Cryogenic rocket engine

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Vulcain engine of Ariane 5 rocket.

RL-10 is an early example of cryogenic rocket engine.

A cryogenic rocket engine is a rocket engine that uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidizer, that is, its
fuel or oxidizer (or both) are gases liquefied and stored at very low temperatures.[1] Notably,
these engines were one of the main factors of NASA's success in reaching the Moon by the
Saturn V rocket.[1]
During World War II, when powerful rocket engines were first considered by the German,
American and Soviet engineers independently, all discovered that rocket engines need high mass
flow rate of both oxidizer and fuel to generate a sufficient thrust. At that time oxygen and low
molecular weight hydrocarbons were used as oxidizer and fuel pair. At room temperature and
pressure, both are in gaseous state. Hypothetically, if propellants had been stored as pressurized
gases, the size and mass of fuel tanks themselves would severely decrease rocket efficiency.
Therefore, to get the required mass flow rate, the only option was to cool the propellants down to
cryogenic temperatures (below 150 C, 238 F), converting them to liquid form. Hence, all

cryogenic rocket engines are also, by definition, either liquid-propellant rocket engines or hybrid
rocket engines.[2]
Various cryogenic fuel-oxidizer combinations have been tried, but the combination of liquid
hydrogen (LH2) fuel and the liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer is one of the most widely used.[1][3]
Both components are easily and cheaply available, and when burned have one of the highest
enthalpy releases by combustion,[4] producing specific impulse up to 450s (effective exhaust
velocity 4.4km/s).

Contents

1 Construction

2 LOX+LH2 rocket engines by government agency

3 References

4 External links

Construction
The major components of a cryogenic rocket engine are the combustion chamber (thrust
chamber), pyrotechnic initiator, fuel injector, fuel cryopumps, oxidizer cryopumps, gas turbine,
cryo valves, regulators, the fuel tanks, and rocket engine nozzle. In terms of feeding propellants
to the combustion chamber, cryogenic rocket engines (or, generally, all liquid-propellant
engines) are either pressure-fed or pump-fed, and pump-fed engines work in either a gasgenerator cycle, a staged-combustion cycle, or an expander cycle.
The cryopumps are always turbopumps powered by a flow of fuel through gas turbines. Looking
at this aspect, engines can be differentiated into a main flow or a bypass flow configuration. In
the main flow design, all the pumped fuel is fed through the gas turbines, and in the end injected
to the combustion chamber. In the bypass configuration, the fuel flow is split; the main part goes
directly to the combustion chamber to generate thrust, while only a small amount of the fuel goes
to the turbine.[citation needed]

LOX+LH2 rocket engines by government agency

Currently, six governments have successfully developed and deployed cryogenic rocket engines:

India
CE-7.5 [5]
CE-20

Overview and history

The Hungarian-British physicist Dennis Gabor (in Hungarian: Gbor Dnes),[1][2] was awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1971 "for his invention and development of the holographic
method".[3] His work, done in the late 1940s, built on pioneering work in the field of X-ray
microscopy by other scientists including Mieczysaw Wolfke in 1920 and WL Bragg in 1939.[4]
The discovery was an unexpected result of research into improving electron microscopes at the
British Thomson-Houston (BTH) Company in Rugby, England, and the company filed a patent
in December 1947 (patent GB685286). The technique as originally invented is still used in
electron microscopy, where it is known as electron holography, but optical holography did not
really advance until the development of the laser in 1960. The word holography comes from the
Greek words (hlos; "whole") and (graph; "writing" or "drawing").

Horizontal symmetric text, by Dieter Jung

The development of the laser enabled the first practical optical holograms that recorded 3D
objects to be made in 1962 by Yuri Denisyuk in the Soviet Union[5] and by Emmett Leith and
Juris Upatnieks at the University of Michigan, USA.[6] Early holograms used silver halide
photographic emulsions as the recording medium. They were not very efficient as the produced
grating absorbed much of the incident light. Various methods of converting the variation in
transmission to a variation in refractive index (known as "bleaching") were developed which
enabled much more efficient holograms to be produced.[7][8][9]
Several types of holograms can be made. Transmission holograms, such as those produced by
Leith and Upatnieks, are viewed by shining laser light through them and looking at the
reconstructed image from the side of the hologram opposite the source.[10] A later refinement, the
"rainbow transmission" hologram, allows more convenient illumination by white light rather
than by lasers.[11] Rainbow holograms are commonly used for security and authentication, for
example, on credit cards and product packaging.[12]
Another kind of common hologram, the reflection or Denisyuk hologram, can also be viewed
using a white-light illumination source on the same side of the hologram as the viewer and is the
type of hologram normally seen in holographic displays. They are also capable of multicolourimage reproduction.[13]
Specular holography is a related technique for making three-dimensional images by controlling
the motion of specularities on a two-dimensional surface.[14] It works by reflectively or
refractively manipulating bundles of light rays, whereas Gabor-style holography works by
diffractively reconstructing wavefronts.

Most holograms produced are of static objects but systems for displaying changing scenes on a
holographic volumetric display are now being developed.[15][16][17]
Holograms can also be used to store, retrieve, and process information optically.[18]
In its early days, holography required high-power expensive lasers, but nowadays, massproduced low-cost semi-conductor or diode lasers, such as those found in millions of DVD
recorders and used in other common applications, can be used to make holograms and have made
holography much more accessible to low-budget researchers, artists and dedicated hobbyists.
It was thought that it would be possible to use X-rays to make holograms of very small objects
and view them using visible light[citation needed]. Today, holograms with x-rays are generated by
using synchrotrons or x-ray free-electron lasers as radiation sources and pixelated detectors such
as CCDs as recording medium.[19] The reconstruction is then retrieved via computation. Due to
the shorter wavelength of x-rays compared to visible light, this approach allows to image objects
with higher spatial resolution.[20] As free-electron lasers can provide ultrashort and x-ray pulses
in the range of femtoseconds which are intense and coherent, x-ray holography has been used to
capture ultrafast dynamic processes.[21][22][23]

How holography works

Recording a hologram

Reconstructing a hologram

Close-up photograph of a hologram's surface. The object in the hologram is a toy van. It is no more
possible to discern the subject of a hologram from this pattern than it is to identify what music has been
recorded by looking at a CD surface. Note that the hologram is described by the speckle pattern, rather
than the "wavy" line pattern.

Holography is a technique that enables a light field, which is generally the product of a light
source scattered off objects, to be recorded and later reconstructed when the original light field is
no longer present, due to the absence of the original objects.[24] Holography can be thought of as
somewhat similar to sound recording, whereby a sound field created by vibrating matter like
musical instruments or vocal cords, is encoded in such a way that it can be reproduced later,
without the presence of the original vibrating matter.
Laser

Holograms are recorded using a flash of light that illuminates a scene and then imprints on a
recording medium, much in the way a photograph is recorded. In addition, however, part of the
light beam must be shone directly onto the recording medium - this second light beam is known
as the reference beam. A hologram requires a laser as the sole light source. Lasers can be

precisely controlled and have a fixed wavelength, unlike sunlight or light from conventional
sources, which contain many different wavelengths. To prevent external light from interfering,
holograms are usually taken in darkness, or in low level light of a different color from the laser
light used in making the hologram. Holography requires a specific exposure time (just like
photography), which can be controlled using a shutter, or by electronically timing the laser.
Apparatus

A hologram can be made by shining part of the light beam directly onto the recording medium,
and the other part onto the object in such a way that some of the scattered light falls onto the
recording medium.
A more flexible arrangement for recording a hologram requires the laser beam to be aimed
through a series of elements that change it in different ways. The first element is a beam splitter
that divides the beam into two identical beams, each aimed in different directions:

One beam (known as the illumination or object beam) is spread using lenses and directed onto the
scene using mirrors. Some of the light scattered (reflected) from the scene then falls onto the
recording medium.

The second beam (known as the reference beam) is also spread through the use of lenses, but is
directed so that it doesn't come in contact with the scene, and instead travels directly onto the
recording medium.

Several different materials can be used as the recording medium. One of the most common is a
film very similar to photographic film (silver halide photographic emulsion), but with a much
higher concentration of light-reactive grains, making it capable of the much higher resolution
that holograms require. A layer of this recording medium (e.g. silver halide) is attached to a
transparent substrate, which is commonly glass, but may also be plastic.
Process

When the two laser beams reach the recording medium, their light waves, intersect and interfere
with each other. It is this interference pattern that is imprinted on the recording medium. The
pattern itself is seemingly random, as it represents the way in which the scene's light interfered
with the original light source but not the original light source itself. The interference pattern
can be considered an encoded version of the scene, requiring a particular key the original light
source in order to view its contents.
This missing key is provided later by shining a laser, identical to the one used to record the
hologram, onto the developed film. When this beam illuminates the hologram, it is diffracted by
the hologram's surface pattern. This produces a light field identical to the one originally
produced by the scene and scattered onto the hologram. The image this effect produces in a
person's retina is known as a virtual image.

Holography vs. photography

Holography may be better understood via an examination of its differences from ordinary
photography:

A hologram represents a recording of information regarding the light that came from the original
scene as scattered in a range of directions rather than from only one direction, as in a photograph.
This allows the scene to be viewed from a range of different angles, as if it were still present.

A photograph can be recorded using normal light sources (sunlight or electric lighting) whereas a
laser is required to record a hologram.

A lens is required in photography to record the image, whereas in holography, the light from the
object is scattered directly onto the recording medium.

A holographic recording requires a second light beam (the reference beam) to be directed onto the
recording medium.

A photograph can be viewed in a wide range of lighting conditions, whereas holograms can only
be viewed with very specific forms of illumination.

When a photograph is cut in half, each piece shows half of the scene. When a hologram is cut in
half, the whole scene can still be seen in each piece. This is because, whereas each point in a
photograph only represents light scattered from a single point in the scene, each point on a
holographic recording includes information about light scattered from every point in the scene. It
can be thought of as viewing a street outside a house through a 4ft x 4ft window, then through a
2ft x 2ft window. One can see all of the same things through the smaller window (by moving the
head to change the viewing angle), but the viewer can see more at once through the 4ft window.

