Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Petroleum composition in the Cuu Long Basin (Mekong Basin) offshore

southern Vietnam
Jrgen A. Bojesen-Koefoed a, *, H. Peter Nytoft a, Nguyen Thi Dau b
a
b

Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS), ster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
Vietnam Petroleum Institute (VPI), Yen Hoa, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Viet Nam

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 26 September 2007
Received in revised form
26 March 2008
Accepted 16 April 2008
Available online 25 December 2008

The Cuu Long Basin (Mekong Basin) is a rift basin off southern Vietnam, and the most important
petroleum producing basin in the country. However, information on petroleum type and characteristics
has hitherto been largely unavailable to the public. This paper presents petroleum geochemical data on
nine oil samples from four different producing elds in the Cuu Long Basin: the Dragon (Rong), Black Lion
(Sutu-Den), Sunrise (Rang ong) and White Tiger (Bach Ho) Fields. The oils are highly parafnic with
bimodal normal alkane distributions and show moderate pristane to phytane ratios and a conspicuous
hyperbolic decrease in abundance with increasing carbon number of hopane homologues from C30 to C35.
The TPP-index of Holba et al. (Holba, A.G., Dzou, L.I., Wood, G.D., Ellis, L., Adam, P., Schaeffer, P., Albrecht,
P., Greene, T., Hughes, W.B., 2003. Application of tetracyclic polyprenoids as indicators of input from
freshbrackish water environments. Organic Geochemistry 34, 441469) is equal to 1 in all samples
which in combination with tricyclic triperpane T26/T25 ratios >1 and the n-alkane and hopane distributions mentioned above provide a strong indication of an origin from lacustrine source rocks. This is
supported by the absence of marine C30 desmethyl steranes (i.e. 24-n-propylcholestanes) and marine
diatom-derived norcholestanes. Based on the overall biological marker distributions, the lakes probably
belonged to the overlled or balanced-ll types dened by Bohacs et al. (Bohacs, K.M., Carroll, A.R., Neal,
J.E., Mankiewicz, P.J., 2000. Lake-basin type, source potential, and hydrocarbon character. An integrated
sequence-stratigraphicgeochemical framework. AAPG Studies in Geology 46, 334). The oils were
generated from source rocks at early- to mid-oil-window maturity, presumably Oligocene lacustrine
shales that are present in the syn-rift succession. Oils from individual elds may, however, be distinguished by a combination of biological marker parameters, such as the oleanane index, the gammacerane
index, the relative abundance of tricyclic terpanes, the proportions of diasteranes and 28-norspergulane,
complemented by other parameters. The oils of the Cuu Long Basin show an overall similarity to the B-10
oil from the Song Hong Basin off northern Vietnam, but are markedly different from the seepage oils
known from Dam Thi Nai on the coast of central Vietnam.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Vietnam
Cuu Long Basin
Petroleum composition
Biological markers
Lacustrine source rocks

1. Introduction
The petroleum reserves of Vietnam are considerable, with
proven reserves of oil (in 2006) amounting to 2.5 billion barrels and
193 billion cubic metres of gas (in 2005). Annual production in
2005 was estimated at 146 million barrels of oil (400,000 barrels/
day) and 6.342 billion cubic metres of gas (CIA, 2007). Resource
assessments vary, however, and the gures given by Nguyen (2006)
that are used below add up to somewhat more than the estimates
by the CIA cited above.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 45 3814 2459; fax: 45 3814 2050.
E-mail address: jbk@geus.dk (J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed).
0264-8172/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2008.04.011

The Cuu Long Basin, which is sometimes referred to as the

Mekong Basin, is the major hydrocarbon producing basin in Vietnam (Fig. 1). Exploration has been going on for approximately three
decades with production being initiated in 1986 (Nguyen, 2005).
The rst eld to be set to production was the White Tiger (Bach Ho),
and since then a number of additional elds have been discovered
and set to production. These include, among others, the Sunrise
(Rang ong) with the satellite NE Sunrise (Phuong ong); Dragon
(Rong); Black Lion (Sutu-Den) with the satellite elds White Lion,
Yellow Lion and Brown Lion; and the Ruby Field. Other elds
discovered or presently under development include the Pearl,
Topaz, Jade, Diamond, and Emerald Fields. Production takes place
from both Neogene and Oligocene clastic reservoirs and from

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J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

Fig. 1. Location map. Left: overview, study area shown by red rectangle; right: Cuu Long Basin areas corresponding to red rectangle shown in overview map. Oil eld locations are
shown.

