for fertilizers are non10

biodegradable. In both fresh and marine systems they enter the food chain, accumulate in non-target organisms
and increase in animal tissue to alarming concentrations. They may find entry into the drinking water supplies.
Solid Waste Pollution
Solid waste varies in composition with the socio-economic status of the generating community. The following
materials could be classified as solid waste.
1)Garbage - Decomposable wastes from households, food, canning, freezing and
meat processing operations that are not disposed off in wastewater.
2) Rubbish - All non-decomposable wastes, garden wastes, cloth, paper, glass,
metals and chemicals.
3) Sewage Sludge.
4)Miscellaneous Materials - chemicals, paints, explosives and mining wastes.
River or ocean dumping of these materials leads to water pollution. This tends to contaminate surface as well as
ground water. Because of a high organic nature of this material, a large BOD is placed on the receiving waters
and the sediment becomes coated with a highly organic ooze. Non-combustible materials are generally disposed
off by ocean dumping.
Thermal Pollution
An increase in the optimum water temperature by industrial processes (steel factories, electric power houses and
atomic power plants) may be called as thermal pollution. Many industries generate their own power and use
water to cool their generators. This hot water is released into the system from where it was drawn, causing a
warming trend of surface waters. If the system is poorly flushed, a permanent increase in the temperature may
result. However, if the water is released into the well flushed systems, permanent increase in temperature does
not occur.
Many organisms are killed instantly by the hot water resulting into a high mortality. It may bring other
disturbance in the ecosystem. The eggs of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all. It may lead to unplanned
migration of aquatic animals.
Oil Pollution
There are about 15 million water crafts on navigable waters throughout the world. Their combined waste
discharges are equivalent to a city with a population of 2,000,000. Thus oil pollution, an oxygen demanding
waste, is of concern not only from sensational major spills from ships and offshore drilling rigs but also from
small spills and cleaning operations.
A layer of oil floating on the ocean surface can interfere with the exchange of oxygen and carbondioxide
and reduce the rate of photosynthesis of marine plankton and the respiration of marine animals. Fuel oil added
to sea water in very low concentration (199 ppb) depresses photosynthesis.
The death of birds from oil spills has attracted much attention. The Fort Mercer and Pendleton Collision in
1952 reduced the wintering population of eider ducks from 5,00,000 to 1,50,000. Some believe that the jackars
penguin, which lives in South Africa, is endangered because floating oil from tankers rounding the Cape of
Good Hope is killing hundreds of thousands of these birds each year. The chronic effects of oil spills appear less
serious than the acute effects.