A photograph is a two-dimensional representation that can only reproduce a rudimentary threedimensional effect, whereas the reproduced viewing range of a hologram adds many more depth
perception cues that were present in the original scene. These cues are recognized by the human
brain and translated into the same perception of a three-dimensional image as when the original
scene might have been viewed.

A photograph clearly maps out the light field of the original scene. The developed hologram's
surface consists of a very fine, seemingly random pattern, which appears to bear no relationship
to the scene it recorded.

Physics of holography
For a better understanding of the process, it is necessary to understand interference and
diffraction. Interference occurs when one or more wavefronts are superimposed. Diffraction
occurs whenever a wavefront encounters an object. The process of producing a holographic
reconstruction is explained below purely in terms of interference and diffraction. It is somewhat
simplified but is accurate enough to provide an understanding of how the holographic process
works.

For those unfamiliar with these concepts, it is worthwhile to read the respective articles before
reading further in this article.
Plane wavefronts

A diffraction grating is a structure with a repeating pattern. A simple example is a metal plate
with slits cut at regular intervals. A light wave incident on a grating is split into several waves;
the direction of these diffracted waves is determined by the grating spacing and the wavelength
of the light.
A simple hologram can be made by superimposing two plane waves from the same light source
on a holographic recording medium. The two waves interfere giving a straight line fringe pattern
whose intensity varies sinusoidally across the medium. The spacing of the fringe pattern is
determined by the angle between the two waves, and on the wavelength of the light.
The recorded light pattern is a diffraction grating. When it is illuminated by only one of the
waves used to create it, it can be shown that one of the diffracted waves emerges at the same
angle as that at which the second wave was originally incident so that the second wave has been
'reconstructed'. Thus, the recorded light pattern is a holographic recording as defined above.
Point sources

Sinusoidal zone plate

If the recording medium is illuminated with a point source and a normally incident plane wave,
the resulting pattern is a sinusoidal zone plate which acts as a negative Fresnel lens whose focal
length is equal to the separation of the point source and the recording plane.
When a plane wavefront illuminates a negative lens, it is expanded into a wave which appears to
diverge from the focal point of the lens. Thus, when the recorded pattern is illuminated with the
original plane wave, some of the light is diffracted into a diverging beam equivalent to the
original plane wave; a holographic recording of the point source has been created.
When the plane wave is incident at a non-normal angle, the pattern formed is more complex but
still acts as a negative lens provided it is illuminated at the original angle.

Complex objects

To record a hologram of a complex object, a laser beam is first split into two separate beams of
light. One beam illuminates the object, which then scatters light onto the recording medium.
According to diffraction theory, each point in the object acts as a point source of light so the
recording medium can be considered to be illuminated by a set of point sources located at
varying distances from the medium.
The second (reference) beam illuminates the recording medium directly. Each point source wave
interferes with the reference beam, giving rise to its own sinusoidal zone plate in the recording
medium. The resulting pattern is the sum of all these 'zone plates' which combine to produce a
random (speckle) pattern as in the photograph above.
When the hologram is illuminated by the original reference beam, each of the individual zone
plates reconstructs the object wave which produced it, and these individual wavefronts add
together to reconstruct the whole of the object beam. The viewer perceives a wavefront that is
identical to the wavefront scattered from the object onto the recording medium, so that it appears
to him or her that the object is still in place even if it has been removed. This image is known as
a "virtual" image, as it is generated even though the object is no longer there.
Mathematical model

A single-frequency light wave can be modelled by a complex number U, which represents the
electric or magnetic field of the light wave. The amplitude and phase of the light are represented
by the absolute value and angle of the complex number. The object and reference waves at any
point in the holographic system are given by UO and UR. The combined beam is given by UO +
UR. The energy of the combined beams is proportional to the square of magnitude of the
combined waves as:

If a photographic plate is exposed to the two beams and then developed, its transmittance, T, is
proportional to the light energy that was incident on the plate and is given by

where k is a constant.
When the developed plate is illuminated by the reference beam, the light transmitted through the
plate, UH is equal to the transmittance T multiplied by the reference beam amplitude UR, giving

It can be seen that UH has four terms, each representing a light beam emerging from the
hologram. The first of these is proportional to UO. This is the reconstructed object beam which
enables a viewer to 'see' the original object even when it is no longer present in the field of view.

The second and third beams are modified versions of the reference beam. The fourth term is
known as the "conjugate object beam". It has the reverse curvature to the object beam itself and
forms a real image of the object in the space beyond the holographic plate.
When the reference and object beams are incident on the holographic recording medium at
significantly different angles, the virtual, real and reference wavefronts all emerge at different
angles, enabling the reconstructed object to be seen clearly.

Recording a hologram
Items required

An optical table being used to make a hologram

To make a hologram, the following are required:

a suitable object or set of objects

a suitable laser beam

part of the laser beam to be directed so that it illuminates the object (the object beam) and another
part so that it illuminates the recording medium directly (the reference beam), enabling the
reference beam and the light which is scattered from the object onto the recording medium to
form an interference pattern

a recording medium which converts this interference pattern into an optical element which
modifies either the amplitude or the phase of an incident light beam according to the intensity of
the interference pattern.

an environment which provides sufficient mechanical and thermal stability that the interference
pattern is stable during the time in which the interference pattern is recorded[25]

These requirements are inter-related, and it is essential to understand the nature of optical
interference to see this. Interference is the variation in intensity which can occur when two light
waves are superimposed. The intensity of the maxima exceeds the sum of the individual
intensities of the two beams, and the intensity at the minima is less than this and may be zero.
The interference pattern maps the relative phase between the two waves, and any change in the
relative phases causes the interference pattern to move across the field of view. If the relative
phase of the two waves changes by one cycle, then the pattern drifts by one whole fringe. One
phase cycle corresponds to a change in the relative distances travelled by the two beams of one
wavelength. Since the wavelength of light is of the order of 0.5m, it can be seen that very small
changes in the optical paths travelled by either of the beams in the holographic recording system

lead to movement of the interference pattern which is the holographic recording. Such changes
can be caused by relative movements of any of the optical components or the object itself, and
also by local changes in air-temperature. It is essential that any such changes are significantly
less than the wavelength of light if a clear well-defined recording of the interference is to be
created.
The exposure time required to record the hologram depends on the laser power available, on the
particular medium used and on the size and nature of the object(s) to be recorded, just as in
conventional photography. This determines the stability requirements. Exposure times of several
minutes are typical when using quite powerful gas lasers and silver halide emulsions. All the
elements within the optical system have to be stable to fractions of a m over that period. It is
possible to make holograms of much less stable objects by using a pulsed laser which produces a
large amount of energy in a very short time (s or less).[26] These systems have been used to
produce holograms of live people. A holographic portrait of Dennis Gabor was produced in 1971
using a pulsed ruby laser.[27][28]
Thus, the laser power, recording medium sensitivity, recording time and mechanical and thermal
stability requirements are all interlinked. Generally, the smaller the object, the more compact the
optical layout, so that the stability requirements are significantly less than when making
holograms of large objects.
Another very important laser parameter is its coherence.[29] This can be envisaged by considering
a laser producing a sine wave whose frequency drifts over time; the coherence length can then be
considered to be the distance over which it maintains a single frequency. This is important
because two waves of different frequencies do not produce a stable interference pattern. The
coherence length of the laser determines the depth of field which can be recorded in the scene. A
good holography laser will typically have a coherence length of several meters, ample for a deep
hologram.
The objects that form the scene must, in general, have optically rough surfaces so that they
scatter light over a wide range of angles. A specularly reflecting (or shiny) surface reflects the
light in only one direction at each point on its surface, so in general, most of the light will not be
incident on the recording medium. A hologram of a shiny object can be made by locating it very
close to the recording plate.[30]
Hologram classifications

There are three important properties of a hologram which are defined in this section. A given
hologram will have one or other of each of these three properties, e.g. an amplitude modulated
thin transmission hologram, or a phase modulated, volume reflection hologram.
Amplitude and phase modulation holograms

An amplitude modulation hologram is one where the amplitude of light diffracted by the
hologram is proportional to the intensity of the recorded light. A straightforward example of this
is photographic emulsion on a transparent substrate. The emulsion is exposed to the interference
pattern, and is subsequently developed giving a transmittance which varies with the intensity of

the pattern - the more light that fell on the plate at a given point, the darker the developed plate at
that point.
A phase hologram is made by changing either the thickness or the refractive index of the material
in proportion to the intensity of the holographic interference pattern. This is a phase grating and
it can be shown that when such a plate is illuminated by the original reference beam, it
reconstructs the original object wavefront. The efficiency (i.e. the fraction of the illuminated
beam which is converted to reconstructed object beam) is greater for phase than for amplitude
modulated holograms.
Thin holograms and thick (volume) holograms

A thin hologram is one where the thickness of the recording medium is much less than the
spacing of the interference fringes which make up the holographic recording.
A thick or volume hologram is one where the thickness of the recording medium is greater than
the spacing of the interference pattern. The recorded hologram is now a three dimensional
structure, and it can be shown that incident light is diffracted by the grating only at a particular
angle, known as the Bragg angle.[31] If the hologram is illuminated with a light source incident at
the original reference beam angle but a broad spectrum of wavelengths; reconstruction occurs
only at the wavelength of the original laser used. If the angle of illumination is changed,
reconstruction will occur at a different wavelength and the colour of the re-constructed scene
changes. A volume hologram effectively acts as a colour filter.
Transmission and reflection holograms

A transmission hologram is one where the object and reference beams are incident on the
recording medium from the same side. In practice, several more mirrors may be used to direct
the beams in the required directions.
Normally, transmission holograms can only be reconstructed using a laser or a quasimonochromatic source, but a particular type of transmission hologram, known as a rainbow
hologram, can be viewed with white light.
In a reflection hologram, the object and reference beams are incident on the plate from opposite
sides of the plate. The reconstructed object is then viewed from the same side of the plate as that
at which the re-constructing beam is incident.
Only volume holograms can be used to make reflection holograms, as only a very low intensity
diffracted beam would be reflected by a thin hologram.
Gallery of full-color reflection holograms of mineral specimens

Hologram of Elbaite on Quartz

Hologram of Tanzanite on Matrix

Hologram of Tourmaline on Quartz

Hologram of Amethyst on Quartz

Holographic recording media

The recording medium has to convert the original interference pattern into an optical element
that modifies either the amplitude or the phase of an incident light beam in proportion to the
intensity of the original light field.
The recording medium should be able to resolve fully all the fringes arising from interference
between object and reference beam. These fringe spacings can range from tens of micrometers to
less than one micrometer, i.e. spatial frequencies ranging from a few hundred to several thousand
cycles/mm, and ideally, the recording medium should have a response which is flat over this
range. If the response of the medium to these spatial frequencies is low, the diffraction efficiency
of the hologram will be poor, and a dim image will be obtained. Standard photographic film has
a very low or even zero response at the frequencies involved and cannot be used to make a
hologram - see, for example, Kodak's professional black and white film[32] whose resolution
starts falling off at 20 lines/mm it is unlikely that any reconstructed beam could be obtained
using this film.

