Exp111 Manual

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore
Department of Electronics &

Communication Engineering
Number of experiment
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EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Object :
To study the characteristics of Silicon diode in :
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Apparatus Required :
1.
Analog board of AB-01.
2.
DC power supplies +12V from external source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.
3.
Digital Multimeter (2 numbers).
THEORY
Introduction :
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with
far greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modem circuit
design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as shown below
Fig.1
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage:
Fig.2
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is "backward"
and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse biased. A diode may be
thought of as a kind of switch: "closed" when forward-biased and "open" when reversebiased.
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V-I Characteristic :
The static voltage-current characteristics for a P-N Junction diode are shown in Fig 3.
Fig.3
Forward Characteristic:
When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero,
hardly any current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the external
voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier voltage VB whose value is 0.7 V for Si
and 0.3 V for Ge. As soon as VB is neutralized, current through the diode increases
rapidly with increasing applied supply voltage. It is found that as little a voltage as 1.0 V
produces a forward current of about 50mA.
Reverse Characteristic:
When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a small current
(due to minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is increased from
zero, the reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which
is also known as leakage current. It is of the order of nano amperes (nA) and
microamperes (A) for Gse.
As seen from Fig.3, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called breakdown
voltage VBR, the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve indicating zero
resistance at this point.
Zener Diode:
It is the reverse-biased heavily-dopped silicon (or germanium) P-N Junction diode which
is operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by both external resistance
and power dissipation of the diode. Silicon is preferred to diode because of its higher
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temperature and current capability. Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking of covalent
bonds by the strong electric field set up in the depletion region by the reverse voltage.
It produces an extremely large number of electrons and holes, which constitute the
reverse saturation current (called zener current Iz) whose value is limited only by the
external resistance in the circuit.
V-I Characteristic :
Fig 4 shows typical characteristics in the negative quadrant. The forward characteristic is
simply that of an ordinary forward-biased junction diode. The important points of the
reverse characteristic are Vz = Zener breakdown voltage.
Iz min = Minimum current to sustain breakdown
Iz max = Maximum Zener current limited by, maximum power dissipation. Since its
reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical, the diode possesses some resistance called
Zener dynamic impedance. Its value is given by Zz = Vz / Iz.
Zener diode are available having zener voltage of 2.4V to 200V. This voltage is
temperature dependent. The product Vz, Iz, gives their power dissipation. Maximum
ratings vary from 150mV to 50W.
Fig 4
For proper working of a Zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must
1.
be reverse-biased,
2.
have voltage across it greater than Vz,
3.
be in a circuit where current is less than Izmax.

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Light-emitting Diodes :
Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in
quantum physics. One of these principles is the emission of specific-frequency radiant
energy whenever electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.
A diode intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or
LED. Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus
(called gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red, and are some of the most common
LEDs manufactured. By altering the chemical constituency of the PN junction, different
colors may be obtained. Some of the currently available colors other than red are green,
blue, and infra-red (invisible light at a frequency lower than red). Other colors may be
obtained by combining two or more primary-color (red, green, and blue). The schematic
symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two small arrows
pointing away (indicating emitted light)
Fig.5
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is common to
the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices. Conversely, if a
device is light-activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates it), then the symbol will
have two small arrows pointing toward it. It is interesting to note, though, that LEDs are
capable of acting as light-sensing devices: they will generate a small voltage when
exposed to light, much like a solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully
applied in a variety of light-sensing circuits.
Because LEDs are made of different chemical substances than normal rectifying diodes,
their forward voltage drops will be different. Typically, LEDs have much larger forward
voltage drops than rectifying diodes, anywhere from about 1.6 volts to over 3 volts,
depending on the color. Typical operating current for a standard-sized LED is around 20
mA. When operating an LED from a DC voltage source greater than the LED's forward
voltage, a series-connected "dropping" resistor must be included to prevent full source
voltage from damaging the LED. LED starts emitting light as its forward voltage reaches
at a particular level and its intensity will increase further with the increase in applied
forward voltage. LEDs emit no light when reverse biased. In fact, operating LEDs in
reverse direction will quickly destroy them if the applied voltage is quite large. LEDs V-I
characteristic curve is shown in Fig 5.

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Characteristics of LED
Fig.6
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Si diode is shown in Fig 7.
0Fig.7
Procedure :
Connect +12V dc power supplies at their indicated position from external source or
ST-2612 Analog Lab.
To plot forward characteristics proceed as follows
1.
Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
2.
Connect Ammeter between test point 2 and 8 to measure diode current ID (mA).
3.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and 9 to measure voltage VD diode
4.
Switch ON the power supply.

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5.
Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from zero
to 1V in step and measure the corresponding values of diode current I D in an
observation Table 1.
6.
Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Fig. 3 (First
quadrant) using suitable scale with the help of observation Table 1. This curve is the
required forward characteristics of Si diode.
Observation Table 1 :
S.no.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Diode
Voltage (VD)
0.0V
0.1V
0.2V
0.3V
0.4V
0.5V
0.6V
0.7V
0.8V
0.9V
1.0V
Diode current
ID (mA)
To plot Reverse characteristics of a Si diode proceed as follows
1.
2.
Connect Ammeter between test point 3 and 8 to measure diode current ID(nA).
3.
4.
5.
to 10V in step and measure the corresponding values of diode current I D in an
6.
Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Fig. 3 (third
required forward characteristics of Si diode.
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S.no.
Diode
Voltage (VD)
1.
0.0V
2.
1.0V
3.
2.0V
4.
3.0V
5.
4.0V
6.
5.0V
7.
6.0V
8.
7.0V
9.
8.0V
10.
9.0V
11.
10.0V
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Diode current ID (nA)
Procedure for Ze diode:
ST -2612 Analog Lab.
To plot Forward characteristics proceed as follows:
1.
2.
Connect Ammeter between test point 6 and 8 to measure diode current Iz(mA).
3.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and 9 to measure voltage V z diode.
4.
5.
Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of Zener voltage Vz from zero
to 0.8 in step and measure the corresponding values of diode current Iz in an
6.
Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in Fig. 4 (First
quadrant) using suitable scale with the help of observation Table l. This curve is the
required forward characteristics of zener diode.
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S.no.
Diode
Voltage (Vz)
1.
0.0V
2.
0.lV
3.
0.2V
4.
0.3V
5.
0.4V
6.
0.5V
7.
0.6V
8.
0.7V
9.
0.8V
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Diode current Iz(mA)
plot Reverse characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows
1.
2.
Connect Ammeter between test point 7 and 8 to measure diode current Iz(mA).
3.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and 9 to measure voltage Vz diode
4.
5.
to 12V in step and measure the corresponding values of diode current Iz in an
6.
Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in Fig 4 (third
required Reverse characteristics of Zener diode.