Toxic Water Pollutants and Their Effects

Two main categories of water pollutants have been identified from environmental health point of view. The first
group comprises conventional water pollutants that come primarily from non-industrial sources and are highly
bio-degradable e.g. faecal coliform bacteria, nutrients, nitrates and sediments.
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Unlike conventional pollutants the second group comprises toxic water pollutants e.g. pesticides, heavy
metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons and a variety of inorganic and organic compounds. They are not easily
biodegraded and are a serious health problem of highly industrialized countries.
The first causal epidemiological connection between human faeces and disease was made by Dr. John Snow in
1854 when he unrevealed the mystery of London chlorea epidemic by observing that the common link between
all the victims in the Broad Street area was that they obtained their drinking water from the same well. Today
we know that coliform bacteria make up something like one-fifth to one-third of the average person's wastes
and billions of them are released into the sewage systems every day. They cause cholera, typhoid fever and
gestro-enteritis. Chlorination of water is the only remedy but we should not forget that chlorination may pose
health hazards of its own.
Detergents
The word detergent has been derived from the Latin term "detergene" meaning to cleanse. Substances like soaps
that possess considerable cleansing property are known as detergents. Soaps differ greatly physically and
chemically, but they have one property in common-they lower surface tension of liquids in which they are
dissolved. That is why they are known as surface active agents or in short "surfactants".
The detergents enter into the water from various sources i.e. industry (textile, leather, dyeing and finishing),
agriculture and refuse of cities and towns. The increased personal and domestic consumption of detergents is
certainly one of the main causes of pollution of surface waters.
The detergents are responsible for nuisances like foam. They affect the oxidation of dissolved matter and
transfer of oxygen. They affect the bacterial and algal flora and influence the permeability of soils.
In animals the lethal dose varies between 1 and 223 of anionic detergent per kg of their weight, depending
on the species. In one hour, 20 ppm will cause the death of 65day old trout, while 15 ppm will cause the death
of a 15 cm young through in the same time. The amount of dissolved oxygen in the water is also very important.
When the oxygen content is reduced, the affect of toxic substances is proportionately increased, and in polluted
streams with a low oxygen content small concentrations of surface active agents can have a toxic effect.
In man, detergents may cause dermatitis. 131.1 percent of dermatitis cases in United States have been
attributed to detergents. Owing to their peculiar physical properties the surface active agents are capable of
penetrating into the skin either directly or through sweat glands. Their ability to denature proteins or reaction
with keratin may trigger serious disturbances.
Pesticides
Pesticides are biologically active chemicals used for killing plants or animal pests. It is a general term
embracing insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, nematocides etc. (Table). Sometimes a collective term biocide is
used to include all these categories. Pesticides have been used in one form or another for more than 2,000 years,
but the use became widespread only in the last century. The primary problem with pesticides is that they are
intentionally toxic and if they are toxic to undesirable organisms, they may also be toxic to desirable one
including ourselves. The danger from pesticides was brought to public attention in 1962 with the publication of
SILENT SPRINGS, a book by Rachel Carson. During the last two decades the use of pesticides has increased
12 times (Freed et al. 1977) and millions of kilograms are produced every year.
Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT), benzene hexachloride (BHC), chlordane, haptachlor,
methoxychlor, toxaphene, aldrin, endrin and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are the commonly used
pesticides. Extensive and indiscriminate use of these biocides has made them an integral part of the biological,
geological and chemical cycles of the earth. Today they are present in air, soil, water and each ecosystem.
DDT is a classic case of a pesticide thought to be safe and affective. Its discoverer Paul Muller was
awarded a Nobel Prize. After world war II, DDT was found to be an amazing chemical. It controlled at least 27
diseases, saved 5 million lives and prevented 100 million people from various illnesses. Although, it was
recognized as early as 1948, that it is stored in body fat, no direct effect of DDT on man were noticed. Its
widespread distribution in the biosphere was evident when it was detected in Antarctic penguins, in cow's milk
12

and human milk. The drainage of DDT into rivers, swamps and coastal waters killed crabs, and fish. When these
aquatic organisms were eaten by predators- their metabolism tended to favour the retention in body fat. Each
step in the food chain resulted in an increased concentration of DDT. Finally the carnivorous birds contained
sufficient DDT to cause toxic effects.
As the history of DDT illustrates, fat soluble pesticides can have subtle, hidden but important
environmental effects. Because the compounds poorly soluble in water appear rare in the nonbiological
environment, they are easily ignored. However, their biomagnification and negative effects can be serious
though the compound may be present in traces.
Classes of pesticides
Class
Acaricide
Alganecide
Antifouling
agent
Attractant
Avicide
Chemosterilant
Defoliant
Dessicant
Fumigant
Fungicide
Herbicide
Insecticide
Molluscide
Nematicide
Ovicide
Piscicide
Plant regulator
Repellent
Rodenticide
Silvicide

Purpose
Used against mites and ticks, members of the Acaridae
Used against algae
A paint additive to protect against organisms that grow on moist or wet
surfaces including those underwater
A chemical that attract insects or birds or other animal pests to a trap or a
poison
Kills or discourages birds
A chemical that will lower or stop reproduction by a pest
A chemical that induces plants to drop their leaves prior to harvest (sometimes
used as a herbicide or silvicide)
A chemical that dries plants out before harvest
Used to kill soil pests and sometimes weeds
Used against fungi
A weed killer, strictly speaking, but defoliants and silvicides are often called
herbicides
Used against insects
Used to kill or control mollusks and other invertebrates (e.g. predatory snails,
slugs, oyster drill, lamprey)
Used against nematodes, tiny round worms that feed on decaying matter, roots
or other parts of plants
A chemical used against the eggs of insects, mites, and nematodes
Used to reduce the population of rough fish in a body of water
A chemical that alters the normal pattern of growth and development of a
plant; usually used for herbicidal purpose
A chemical that repels insects or other animals
Used against mice, rats, and other rodents
Used against bush, trees, and other woody plants and shrubs