If the response is not flat over the range of spatial frequencies in the interference pattern, then the
resolution of the reconstructed image may also be degraded.[33][34]
The table below shows the principal materials used for holographic recording. Note that these do
not include the materials used in the mass replication of an existing hologram, which are
discussed in the next section. The resolution limit given in the table indicates the maximal
number of interference lines/mm of the gratings. The required exposure, expressed as millijoules
(mJ) of photon energy impacting the surface area, is for a long exposure time. Short exposure
times (less than 1/1000 of a second, such as with a pulsed laser) require much higher exposure
energies, due to reciprocity failure.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides
location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.[1] The system provides
critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the world. It is maintained by
the United States government and is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
The GPS project was developed in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation
systems,[2] integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified
engineering design studies from the 1960s. GPS was created and realized by the U.S.
Department of Defense (DoD) and was originally run with 24satellites. It became fully
operational in 1995. Bradford Parkinson, Roger L. Easton, and Ivan A. Getting are credited with
inventing it.
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to
modernize the GPS system and implement the next generation of GPS III satellites and Next
Generation Operational Control System (OCX).[3] Announcements from Vice President Al Gore
and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the
modernization effort, GPS III.
In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global
Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but
suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s.[4] There are also the planned
European Union Galileo positioning system, India's Indian Regional Navigation Satellite
System, and the Chinese Beidou Navigation Satellite System.

Contents

1 History
o

1.1 Predecessors

1.2 Development

1.3 Timeline and modernization

1.4 Awards

2 Basic concept of GPS

o

2.1 Fundamentals

2.2 More detailed description

2.3 User-satellite geometry

2.4 Receiver in continuous operation

2.5 Non-navigation applications

3 Structure
o

3.1 Space segment

3.2 Control segment

3.3 User segment

4 Applications
o

4.1 Civilian

4.1.1 Restrictions on civilian use

4.2 Military

5 Communication
o

5.1 Message format

5.2 Satellite frequencies

5.3 Demodulation and decoding

6 Navigation equations
o

6.1 Problem description

6.2 Least squares solution method

6.3 Closed-form solution methods (Bancroft, etc.)

7 Error sources and analysis

8 Accuracy enhancement and surveying

o

8.1 Augmentation

8.2 Precise monitoring

8.3 Timekeeping

8.3.1 Leap seconds

8.3.2 Accuracy

8.3.3 Format

8.4 Carrier phase tracking (surveying)

9 Regulatory spectrum issues concerning GPS receivers

10 Other systems

11 See also

12 Notes

13 References

14 Further reading

15 External links

History
The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems, such as
LORAN and the Decca Navigator, developed in the early 1940s and used by the British Royal
Navy during World War II.
Predecessors

In 1956, the German-American physicist Friedwardt Winterberg[5] proposed a test of general

relativity - detecting time slowing in a strong gravitational field using accurate atomic clocks
placed in orbit inside artificial satellites. Calculations using general relativity determined that the
clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by Earth's observers to run 38 microseconds faster
per day (than those on Earth), and this was corrected for in the design of GPS.[6]
The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik, in 1957. Two American
physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins's Applied Physics
Laboratory (APL), decided to monitor Sputnik's radio transmissions.[7] Within hours they

realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its
orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations
required. The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and
Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem pinpointing the user's location given that of
the satellite. (At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launched Polaris missile,
which required them to know the submarine's location.) This led them and APL to develop the
Transit system.[8] In 1959, ARPA (renamed DARPA in 1972) also played a role in
Transit.[9][10][11]

Official logo for NAVSTAR GPS

Emblem of the 50th Space Wing

The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first
successfully tested in 1960.[12] It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a
navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation
satellite that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS.
In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of signal
transmission from pairs of stations,[13] became the first worldwide radio navigation system.
Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater
accuracy.
While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none
of those was seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research,
development, deployment, and operation for a constellation of navigation satellites. During the
Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that
did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS
was funded. It is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time. The nuclear triad consisted of
the United States Navy's submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United
States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).
Considered vital to the nuclear-deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch
position was a force multiplier.
Precise navigation would enable United States submarines to get an accurate fix of their
positions before they launched their SLBMs.[14] The USAF, with two thirds of the nuclear triad,
also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air

Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same
problem. To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch
platforms (such as Russian SS-24 and SS-25) and so the need to fix the launch position had
similarity to the SLBM situation.
In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System for
Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-DLORAN. A follow-on study, Project57, was
worked in 1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born". That same year, the
concept was pursued as Project621B, which had "many of the attributes that you now see in
GPS"[15] and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs. Updates
from the Navy Transit system were too slow for the high speeds of Air Force operation. The
Naval Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time Navigation)
satellites, first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock
into orbit.[16]
Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States
military. In 1964, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range
(SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying.[17] The SECOR system included three groundbased transmitters from known locations that would send signals to the satellite transponder in
orbit. A fourth ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to
fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1969.[18] Decades later,
during the early years of GPS, civilian surveying became one of the first fields to make use of
the new technology, because surveyors could reap benefits of signals from the less-thancomplete GPS constellation years before it was declared operational. GPS can be thought of as
an evolution of the SECOR system where the ground-based transmitters have been migrated into
orbit.
Development

With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be
developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a
multi-service program.
During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon
discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). It was at this meeting
that "the real synthesis that became GPS was created." Later that year, the DNSS program was
named Navstar, or Navigation System Using Timing and Ranging.[19] With the individual
satellites being associated with the name Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and
Timation), a more fully encompassing name was used to identify the constellation of Navstar
satellites, Navstar-GPS, which was later shortened simply to GPS.[20] Ten "Block I" prototype
satellites were launched between 1978 and 1985 (with one prototype being destroyed in a launch
failure).[21]
After Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 carrying 269 people, was shot down in 1983
after straying into the USSR's prohibited airspace,[22] in the vicinity of Sakhalin and Moneron
Islands, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use,

once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good.[23] The first satellite was launched in
1989, and the 24thsatellite was launched in 1994. The GPS program cost at this point, not
including the cost of the user equipment, but including the costs of the satellite launches, has
been estimated to be about USD$5 billion (then-year dollars).[24] Roger L. Easton is widely
credited as the primary inventor of GPS.
Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for
civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed with President Bill
Clinton ordering Selective Availability to be turned off at midnight May 1, 2000, improving the
precision of civilian GPS from 100 to 20 meters (328 to 66ft)[citation needed]. The executive order
signed in 1996 to turn off Selective Availability in 2000 was proposed by the U.S. Secretary of
Defense, William Perry, because of the widespread growth of differential GPS services to
improve civilian accuracy and eliminate the U.S. military advantage. Moreover, the U.S. military
was actively developing technologies to deny GPS service to potential adversaries on a regional
basis.[25]
Over the last decade, the U.S. has implemented several improvements to the GPS service,
including new signals for civil use and increased accuracy and integrity for all users, all while
maintaining compatibility with existing GPS equipment.
GPS modernization[26] has now become an ongoing initiative to upgrade the Global Positioning
System with new capabilities to meet growing military, civil, and commercial needs. The
program is being implemented through a series of satellite acquisitions, including GPS Block III
and the Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). The U.S. Government continues to
improve the GPS space and ground segments to increase performance and accuracy.
GPS is owned and operated by the United States Government as a national resource. Department
of Defense (DoD) is the steward of GPS. Interagency GPS Executive Board (IGEB) oversaw
GPS policy matters from 1996 to 2004. After that the National Space-Based Positioning,
Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2004 to
advise and coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters concerning the GPS and
related systems.[27] The executive committee is chaired jointly by the deputy secretaries of
defense and transportation. Its membership includes equivalent-level officials from the
departments of state, commerce, and homeland security, the joint chiefs of staff, and NASA.
Components of the executive office of the president participate as observers to the executive
committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaison.
The DoD is required by law to "maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as defined in the
federal radio navigation plan and the standard positioning service signal specification) that will
be available on a continuous, worldwide basis," and "develop measures to prevent hostile use of
GPS and its augmentations without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses."
Timeline and modernization
Main article: List of GPS satellites
Summary of satellites[28]

Launch
Block
Period

Satellite launches

Currently
in orbit
and
healthy

In
Suc- FailPlanprepcess ure
ned
aration
I

19781
10
985

II

19891
9
990

IIA

19901
19
997

IIR

19972
12
004

12

IIR- 20052
8
M 009

IIF

From
2010

IIIA

From
2016

12

IIIB

IIIC

16

65

36

32

Total

(Last update: June 13, 2014)

USA-85 from Block IIA is unhealthy
USA-203 from Block IIR-M is unhealthy
[29] For a more complete list, see list of GPS satellite
launches

In 1972, the USAF Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman AFB), conducted
developmental flight tests of two prototype GPS receivers over White Sands Missile Range, using
ground-based pseudo-satellites.[citation needed]

In 1978, the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched.[21]

In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner KAL 007 that strayed into
prohibited airspace because of navigational errors, killing all 269people on board, U.S. President
Ronald Reagan announced that GPS would be made available for civilian uses once it was
completed,[30][31] although it had been previously published [in Navigation magazine] that the CA
code (Coarse Acquisition code) would be available to civilian users.