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S.no.
Diode
Voltage (Vz)
Diode current Iz (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Procedure For LED :
ST-2612 Analog Lab.
To plot forward characteristics proceed as follows:
1.
2.
Connect Ammeter between test point 4 and 8 to measure diode current ID(mA).
3.
4.
5.
to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current I D in
an observation Table 1.
6.
Also consider the effect on light intensity with the change in diode voltage and
diode current.
7.
Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in Fig. 5 using
suitable scale with the help of observation Table 1. This curve is the required
forward characteristics of Light emitting diode.

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S.no.
Diode
Voltage(VD)
Diode current ID (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
To plot Reverse characteristics proceed as follows:
1.
2.
Connect Ammeter between test point 5 and 8 to measure diode current ID(uA)
3.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and 9 to measure voltage VD diode.
4.
5.
Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage V D from zero
to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current 1 D in
an observation Table 2.
6.
Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current 1D as shown in Fig. 5
(Third quadrant) using suitable scale with the help of observation Table 2. This
curve is the required forward characteristics of Light emitting diode.
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S.no.
Diode
Diode current ID (uA)
Voltage(VD)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
EXPERIMENT NO.2
Object :
To study the characteristics of PNP transistor in common base configuration and to
evaluate
1. Input resistance
2. Output resistance
3. Current gain
1. Analog board of AB-03.
2. DC power supplies -12V, +5V from external source or ST -2612 Analog Lab.
3. Digital Multimeter (3 numbers).
4. 2 mm patch cords.
THEORY
Transistor characteristics are the curves, which represent relationship between different
dc currents and voltages of a transistor. These are helpful in studying the operation of a
transistor when connected in a circuit. The three important characteristics of a transistor
are:
1.
Input characteristic.
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2.
Output characteristic.
3.
Constant current transfer characteristic.
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4.
Input Characteristic :
In common base configuration, it is the curve plotted between the input current (IE) verses
input voltage (VEB) for various constant values of output voltage (VBC).
The approximated plot for input characteristic is shown in fig. 1. This characteristic
reveal that for fixed value of output voltage V BC, as the base to emitter voltage increases,
the emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the diode characteristics.
INPUT CHARACTERSTIC
Fig. 1
Output Characteristic :
This is the curve plotted between the output current I C verses output voltage VBC for
various constant values of input current IE.
The output characteristic has three basic region of interest as indicated in fig.2 the active
region, cutoff region and saturation region.
In active region the collector base junction is reverse biased while the base emitter
junction if forward biased. This region is normally employed for linear (undistorted)
amplifier.
In cutoff region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the transistor both
are reverse biased. In this region transistor acts as an OFF switch.
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In saturation region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the transistor
both are forward biased. In this region transistor acts as an ON switch.
OUTPUT CHARACTERSTIC
Fig. 2
Constant current transfer Characteristic :

This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC verses input emitter current
IE for constant value of output voltage VBC.
The approximated plot for this characteristic is shown in Fig 3.
Fig. 3
Circuit Diagram : Circuit used to plot different characteristics of transistor is shown in
Fig 4.
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Fig. 4
Procedure :
Connect +5V and -12V dc power supplies at their indicated position from external
source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.
To plot input characteristics proceed as follows :
1.
Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
2.
Connect Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input emitter current
IE(mA).
3.
Short or connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 2
4.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input voltage
VEB other voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VBC.
5.
6.
Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VBC at some constant value
(1V, 2V..)
7.
Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input voltage V EB from zero
to 0.9V in step and measure the corresponding values of input current I E for
different constant value of output voltage VBC in an observation Table 1.
8.
Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.
9.
Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VBC.
10.
Plot a curve between input voltage VEB and input current IE as shown in Fig 1 using
suitable scale with the help of observation Table l. This curve is the required input
characteristic.
Observation Table for input characteristic 1 :

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S.no.
Input
voltage
VEB
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
0.0V
0.1V
0.2V
0.3V
0.4V
0.5V
0.6V
0.7V
0.8V
0.9V
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Input current IE(mA) at constant

value of
output voltage
VBC = 1V VBC = 3V
VBC =5V
To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:
1. Switch OFF the power supply.

2. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW (counterclockwise direction).
3. Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VBC.
4. Connect one Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input current IE(mA)
and other Ammeter between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current IC(mA).
5. Switch ON the power supply.
6. Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IE at some constant value
(0mA, 1mA...)
7. Vary the potentiometer P2 so as to increase the value of output voltage V BC from zero
to maximum value in step and measure the corresponding values of output current IC
for different constant value of input current IE in an observation Table 2.
8. Rotate potentiometer P2 fully in CCW direction
9. Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input current IE.
10. Plot a curve between output voltage VBC and output current IC as shown in Fig 2 using
suitable scale with the help of observation Table 2. This curve is the required output
characteristic.
Observation Table for output characteristic 2 :

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Outpu Output current IC (mA) at constant value

of
t
input current
S.no. voltag
e
IE =
IE =
IE =
IE =
IE =
VBC 0mA 1mA 2mA 3mA 4mA
1. -1.0V
2. 0.0V
3. 0.5V
4. 1.0V
5. 2.0V
6. 3.0V
7. 4.0V
8. 5.0V
9. 6.0V
10. 7.0V
To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:
12. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
13. Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VBC.
14. Connect one Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input current I E (mA)
and other Ammeter between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current IC (mA).
16. Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VBC at maximum value.
17. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input current I E from zero to
10 mA in step and measure the corresponding values of output current IC in an
18. Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IE as shown in Fig 3 using
Transfer characteristic.
Observation Table 3 for transfer characterstic:

