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INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Automatic Street Light Control System is a simple and powerful concept, which uses
transistor as a switch to switch ON and OFF the street light automatically. By using this
system manual works are removed. It automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight
goes below the visible region of our eyes. It automatically switches OFF lights under
illumination by sunlight. This is done by a sensor called Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)
which senses the light actually like our eyes.
By using this system energy consumption is also reduced because now-a- days the manually
operated street lights are not switched off properly even the sunlight comes and also not
switched on earlier before sunset. In sunny and rainy days, ON time and OFF time differ
significantly which is one of the major disadvantage of using timer circuits or manual
operation.
This project exploits the working of a transistor in saturation region and cut-off region to
switch ON and switch OFF the lights at appropriate time with the help of an
electromagnetically operated switch.
Automatic Streetlight needs no manual operation of switching ON and OFF. The system itself
detects whether there is need for light or not. When darkness rises to a certain value then
automatically streetlight is switched ON and when there is other source of light, the street
light gets OFF. The extent of darkness at which the street light to be switched on can also be
tailored using the potentiometer provided in the circuit.
CHAPTER 2
2. Block diagram of Embedded based customized wireless message circular system for
college, industries.
2.1.1 TRANSMIT BLOCK DIAGRAM:
POWER CIRCUIT DC 5V
LDR
TRANSISTOR
LM324
Comparator IC
CHAPTER-3
HARDWARE DETAILS
3.1 POWER SUPPLY
The Power Supply unit is used to provide a constant 5 volts Regulated Supply to
different ICs this is standard circuits using external 12 VDC adapter and fixed 3-pin voltage
regulator. Diode is added in series to avoid Reverse Voltage Protection.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
10f/25v
1f
Cin- is required if regulator is located an appreciable distance from power supply filter.
CO- is not needed for stability; however, it does improve transient response. Values of
less than 0.1 mF could cause instability.
Resistor
Resistor is a passive component used to control current in a circuit. Its resistance is given by
the ratio of voltage applied across its terminals to the current passing through it. Thus a
particular value of resistor, for fixed voltage, limits the current through it. They are
omnipresent in electronic circuits.
An electric resistor is a two-terminal passive component specifically used to oppose and limit
current. A resistor works on the principle of Ohms Law which states that voltage across the
terminals of a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
The different value of resistances are used to limit the currents or get the desired voltage
drop according to the current-voltage rating of the device to be connected in the circuit. For
example, if an LED of rating 2.3V and 6mA is to be connected with a supply of 5V, a voltage
drop of 2.7V (5V-2.3V) and limiting current of 6mA is required. This can be achieved by
providing a resistor of 450 connected in series with the LED.
Resistors can be either fixed or variable. The low power resistors are comparatively smaller
in size than high power resistors. The resistance of a resistor can be estimated by their colour
codes or can be measured by a multimeter. There are some non linear resistors also whose
resistance changes with temperature or light. Negative temperature coefficient (NTC),
positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and light dependent resistor (LDR) are some such
resistors. These special resistors are commonly used as sensors. Read and learn about internal
structure and working of a resistor.
Pin Diagram:
Capacitor
Capacitor is a passive component used to store charge. The charge (q) stored in a capacitor is
the product of its capacitance (C) value and the voltage (V) applied to it. Capacitors offer
infinite reactance to zero frequency so they are used for blocking DC components or
bypassing the AC signals. The capacitor undergoes through a recursive cycle of charging and
discharging in AC circuits where the voltage and current across it depends on the RC time
constant. For this reason, capacitors are used for smoothing power supply variations. Other
uses include, coupling the various stages of audio system, tuning in radio circuits etc. These
are used to store energy like in a camera flash.
Capacitors may be non-polarized/polarized and fixed/variable. Electrolytic capacitors are
polarized while ceramic and paper capacitors are examples of non polarized capacitors. Since
capacitors store charge, they must be carefully discharged before troubleshooting the circuits.
The maximum voltage rating of the capacitors used must always be greater than the supply
voltage. Click to learn more about working of a capacitor along with its internal structure.
Diode
A Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device. It allows current to
flow only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in the opposite direction. The two
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terminals of the diode are called as anode and cathode. The symbol of diode is as shown in
the figure below.
The characteristics of a diode closely match to that of a switch. An ideal switch when open
does not conduct current in either directions and in closed state conducts in both directions.
The characteristic of a diode is as shown in the figure below.
Ideally, in one direction that is indicated by the arrow head diode must behave short circuited
and in other one that opposite to that of the direction of arrow head must be open circuited.