By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept.

Beginning in 1988, Command & Control of these satellites was transitioned from Onizuka AFS,
California to the 2nd Satellite Control Squadron (2SCS) located at Falcon Air Force Station in
Colorado Springs, Colorado.[32][33]

On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched.

The Gulf War from 1990 to 1991 was the first conflict in which GPS was widely used.[34]

In 1991, a project to create a miniature GPS receiver successfully ended, replacing the previous
50 pound military receivers with a 2.75 pound handheld receiver.[10]

In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was inactivated and replaced
by the 50th Space Wing.

By December 1993, GPS achieved initial operational capability (IOC), indicating a full
constellation (24 satellites) was available and providing the Standard Positioning Service
(SPS).[35]

Full Operational Capability (FOC) was declared by Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in April
1995, signifying full availability of the military's secure Precise Positioning Service (PPS).[35]

In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S.
President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive[36] declaring GPS to be a dual-use system and
establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.

In 1998, United States Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new
civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation
safety and in 2000 the United States Congress authorized the effort, referring to it as GPS III.

On May 2, 2000 "Selective Availability" was discontinued as a result of the 1996 executive order,
allowing users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.

In 2004, the United States Government signed an agreement with the European Community
establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe's planned Galileo system.

In 2004, United States President George W. Bush updated the national policy and replaced the
executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning,
Navigation, and Timing.[37]

November 2004, Qualcomm announced successful tests of assisted GPS for mobile phones.[38]

In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second civilian
signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.[39]

On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based Ground Segment Control System was
transferred to the new Architecture Evolution Plan.[40]

On May 19, 2009, the United States Government Accountability Office issued a report warning
that some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010.[41]

On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command allayed fears of GPS failure saying "There's
only a small risk we will not continue to exceed our performance standard."[42]

On January 11, 2010, an update of ground control systems caused a software incompatibility with
8000 to 10000 military receivers manufactured by a division of Trimble Navigation Limited of
Sunnyvale, Calif.[43]

On February 25, 2010,[44] the U.S. Air Force awarded the contract to develop the GPS Next
Generation Operational Control System (OCX) to improve accuracy and availability of GPS
navigation signals, and serve as a critical part of GPS modernization.

Awards

On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners
of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the nation's most prestigious aviation award. This team
combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace
Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The
citation honors them "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and
surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50years ago."
Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize
for 2003:

Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and an engineer at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, established the basis for GPS, improving on the World
War II land-based radio system called LORAN (Long-range Radio Aid to Navigation).

Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University, conceived

the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in conjunction with the U.S.
Air Force. Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force, from 1957 to 1978, and retired
with the rank of colonel.

GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13,
2006.[45]

In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of
Fame.[46]

Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile
Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2, 2010 for his role in
space technology development and the engineering design concept of GPS conducted as part of
Project 621B.
On October 4, 2011, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded the Global
Positioning System (GPS) its 60th Anniversary Award, nominated by IAF member, the
American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). The IAF Honors and Awards
Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program and the exemplary role it has played
in building international collaboration for the benefit of humanity.

Basic concept of GPS

Fundamentals

The GPS system concept is based on time. The satellites carry atomic clocks which are
synchronized and very stable; any drift from true time maintained on the ground is corrected
daily. Likewise, the satellite locations are monitored precisely. User receivers have clocks as
well. However, they are not synchronized with true time, and are less stable. GPS satellites
transmit data continuously which contains their current time and position. A GPS receiver listens
to multiple satellites and solves equations to determine the exact position of the receiver and its
deviation from true time. At a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver in order
to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and clock deviation from
satellite time).
More detailed description

Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal (carrier frequency with modulation) that
includes:

a pseudorandom code (sequence of ones and zeros) that is known to the receiver. By timealigning a receiver-generated version and the receiver-measured version of the code, the time of
arrival (TOA) of a defined point in the code sequence, called an epoch, can be found in the
receiver clock time scale

a message that includes the time of transmission (TOT) of the code epoch (in GPS system time
scale) and the satellite position at that time.

Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite
signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values,
which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite range
differences. The receiver then computes its three-dimensional position and clock deviation from
the four TOFs.

In practice the receiver position (in three dimensional Cartesian coordinates with origin at the
earth's center) and the offset of the receiver clock relative to GPS system time are computed
simultaneously, using the navigation equations to process the TOFs.
The receiver's earth-centered solution location is usually converted to latitude, longitude and
height relative to an ellipsoidal earth model. The height may then be further converted to height
relative the geoid (e.g., EGM96) (essentially, mean sea level). These coordinates may be
displayed, perhaps on a moving map display and/or recorded and/or used by other system (e.g.,
vehicle guidance).
User-satellite geometry

Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual TDOAs define
the measurement geometry. Each TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see
Multilateration). The line connecting the two satellites involved (and its extensions) forms the
axis of the hyperboloid. The receiver is located at the point where three hyperboloids
intersect.[47][48]
It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is at the intersection of three spheres. While
simpler to visualize, this is only the case if the receiver has a clock synchronized with the
satellite clocks (i.e., the receiver measures true ranges to the satellites rather than range
differences). There are significant performance benefits to the user carrying a clock synchronized
with the satellites. Foremost is that only three satellites are needed to compute a position
solution. If this were part of the GPS system concept so that all users needed to carry a
synchronized clock, then a smaller number of satellites could be deployed. However, the cost
and complexity of the user equipment would increase significantly.
Receiver in continuous operation

The description above is representative of a receiver start-up situation. Most receivers have a
track algorithm, sometimes called a tracker, that combines sets of satellite measurements
collected at different times -- in effect, taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver
positions are usually close to each other. After a set of measurements are processed, the tracker
predicts the receiver location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements. When the
new measurements are collected, the receiver uses a weighting scheme to combine the new
measurements with the tracker prediction. In general, a tracker can (a) improve receiver position
and time accuracy, (b) reject bad measurements, and (c) estimate receiver speed and direction.
The disadvantage of a tracker is that changes in speed or direction can only be computed with a
delay, and that derived direction becomes inaccurate when the distance traveled between two
position measurements drops below or near the random error of position measurement. GPS
units can use measurements of the doppler shift of the signals received to compute velocity
accurately.[49] More advanced navigation systems use additional sensors like a compass or an
inertial navigation system to complement GPS.

Non-navigation applications

In typical GPS operation as a navigator, four or more satellites must be visible to obtain an
accurate result. The solution of the navigation equations gives the position of the receiver along
with the difference between the time kept by the receiver's on-board clock and the true time-ofday, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise and possibly impractical receiver based
clock. Applications for GPS such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of
cell phone base stations, make use of this cheap and highly accurate timing. Some GPS
applications use this time for display, or, other than for the basic position calculations, do not use
it at all.
Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one
variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For
example, a ship or aircraft may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional
clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation,
or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a (possibly degraded) position when
fewer than four satellites are visible.[50][51][52]

Structure
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control
segment (CS), and a user segment (US).[53] The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates
the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS
receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and
altitude) and the current time.[54]
The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the
payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The control segment is
composed of a master control station (MCS), an alternate master control station, and a host of
dedicated and shared ground antennas and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of
hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning
Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial, and scientific users of the Standard
Positioning Service (see GPS navigation devices).
Space segment
See also: GPS satellite and List of GPS satellite launches

Unlaunched GPS block II-A satellite on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.

A visual example of a 24 satellite GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the
number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45N, changes
with time.

The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in
GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24SVs, eight each in three approximately
circular orbits,[55] but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each.[56] The six
orbit planes have approximately 55 inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated
by 60 right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to
the orbit's intersection).[57] The orbital period is one-half a sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58
minutes so that the satellites pass over the same locations[58] or almost the same locations[59]
every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight
from almost everywhere on Earth's surface.[60] The result of this objective is that the four
satellites are not evenly spaced (90 degrees) apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular
difference between satellites in each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105 degrees apart which sum to
360 degrees.[61]
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200km (12,600mi); orbital radius of approximately
26,600km (16,500mi),[62] each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the
same ground track each day.[63] This was very helpful during development because even with
only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours
each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in
combat zones.
As of December 2012,[64] there are 32 satellites in the GPS constellation. The additional satellites
improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With
the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement.
Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to
a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.[65] About nine satellites are visible from any point
on the ground at any one time (see animation at right), ensuring considerable redundancy over
the minimum four satellites needed for a position.

Control segment

Ground monitor station used from 1984 to 2007, on display at the Air Force Space & Missile Museum.

The control segment is composed of:

1. a master control station (MCS),
2. an alternate master control station,
3. four dedicated ground antennas, and
4. six dedicated monitor stations.

The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas
(for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Air
Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado
Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in
England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC.[66] The tracking
information is sent to the Air Force Space Command MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25km
(16mi) ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron
(2SOPS) of the U.S. Air Force. Then 2SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a
navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground
antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral). These
updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of
each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model. The updates are
created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather
information, and various other inputs.[67]
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a satellite, the
satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers will not use it in their calculation. Then the
maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from the ground. Then the new
ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again.
The Operation Control Segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record. It
provides the operational capability that supports global GPS users and keeps the GPS system
operational and performing within specification.
OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force
Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a
foundation for a new security architecture that supported the U.S. armed forces. OCS will

continue to be the ground control system of record until the new segment, Next Generation GPS
Operation Control System[3] (OCX), is fully developed and functional.
The new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPS's mission
capabilities, and enabling[68] Air Force Space Command to greatly enhance GPS operational
services to U.S. combat forces, civil partners and myriad domestic and international users.
The GPS OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule and technical risk. It is designed to
provide 50%[69] sustainment cost savings through efficient software architecture and
Performance-Based Logistics. In addition, GPS OCX expected to cost millions less than the cost
to upgrade OCS while providing four times the capability.
The GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS modernization and provides significant
information assurance improvements over the current GPS OCS program.