fractured basement reservoirs (Areshev et al., 1992; Trinh et al.,

2005; Nguyen et al., 2005).
The White Tiger (Bach Ho) Field is a giant oil eld with
reserves estimated at 1.01.4 billion barrels of oil. Current
production of this oil eld is 250,000 barrels of oil per day
(bopd), 90% of which comes from the fractured basement reservoir; the remainder from Oligocene and Miocene clastic reservoirs. The Dragon (Rong) Field is located south of the White Tiger
Field. Oil is produced from both basement and volcanic reservoirs. The estimated reserves are about 40 million barrels. The
Sunrise Field (Rang ong) is situated NE of the White Tiger (Bach
Ho) Field. Oil is produced mainly from fractured basement
reservoirs with a minor proportion being produced from Miocene
sandstones. Current production is about 60,000 bopd. The Black
Lion (Sutu-Den) Field has been producing for only a few years.
Total reserves, including satellite elds, are estimated at 1730
million barrels of oil plus 85 million cubic metres of gas.
Production takes place from both fractured basements reservoirs
and OligoceneMiocene sand reservoirs. The Ruby Field is located
in the northeastern part of the basin. Oil is produced dominantly
from Miocene sandstones and Oligocene volcanics. Current
production is about 20,000 bopd.
The predominant source rocks are Oligocene lacustrine shales,
sometimes perhaps with a slight brackish water inuence, or
possibly with minor coaly facies (Todd et al., 1997), but few if any
numerical data on the quality of the source rocks are publicly
available. Despite the long exploration and production history of
the Cuu Long Basin, only sporadic and fragmentary information
regarding detailed petroleum compositions in the basin are
available in the public realm (e.g. Todd et al., 1997; Savinykh
et al., 2001; Bojesen-Koefoed et al., 2006; Nytoft et al., 2006).
This paper presents biological marker data for nine oil samples,
representing four different producing elds in the Cuu Long
Basin, and discusses their characteristics in relation to the
compositions of oils know from other areas of Vietnam.

2. Geology
The Cuu Long Basin is an elongated WSWENE trending basin
that covers an area of approximately 100 by 250 km, situated off the
south coast of Vietnam. It is one of a series of Tertiary age basins
along the Vietnamese coast that also includes the Song Hong, Phu
Khanh, and Nam Con Son Basins (Andersen et al., 2005; Canh et al.,
1994; Fyhn et al., 2009; Lee and Watkins, 1998; Lee et al., 2001). The
Cuu Long Basin is a typical rift basin, underlain by fractured and
heavily weathered Mesozoic basement (granites and granodiorites). The sedimentary succession consists of a Palaeogene syn-rift
package separated from a Neogene post-rift succession by an
inversion unconformity of latest Oligocene to earliest Miocene age.
The inversion unconformity marks the transition from a tectonic
regime dominated by rifting to one characterised by regional
subsidence. The syn-rift succession (EoceneOligocene) is made up
of terrigenous clastic rocks that include lacustrine and uvial
deposits and coals. The late post-rift succession consists of thick,
basinward prograding and dipping clinoforms of paralic or shallow
marine sediments (Lee et al., 2001). Organic-rich lacustrine
deposits as well as coals that may serve as petroleum source rocks
are present in the syn-rift succession. Lacustrine source rocks either
directly onlap the main reservoirs in fractured and weathered
basement, or have been brought into juxtaposition by faulting. Less
important petroleum reservoirs are present in Oligocene and
Miocene age clastic rocks of the post-rift succession.
3. Samples and methods
A total of nine oil samples from the Cuu Long Basin were analysed. They were non-pressurised test oils without detailed information regarding reservoir type or depth. The samples were
collected from the following elds (Fig. 1): Black Lion/Sutu-Den
(two samples), Sunrise/Rang ong (two samples), White Tiger/Bach
Ho (two samples), and Dragon/Rong (three samples). Aliquots were

J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

Table 1
Bulk composition of oil samples and pristane to phytane ratios based on GC-FID peak
areas.
Field

Sample
#

Asphaltenes
(%)

Saturates
(%)

Aromatics
(%)

NSOs
(%)

Sat/
Aro

Pristane/
Phytane

Dragon
Dragon
Dragon
Black Lion
Black Lion
Sunrise
Sunrise
White
Tiger
White
Tiger

8679
8680
8681
8683
8684
8685
8686
9124

0.8
0.1
1.2
2.5
2.3
1.0
0.3
2.9

84.0
93.2
85.7
77.4
76.1
83.2
84.3
66.6

9.3
4.6
7.6
11.8
11.4
8.6
9.0
13.1

6.7
2.2
6.8
10.8
12.5
8.1
6.6
20.3

9.1
20.1
11.3
6.6
6.7
9.6
9.4
5.1

2.06
2.32
2.04
2.60
2.59
2.18
2.02
2.25

9125

0.6

83.6

8.6

7.8

9.7

2.01

Asphaltenes (%): Asphaltenes, weight-percent of stabilised oil sample.