16

S.no.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Input
current
IE (mA)
0.0 mA
1.0 mA
2.0 mA
3.0 mA
4.0 mA
5.0 mA
6.0 mA
7.0 mA
8.0 mA
9.0 mA
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Output current IC (mA) at

constant output voltage = 10
V
Calculations:
1.
Input resistance: It is the ratio of change in the input voltage VEB to change in the
input current IE at constant value of output voltage VBC or it is the reciprocal of the
slope obtained from the input characteristic.
Mathematically
To calculate input resistance determine the slope from the input characteristic curve
obtained from observation Table 1. Reciprocal of this slope will give the required
input resistance.
2.
Output resistance: It is the ratio of change in the output voltage V BC to change in

the output current IC at constant value of input current IE or it is the reciprocal of the
slope obtained from the output characteristic.
Mathematically
To calculate output resistance determine the slope from the output characteristic
curve obtained from observation Table 2. Reciprocal of this slope will give the
required output resistance.
3.
Current gain: It is the ratio of change in the output current I C to change in the input
current IE at constant value of output voltage VBC or it is the slope obtained from the
constant current transfer characteristic. It is denoted by ac.
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Mathematically
ac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = IC
IE
To calculate current gain, determine the slope from the constant current transfer
characteristic curve obtained from observation Table 3. This slope is the required current
gain.
Results:
Input resistance Rin = ____________
Output resistance Rout __________=
Current Gain ac = _____________
EXPERIMENT NO.3
Object :
To study the characteristics of NPN transistor in common emitter configuration and
to evaluate :
4. Input resistance
5. Output resistance
6. Current gain
5. Analog board of AB-04.
6. DC power supplies +12V, +5V from external source or ST -2612 Analog Lab.
7. Digital Multimeter (3 numbers).
8. 2 mm patch cords.
9.
THEORY
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Transistor characteristics are the curves, which represent relationship between different
dc currents and voltages of a transistor. These are helpful in studying the operation of a
transistor when connected in a circuit. The three important characteristics of a transistor
are:
5.
Input characteristic.
6.
Output characteristic.
7.
Constant current transfer characteristic.
Input Characteristic :
In common emitter configuration, it is the curve plotted between the input current (IB)
verses input voltage (VBE) for various constant values of output voltage (VCE).
The approximated plot for input characteristic is shown in fig. 1. This characteristic
reveal that for fixed value of output voltage VCE, as the base to emitter voltage increases,
the emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the diode characteristics.
Fig. 1
Output Characteristic :
This is the curve plotted between the output current IC verses output voltage VCE for
various constant values of input current IB.
The output characteristic has three basic region of interest as indicated in fig.2 the active
region, cutoff region and saturation region.
In active region the collector base junction is reverse biased while the base emitter
junction if forward biased. This region is normally employed for linear (undistorted)
amplifier.
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In cutoff region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the transistor both
are reverse biased. In this region transistor acts as an OFF switch.
In saturation region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the transistor
both are forward biased. In this region transistor acts as an ON switch.
Fig. 2
Constant current transfer Characteristics :
This is the curve plotted between output collector current I C verses input base current IB
for constant value of output voltage VCE.The approximated plot for this characteristic is
shown in Fig 3.
Fig. 3
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of transistor is shown in Fig 4.
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Fig 4.
Procedure :
Connect +5V and +12V dc power supplies at their indicated position from external
To plot input characteristics proceed as follows :
11.
Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
12.
Connect Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input base current IB(uA).
13.
Short or connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 5
14.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input voltage
VBE other voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.
15.
16.
Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCE at some constant value
(1V, 3V...)
17.
Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input voltage V BE from zero
to 0.8V in step and measure the corresponding values of input current I B for
different constant value of output voltage VCE in an observation Table 1.
18.
Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.
19.
Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of output voltage VCE.
20.
Plot a curve between input voltage V BE and input current IB as shown in Fig 1 using
suitable scale with the help of observation Table l. This curve is the required input
characteristic.
Observation Table for Input Characteristic 1

21

S.no.
Input
voltage
VBE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
0.0V
0.1V
0.2V
0.3V
0.4V
0.5V
0.6V
0.7V
0.8V
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Input current IB(uA) at constant

value of
output voltage
VCE = 1V VCE = 3V
VCE =5V
To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

3. Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.
4. Connect one Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input current I B(uA) and
other Ammeter between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current IC(mA).
6. Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current I B at some constant value (0uA,
10uA......100uA)
7. Vary the potentiometer P2 so as to increase the value of output voltage VCE from zero
to maximum value in step and measure the corresponding values of output current
IC for different constant value of input current IB in an observation table 2.
8. Rotate potentiometer P2 fully in CCW direction.
9. Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input current IB.
10. Plot a curve between output voltage VCE and output current IC as shown in Fig 2 using
suitable scale with the help of observation table2. This curve is the required output
characteristic.
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Output current IC (mA) at constant

value of
Output
input current
S.no. voltage
VCE
IB =
IB
IB
IB
IB
0uA =10uA =20uA =30uA =40uA
1.
0.0V
2.
0.5V
3.
1.0V
4.
2.0V
5.
3.0V
6.
4.0V
7.
5.0V
8.
6.0V
9.
7.0V
10. 8.0V
To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

3. Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.
4. Connect one Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure input current IB (mA)
and other Ammeter between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current IC (mA).
6. Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VCE at maximum value.
7. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input current IB from zero to
10 mA in step and measure the corresponding values of output current IC in an
8. Plot a curve between output current I C and input current IB as shown in Fig 3 using
Transfer characteristic.
Observation Table Constant current transfer characteristics

23

S.no.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
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Input
current
IB (uA)
00.0 uA
10.0 uA
20.0 uA
30.0 uA
40.0 uA
50.0 uA
60.0 uA
70.0 uA
80.0 uA
90.0 uA
100.0uA
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Output current IC (mA) at

constant output voltage
VCE = MAX
Calculations :
4.
Input resistance: It is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBE to change in the
input current IB at constant value of output voltage VCE or it is the reciprocal of the
slope obtained from the input characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin =
1
=
Slope from input
Characteristics
1
IB / VBE
= VBE
IB at constant VCB
To calculate input resistance determine the slope from the input characteristic curve
obtained from observation Table 1. Reciprocal of this slope will give the required
input resistance.
5.
Output resistance: It is the ratio of change in the output voltage V CE to change in

the output current IC at constant value of input current IB or it is the reciprocal of the
slope obtained from the output characteristic.
Mathematically
Rin =
1
=
Slope from output
Characteristics
1
IC / VCE
= VCE
IC at constant IB
To calculate output resistance determine the slope from the output characteristic
curve obtained from observation Table 2. Reciprocal of this slope will give the
required output resistance.
6.
Current gain: It is the ratio of change in the output current I C to change in the input
current IB at constant value of output voltage VCE or it is the slope obtained from the
constant current transfer characteristic. It is denoted by ac
Mathematically
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ac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = IC