After decades of discussion, DDT still remains controversial as far as its actual effects on human health are
concerned. However, many countries like U.K., U.S.A., Sweden Germany and Denmark had banned the use of
DDT and other organochlorine pesticides.
Pollution Problems of Leather Industries
The leather industry occupies an important place in the National economy of every country.
Tannery effluents contain vegetable tannins and non-tannins which cause chemical oxygen demand. They
also contain high amounts of proteins. These proteins are biodegradable and exert high BOD where water from
tanneries contain about 46% proteins, 10% fatty acids, 4% tannins, 20% inorganic volatile solids and about 21
% total dissolved volatile solids.
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Chlorides, trivalent chromium, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphate, ammonium salts, lime etc. are the inorganic
pollutants present in significant quantities. For each kg salted hide 35 litres of water is required. The discharge
of untreated waste waters in a nearby water body may effect the physical, chemical and biological characteristic
of water. High oxygen demand, high pH, excessive alkalinity, suspended matter, sulphides are injurious to fish
and other aquatic organisms. The chrome process involves 250 chemicals including cadmium, arsenic and
chromium. Chromium in particular is used in large quantities.
Tanneries make the ground water unfit for drinking, and irrigation. Groundwater ofseveral places have
been affected by tanneries. A tannery waste can contaminate the groundwater in a radius of 8 kms. The effluent
from vegetable tanning is coloured which makes the water turbid. Turbidity reduces light penetration, thereby
reducing the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants. Pathogenic micro-organisms such as, Bacillus anthrasis
may increase in these waters and may be transi..itted to human beings.
Dyes and Pigments
As many as 139 organic chemicals, heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cr, Cu, Hg, Me, Ba) and their salts, acids and alkalies
are used in the manufacture of dyes. Most of these compounds, besides small quantities of intermediate
compounds along with final products are discharged into waste waters causing serious pollution problems.. The
main intermediate used are benzoic acid, nitrobenzene, chlorobenzene and aniline all ranked as highly toxic and
suspected carcinogens.
Heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmiun and zinc are dangerous pollutants and are often deposited
with natural sediment in water systems. Then they are incorporated in plants, food crops and animals. Heavy
metal poisoning occurs when this water is used for agricultural and human consumption.
Organic Compounds
Artificial organic compounds are used primarily in industrial processes, pest control, pharmaceuticals, food
additives and other consumer products. Many of them escape into the environment and spread widely
throughout the biosphere and can be found in many species. Their presence in non-target marine organisms far
from the sources of their production confirms their presence in water bodies. The dissolved organic matter
(DOM), suspended organic matter (SOM) and bottom organic matter (BOM) cause a steep rise in BOD, killing
off zooplankton and fish. SOM is more hazardous to the fish as the organic matter gathers round each silt
particle and this silt organic mass clogs the gills of fish causing asphyxiation. The water polluted by organic
compounds is unfit for human consumption.
Groundwater Pollution
We have long believed that ground water in general is quite pure and safe to drink. Therefore, it may be
alarming for some people to learn that groundwater in fact may easily be polluted by any one of the following
sources. Problem of groundwater pollution can be understood by the arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh and West
Bengal (India).
Classification of sources of groundwater pollution and/ or contamination.
Wastes
Non-wastes
Sources designed to discharge
Sources that may discharge
Sources that may discharge a
to the land and/or Groundwater waste to the land and ground
contaminant (not a waste) to the
water unintentionally
land and groundwater
Spray irrigation
Surface impoundments
Buried product storage tanks and
pipelines
Septic systems, cesspools etc
Landfills
Accidental spills
Land disposal of sludge
Animal feed lots
Highly deicing salt stockpiles
Infiltration or percolation basins Acid water from mines
Ore stockpiles
Disposal wells
Mine spoil piles and tailings
Application of highway salt
Brine injection wells
Waste disposal sites for
Product storage ponds
hazardous chemicals
Agricultural activities
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Arsenic Poisoning
In a survey made arsenic has been found in groundwater above maximum permissible limit (0.05 mg/1)
recommended by WHO (Mandal et at. 1996). Millions people are drinking arsenic contaminated water in
Bangladesh and West Bengal (India).
Symptoms of arsenical toxicity develop insidiously after six months to two years or more depending upon the
amount of intake of arsenic laden ground-water and arsenic concentration in the water sample. Darkening of
skin (diffuse melanosis) in the body or in palm is the earliest symptom. Spotted pigmentation (spotted
melanosis) is usually observed on chest, back or limbs. Leucomelanosis as white and black spots on side by side
also develops in many patients. Diffuse with nodular keratosis on palm and sole is another sign of moderately
severe toxicity. Rough and dry skin often with palpable nodules (spotted keratosis) on dorsal surface of hands,
feet and legs are the symptoms of severe arsenic poisoning. Complications like liver enlargement
(hepatomegaly), spleen enlargement (splenomegaly) and fluid in abdomen (ascitis) are seen in several cases.
Squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, carcinoma of lung, uterus, bladder, genitourinary tract have
also been observed in advanced neglected cases suffering for more than ten years.