Saturates (%): Saturated hydrocarbons, weight-percent of maltene fraction.
Aromatics (%): Aromatic hydrocarbons, weight-percent of maltene fraction.
NSO (%): Heteroatomic compounds, weight-percent of maltene fraction.
Sat/Aro: Saturated hydrocarbons/Aromatic hydrocarbons.
Pristane/Phytane: Pristane to Phytane ratio based on GCFID peak areas.

left at room temperature until stable. Asphaltenes were precipitated by addition of a 40-fold excess of n-pentane. Maltene fractions were separated into saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons and heteroatomic polar compounds by Medium
Pressure Liquid Chromatography (MPLC), using a procedure
modied from Radke et al. (1980).
Gas chromatography of total hydrocarbon fractions was carried
out using a Shimadzu 2010 GC, furnished with a 25 m HP-1 WCOT
column and FID.
GCMSMS (parentdaughter) and GCMS(SIM) analyses were
performed using an Agilent 6890N gas chromatograph connected
to a Waters (Micromass) Quattro Micro GC tandem quadrupole
mass spectrometer. A Phenomenex ZB-5 capillary column
(30 m  0.25 mm i.d., lm thickness 0.10 mm) was used. The
temperature program was 30  C/min from 70 to 100  C and 4  C/
min from 100 to 308  C followed by 8 min at 308  C.

901

4. Results
Bulk compositions of the oil samples are listed in Table 1.
Asphaltene contents are low to moderate, <3%. Maltene fractions
are generally dominated by saturated hydrocarbons with subordinate proportions of heteroatomic compounds and aromatic
hydrocarbons. Thus saturated/aromatic hydrocarbon ratios are
generally high, 520. The White Tiger Field (#9124) sample has
somewhat higher proportions of asphaltenes and heteroatomic
compounds than the rest of the samples analysed, but this does not
inuence the saturated/aromatic hydrocarbon ratio, which remains
high.
Gas chromatograms generally show asymmetric bimodal,
heavy-end skewed normal alkane distributions that range at least
to nC44, with primary maxima at approximately nC25, and
secondary maxima at approximately nC15. Baselines are essentially
at with no notable presence of unresolved components (UCM),
and only very slight odd carbon number predominance is observed
among the normal alkanes. One sample from the Dragon Field
(#8680) falls outside the general pattern in showing only slight
bimodality, with a primary maximum at approximately nC15,
a secondary maximum at nC23, and a normal alkane distribution
that does not seem to extend far beyond nC38 (Fig. 2). Pristane to
phytane ratios do not show much variation, at 2.02.6 for all
samples (Table 1).
Bishomohopane 22S/(22S 22R) isomer ratios are essentially at
equilibrium for all samples, whereas C29 sterane 20S/(20S 20R)
isomer ratios are generally at or slightly below equilibrium, suggesting that the oils were generated from early- to mid-oil-window
mature source rocks (Table 2). One sample from the White Tiger
Field (#9124) shows somewhat lower C29 sterane 20S/(20S 20R)
isomer ratio, 0.34. Ratios of Ts/(Ts Tm) show little variation, 0.75
0.81, except for the White Tiger Field (#9124) sample, that yields
a value somewhat lower, 0.56 (Table 2).
Hopane distributions are shown in Fig. 3. A common feature of
all samples is the hyperbolic decrease in abundance with increasing
carbon number of hopane homologues from C30 to C35. Except for
the White Tiger Field (#9124) sample which falls outside the
general trend, all samples show high proportions of rearranged

Fig. 2. Gas chromatography data. Numbers refer to n-alkane carbon numbers. Pr: pristane, Ph: phytane.

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J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

Table 2
Biological marker maturity indicators.
Field

Sample #

Sterane
C29 S/(S R)

Hopane
C32 S/(S R)

Ts/(Ts Tm)

Dragon
Dragon
Dragon
Black Lion
Black Lion
Sunrise
Sunrise
White Tiger
White Tiger

8679
8680
8681
8683
8684
8685
8686
9124
9125

0.55
0.51
0.46
0.48
0.48
0.50
0.50
0.34
0.54

0.52
0.60
0.57
0.57
0.59
0.58
0.56
0.57
0.61

0.78
0.77
0.75
0.81
0.77
0.77
0.79
0.56
0.77

Sterane C29 S/(S R): C29 regular sterane 20aaS/(20aaS 20aaR) epimer ratio.
Hopane C32 S/(S R): Bishomohopane 22S/(20S 20R) epimer ratio.
Ts/(Ts Tm): Trisnorneohopane/(Trisnorneohopane Trisnorhopane) ratio.