IB
To calculate current gain, determine the slope from the constant current transfer
characteristic curve obtained from observation Table 3. This slope is the required current
gain.
Results :
Input resistance Rin = ____________
Output resistance Rout __________=
Current Gain ac = _____________
EXPERIMENT NO.4
Object:To study the characteristics of JFET(junction field effect transistor) in common source
configuration and to evaluate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
AC drain resistance
Transconductance
Amplification factor
Drain resistance
Apparatus required:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Analog board of AB-08

DC power supplies +12v,-5v from external source or ST -2612 Analog Lab
Digital Multimeter
2 mm patch cords
Theory:
FET is a voltage controlled device so its characteristics are the curves which represent
relationships between different DC currents and voltages.These are helpful in
studying different regions of operation of a field effect transistor when connected in a
circuit.The two important characteristics of a field effect transistor are:
(1).Output/Drain Characteristics.
(2). Transfer characteristics.
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(1) Output/drain characteristics:

It is the curved plotted between output drain current ID verses output drain to source
voltage VDS for constant values of input gate to source voltage VGS as shown in
fig.1
FIG1
It can be subdivided into following four regions:
Ohmic region OA:
This part of the characteristics is linear indicating that for low values of VDS
,current varies directly with voltage following ohm s law.it means that JFET behaves
like an ordinary resister till point a(called knee) is reached.
Curved AB:
In this region ,ID increases at inverse square law rate upto point B which is called
pinch-off point.This progressive fall in the rate of increase of ID is caused by the
square law increase in the depletion region at each gate upto point B where the two
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regions are closest without touching each other.The drain to source voltage VDS
corresponding to point B is called pinch-off voltage VPO
Pinch-off region BC:
It is also known as saturation region or amplifier region.Here,JFET operates as a
constant_current device because ID is relatively independent of VDS. It is due to the
fact that as VDS increase channel resistance also increases proportionally thereby
keeping ID practically constant at IDSS.Drain current in this region is given by
Shockley S Eqaqtion .
It is the normal operating region of the JFET when used as an amplifier.
2
2
ID=IDSS[1-(VGS/VPO) ] = IDSS [-(VGS/VGS(OFF) ]
Breakdown region :
If VDS is increased beyond its value corresponding to point C (called avalanche
breakdown voltage),JFET enters the breakdown region where ID increases to an
extensive value .This happen because the reversed biased gate channel PN junction
undergoes avalanche breakdown when small change in VDS produce very large
change in ID.
JFET characteristics with external bias:
Fig2 shows a family of ID verses VDS curves for different values of VGS. It is seen
that as the negative gate bias voltage is increased.
Pinch-off voltage Vp is reached at a lower value of VDS than VGS=0.Value
of VDS for breakdown is decreased.
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FIG2
Transfer characteristics:
It is the curve plotted between output Drain current verses input gate to source
voltage for constant values of output drain to source voltage as shown in fig.3
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FIG3
It is similar to the transconductance characteristics of a vaccum tube or a transistor.It
is shows that when VGS=0,ID=IDSS and when ID=0,VGS=VPO.The transfer
characteristics approximately follows the equation
2
2
ID=IDSS[1-(VGS/VPO) ] = IDSS [-(VGS/VGS(OFF) ]
The above equation can be written as
VGS=VGS(off)[1-(ID/IDSS)2].
These characteristics can also be obtained from the drain/output characteristics by
reading off VGS and IDSS values for different values of VDS.
The various parameters of a JFET when connected in common source mode are
1. AC Drain resistance,rd:
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It is the AC resistance between drain and source terminals when JFET is operating in
the pinch off region. It is given by
change in VDS
rd=
at VGS constant or rd=VDS/ID /VGS

change in ID
An alternative name is dynamic drain resistance.I t is given by the slope of the drain
characteristics in the pitch off region.It is sometimes written as rds emphasizing the
fact that is the resistance from drain to source.Since rd is usually the output resistance
of a JFET,it may also be expressed as an output admittance
YOS.obviously,YOS=1/rs.it has a vary high value.
2 Transconductance, gm:
it is simply the slope of transfer characteristics.
Change in ID
gm=
at VDS constant or rd=ID/VGS/

Change in VGS
VDS
Its unit is seimen(S)/mho.It is also called forward

transconductance
(GFS)or forward transadmittanceYFS. The transconductance measured at IDSS is
written as gmo.
Mathematticaly,
gm=gmo[1-(VGS/VP)]
3 Amplication Factor ,U:
It is given by
change in VDS
u=
at ID constant or u=VDS/VGS/IDS
change in VGS
It can be proved from above that u=gm*rd=gfs*rd

4 Dc Drain Resistance.RDS:
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It is also called the static or ohmic resistance of the channel.It is given by

RDS=VDS/ID
Procedure:
* Connect -5v and +12v dc power supplies at there indicated position from external
source or ST-2612 analog lab.
* To plot drain characteristics proceed as follows:
1. Rotate both potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW
(counter clockwise direction).
2. Connect ammeter between test point 3 and 4 to measure output drain current ID(ma).
3 Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to measure input voltage VGS
other voltmeter between test point 2 and ground to measure output voltage VDS.
4 Switch on the power supply.
5 Vary the potentiometer P2 so as to increase the value of output voltage VDS from zero
to 10V in step and measure the corresponding values of output drain current ID for
different constant value of output voltage VDS in an observation table1.
6 Rotate potentiometer P2 fully in CCW direction
7 . Rotate potentiometer P1 and set the value of input gate to source voltage at some
constant value (-1v.-2v,-3v..)
8 Repeat the procedure from step6 for different sets of input voltage VGS.
9 Plot a curve between output voltage VDS and output current ID at different constant
values of input gate to source as shown in fig.2 using suitable scale with the help of
observation table1. This curve is the required output/drain
characteristics.
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Output Output drain current ID (ma) at constant