OCX will have the ability to control and manage GPS legacy satellites as well as the next
generation of GPS III satellites, while enabling the full array of military signals.

Built on a flexible architecture that can rapidly adapt to the changing needs of today's and future
GPS users allowing immediate access to GPS data and constellations status through secure,
accurate and reliable information.

Empowers the warfighter with more secure, actionable and predictive information to enhance
situational awareness.

Enables new modernized signals (L1C, L2C, and L5) and has M-code capability, which the
legacy system is unable to do.

Provides significant information assurance improvements over the current program including
detecting and preventing cyber attacks, while isolating, containing and operating during such
attacks.

Supports higher volume near real-time command and control capabilities and abilities.

On September 14, 2011,[70] the U.S. Air Force announced the completion of GPS OCX
Preliminary Design Review and confirmed that the OCX program is ready for the next phase of
development.
The GPS OCX program has achieved major milestones and is on track to support the GPS IIIA
launch in May 2014.
User segment
Further information: GPS navigation device

GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to
dedicated devices such as these.

The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the
secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific
users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna,
tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable
clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and
speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this
signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five,
this has progressively increased over the years so that, as of 2007, receivers typically have
between 12 and 20channels.[a]

A typical OEM GPS receiver module measuring 1517mm.

GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104 format.
This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800bit/s speed. Data is actually sent at a
much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM.[citation needed] Receivers
with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data.[citation needed] As of
2006, even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
receivers.
A typical GPS receiver with integrated antenna.

Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183
protocol. Although this protocol is officially defined by the National Marine Electronics
Association (NMEA),[71] references to this protocol have been compiled from public records,
allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual property
laws.[clarification needed] Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK
protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial
connection, USB, or Bluetooth.

Applications

While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has
significant military and civilian applications.
GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and
surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone
operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-off
switching.[54]
Civilian
See also: GNSS applications and GPS navigation device

This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise timing.

Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location,
relative movement, and time transfer.

Astronomy: both positional and clock synchronization data is used in Astrometry and Celestial
mechanics calculations. It is also used in amateur astronomy using small telescopes to
professionals observatories, for example, while finding extrasolar planets.

Automated vehicle: applying location and routes for cars and trucks to function without a human
driver.

Cartography: both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.

Cellular telephony: clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is critical for
synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and
support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection for mobile emergency calls and other applications.
The first handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s. The U.S. Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) mandated the feature in either the handset or in the towers
(for use in triangulation) in 2002 so emergency services could locate 911callers. Third-party
software developers later gained access to GPS APIs from Nextel upon launch, followed by
Sprint in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.

Clock synchronization: the accuracy of GPS time signals (10 ns)[72] is second only to the atomic
clocks upon which they are based.

Disaster relief/emergency services: depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities.

Meteorology-Upper Airs: measure and calculate the atmospheric pressure, wind speed and
direction up to 27km from the earth's surface

Fleet Tracking: the use of GPS technology to identify, locate and maintain contact reports with
one or more fleet vehicles in real-time.

Geofencing: vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use GPS
to locate a vehicle, person, or pet. These devices are attached to the vehicle, person, or the pet
collar. The application provides continuous tracking and mobile or Internet updates should the
target leave a designated area.[73]

Geotagging: applying location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs (in Exif data)
and other documents for purposes such as creating map overlays with devices like Nikon GP-1

GPS Aircraft Tracking

GPS for Mining: the use of RTK GPS has significantly improved several mining operations such
as drilling, shoveling, vehicle tracking, and surveying. RTK GPS provides centimeter-level
positioning accuracy.

GPS tours: location determines what content to display; for instance, information about an
approaching point of interest.

Navigation: navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements.

Phasor measurements: GPS enables highly accurate timestamping of power system

measurements, making it possible to compute phasors.

Recreation: for example, geocaching, geodashing, GPS drawing and waymarking.

Robotics: self-navigating, autonomous robots using a GPS sensors, which calculate latitude,
longitude, time, speed, and heading.

Sport: used in football and rugby for the control and analysis of the training load.[citation needed]

Surveying: surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property boundaries.

Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement of earthquakes. Between earthquakes
GPS can be used to measure crustal motion and deformation[74] to estimate seismic strain buildup
for creating seismic hazard maps.

Telematics: GPS technology integrated with computers and mobile communications technology
in automotive navigation systems

Restrictions on civilian use

The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable
of functioning above 18 kilometers (11mi) altitude and 515 meters per second (1,001kn) or
designed, modified for use with unmanned air vehicles like e.g. ballistic or cruise missile
systems are classified as munitions (weapons) for which State Department export licenses are
required.[75]
This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and
the C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code.
Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition.
Vendor interpretations differ. The rule refers to operation at both the target altitude and speed,
but some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with some
amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach 30 kilometers (19mi).
These limits only apply to units exported from (or which have components exported from) the
USA there is a growing trade in various components, including GPS units, supplied by other
countries, which are expressly sold as ITAR-free.
Military
Attaching a GPS guidance kit to a dumb bomb, March 2003.

As of 2009, military applications of GPS include:

Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives, even in the dark or in unfamiliar territory, and
to coordinate troop and supply movement. In the United States armed forces, commanders use the
Commanders Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier Digital Assistant.[76]

Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and air
targets before flagging them as hostile.[citation needed] These weapon systems pass target coordinates
to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage targets accurately. Military aircraft,
particularly in air-to-ground roles, use GPS to find targets (for example, gun camera video from
AH-1 Cobras in Iraq show GPS co-ordinates that can be viewed with specialized software).

Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military weapons
including ICBMs, cruise missiles, precision-guided munitions and Artillery projectiles.
Embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12,000 g or about 118km/s2 have
been developed for use in 155 millimeters (6.1in) howitzers.[77]

Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if their position is known.

Reconnaissance: Patrol movement can be managed more closely.

GPS satellites carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an optical sensor (Ysensor), an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor),

that form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System.[78][79]
General William Shelton has stated that this feature may be dropped from future satellites in
order to save money.[80]

Communication
Main article: GPS signals

The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information including
satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals
are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the
network. Two different encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution
navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.
Message format
GPS message format
Subframes Description

Satellite
clock,
GPS time
relationship

23

Ephemeris
(precise
satellite
orbit)

45

Almanac
component
(satellite
network
synopsis,
error
correction)

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message on L1 C/A and L2 P/Y
frequencies at a rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message takes 750
seconds (12 1/2 minutes) to complete. The message structure has a basic format of a 1500-bitlong frame made up of five subframes, each subframe being 300 bits (6 seconds) long.
Subframes 4 and 5 are subcommutated 25 times each, so that a complete data message requires
the transmission of 25 full frames. Each subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus,
with 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame times 25 frames in a message, each
message is 37,500 bits long. At a transmission rate of 50-bit/s, this gives 750 seconds to transmit
an entire almanac message (GPS). Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute or halfminute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite.[81]

The first subframe of each frame encodes the week number and the time within the week,[82] as
well as the data about the health of the satellite. The second and the third subframes contain the
ephemeris the precise orbit for the satellite. The fourth and fifth subframes contain the
almanac, which contains coarse orbit and status information for up to 32 satellites in the
constellation as well as data related to error correction. Thus, in order to obtain an accurate
satellite location from this transmitted message the receiver must demodulate the message from
each satellite it includes in its solution for 18 to 30 seconds. In order to collect all the transmitted
almanacs the receiver must demodulate the message for 732 to 750 seconds or 12 1/2 minutes.[83]
All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies. Signals are encoded using code division multiple
access (CDMA) allowing messages from individual satellites to be distinguished from each other
based on unique encodings for each satellite (that the receiver must be aware of). Two distinct
types of CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which is accessible by
the general public, and the precise (P(Y)) code, which is encrypted so that only the U.S. military
and other NATO nations who have been given access to the encryption code can access it.[84]
The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for
updates every 6hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The almanac is updated typically
every 24hours. Additionally, data for a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission
updates that delay data upload.[citation needed]
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Subframe Page
#
#
1

all

all

all

Name

Word
Bits Scale Signed
#

Week
3
Number
CA or P On
3
L2
URA Index 3

110 1:1

No

11,12 1:1

No

131 1:1

No

all

SV_Health 3

1
1
1
1
1
1

all
all
all
all
all
all

IODC(MSB) 3
L2Pdata flag 4
ResW4
4
ResW5
5
ResW6
6
ResW7
7

all

TGD

1
1

all
all

IODC (LSB) 8
TOC
8

all

AF2

all

AF1

all

AF0

10

6
172
1:1
2
23,24 1:1
1
1:1
224 N/A
124 N/A
124 N/A
116 N/A
172 2^4
31
18 1:1
924 2^4
2^18
55
2^924
43
2^122
31

Subframe Page
Word
Name
Bits Scale Signed
#
#
#
2
all IODE 3
18 1:1 No
92
2
all CRS 3
2^-5 Yes
4
Delta
11 2^2
all
4
Yes
N
6 43
M0
17 2^2
all
4
Yes
(MSB)
24 31
M0
12
2
all
5
(LSB)
4
11 2^2
all CUC 6
Yes
6 29
e
17 2^2
all
6
No
(MSB)
24 33
e
12
2
all
7
(LSB)
4
11 2^2
all CUS 8
Yes
6 29
root A
17 2^2
all
8
No
(MSB)
24 19
root A
12
2
all
9
(LSB)
4
11
2
all TOE 10
2^4 No
6
2
all FitInt 10
17 1:1 No
18
2
all AODO 10
900 No
22

No
No
No
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes

Subframe Page
Word
Name
Bits Scale Signed
#
#
#
11 2^3
all CIC 3
Yes
6 29
Omega
17 2^3
all 0
3
Yes
24 31
(MSB)
Omega
12
3
all 0
4
4
(LSB)
11 2^3
all CIS 5
Yes
6 29
i0
17 2^3
all
5
Yes
(MSB)
24 31
i0
12
3
all
6
(LSB)
4
11
3
all CRC 7
2^-5 Yes
6
Omega
17 2^3
all
7
Yes
(MSB)
24 31
Omega
12
3
all
8
(LSB)
4
Omega
12 2^3
all
9
Yes
Dot
4 43
3
all IODE 10
18 1:1 No
92 2^3
all IDOT 10
Yes
2 43
Satellite frequencies
GPS frequency overview
Band

Frequency

Description

1575.42MHz

Coarse-acquisition (C/A) and

encrypted precision (P(Y)) codes,
plus the L1 civilian (L1C) and
military (M) codes on future Block
III satellites.