By ideal characteristics, the diodes is designed to meet these features theoretically but are not
achieved practically. So the practical diode characteristics are only close to that of the
desired.
Application:
Diodes are used in various applications like rectification, clipper, clamper, voltage multiplier,
comparator, sampling gates and filters.
1.
Rectification The rectification means converting AC voltage into DC voltage. The
common rectification circuits are half wave rectifier (HWR), full wave rectifier (FWR) and
bridge rectifier.
Half wave rectifier: This circuit rectifies either positive or negative pulse of the
input AC. The figure is as shown below:
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Full wave rectifier: This circuit converts the entire AC signal into DC. The
figure is as shown below:
Bridge rectifier: This circuit converts the entire AC signal into DC. The figure
is as shown below:
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2.
Clipper- Diode can be used to clip off some portion of pulse without distorting the
remaining part of the waveform. The figure is as shown below:
3.
Clamper A clamping circuit restricts the voltage levels to exceed a limit by shifting
the DC level. The peak to peak is not affected by clamping. Diodes with resistors and
capacitors are used to make clamping circuits. Sometimes independent DC sources can be
used to provide additional shift. The figure is as shown below:
Characteristics:
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where ID - diode current. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
IS - constant reverse saturation current
V - applied voltage. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
- factor dependent upon the nature of semiconductor. (1 for
germanium and 2 for silicon)
VT - volt equivalent of temperature which is given by T/11600. (T is
Temperature in Kelvin)
When a forward voltage is applied at the terminals of a diode, the diode begins to conduct.
During conduction, the cut in or threshold voltage exceeds the applied forward voltage. The
threshold voltage for a germanium diode is 0.3V and for silicon diode is 0.7V. The forward
current (miliampere range) initially increases linearly and then increases exponentially for
high currents.
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When a a reverse voltage is applied, a reverse saturation current flows through the diode. The
diode continues to be in the non conducting state until the reverse voltage drops below the
zener voltage. As the reverse voltage approximates the peak inverse voltage a breakdown
called as the Avalanche breakdown occurs. During the breakdown, the minority charge
carriers ionize the stable atoms which are followed by a chain ionization to generate a large
number of free charge carriers. Thus the diode becomes short circuited and gets damaged.
Note: When diodes are connected in series their equivalent peak inverse voltage is increased
while in parallel connection the current carrying capacity is increased.
As the temperature increases, the electron pairs generated thermally also increases thereby
increasing the conductivity in both directions. The reverse saturation current also increases
with the increase in temperature. The change is 11% per C for a germanium diode and 8%
per C for a silicon diode. On the other hand the diode current is doubled for every 10C rise.
With increase in voltage, the firing voltage in forward characteristics is reduced while peak
reverse voltage is increased.
Note: The peak inverse voltage can be reduced by increasing the doping level. The same
concept is used to design zener diodes.
BC547
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is
commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at
collector & emitter terminals.
BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a maximum current
gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its
characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the
transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is
amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for
amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching
applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In
the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.
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current. A short
vertical
line,
which
is
the
base,
can
indicate
the transistorschematic for an NPN transistor, and the emitter, which is a diagonal line
connecting to the base, is an arrowhead pointing away from the base.
There are various types of transistors, and the BC547 is a bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
There are also transistors that have one junction, such as the junction field-effect transistor, or
no junctions at all, such as the metal oxide field-effect transistor (MOSFET). During the
design and manufacture of transistors, the characteristics can be predefined and achieved. The
negative (N)-type material inside an NPN transistor has an excess of electrons, while the
positive (P)-type material has a lack of electrons, both due to a contamination process called
doping.
The BC547 transistor comes in one package. When several are placed in a single package, it
is usually referred to as a transistor array. Arrays are commonly used in digital switching.
Eight transistors may be placed in one package to make layout much easier, for example.
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3.1.7 TRANSFORMER:
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity
is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most
power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage
(230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.
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The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There
is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of
the circuit symbol represent the core.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary
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(input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns
on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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The 10f and .01f capacitors serve to help keep the power supply output
voltage constant when load conditions change. The electrolytic capacitor smooths out
any long-term or low frequency variations. However, at high frequencies this capacitor
is not very efficient. Therefore, the .01f is included to bypass high-frequency changes,
such as digital IC switching effects, to ground.
The LED and its series resistor serve as a pilot light to indicate when the power
supply is on. I like to use a miniature LED here, so it will serve that function without
being obtrusive or distracting while I'm performing an experiment. I also use this LED
to tell me when the reservoir capacitor is completely discharged after power is turned
off. Then I know it's safe to remove or install components for the next experiment.
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