Voltage
Values of input voltage
VDS(volt)
VGS=0v
1.
0.0v
2.
1.0v
3.
2.0v
4.
3.0v
5.
4.0v
6.
5.0v
7.
6.0v
8.
7.0v
9.
8.0v
10.
9.0v
VGS=1v
VGS=2v
VGS=3v
* To plot transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

1. Switch off the power supply .
2. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW(counter clockwise direction).
3. Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VDS.
4. Connect one ammeter between test point 3 and 4 to measure output current ID(ma).
5. Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage VDS at some constant value
(1v,2v,3v..).
6 .Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input voltage VGS from zero
to maximum value in step and measure the corresponding values of output current ID in
an observation table2.
7. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.
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8. Repeat the procedure from step5 for different sets of output voltage VDS.
9. Plot a curve between input voltage VGS and output current ID as shown in fig.3 using
suitable scale with the help of observation table2. This curve is the required transfer
characteristics.
S. N0
Intput
Output drain current ID (ma) at constant
Voltage
Values of input voltage
VGS(volt
)
VDS=0v VDS=1v VDS=2v VDS=3v
1.
0.0v
2.
-0.5v
3.
-1.0v
4.
-1.5v
5.
-2.0v
6.
-2.5v
7.
-3.0v
8.
-3.5v
9.
-4.0v
CALCULATION:
1 AC Drain resistance,rd:
It is the AC resistance between drain and source terminals when JFET is
operating in the pinch off region. To calculate AC drain resistance calculate the
slope of the drain characteristics in the pinch-off region obtained from
observationtable1.
change in VDS
rd=
at VGS constant or rd=VDS/ID /VGS

change in ID
It has a vary high value.

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2 Transconductance:
To calculate transconductance, determine the slope of the transfer characteristics
obtained from observation table2
change in ID
gm=
at VDS constant or rd=ID/VGS/
Change in VGS
VDS
Its unit is seimen(S)/mho.
3 Amplication Factor ,u:
It is given by
change in VDS
u=
at ID constant or u=VDS/VGS/IDS
change in Vgs
or u=gm*rd
4 DC Drain resistance.RDS:
It is also called the static or ohmic resistance of the channel.It is given by
RDS=VDS/ID
Result:
AC
Drain resistance
rd= .
Transconductance
gm=..
Amplification factor
u=
DC drain resistance,
RDS=
EXPERIMENT NO.5
Object :
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To study Wein Bridge Oscillator and effect on output frequency with variation in
RC combination.
1.
2.
DC power supplies -12V, +12V from external source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.
3.
2 mm patch cords.
THEORY
Oscillators are circuits that produce periodic waveforms without input other than perhaps
a trigger. They generally use some form of active device, lamp, or crystal, surrounded by
passive devices such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, to generate the output.
There are two main classes of oscillator: relaxation and sinusoidal. Relaxation oscillators
generate the triangular, sawtooth and other non sinusoidal waveforms. Sinusoidal
oscillators consist of amplifiers with external components used to generate oscillation, or
crystals that internally generate the oscillation. The focus here is on sine wave oscillators,
created using operational amplifiers op amps. Sine wave oscillators are used as references
or test waveforms by many circuits.
An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed back to the
input via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper magnitude and phase, the
circuit produces alternating currents or voltages. Two requirements for oscillation are :
1.
The magnitude of the loop gain AVB must be at least 1.
2.
The total phase shift of the loop gain AvB must be equal to 0 or 360. If the
amplifier causes a phase shift of 180, the feedback circuit must provide an
additional phase shift of 180 so that the total phase shift around the loop is 360.
Wein Bridge Oscillator :

The Wein Bridge is one of the simplest and best known oscillators and is used extensively
in circuits for audio applications. Figure 1 shows the basic Wein Bridge circuit
configuration. On the positive side, this circuit has only a few components and good
frequency stability.
Because of its simplicity and stability, it is the most commonly used audio-frequency
oscillator. In the Fig shown the Wein Bridge circuit is connected between the amplifier
input terminals and the output terminal. The bridge has a series RC network in one arm
and a parallel RC network in the adjoining arm. In the remaining two arms of the bridge,
resistor R1 and Rf are connected.
The phase angle criterion for oscillation is that the total phase shift around the circuit
mudt be 0. This condition occurs only when the bridge is balanced, that is at resonance.
The frequency of oscillation Fo is exactly the resonant frequency of the balanced Wein
Bridge and is given by
Fo = 1/2 RC = 0.159 / RC
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Assuming that the resistors are equal in the value, and the capacitors are equal in the
value in the reactive leg of the Wein Bridge. At this frequency the gain required for
sustained oscillation is given by
Av = 1/B = 3
That is,
1+ Rf / R1 = 3
Or
Rf = 2R1
Wein-Bridge Circuit Schematic

Fig. 1
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to study Wein Bridge Oscillator is shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 2
Procedure :
To study Wein Bridge oscillator proceed as follows :
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1.
Connect +12V,-12V dc power supplies at their indicated position from external

2.
Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point I and H.
3.
4.
Vary Rf Pot to make gain (Rf / Rl) greater than 2.
5.
Record the value of output frequency at test point G.
6.
Compare measured frequency with the theoretically calculated value.
7.
Vary gain Pot of 470K to adjust gain of the amplifier in case of clipped waveform.
8.
Switch OFF the power supply.
9.
Connect a 2 mm patch cord between test points A and B, D and E.
10.
Repeat the above steps from step 3 to 8.
11.
Switch OFF the power supply
12.
Connect a 2 mm patch cord between test points B and C, E and F.
13.
Repeat the above steps from step 3 to 8.
EXPERIMENT NO.6
Object:
To study the operation of Hartley Oscillator.
Apparatus Required:
1.
2.
3.
4.