hopanes such as neohopanes (Ts, C29Ts, and C30Ts, no signicant

amount of higher homologues detected) and diahopanes (C29 and
C30, higher homologues not detected). A closer look at the details of
the C30 pentacyclic triterpane distributions (Fig. 4) reveals the
presence of small and variable amounts of both oleanane (coeluting
with minor proportions of an unknown compound, possibly
lupane, see Nytoft et al., 2002) and gammacerane, and demonstrates the overall high proportions of diahopane, but also the
apparent lack of notable proportions of C30Ts (Table 3). The details
of the C29 pentacyclic triterpane distributions (Fig. 5) show high
proportions of nordiahopane and C29Ts, small amounts of
a compound tentatively identied as 24-norgammacerane and the
presence of notable proportions of a little-known C29 compound:
28-norspergulane, which was recently identied and described by
Nytoft et al. (2006). The 28-norspergulane or 21-methyl-28,30dinorhopane is one member of a series of rearranged hopanes that
extends to at least C34.
The distribution of tricyclic triterpanes is highly variable (Fig. 6,
Table 3). Dragon Field samples show large proportions of tricyclic

terpanes relative to hopane, the Sunrise Field samples somewhat

minor proportions and Black Lion Field samples only low proportions. The two samples collected from the White Tiger Field show
opposing compositions with respect to tricyclic terpanes. The
sample #9124 is almost devoid of tricyclic terpanes, whereas the
#9125 sample shows very high proportions, quite similar to those
seen in the Dragon Field samples. Invariably, the C23 tricyclic terpane (T23) is the most abundant of all the tricyclic terpanes. Note
that all samples show T26 > T25.
C27C29 steranes are shown in Fig. 7. Due to low overall
concentrations of steranes, the signal-to-noise ratio of the data is
generally poor. Hopane to sterane ratios are very high. Neither C26
steranes (21-, 24-, and 27-norcholestanes and nordiacholestanes)
nor C30 desmethyl steranes (n-propylcholestanes) have been
detected in any of the samples. The distribution of C27C29 total
steranes is very uniform with C27  C29 > C28 (Fig. 8). The
proportion of diasteranes is generally high, but shows signicant
eld-to-eld variability (Fig. 7, Table 3). Hence, the Black Lion and
Sunrise Fields show high proportions of diasteranes, whereas the
Dragon and White Tiger Fields show somewhat lower proportions
(Table 3). C28C30 4-methylsteranes (and analogous diasteranes)
are present in all samples in concentrations amounting to
approximately 50% of that of the C27C29 desmethyl steranes
(regular diasteranes).
C30 tetracyclic polyprenoids (TPP, Holba et al., 2003), which are
monitored by the transition m/z 414259, are very abundant.
Combined with the marine-derived 27-norcholestanes (Holba
et al., 1998), the C30 tetracyclic polyprenoids allow the calculation of
the TPP-ratio of Holba et al. (2003). This ratio varies between 0 and
1, with values exceeding 0.4 indicating lacustrine deposition. As
noted above, marine-derived 27-norcholestanes are absent, and the
TPP-ratio is thus equal to 1 for all samples.
Bicadinanes are present in low concentrations, but seem to
show eld-to-eld variability, although one sample from the
Dragon Field (#8680) and one sample from the White Tiger Field
(#9124) seem to fall outside the general trend (Table 3).

Ts H29
H30
Dragon
#8679

Tm
D29
O

Dragon
#8680

Dragon
#8681

Black Lion
#8683

Sunrise
#8685

White Tiger
#9124

Black Lion
#8684

Sunrise
#8686

White Tiger
#9125

H33

Fig. 3. Distribution of C27C35 hopanes. Sum of relevant GCMSMS parentdaughter transitions (m/z 370191; m/z 384191; m/z 398191; m/z 412191; m/z 426191; m/z 440
191; m/z 454191; m/z 468191; m/z 482191). Ts: trisnorneohopane; Tm: trisnorhopane; D29: C29 diahopane; H29; C29 hopane; O: oleanane; H30: hopane; and H33: trishomohopane. Note the hyperbolic decrease in abundance with increasing carbon number of extended hopanes.

J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

H30

H30

H30

Dragon
#8679

903

Dragon
#8680

Dragon
#8681

DH03 O
G

DH30 O

DH30 O

H30

H30

H30

Sunrise
#8685

Black Lion
#8683

DH30

White Tiger
#9124

DH30 O
G

H30

DH30

O
G

H30
H30

Black Lion
#8684

Sunrise
#8686

DH30

DH30 O

White Tiger
#9125

DH30

Fig. 4. C30 pentacyclic triterpanes, GCMSMS data m/z 412191 transition. DH30: diahopane; O: oleanane; H30: hopane; and G: gammacerane.

Aromatic hydrocarbons have not been studied in great detail.