L2

1227.60MHz

P(Y) code, plus the L2C and

military codes on the Block IIR-M
and newer satellites.

L3

1381.05MHz

Used for nuclear detonation

(NUDET) detection.

L4

1379.913MHz

Being studied for additional

ionospheric correction.[citation needed]

L5

1176.45MHz

Proposed for use as a civilian

safety-of-life (SoL) signal.

L1

All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276GHz
(L2signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique[citation needed] where the
low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is
different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to
reconstruct the actual message data. The C/Acode, for civilian use, transmits data at
1.023million chips per second, whereas the Pcode, for U.S. military use, transmits at
10.23million chips per second. The actual internal reference of the satellites is
10.22999999543MHz to compensate for relativistic effects[85][86] that make observers on Earth
perceive a different time reference with respect to the transmitters in orbit. The L1carrier is
modulated by both the C/A and Pcodes, while the L2carrier is only modulated by the Pcode.[87]
The Pcode can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y)code that is only available to military equipment
with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y)codes impart the precise time-of-day to the
user.
The L3 signal at a frequency of 1.38105GHz is used to transmit data from the satellites to
ground stations. This data is used by the United States Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection
System (USNDS) to detect, locate, and report nuclear detonations (NUDETs) in the Earth's
atmosphere and near space.[88] One usage is the enforcement of nuclear test ban treaties.
The L4 band at 1.379913GHz is being studied for additional ionospheric correction.[citation needed]
The L5 frequency band at 1.17645GHz was added in the process of GPS modernization. This
frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising
little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that provides this
signal was launched in 2010.[89] The L5 consists of two carrier components that are in phase
quadrature with each other. Each carrier component is bi-phase shift key (BPSK) modulated by a
separate bit train. "L5, the third civil GPS signal, will eventually support safety-of-life
applications for aviation and provide improved availability and accuracy."[90]
A conditional waiver has recently been granted to LightSquared to operate a terrestrial
broadband service near the L1 band. Although LightSquared had applied for a license to operate
in the 1525 to 1559 band as early as 2003 and it was put out for public comment, the FCC asked
LightSquared to form a study group with the GPS community to test GPS receivers and identify
issue that might arise due to the larger signal power from the LightSquared terrestrial network.
The GPS community had not objected to the LightSquared (formerly MSV and SkyTerra)
applications until November 2010, when LightSquared applied for a modification to its Ancillary
Terrestrial Component (ATC) authorization. This filing (SAT-MOD-20101118-00239)
amounted to a request to run several orders of magnitude more power in the same frequency
band for terrestrial base stations, essentially repurposing what was supposed to be a "quiet
neighborhood" for signals from space as the equivalent of a cellular network. Testing in the first
half of 2011 has demonstrated that the impact of the lower 10MHz of spectrum is minimal to
GPS devices (less than 1% of the total GPS devices are affected). The upper 10MHz intended
for use by LightSquared may have some impact on GPS devices. There is some concern that this
will seriously degrade the GPS signal for many consumer uses.[91][92] Aviation Week magazine
reports that the latest testing (June 2011) confirms "significant jamming" of GPS by
LightSquared's system.[93]

Demodulation and decoding

Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the Coarse/Acquisition Gold code.

Because all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, the signals
must be separated after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary
sequence known as a Gold code. The signals are decoded after demodulation using addition of
the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored by the receiver.[94][95]
If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks the satellites to listen
for by their PRNs, unique numbers in the range1 through 32. If the almanac information is not in
memory, the receiver enters a search mode until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To
obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the
satellite. The receiver can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen
for. As it detects each satellite's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C/Acode pattern. There can
be a delay of up to 30seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the
ephemeris data.
Processing of the navigation message enables the determination of the time of transmission and
the satellite position at this time. For more information see Demodulation and Decoding,
Advanced.

Navigation equations
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Also see GNSS positioning calculation

Problem description

The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and time
sent. The x, y, and z components of satellite position and the time sent are designated as [xi, yi, zi,
ti] where the subscript i denotes the satellite and has the value 1, 2, ..., n, where
When the
time of message reception indicated by the on-board clock is

, the true reception time is

where is receiver's clock offset from GPS system employed by the satellites. The
receiver clock offset is the same for all received satellite signals. The message's transit time is
. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, , the distance traveled is
.
If the distance traveled between the receiver and satellite i and the distance traveled between the
receiver and satellite j are subtracted, the result is
, which only
involves known or measured quantities. The locus of points having a constant difference in
distance to two points (here, two satellites) is a hyperboloid (see Multilateration). Thus, from
four measured reception times, the receiver can be placed at the intersection of the surfaces of
three hyperboloids.[47][48] When more than four satellites are being utilized, in the ideal case of no
errors, the receiver is at the intersection of the surfaces of n-1 hyperboloids, where n is the
number of satellites.
If the satellites were stationary, then three equations describing hyperbolas could be solved
simultaneously to derive the receiver position. This would be analogous to the calculations
performed for terrestrial hyperbolic systems such as LORAN-C. However, since the satellites are
in motion and broadcast their locations based on GPS system time, the receiver clock offset from
GPS system time must also be determined.
The clock error or bias, b, is the amount that the receiver's clock is offset from GPS system
(satellite) time. In the case of four satellites, the receiver has four unknowns, the three
components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias [x, y, z, b]. Thus the equations to be
solved are:

or in terms of pseudoranges,

, as
.

These equations can be solved by algebraic or numerical methods.

Least squares solution method

When four or more satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than
four (up to all visible satellites), considering number of receiver channels, processing capability,
and geometric dilution of precision (GDOP). Using more than four involves an over-determined
system of equations with no unique solution; such a system can be solved by a least-squares or
weighted least squares method (e.g., GaussNewton algorithm).[96] Errors can be estimated
through the residuals. With each combination of satellites, GDOP quantities can be calculated
based on the relative sky directions of the satellites used.[97] The receiver location is expressed in
a specific coordinate system, such as latitude and longitude using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or
a country-specific system.[98]

The GPS system was initially developed assuming use of a least-squares solution method -- i.e.,
before closed-form solutions were found.
Closed-form solution methods (Bancroft, etc.)

The first closed-form solution to the above set of equations was discovered by S. Bancroft.[99][100]
Its properties are well known.[47][48][101] Bancroft's method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical,
and can be used for four or more satellites. When four satellites are used, the key steps are
inversion of a 4x4 matrix and solution of a single-variable quadratic equation. Bancroft's method
provides one or two solutions for the unknown quantities. When there are two (usually the case),
only one will be a near-earth sensible solution.[100]
When more than four satellites are to be used for a solution, then Bancroft uses the Generalized
inverse (i.e., the pseudoinverse) to find a solution. However, a case has been made that iterative
methods (e.g., Gauss-Newton algorithm) for solving over-determined Non-linear least
squares(NLLS) problems generally provide more accurate solutions.[102]
Other closed-form solutions were published after Bancroft.[103][104] Their use in practice is
unclear.

Error sources and analysis

Main article: Error analysis for the Global Positioning System

GPS error analysis examines the sources of errors in GPS results and the expected size of those
errors. GPS makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects but there are still
residual errors which are not corrected. Sources of error include signal arrival time
measurements, numerical calculations, atmospheric effects (ionospheric/tropospheric delays),
ephemeris and clock data, multipath signals, and natural and artificial interference. The
magnitude of the residual errors resulting from these sources is dependent on geometric dilution

of precision. Artificial errors may result from jamming devices and threaten ships and aircraft[105]
or from intentional signal degradation through selective availability, which limited accuracy to
~612 m, but which has now been switched off[106]

Accuracy enhancement and surveying

Main article: GPS enhancement
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Augmentation

Integrating external information into the calculation process can materially improve accuracy.
Such augmentation systems are generally named or described based on how the information
arrives. Some systems transmit additional error information (such as clock drift, ephemera, or
ionospheric delay), others characterize prior errors, while a third group provides additional
navigational or vehicle information.

Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS),
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), Differential GPS (DGPS),
Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and Assisted GPS. The standard accuracy of about 15 metres
(49 feet) can be augmented to 35 metres (9.816.4ft) with DGPS, and to about 3 metres (9.8
feet) with WAAS.[107]
Precise monitoring

Accuracy can be improved through precise monitoring and measurement of existing GPS signals
in additional or alternate ways.
The largest remaining error is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The
spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but some errors remain. This is one reason
GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a welldefined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring
the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise
ionospheric delay at each frequency.
Military receivers can decode the P(Y) code transmitted on both L1 and L2. Without decryption
keys, it is still possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P(Y) codes on L1 and L2 to
gain much of the same error information. However, this technique is slow, so it is currently
available only on specialized surveying equipment. In the future, additional civilian codes are
expected to be transmitted on the L2 and L5frequencies (see GPS modernization). Then all users
will be able to perform dual-frequency measurements and directly compute ionospheric delay
errors.
A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). This
corrects the error that arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not instantaneous, and
thus the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. CPGPS uses
the L1 carrier wave, which has a period of
is about one-thousandth of the C/AGold code bit period of

, which

, to act as an additional clock signal and resolve the

uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to 23 metres (6.69.8ft) of
ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition reduces this error to 3 centimeters
(1.2in) of ambiguity. By eliminating this error source, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally
realizes between 2030 centimetres (7.911.8in) of absolute accuracy.
Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is a third alternative for a precise GPS-based positioning
system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a precision of less than
10 centimeters (3.9in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles that the signal is
transmitted and received by the receiver by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS)
correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques
via statistical testspossibly with processing in real-time (real-time kinematic positioning,
RTK).