DC power supplies +12V from external source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.
Oscilloscope.
2mm patch cords.
THEORY
Oscillators are the circuits that produce periodic waveforms without input other than
perhaps a trigger. They generally use some form of active device, lamp, or crystal,
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surrounded by passive devices such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, to generate the
output.
There are two main classes of oscillator: relaxation and sinusoidal. Relaxation oscillators
generate the triangular, sawtooth and other nonsinusoidal waveforms. Sinusoidal
oscillators consist of amplifiers with external components used to generate oscillation, or
crystals that internally generate the oscillation. The focus here is on sine wave oscillators,
created using operational amplifiers op amps. Sine wave oscillators are used as references
or test waveforms by many circuits.
An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed back to the
input via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper magnitude and phase, the
circuit produces alternating currents or voltages. Two requirements for oscillation are:
The magnitude of the loop gain AvB must be at least 1, and
The total phase shift of the loop gain AvB must be equal to 0 or 360. If the amplifier
causes a phase shift of 180, the feedback circuit must provide an additional phase shift
of 180 so that the total phase shift around the loop is 360.
Hartley Oscillator:
The Hartley oscillator is one of the simplest and best-known oscillators and is used
extensively in circuits, which work at radio frequencies. Fig. 1 shows the basic Hartley
oscillator circuit configuration. The transistor is in voltage divider bias, which sets up Qpoint of the circuit. The output voltage is fed back to the base and sustains oscillations
developed across the tank circuit, provided there is enough voltage gain at the oscillation
frequency.
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The resonant frequency of the Hartley oscillator can be calculated from the tank circuit
used. We can calculate the approx. resonant frequency as
Fr = 1
1
2 (LT.C)
..(1)
Here, the Inductor used is the equivalent Inductance. In Hartley oscillator the circulating
current passes through the series combination of L1 and L2.
Therefore equivalent Inductance is,
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
(2)
Where, M is the mutual inductance between two inductors.
M = K (L1.L2)
(3)
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Where, K is the coefficient of coupling, lies between 0 and 1. the coefficient of coupling
gives the extent to which two inductors are couple.
Starting condition for oscillations is
AB > 1
Where,
B is approx. equal to L2/L1.
The feedback should be enough to start oscillations under all conditions under as different
transistor, temperature, voltage, etc. but it should not be much that you lose more output
than necessary. The resonant frequency can be changed either by changing the value of
inductor or changing the value of capacitor but the combination of the three components
should satisfy the above given two conditions for oscillation.
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to study is shown in Fig. 2.
Procedure :
Connect +12V dc power supply at their indicated position from external source or ST2612 Analog Lab.
1. Connect a patch cord between points a and b and another patch cord between point d
and ground.
3. Connect oscilloscope between Vout and ground on AB-68 board.
4. Record the value of output frequency on oscilloscope.
5. Calculate the resonant frequency using equation 1.
6. Compare measured frequency with the theoretically calculated value.
7. Switch OFF the supply.
8. Remove the patch cord connected between points a and b and connect it between
points a and c.
9. Remove the patch cord connected between point d and ground and connect it between
point e and ground.
10. Follow the procedure from point 4 to 7.
Result :
When patch cord connected across a and b.
Practically calculated Output frequency (on CRO): .
Theoretically calculated values
LT: (use eq.2)
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Resonant frequency (fr): ...(use eq.1)

Output voltage amplitude:..Vp-p
When patch cord connected across a and c.
Practically calculated Output frequency (on CRO): .
LT: (use eq.2)
Resonant frequency (fr): ...(use eq.1)
Output voltage amplitude:..Vp-p
EXPERIMENT NO.7
OBJECT: TO STUDY THE OPERATION OF COLPITT OSCILLATOR.
Apparatus required:
1.Analog board AB-67.
2.DC power supplies +12V from external source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.
3.Oscilloscope.
4.2mm Patch cords.
Theory
Oscillators are circuits that produce specific, periodic waveforms such as square, triangular, sawtooth,
and sinusoidal. They can be made from some form of active or passive device like transistor, FETs and
op-amp in association with devices such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, to generate the output.
There are two main classes of oscillator: relaxation and sinusoidal. Relaxation oscillators generate the
triangular, sawtooth and other nonsinuoidal waveforms. Sinusoidal oscillators consist of amplifiers
with external components used to generate oscillation, or crystals that internally generate the
oscillation. The focus here is on sine wave oscillators. Sine wave oscillators are used as references or
test waveforms by many circuits.
An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed back to the input via a
feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper magnitude and phase, the circuit produces
alternating currents or voltages. Two requirements for oscillation are
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1.The magnitude of the loop gain AvB must be at least 1, and

2.The total phase shift of the loop gain AvB must be equal to 0o or 360o.
If the amplifier causes a phase shift of 180o, the feedback circuit must provide an additional phase
shift of 180o so that the total phase shift around the loop is 360o.
Colpitt Oscillator
The Colpitt oscillator is one of the simplest and best known oscillators and is used extensively in
circuits, which work at radio frequencies. Fig.1 shows the basic Colpitt oscillator circuit configuration.
The transistor is in voltage divider bias which sets up Q-point of the circuit.In the circuit note that
Vout is actually the ac voltage across C2. This voltage is fed back to the base and sustains oscillations
developed across the tank circuit, provided there is enough voltage gain at the oscillation frequency.
The resonant frequency of the Colpitt oscillator can be calculated from the tank circuit used. We can
calculate the approx. resonant frequency as
Resonant
Frequency (Fr) =
1
2(LC )
(1)
Here, the capacitance used is the equivalent capacitance the circulating current passes through. In
Colpitt oscillator the circulating current passes through the series combination of C1 and C2. therefore
equivalent capacitance is,
C1 * C2
C1 + C2
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Cequ =
Circuit diagram: Circuit used to study the operation of Colpitt Oscillator is as shown in Fig.2.
Fig 2
Procedure:
To study Colpitt oscillator proceed as follows :1. Connect +12V dc power supplies at their indicated position from external source or ST-2612
Analog Lab.
2. Connect a patch cord between points a and b and another patch chord between points d and
g1.
4. Connect oscilloscope between points f and g2 on AB67 board.
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5. Record the value of output frequency on oscilloscope.