However, in general terms, aromatic steroids are absent or present
in negligible concentrations and benzohopanes are absent, whereas
monoaromatic 8,14-secohopanoids and methylphenanthrenes are
abundant. The distribution of methylphenanthrene isomers shows
considerable variability, and in particular the Sunrise Field samples
show a very unusual composition, featuring a strong predominance
of the 2-methylphenanthrene isomer, in combination with low
relative abundance of the 9-methylphenanthrene and 1-methylphenanthrene isomers (Fig. 9).
5. Discussion
The variations in bulk composition are not conspicuous, but the
elevated proportions of asphaltenes and heteroatomic compounds
in the White Tiger Field (#9124) sample are somewhat enigmatic,
considering the overall uniformity of the rest of the samples.
However, the exact origin of the sample is unknown, and the

slightly anomalous bulk composition observed for this particular

sample may have several causes, one of which may be reservoir
inhomogeneities. For instance, the sample may have been collected
near to an oilwater contact or a tar-mat where enrichment in
asphaltenes and NSOs is common.
Hopane and sterane biomarker maturity indicators show little
variation, suggesting that the oils were generated from source rocks
at rather similar levels of thermal maturity. The observed eld-toeld variation in various data types can thus be attributed primarily
to differences in source rock facies, and only to a very limited
degree to maturity differences. Supplementary maturity data from
aromatic steroids are not available due to the absence or nearabsence of these compounds from the oil. Migration effects such as
geochromatography (Krooss et al., 1991) and migration fractionation (Fan Zhao-an and Philp, 1987; Jiang et al., 1988) are probably
not very signicant since the migration distances seem rather
short. Binh et al. (2007) show a cross-section of the Cuu Long Basin
approximately following the distribution trend of the oil elds. The

Table 3
Biological marker facies indicators.
Field

Sample # C29 Sterane Dia/Regular Total Sterane C27/C29 Diahopane index Oleanane index Gammacerane index C23 Tricyclic/Hopane Bicadinane index

Dragon
Dragon
Dragon
Black Lion
Black Lion
Sunrise
Sunrise
White Tiger
White Tiger

8679
8680
8681
8683
8684
8685
8686
9124
9125

0.87
0.97
0.77
1.63
1.69
1.87
1.92
0.55
0.83

1.05
1.10
1.06
1.09
1.13
1.12
1.19
1.14
1.09

18.57
8.38
15.03
10.84
8.62
16.03
15.42
2.95
16.51

13.6
6.5
12.1
10.3
7.9
14.5
13.5
5.4
12.5

C29 Sterane Dia/Regular: Sum C29 Diasteranes/Sum C29 Regular Steranes.

Total Sterane C27/C29: Total C27 Steranes/Total C29 Steranes.
Diahopane index: 100 (Diahopane/(Diahopane Hopane)), based on m/z 412191 transition.
Oleanane index: 100 (Oleanane/(Oleanane Hopane)), based on m/z 412191 transition.
Gammacerane index: 100 (Gammacerane/(Gammacerane Hopane)), based on m/z 412191 transition.
Bicadinane index: 100 (Bicadinane-T/(Bicadinane-T Hopane)), based on m/z 412369 transition.

8.17
4.87
7.99
3.17
3.50
5.52
5.35
3.64
7.99

1.55
0.64
1.40
0.15
0.10
0.20
0.23
0.05
1.10

69.0
32.4
65.1
44.2
35.5
77.3
79.8
33.4
69.6

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J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

H29
29Ts

H29

Dragon
#8679

Dragon
#8680

H29
29Ts

Dragon
#8681

29Ts
DH29

DH29

M29
NSP
NG?

H29
29Ts

DH29

M29
NSP

DH29

H29

Black Lion
#8683

29Ts

H29
29Ts

NG?

NG?

NG?

H29

Black Lion
#8684

H29

Sunrise
#8685

NSP
M29
DH29

H29

Sunrise
#8686

29Ts

White Tiger
#9124

NSP
M29

29Ts

NG?

White Tiger
#9125

DH29

DH29
DH29

NG?

29Ts

DH29
NSP
M29

NSP
M29

NSP

M29
NSP
NG?

M29

NSP
M29

NG?

NG?

