Histology:

HPV infection causes cutaneous and genital warts as well as benign and malignant epithelial neoplasia.
Koilocytosis is a hallmark of HPV infection. Koilocytes are pyknotic superficial or immature squamous
cells with a dense, irregularly staining cytoplasm and perinuclear clearing.
Kinesin and dynein are microtubule assocated motor protens that function n the rapd transport of materials
and organelles wthn cells. Dynein also functions in ciliary and flagellar movement.
In the respiratory tract, the nose, paranasal sinuses, nasopharynx, most of the larynx and the
tracheobronchial al tree are lined with pseudostratified, columnar, mucus-secreting epithelium. Stratified
squamous epithelium is found only in the oropharynx, laryngopharynx, anterior epiglottis, upper half of the
posterior epiglottis, and vocal folds (true vocal cords).
LH stimulates the theca interna cells of the ovarian follicle to produce androgens. Aromatase within the
follicles granulosa cells subsequently converts these androgens to estradiol under FSH stimulation. The
theca externa cells serve as a connective tissue support structure for the follicle.
Type II pneumocytes have two important functions: 1) regeneration of the alveolar lining following injury,
and 2) surfactant production.
Osteocvtes have long intracanalicular processes that extend through the ossified bone matrix. These
Cytoplasmic processes send signals to and exchange nutrients and waste products with the osteocvtes
within neighboring lamellae via gap junctions. Osteocvtes can sense mechanical stresses and send signals
to modulate the activity of surface osteoblasts thereby helping to regulate bony remodeling
The ovary is covered by a simple cuboidal "germinal" epithelium This epithelium is the site of origin for
many benign and malignant ovarian neoplasms
RER functions include protein modification, folding and transfer. The REP is well-developed in proteinsecreting cells. The SEP lacks surface ribosomes, and functions in lipid synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism, and detoxification of harmful substances.
Kinesin is a microtubule associated ATP powered motor protein that facilitates the anterograde transport of
neurotransmitter containing secretory vesicles down axons to synaptic terminals
Actin filaments are anchored into the Z-line of the sarcomere. The Z-line lies in the center of the clear
region referred to as the I-band.
The primary abnormality in Pagets disease is the increase in osteoclastic bone resorption.
Neutral proteases such as elastase in intra-alveolar fluid are derived from infiltrating neutrophils and
alveolar macrophages. When secreted in excess or if unchecked by serum antiprotease activity, they can
cause destruction of terminal lung parenchyma, yielding centriacinar or panacinar emphysema.
The respiratory tract lining changes in structure and function as it progresses distally. Bronchi have a
pseudo stratified columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells and submucosal mucoserous glands and
cartilage. Bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, and respiratory bronchioles generally lack goblet cells, glands,
and cartilage. By the level of the terminal bronchioles, the airway epithelium is ciliated simple cuboidal.
Epithelial cilia persist up to the end of the respiratory bronchioles.
Unique to the duodenum, the compound tubular Brunners glands of the submucosa secrete alkaline
mucous into ducts that empty into the crypts of Lieberkuhn. Peyers patches, in contrast, are lymphoid
aggregates specific to the ileum.
C peptide is formed from proinsulin in the pancreatic cell Golgi apparatus, packaged along with insulin in
islet cell secretory granules, and secreted in equimolar concentrations with insulin.
The lamellar bodies of type II pneumocytes store and release pulmonary surfactant into the fluid layer
lining the inner surfaces of alveoli. Since the major function of surfactant is to reduce surface tension in this
fluid layer, a surfactant deficiency can cause patchy alveolar atelectasis, as is seen in neonatal respiratory
distress syndrome.