6. Calculate the resonant frequency using equation 1.
7. Compare measured frequency with the theoretically calculated value.
8. Switch off the supply.
9. Remove the patch chord connected between points a and b and connect it between points a and c.
10. Remove the patch chord connected between points d and g1 and connect it between points e and
g2.
11. Follow the procedure from point 4 to 8.
12. Connect +5V supply instead of +12V supply and follow the procedure from point 2 to point 11.
Result:
When patch chord connected across C1 and C2
Practically calculated Output frequency(on CRO): .
Cequ : ...
( use eq.2 )
Resonant frequency (fr) : .. ( use eq.1 )

Output voltage amplitude : Vp-p
When patch chord connected across C3 and C4
Practically calculated Output frequency(on CRO): .
Cequ : ...
( use eq.2 )
Resonant frequency (fr) : .. ( use eq.1 )

Output voltage amplitude : Vp-p
Record above results separately for +12V input voltage and +5V input
voltage and note down the .
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EXPERIMENT NO.8
Object :
To study the characteristic of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) and to calculate
interbase resistance and intrinsic standoff ratio.
Apparatus required :
1.
Power Electronics Board PE01.
2.
DC power supplies + 15 V.
3.
Digital multi-meter.
4.
2mm patch multimeter.
THEORY
The uni-junction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal device Emitter (E), basel (BI) and
base2 (B2). Between basel & base2 it behaves like an ordinary resistance. Rb 1 & Rb2
are internal resistance respectively from base 1 & base2.
UJT characteristics are very different from the conventional 2 junction, bipolar transistor.
It is a pulse generator with the trigger or control signal applied at the emitter. This trigger
voltage is a fraction (n) of interbase voltage, Vbb. The UJT circuit symbol and basic
construction is shown in Fig 1. Its characteristic curve is shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 1
It operates in three different regions.
1.
Cut-off region
Let voltage Ve be applied between E and B 1 where E is positive with respect to
B1. Now increase this voltage from zero upto (Ve < VBB) E to B1 unijunction is
reversed bias & emitter current is negative as shown by the curve in Fig.2.
So upto this when Ve =VBB + VD at point R in fig.1 it operates in cutoff region,
corresponding voltage & current at this point are Vp (peak voltage) & Ip (peak
current).
2.
-VE resistance region

At point R in fig. 1 when Ve= VBB + VD emitter starts to inject holes into lower
base region B1. This is because of increased number of carrier in base region. So,
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resistance Rb1 of E-B1 junction decreases.
Fig. 2
Due to this potential at A in Fig.2 decrease & current Ie due to voltage Ve increases,
so this region is negative resistance region shown by point RS in Fig 2.
It is a stable region. Decrease in resistance is due to the holes injected into the ntype slab to p-type when conduction is established.
3.
Saturation region
At point S in Fig.2 entire base region is saturated & resistance Rb1 does not
decrease any more. This region is called as saturation region. Further increase in Ie
is accompanied by voltage Ve where point is called valley point. voltage and
current at this point is called valley voltage(Vv) & valley current (Iv).
Circuit diagram :
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of unijunction transistor is shown in Fig 3
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Fig. 3
Procedure :
Connect + 15V dc power supply at their indicated position from external source.
1.
To plot the emitter characteristics proceed as follows:
2.
Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in counter clockwise direction.
3.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to read V BB and other
between test point 1 and ground to read Ve.
4.
Connect ammeter between point 2 and 3 to measure the emitter current Ie and at
point 4 and 5 to measure the base current lb.
5.
Switch on the power supply.
6.
Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of voltage VBB = 5 V.
7.
Increase the emitter voltage Ve in steps.
8.
Keep increasing Ve until it drops on voltmeter, UJT fires and emitter current flows
rapidly.
9.
Record the corresponding Emitter current for each value of Emitter voltage Ve in
an observation table 1.
10.
Repeat the above procedure from step 8 for VBB = 10 V and 15 V.
11.
Plot the graph of Ve versus Ie with the help of observation table 1.
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Observation Table :
Calculations :
1.
Interbase Resistance(Rss)
It is the sum of resistance between base 1 & base2.
RBB = RB1 + RB2
It ranges from 4 to 10 Kohms when Ie = 0.
2.
Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio ()