Fig. 5. C29 pentacyclic triterpanes, GCMSMS data m/z 398191 transition. DH29: nordiahopane; H29: norhopane; 29Ts: norneohopane; NSP: 28-norspergulane; M29: normoretane; and NG?: norgammacerane (tentatively identied).

large-scale structure features three separate major depocentres in

which the source rocks of the Tra Tan Formation are in more or less
direct communication with the fractured basement reservoirs,
hence short migration distances are presumed. It is, however,
conceivable that since several elds feature two different
producing reservoirs, such in-eld differences between individual
reservoirs could be traced. This would, however, require detailed
information on test intervals which is not available, and probably
more samples. Provided that the White Tiger Field (#9124) sample

was collected from a clastic reservoir, the lower maturity may

perhaps be explained by contamination in or en route to the
reservoir by indigenous less mature bitumen that, due to a relatively higher biological marker concentration, may inuence
biomarker data strongly, without signicantly altering the oil bulk
composition.
All of the oils were clearly generated from lacustrine source
rocks. Bimodal normal alkane distributions indicating mixed
organic matter sources in combination with moderate pristane to

T23

T23
Dragon
#8679

Dragon
#8680

T23
H30

Dragon
#8681
H30

H30

H30
Sunrise
#8685

Black Lion
#8683

H30

H30
White Tiger
#9124
T23

T23
T23
H30

H30
Black Lion
#8684

Sunrise
#8686

T23
White Tiger
#9125

T23

H30

T23

Fig. 6. Distribution of C19C33 tricyclic triterpanes. Sum of relevant GCMSMS parentdaughter transitions (m/z 262191; m/z 276191; m/z 290191; m/z 304191; m/z 318191;
m/z 332191; m/z 346191; m/z 360191; m/z 374191; m/z 388191; m/z 402191; m/z 416191; m/z 430191; m/z 444191; m/z 458191). C30 hopane (m/z 412191) included for
comparison. T23: C23 tricyclic terpane; H30: hopane.

J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

D27 S27
+
D29

Dragon
#8679

905

Dragon
#8680

Dragon
#8681

Black Lion
#8683

Sunrise
#8685

White Tiger
#9124

Black Lion
#8684

Sunrise
#8686

White Tiger
#9125

S28
S29

Fig. 7. Distribution of C27C29 steranes. Sum of relevant GCMSMS parentdaughter transitions (m/z 372217; m/z 386217; m/z 400217). D27: C27 diasteranes; D29:
C29 diasteranes; S27: C27 regular steranes; S28: C28 regular steranes; and S29: C29 regular steranes.

phytane ratios and the conspicuous hyperbolic decrease in abundance with increasing carbon number of hopane homologues from
C30 to C35 are, if not typical, at least very commonly found in
lacustrine deposits. The TPP-index of Holba et al. (2003) is equal to
1 in all samples which in combination with tricyclic triperpanes
T26/T25 ratios >1 (Fig. 10; Peters et al., 2005) provide a strong
indication of a lacustrine origin. This is supported by the absence of
marine C30 desmethyl steranes (i.e. 24-n-propylcholestanes) and
marine diatom-derived norcholestanes.
Despite an overall common origin from lacustrine source rocks,
considerable differences are found in the detailed biological marker
distribution. Hence, based on a variety of such data, oils from the
individual elds can be more or less clearly distinguished, and be
compared to other oil or source rock samples to establish potential
genetic relationships. Moreover, since the oils studied here all show
comparable levels of thermal maturity; differences can be assumed
to reect variations in organic facies of the source rocks.
Conspicuous variations are shown by the relative abundance of
tricyclic to pentacyclic terpanes (Fig. 6). In Table 3, this is represented by the T23/H30 ratio, which varies over an order of
magnitude, but other ratios may be devised as well that show the
same pattern. Tricyclic triterpanes are generally held to be marine
indicators since their occurrence has been linked to prasinophycean algae (e.g. De Grande et al., 1993) but it is also clear that the
abundance of tricyclic terpanes in nearly all kinds of oils and
sediments is much too high to be accounted for by input from such
algae, and other, presently unknown sources must exist (Peters
et al., 2005, and references therein). So although marine shale oils
in general are characterised by a high proportion of tricyclic terpanes, the partially orphaned nature of this compound class
means that it cannot alone be used as an indicator of marine
deposition. In light of the absence of other accepted marine indicators in the Cuu Long Basin oils, and the strong evidence for
lacustrine source rocks, the variation in tricyclic terpanes observed
here is regarded as a reection of differences in depositional
environment other than that caused by marine inuence. Irrespective of the underlying cause, the relative abundance of tricyclic

triterpanes clearly distinguish the Black Lion Field and the Sunrise
Field from each other and from the Dragon and the White Tiger
Fields, that in turn, however, are not clearly mutually distinguished
since one White Tiger Field sample (#9125) is very similar to the
Dragon Field samples whereas the other sample (#9124) is markedly different from any other oil sample analysed. In several other
respects, including thermal maturity, the #9124 sample shows
unexpected features.
Variations are observed in several other parameters (Table 3).
Oleanane, which is usually accepted as a marker of angiosperm
higher land plant contributions to kerogen (see Nytoft et al., 2002,
for in-depth discussion and references), and as such is to be
expected in oils generated from Palaeogene lacustrine source rocks,
shows similar ability to distinguish the individual elds, in particular when combined with the distribution of tricyclic terpanes
(Fig. 11). The variation in the proportions of oleanane probably
reects minor variations in depositional environment and/or
organic matter input within the lakes where the source rocks were
deposited. Gammacerane, which when present in high proportions

C28

Dragon
Black Lion
Sunrise
White Tiger

C27

C29

Fig. 8. Relative distribution of C27C29 total steranes (diasteranes regular steranes).