Timekeeping
Leap seconds

While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks
on the satellites are set to GPS time (GPST; see the page of United States Naval Observatory).
The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not
contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set
to match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time
remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI GPS = 19seconds).
Periodic corrections are performed to the on-board clocks to keep them synchronized with
ground clocks.[108]
The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC. As of July
2012, GPS time is 16seconds ahead of UTC because of the leap second added to UTC June 30,
2012.[109] Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific timezone
values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset
message. The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits).
Accuracy

GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds.[110] However, most receivers lose
accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 nanoseconds.[111][112]
Format

As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is
expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted
as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every
1,024weeks (19.6years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00UTC (00:00:19TAI) on January 6,
1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47UTC on August 21,
1999 (00:00:19TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS
receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584days) to correctly translate
the GPS date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13bit field that only repeats every 8,192weeks (157years), thus lasting until the year 2137
(157years after GPS week zero).
Carrier phase tracking (surveying)

Another method that is used in surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the
carrier frequency multiplied by the speed of light gives the wavelength, which is about
0.19meters for the L1carrier. Accuracy within 1% of wavelength in detecting the leading edge
reduces this component of pseudorange error to as little as 2millimeters. This compares to
3meters for the C/A code and 0.3meters for the Pcode.
However, 2millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phasethe number of waves
multiplied by the wavelength plus the fractional wavelength, which requires specially equipped

receivers. This method has many surveying applications. It is accurate enough for real-time
tracking of the very slow motions of tectonic plates, typically 0100mm (04 inches) per year.
Triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called
least squares can estimate the position of one receiver given the position of another. First,
compute the difference between satellites, then between receivers, and finally between epochs.
Other orders of taking differences are equally valid. Detailed discussion of the errors is omitted.
The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles. Let
denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by receiver i at time . This
notation shows the meaning of the subscripts i, j, and k. The receiver (r), satellite (s), and time (t)
come in alphabetical order as arguments of and to balance readability and conciseness, let
be a concise abbreviation. Also we define three functions,:
,
which return differences between receivers, satellites, and time points, respectively. Each
function has variables with three subscripts as its arguments. These three functions are defined
below. If
is a function of the three integer arguments, i, j, and k then it is a valid argument
for the functions,:

, with the values defined as

,
, and
.

Also if
then

are valid arguments for the three functions and a and b are constants
is a valid argument with values defined as
,
, and
.

Receiver clock errors can be approximately eliminated by differencing the phases measured from
satellite1 with that from satellite2 at the same epoch.[113] This difference is designated as

Double differencing[114] computes the difference of receiver1's satellite difference from that of
receiver2. This approximately eliminates satellite clock errors. This double difference is:

Triple differencing[115] subtracts the receiver difference from time1 from that of time2. This
eliminates the ambiguity associated with the integral number of wavelengths in carrier phase
provided this ambiguity does not change with time. Thus the triple difference result eliminates

practically all clock bias errors and the integer ambiguity. Atmospheric delay and satellite
ephemeris errors have been significantly reduced. This triple difference is:

Triple difference results can be used to estimate unknown variables. For example if the position
of receiver1 is known but the position of receiver2 unknown, it may be possible to estimate the
position of receiver2 using numerical root finding and least squares. Triple difference results for
three independent time pairs quite possibly will be sufficient to solve for receiver2's three
position components. This may require the use of a numerical procedure.[116][117] An
approximation of receiver2's position is required to use such a numerical method. This initial
value can probably be provided from the navigation message and the intersection of sphere
surfaces. Such a reasonable estimate can be key to successful multidimensional root finding.
Iterating from three time pairs and a fairly good initial value produces one observed triple
difference result for receiver2's position. Processing additional time pairs can improve accuracy,
overdetermining the answer with multiple solutions. Least squares can estimate an
overdetermined system. Least squares determines the position of receiver2 which best fits the
observed triple difference results for receiver2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the
sum of the squares.

Regulatory spectrum issues concerning GPS receivers

In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under the Federal Communications
Commission's (FCC) Part 15 rules. As indicated in the manuals of GPS-enabled devices sold in
the United States, as a Part 15 device, it "must accept any interference received, including
interference that may cause undesired operation."[118] With respect to GPS devices in particular,
the FCC states that GPS receiver manufacturers, "must use receivers that reasonably discriminate
against reception of signals outside their allocated spectrum.".[119] For the last 30 years, GPS
receivers have operated next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and have discriminated against
reception of mobile satellite services, such as Inmarsat, without any issue.
The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is 1559 to 1610MHz, while the spectrum
allocated for satellite-to-ground use owned by Lightsquared is the Mobile Satellite Service
band.[120] Since 1996, the FCC has authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the GPS
band of 1525 to 1559MHz to the Virginia company LightSquared. On March 1, 2001, the FCC
received an application from LightSquared's predecessor, Motient Services to use their allocated
frequencies for an integrated satellite-terrestrial service.[121] In 2002, the U.S. GPS Industry
Council came to an out-of-band-emissions (OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent
transmissions from LightSquared's ground-based stations from emitting transmissions into the
neighboring GPS band of 1559 to 1610MHz.[122] In 2004, the FCC adopted the OOBE
agreement in its authorization for LightSquared to deploy a ground-based network ancillary to
their satellite system - known as the Ancillary Tower Components (ATCs) - "We will authorize
MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains
ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial
component to become a stand-alone service."[123] This authorization was reviewed and approved
by the U.S. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Interior, and U.S. Department of
Transportation.[124]
In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized LightSquared's wholesale customers, such as
Best Buy, Sharp, and C Spire, to be able to only purchase an integrated satellite-ground-based
service from LightSquared and re-sell that integrated service on devices that are equipped to only
use the ground-based signal using LightSquared's allocated frequencies of 1525 to
1559MHz.[125] In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to the FCC
that LightSquared's signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices[126] although the FCC's
policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 order did not pertain to any proposed
changes to the maximum number of ground-based LightSquared stations or the maximum power
at which these stations could operate. The January 2011 order makes final authorization
contingent upon studies of GPS interference issues carried out by a LightSquared led working
group along with GPS industry and Federal agency participation.
GPS receiver manufacturers design GPS receivers to use spectrum beyond the GPS-allocated
band. In some cases, GPS receivers are designed to use up to 400MHz of spectrum in either
direction of the L1 frequency of 1575.42MHz, because mobile satellite services in those regions
are broadcasting from space to ground, and at power levels commensurate with mobile satellite
services.[127] However, as regulated under the FCC's Part 15 rules, GPS receivers are not
warranted protection from signals outside GPS-allocated spectrum.[119] This is why GPS operates
next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and also why the Mobile Satellite Service band
operates next to GPS. The symbiotic relationship of spectrum allocation ensures that users of
both bands are able to operate cooperatively and freely.
The FCC adopted rules in February 2003 that allowed Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) licensees
such as LightSquared to construct a small number of ancillary ground-based towers in their
licensed spectrum to "promote more efficient use of terrestrial wireless spectrum."[128] In those
2003 rules, the FCC stated "As a preliminary matter, terrestrial [Commercial Mobile Radio
Service (CMRS)] and MSS ATC are expected to have different prices, coverage, product
acceptance and distribution; therefore, the two services appear, at best, to be imperfect
substitutes for one another that would be operating in predominately different market segments...
MSS ATC is unlikely to compete directly with terrestrial CMRS for the same customer base...".
In 2004, the FCC clarified that the ground-based towers would be ancillary, noting that "We will
authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component
remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the
terrestrial component to become a stand-alone service."[123] In July 2010, the FCC stated that it
expected LightSquared to use its authority to offer an integrated satellite-terrestrial service to
"provide mobile broadband services similar to those provided by terrestrial mobile providers and
enhance competition in the mobile broadband sector."[129] However, GPS receiver manufacturers
have argued that LightSquared's licensed spectrum of 1525 to 1559MHz was never envisioned
as being used for high-speed wireless broadband based on the 2003 and 2004 FCC ATC rulings
making clear that the Ancillary Tower Component (ATC) would be, in fact, ancillary to the
primary satellite component.[130] To build public support of efforts to continue the 2004 FCC
authorization of LightSquared's ancillary terrestrial component vs. a simple ground-based LTE

service in the Mobile Satellite Service band, GPS receiver manufacturer Trimble Navigation Ltd.
formed the "Coalition To Save Our GPS."[131]
The FCC and LightSquared have each made public commitments to solve the GPS interference
issue before the network is allowed to operate.[132][133] However, according to Chris Dancy of the
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, airline pilots with the type of systems that would be
affected "may go off course and not even realize it."[134] The problems could also affect the
Federal Aviation Administration upgrade to the air traffic control system, United States Defense
Department guidance, and local emergency services including 911.[134]
On February 14, 2012, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) moved to bar
LightSquared's planned national broadband network after being informed by the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), the federal agency that
coordinates spectrum uses for the military and other federal government entities, that "there is no
practical way to mitigate potential interference at this time".[135][136] LightSquared is challenging
the FCC's action.

Other systems
Main article: Global navigation satellite systems

Comparison of GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Compass (medium earth orbit) satellite navigation
system orbits with the International Space Station, Hubble Space Telescope and Iridium constellation
orbits, Geostationary Earth Orbit, and the nominal size of the Earth.[b] The Moon's orbit is around 9 times
larger (in radius and length) than geostationary orbit.[c]

Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include:

GLONASS Russia's global navigation system. Fully operational worldwide.