= RB1 (RB1 + RB2) = RBB1 RBB
It ranges from 0.51 to 0.82.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 9
Object :
To study the operation of Class A Amplifier.
4.
5.
Variable DC power supply +12V from external source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.
6.
Function Generator.
7.
Oscilloscope.
THEORY
The power amplifiers are the amplifiers which deliver maximum undistorted symmetrical
output voltage swing to the low impedance load. Generally any system (like a stereo,
radio or television) consists of several stages of amplification. When the signal passes
through these stages, the power level of signal rises so much that the later stages require
high power handling circuit elements such as power transistors. Also as the load
impedance of these later stages is very small (of the order of 8 ohm for stereo amplifier
speakers), heavy collector current flows. To handle this, transistors heaving power rating
of 1W or more are used in power amplifiers.
Power amplifiers are broadly classified as :
1.
Class A (Voltage Amplifier)
2.
Class B (Push-Pull Emitter Follower)
3.
Class C Tuned Amplifier
Class A Amplifier :
Class A amplifier is basically a voltage amplifier in which transistor operates in active
region for the entire cycle of input AC signal. In other words the collector current flows
for 360 of AC signal
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Fig. 1
For class A amplifiers the Q point is located somewhere near the middle of the AC load
line and thus offers maximum amplification of the input signal as shown below :
Fig. 2
The collector current IC is non-zero even when the input signal is zero i.e. the I C flows for
100% of time. This leads to power dissipation even in quiescent condition.
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Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to study the operation of Class A Amplifier is shown below :
Fig. 3
Procedure:
Connect +12V variable DC power supplies at their indicated position from external
Connect 1Vp-p AC signal (1KHz) at the Vin input of the AB- 21.
1.
Connect Oscilloscope at the output terminals of AB-21 and observe the output
waveform.
2.
Gradually increase the input signal up to the value before the signal just get clipped
or decrease the DC supply voltage to the value before the signal just get clipped.
This is the maximum amplification of Class A Amplifier AB-21.
3.
Calculate the peak-to-peak value of the output signal.
Results
Input ac signal amplitude (Vin)................................:
Vp-p
Output ac signal amplitude (Vout).............................:
Vp-p
Voltage gain (A = Vout/Vin)
: ...........................
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EXPERIMENT NO.10
Object :
To study the operation of Class B Amplifier.
8.
9.
Variable DC power supplies +5V and -5V from external source or ST-2612 Analog
Lab.
10.
Function Generator.
11.
Oscilloscope.
THEORY
The power amplifiers are the amplifiers which deliver maximum undistorted symmetrical
output voltage swing to the low impedance load. Generally any system (like a stereo,
radio or television) consists of several stages of amplification. When the signal passes
through these stages, the power level of signal rises so much that the later stages require
high power handling circuit elements such as power transistors. Also as the load
impedance of these later stages is very small (of the order of 8 ohm for stereo amplifier
speakers), heavy collector current flows. To handle this, transistors heaving power rating
of 1W or more are used in power amplifiers.
Power amplifiers are broadly classified as :
1.
Class A (Voltage Amplifier)
2.
Class B (Push-Pull Emitter Follower)
3.
Class C
Class B Amplifier :
Class B amplifier is a circuit in which transistor conducts (collector current flows) for
only 180 of input AC signal. When a signal is applied, one half cycle will forward bias
the base-emitter junction and IC will flow. The other half cycle will reverse bias the baseemitter junction and IC will be cut off.
Fig. 1
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For class B amplifiers the Q point is located near the cutoff point of the AC load line.
Thus, to amplify entire input AC signal a combination of two Class - B amplifiers are
used. One of which amplifies positive half cycle of input AC signal and the other
amplifies negative half cycle of input AC signal. This amplifier configuration is known as
push-pull or complementary symmetry. In the push-pull configuration it is important to
match the two transistors carefully for the proper amplification of both the halves.
While the input signal being amplified through class B amplifier the input signal has to
rise to about 0.7V to overcome the barrier potential of amplifying transistor. During this
period no current flows through the circuit and output is zero. The action is similar for
both the transistors. Thus, following characteristic is obtained for input and output
voltages:
Fig. 2
The output signal no longer remains sine wave and gets distorted. Since the clipping
occurs between the time one transistor cuts off and the time the other one comes on we
call it crossover distortion.
Input and output waveforms illustrating the deed-zone/crossover distortion
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Fig. 3
To remove the crossover distortion a slight forward bias is applied to each emitter diode
i.e. we locate the Q point of both the transistors slightly above the cutoff. Thus collector
current in both the transistors flows for more than 180 but less than 360. Sometimes we
call such an amplifier as Class AB amplifier.
Fig. 4
Operating parameters of Class B Amplifier :
Voltage Gain :
It is the ratio of output voltage (Vout) obtained to input voltage (Vin).
Av = Vout / Vin
Fig. 5
Input Impedance :
It is the ratio of Input voltage (Vin) to Input Current (Ii).
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Zin = Vin / Ii
To measure the input impedance a known resistor (Rs) is placed in series before the input
coupling capacitor and the impedance could be calculated using the equation.
Zin = RS / [AV / (AV'-I)]
Where,
AV = voltage gain without the resistor (RS)
AV' = voltage gain with the resistor (RS)
Output Impedance :
It is the ratio of Output voltage (Vout) to Output Current (IO).
Zout = Vout / Io
To measure the output impedance a known resistor (RS) is placed from output to ground
and the output impedance could be calculated using the equation.
Zout = [AV / (AV'-I)] * RS
Where,
AV = voltage gain without the resistor (RS)
AV' = voltage gain with the resistor (RS)
Current gain :
It is the ratio of output current (Io) to Input current (Ii).
Ai = Io / Ii
The Current gain could be calculated using the equation
Ai = -AV * Zin / RL
Power Gain :
It is the ratio of output AC power (Po) to input AC power (Pi).
PO = Vo(P-P)2 / (8 * RL) = Vrms2 / RL
Pi = Vin (p-p)2 / (8 * Zin) = Vin(rms)2 / Zin
The Power Gain can be calculated using the equation Ap = Po / Pi
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to show the Class B Amplifier operation is as shown below :
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Fig. 6
Procedure :
Connect +5V and -5V DC power supplies at their indicated position from external
Connect 2Vp-p AC signal (1KHz) at the Vin input of the AB- 22.
1.
Put the pot P1 to its minimum position i.e. rotate it fully anticlockwise. (This is the
condition when no bias voltage is applied to the emitter diodes of both the
transistors.)
2.
Connect Oscilloscope at the output terminals of AB-22 and observe the output
waveform. The crossover distortion can be clearly observed on the oscilloscope.
3.
Gradually increase the bias voltage by increasing bias resistance (i.e. rotate the pot
in clockwise direction) up to the value when the crossover distortion is completely
removed and maximum amplification of the input signal is obtained.
4.
Connect the input AC signal to the Class B amplifier through 100 ohms series
resistance.
5.
Measure the input and output voltage amplitude and also input and output
impedance as describe erlier.
6.
Measure the power gain of class B amplifier using the operating parameters as
described in class B theory.
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Results :
Input AC voltage amplitude (Vin) : .............Vp-p
Input Impedance (Zin) : ...........................Ohms
Input Current (Ii) : .........................................A
Output AC voltage amplitude (Vout) : .........Vp-p
Output impedance (RL) : ..........................ohms
Output current (Io) : .......................................A
Power gain (Ap) : ..............................................
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Sub. Code: 305
Code: 305 No.:
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Sub. Name: Electronic Devices &

Experiment No.: 1
Circuits-I
Batch:
No. of Pages: Date:
Details of submissions & performance
Students Name:
Performing
Extra turn
Regular turn
First Submission
Second submission
Remarks and Grade by tutor:
Cross Grade
Exc
VG
G Fr
M F
58
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Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Department of Electronics &

Analog board of AB-01.

DC power supplies +12V from external source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

have voltage across it greater than Vz,

be in a circuit where current is less than Izmax.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Switch ON the power supply.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

To plot Reverse characteristics of a Si diode proceed as follows

Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Switch ON the power supply.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Diode current ID (nA)

Procedure for Ze diode:

Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Switch ON the power supply.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Diode current Iz(mA)

plot Reverse characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows

Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Switch ON the power supply.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Diode current Iz (mA)

Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Switch ON the power supply.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Diode current ID (mA)

To plot Reverse characteristics proceed as follows:

Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Switch ON the power supply.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Constant current transfer characteristic.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Constant current transfer Characteristic :

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

To plot input characteristics proceed as follows :

Short or connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 2

Switch ON the power supply.

Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.

Observation Table for input characteristic 1 :

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Input current IE(mA) at constant

To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

1. Switch OFF the power supply.

Observation Table for output characteristic 2 :

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Outpu Output current IC (mA) at constant value

Observation Table 3 for transfer characterstic:

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Output current IC (mA) at

Output resistance: It is the ratio of change in the output voltage V BC to change in

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Constant current transfer characteristic.

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Venkteshwar Institute of Technology, Indore

Short or connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 5

Switch ON the power supply.

It can be proved from above that u=gmrd=gfsrd