Note the very homogenous sterane distribution.

906

J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

Dragon
#8679

Dragon
#8680

2
3

Dragon
#8681

9
Black Lion
#8683

2
1

Sunrise
#8685

White Tiger
#9124

9
2
Black Lion
#8684
3

1
3

91

Sunrise
#8686

White Tiger 3
#9125

3
91

Fig. 9. Distribution of methylphenanthrenes, GCMS(SIM) m/z 192. Note considerable variation in methylphenanthrene isomers between individual elds. In particular the Sunrise
Field samples show a very unusual isomer distribution. Peak numbers refer to isomer name (e.g. 3 3-methylphenanthrene).

supply of water plus sediment consistently exceeds the potential

accommodation, and the lake thus acts as an open reservoir;
balanced-ll lakes are found where the rate of supply of sediment
and water roughly matches the potential accommodation over the
time-span of the development of the sedimentary sequence lling
the lake, and underlled lakes develop where the rate of supply of
sediment and water is consistently less than the potential accommodation, resulting in hydrologically closed systems with development of ephemeral lakes with uctuating water table and often

1
Dragon Field
Black Lion Field
Sunrise Field
White Tiger Field

na

te

0.8

0.6

C
ar
bo

C31R / C30 Hopane

in oils is generally accepted as a marker of source rock deposition

under stratied, commonly hypersaline water columns (e.g. Grice
et al., 1998 and references therein), is generally found in small
amounts in most oils and source rocks. The amounts of gammacerane found in the Cuu Long Basin oils are very low, and do not
have any implications for the interpretation of the source depositional environment, but the variation observed may serve to
distinguish individual elds from each other, in particular when
combined with other parameters such as oleanane distributions
(Fig. 12). Again, the variation in the proportions of gammacerane
probably reects minor variations in depositional environment
and/or organic matter input within the lakes where the source
rocks were deposited. The distributions of rearranged hopanes,
such as diahopanes and 28-norspergulanes, as well as rearranged
steranes, such as diasteranes, all distinguish the individual elds in
ways very similar to those observed for the compounds discussed
above. The formation of rearranged hopanes and steranes in
general is favoured by suboxic and acidic diagenetic conditions
(Peters et al., 2005; Nytoft et al., 2006). Fig. 13 shows the 28-norspergulane/normoretane ratio versus the C29 diasterane/regular
sterane ratio. The more or less linear discrimination of the different
elds can be viewed as an illustration that the formation of rearranged hopanes and steranes is essentially governed by the same
set of environmental conditions, albeit at different rates.
Little is known about the detailed nature of the lakes in which
the source rocks of the Cuu Long Basin oils were deposited. Onshore
outcrops of lacustrine organic-rich shales have been suggested as
analogues for the active source rocks in the Song Hong Basin off
northern Vietnam (Petersen et al., 2001, 2004, 2005; Andersen
et al., 2005), and a continental rift sequence with prolic lacustrine
source rocks is described by Nielsen et al. (2007), and used as
a possible analogue by Fyhn et al. (2009) for interpreting possible
rift-lake successions in the Phu Kanh Basin. Bohacs et al. (2000)
propose a simple tripartite classication scheme for lakes: overlled lakes, balanced-ll lakes, and underlled lakes according to
the rate of supply of water plus sediment relative to the potential
accommodation. Hence, overlled lakes occur when the rate of

0.4
rl
Ma

0.2

hal

es

rin
Ma

Lacustrine
0
0.5

0.7

0.9

1.1

1.3

1.5

1.7

1.9

C26/C25 Tricyclic terpane

Fig. 10. Ratio of C26 tricyclic terpanes to C25 tricyclic terpane versus the ratio of 22Rhomohopane to hopane. Plot adapted from Peters et al. (2005). Based on the interpretation of Peters et al. (2005) the lacustrine origin of all the oils is clearly indicated.