Point and Non point Sources of Water Pol lution

Point sources discharge pollutants at specific locations through pipes, ditches, or sewers into bodies of surface
water. Examples include (1) factories, (2) sewage treatment plants (which remove some but not all pollutants), (3)
active and abandoned underground mines , and (4) oil tankers. Because point sources are at specific places, they are
easy to identify, monitor, and regulate. Most developed countries control discharges of many harmful chemicals into
aquatic systems, whereas there is little control of such discharges in most developing countries.
Nonpoint sources cannot be traced to any single site of discharge. They are usually large land areas or airsheds that
pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow, or deposition from the atmosphere. Examples include (1) acid deposition
and (2) runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns,
golf courses, and parking lots.
Nonpoint pollution from agriculture includes (1) sediments, (2) inorganic fertilizers, (3) manure, (4) salts
dissolved in irrigation water, and (5) pesticides. In the United States, the EPA estimates such pollution is responsible
for (1) 64% of the total mass of pollutants entering streams and (2) 57% of those entering lakes. There has been little
progress in controlling nonpoint water pollution because of the difficulty and expense of identifying and controlling
discharges from so many diffuse sources.

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Common Diseases Transmitted to Humans Through Contaminated Drinking Water

Type of Organism

Disease

Effects

Bacteria

Typhoid fever

Diarrhea, severe vomiting, enlarged spleen,

inflamed intestine; often fatal if untreated
Diarrhea, severe vomiting, dehydration;
often fatal if untreated
Diarrhea; rarely fatal except in infants
without proper treatment
Severe stomach pain, nausea, vomiting;
rarely fatal
Fever, severe headache, loss of appetite,
abdominal pain, jaundice, enlarged liver;
rarely fatal but may cause permanent liver
damage
Severe diarrhea, headache, abdominal pain,
chills, fever; if not treated can cause liver
abscess, bowel perforation, and death
Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, flatulence,
belching, fatigue
Abdominal pain, skin rash, anemia, chronic
fatigue, and chronic general ill health

Cholera
Bacterial dysentery
Enteritis
Viruses

Infectious hepatitis

Parasitic protozoa

Amoebic dysentery
Giardiasis

Parasitic worms

Schistosomiasis

Determination of Water Quality

Scientists measure water quality using a variety of methods:
16

Measuring the number of colonies of coliform bacteria present in a 100 milliliter sample of
water. The WHO recommends a coliform bacteria count of 0 colonies per 100 milli liters for
drinking water, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends a
maximum level for swimming water of 200 colonies per 100 milliliters.

Determining water pollution from oxygen demanding wastes and plant nutrients by
measuring the level of dissolved oxygen: The quantity of oxygen-demanding wastes in
water can be determined by measuring the biological oxygen demand MOD): the amount of
dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down the organic materials in a
certain volume of water over a 5-day incubation period at 20C (68F).

Using chemical analysis to determine the presence and concentrations of most inorganic and
organic chemicals that pollute water

17