J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

16

Oleanane index

12

10

Dragon Field
Black Lion Field
Sunrise Field
White Tiger Field

C29 diasteranes / C29 regular steranes

14

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

Dragon Field
Black Lion Field
Sunrise Field
White Tiger Field

4
0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

Fig. 11. C23 tricyclic terpane to hopane ratio versus oleanane index. The Black Lion and
Sunrise Fields are clearly distinguished from each other as well as from the Dragon and
White Tiger Fields, which in turn are mutually imperfectly separated. The #9125
sample collected from the White Tiger Field shows afnity to the Dragon Field samples,
whereas the #9124 sample from the White Tiger Field shows little afnity to any other
sample analysed.

evaporitic sediments. The different lake types are characterised by

different types of sedimentological evolution over time, and
preponderance of specic facies associations. Carroll and Bohacs
(2001) discuss the development of potential petroleum source
rocks in these different lake types, the geochemical characteristics

9
Dragon Field
Black Lion Field
Sunrise Field
White Tiger Field

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

28-norspergulane/normoretane

C23 tricyclic terpane/hopane

Gammacerane index

907

Fig. 13. 28-Norspergulane/normoretane ratio versus C29 diasterane/regular sterane

ratio. The elds are clearly separated except for sample #9125 from the White Tiger
Field that plots with the Dragon Field samples. The second White Tiger Field sample
(#9124) shows anomalous composition in a number of ways. Note the more or less
linear trend along which the elds are separated, reecting that the formation of both
rearranged steranes and rearranged hopanes is governed by the same mechanisms.

of such source rocks and the petroleum that may be generated from
them. The geochemical characteristics of source rocks from the
different lake types vary widely, and the variability of characteristics within each group is also considerable. However, judging from
the characteristics noted for the Cuu Long Basin oils compared
to the geochemical criteria established by Carroll and Bohacs
(2001), the lacustrine source rocks from which they were generated
were probably deposited in overlled to balanced-ll lake types,
according to the classication scheme of Bohacs et al. (2000).
Comparison of the characteristics of the Cuu Long Basin oils
studied here to other published oil compositional data from Vietnam shows that they share the overall lacustrine character with the
B-10 oil from the Song Hong Basin (Petersen et al., 2004), although
slight differences can be noted. Conversely, the Cuu Long Basin oils
are markedly different from the seepage oils from Dam Thi Nai on
the coast of south-central Vietnam (Bojesen-Koefoed et al., 2005).
6. Conclusion

3
4

10

12

14

16

Oleanane index
Fig. 12. Oleanane index versus gammacerane index. The Black Lion and Sunrise Fields
are clearly distinguished from each other as well as from the Dragon and White Tiger
Fields, that in turn are mutually imperfectly separated. The #9125 sample collected
from the White Tiger Field shows afnity to the Dragon Field samples, whereas the
#9124 sample from the White Tiger Field shows little afnity to any other sample
analysed.

The Cuu Long Basin in the south Vietnam offshore is the most
prolic and productive petroliferous basin in Vietnam. A series of
nine oil samples collected from wells in the Cuu Long Basin were
analysed. The samples represent four different producing elds: the
Dragon (Rong), Black Lion (Sutu-Den), Sunrise (Rang ong) and
White Tiger (Bach Ho) Fields. The data presented here represent to
the best of our knowledge the most comprehensive publicly
available systematic data on oil compositions in the Cuu Long Basin.
The oils are highly parafnic, wax-rich, not biodegraded, and
show similar levels of thermal maturity. Despite overall similarity
of the oils, a combination of several biological marker parameters
allows the individual elds to be distinguished from each other,
although samples from the Dragon and White Tiger Fields in
a number of respects show very similar characteristics this may
reect their relatively close geographical proximity.
Biological marker data suggest that all of the oils were generated
from lacustrine source rocks that are known to be present in the

908

J.A. Bojesen-Koefoed et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 899908

Oligocene syn-rift portion of the basin ll. The geochemical characteristics of the oils suggest that they were generated from source
rocks deposited in overlled to balanced-ll lake types according to
the classication of Bohacs et al. (2000) and Carroll and Bohacs
(2001). The Cuu Long Basin oils show overall similarity to the
lacustrine B-10 oil from the Song Hong Basin, but are distinctly
different from the Dam Thi Nai oil known from seepages on the
coast of south-central Vietnam.
Acknowledgements
This study is a part of the DANIDA-sponsored ENRECA-project:
Integrated analysis and modelling of geological basins in Vietnam
and assessment of their hydrocarbon potential which is a cooperative project between the Geological Survey of Denmark and
Greenland (GEUS), the University of Copenhagen, Vietnam Petroleum Institute (VPI), PetroVietnam, Hanoi University of Mining and
Geology (HUMG) and Hanoi University of Science (HUS). Laboratory
assistance by Ditte Kiel-Duhring and Carsten Guvad is gratefully
acknowledged. M.B.W. Fyhn provided useful comments to an
earlier version of the manuscript. Location map (Fig. 1) was drafted
by Jette Halskov. We thank S.D. Killops for a helpful review that
served to improve the quality of the paper. VPI, PetroVietnam and
GEUS are thanked for procurement of samples and permission to
publish this paper.
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