Galileo a global system being developed by the European Union and other partner countries,
planned to be operational by 2014 (and fully deployed by 2019)

Beidou People's Republic of China's regional system, currently limited to Asia and the West
Pacific[137]

COMPASS People's Republic of China's global system, planned to be operational by

2020[138][139]

IRNSS India's regional navigation system, planned to be operational by 2014, covering India
and Northern Indian Ocean[140]

QZSS Japanese regional system covering Asia and Oceania

The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) (Hindi:

)
is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by the
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)[1] which would be under complete control of the
Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access
to foreign government-controlled global navigation satellite systems is not guaranteed in hostile
situations, as happened to Indian military depending on American GPS during Kargil War.[2] The
IRNSS would provide two services, with the Standard Positioning Service open for civilian use
and the Restricted Service, encrypted one, for authorised users (military).

Contents

1 Development

2 Time-frame

3 Description

4 Satellites
o

4.1 IRNSS-1A

4.2 IRNSS-1B

4.3 IRNSS-1C

4.4 IRNSS-1D

4.5 IRNSS-1E

4.6 IRNSS-1F

4.7 IRNSS-1G

5 See also

6 References

6.1 Footnotes

Development
As part of the project, ISRO opened a new satellite navigation center within the campus of ISRO
Deep Space Network (DSN) at Byalalu near Bangalore in Karnataka on 28 May 2013.[3] A
network of 21 ranging stations located across the country will provide data for the orbit
determination of the satellites and monitoring of the navigation signal.
A goal of complete Indian control has been stated, with the space segment, ground segment and
user receivers all being built in India. Its location in low latitudes facilitates a coverage with lowinclination satellites. Three satellites will be in geostationary orbit over the Indian Ocean. Missile
targeting could be an important military application for the constellation.[4]
The total cost of the project is expected to be 1420 crore (US$230million), with the cost of the
ground segment being 300 crore (US$49million) and each satellites costing 125 crore
(US$20million).[5][6]

Time-frame
In April 2010, it was reported that India plans to start launching satellites by the end of 2011, at a
rate of one satellite every six months. This would have made the IRNSS functional by 2015.[7]
India also launched 3 new satellites into space to supplement this.[8]
Seven satellites with the prefix "IRNSS-1" will constitute the space segment of the IRNSS.
IRNSS-1A, the first of the seven satellites of the IRNSS constellation, on 1 July 2013.[9][10]
IRNSS-1B was launched on 4 April 2014 at 17:14 IST on board the PSLV-C24 rocket. The
satellite has been placed in geosynchronous orbit.[11]
IRNSS-1C was launched on 16 October 2014. In 2014, one more navigational satellites
IRNSS-1D would be launched in December. Three more navigational satellites will be launched
early 2015 and by middle of 2015, India will have the full navigational satellite system in
place.[12]

Description
The proposed system would consist of a constellation of seven satellites and a support ground
segment. Three of the satellites in the constellation will be located in geostationary orbit at
32.5East, 83East, and 131.5East longitude. Two of the GSOs will cross the equator at
55East and two at 111.75East.[13] Such an arrangement would mean all seven satellites would
have continuous radio visibility with Indian control stations. The satellite payloads would consist
of atomic clocks and electronic equipment to generate the navigation signals.
IRNSS signals will consist of a Special Positioning Service and a Precision Service. Both will be
carried on L5 (1176.45MHz) and S band (2492.028MHz). The SPS signal will be modulated by

a 1MHz BPSK signal. The Precision Service will use BOC(5,2). The navigation signals
themselves would be transmitted in the S-band frequency (24GHz) and broadcast through a
phased array antenna to maintain required coverage and signal strength. The satellites would
weigh approximately 1,330kg and their solar panels generate 1,400watts. The system is
intended to provide an absolute position accuracy of better than 10meters throughout Indian
landmass and better than 20meters in the Indian Ocean as well as a region extending
approximately 1,500km around India.[14]
The ground segment of IRNSS constellation would consist of a Master Control Center (MCC),
ground stations to track and estimate the satellites' orbits and ensure the integrity of the network
(IRIM), and additional ground stations to monitor the health of the satellites with the capability
of issuing radio commands to the satellites (TT&C stations). The MCC would estimate and
predict the position of all IRNSS satellites, calculate integrity, makes necessary ionospheric and
clock corrections and run the navigation software. In pursuit of a highly independent system, an
Indian standard time infrastructure would also be established.

Satellites
IRNSS-1A
Main article: IRNSS-1A

IRNSS-1A the first navigational satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
series of satellites to be placed in geosynchronous orbit.[15][16] was built at ISRO Satellite Centre,
Bangalore, costing 125 crore (US$20million).[5][6][9][17] It has a lift-off mass of 1380kg, and
carries a navigation payload and a C-band ranging transponder, which operates in L5 band
(1176.45MHz) and S band (2492.028MHz).[18] An optimised I-1K bus structure with a power
handling capability of around 1600 watts is used and is designed for a ten-year mission.[19][20]
The satellite was launched on-board PSLV-C22 on 1 July 2013 from the Satish Dhawan Space
Centre at Sriharikota, while the full constellation is planned to be placed in orbit by 2015.[9][10][21]
IRNSS-1B
Main article: IRNSS-1B

IRNSS-1B is the second out of seven in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System. It has
been very precisely and successfully placed in its orbit through PSLV-C24 rocket on 4 April
2014.[22]
IRNSS-1C
Main article: IRNSS-1C

IRNSS-1C is the Third out of seven in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System series of
satellites. The satellite was successfully launched using India's PSLV-C26 from the Satish
Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota on 16th of October at 1:32 am.[23][24]
IRNSS-1D
Main article: IRNSS-1D

IRNSS-1D will be the Fourth out of seven in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
series of satellites system. Its launch is planned in December 2014.[16]
IRNSS-1E
Main article: IRNSS-1E

IRNSS-1E will be the fifth out of seven in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System series
of satellites system. Its launch is planned in March 2015.[16]
IRNSS-1F
Main article: IRNSS-1F

IRNSS-1F will be the sixth out of seven in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
series of satellites system. Its launch is planned in March 2015.[16]
IRNSS-1G
Main article: IRNSS-1G

IRNSS-1G will be the seventh out of seven in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite S
India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle put a 2.1-ton communications satellite in orbit
Sunday, boosting prospects for the medium-class launcher after a spate of mishaps in recent
years.

The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle lifted off at 1048 GMT (5:48 a.m. EST; 4:18 p.m. Indian time). Credit:
ISRO/Spaceflight Now

Although it carried a costly communications satellite, India's space agency officially considered
the launch a test flight for the GSLV and its indigenous hydrogen-fueled third stage.
The 161-foot-tall rocket blasted off at 1048 GMT (5:48 a.m. EST), darting through a clear
afternoon sky over the Satish Dhawan Space Center on India's east coast, where it was 4:18 p.m.
local time.

Depositing a plume of exhaust in its wake, the launcher soared into the upper atmosphere riding
1.5 million pounds of thrust in the first few minutes of the flight, before its solid-fueled core
motor and liquid-fueled strap-on boosters consumed their propellant.
The GSLV's second stage assumed control of the flight for more than two minutes, then yielded
to the rocket's Indian-built cryogenic engine, which failed at the moment of ignition during a
previous demonstration launch in April 2010.
Only three of seven GSLV missions before Sunday were considered successful by the Indian
Space Research Organization, drawing unfavorable comparisons to India's smaller Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle, which has amassed 24 straight successful flights.
No such anomalies occurred on Sunday's launch, and the third stage engine fired for 12 minutes
before deploying India's GSAT 14 communications satellite.
"Some used to call the GSLV the naughty boy of ISRO," said K. Sivan, GSLV project director at
ISRO. "The naughty boy has become obedient."
A raucous wave of applause erupted inside the GSLV control center at the launch base on
Sriharikota Island about 50 miles north Chennai on the Bay of Bengal.
All of the rocket's systems seemed to function as designed, and ISRO heralded the mission as a
success.

A remote camera near the launch pad captured this view of GSLV's liftoff. Credit: ISRO

"The Indian cryogenic engine and stage performed as predicted, as expected, for this mission and
injected precisely the GSAT 14 communications satellite into the intended orbit," said K.
Radhakrishnan, chairman of ISRO. "This is a major achievement for the GSLV program, and I
would say this is an important day for science and technology in the country, and for space
technology in the country."
The flight's primary purpose was to demonstrate the viability of the Indian-built upper stage with
the country's first cryogenic engine. Cryogenic propulsion technology is a stepping stone for
India's ambitions to develop larger launchers to haul heftier payloads to Earth orbit and toward
interplanetary destinations.
India started development of the GSLV in the early 1990s planning to use Russian-built
cryogenic engines and technical know-how, but the agreement was quashed in 1992 after U.S.
authorities imposed sanctions on Glavkosmos, the Russian company providing technology to

India. The United States feared the transfer of missile technology from the fractured Soviet
Union to developing states.
India responded by purchasing seven readymade cryogenic engines from Russia and starting the
design of an indigenous upper stage from scratch.
Radhakrishnan described the cryogenic development as a "toiling of 20 years" after India
decided to pursue its own hydrogen-fueled engine in response to U.S. sanctions.
The Indian-built upper stage's first test flight in April 2010 failed as the engine ignited, dooming
the launch.
Another GSLV mission in December 2010, this time using a Russian cryogenic engine, veered
out of control less than a minute after liftoff and disintegrated when cables between the
launcher's computer and strap-on boosters inadvertently disconnected in flight.

The GSLV leaves a trail of exhaust in the afternoon sky over Sriharikota Island. Credit: ISRO/Spaceflight Now

Since 2010, Indian engineers made a number of improvements to the GSLV, including a
redesign of the third stage engine's fuel turbopump to account for the expansion and contraction
of bearings and casings as super-cold liquid propellant flows through the engine.
Officials also modified the third stage's ignition sequence to ensure the "smooth, successful and
sustained ignition" for the main engine, steering engine and gas generator system.
India also made improvements to the third stage engine's protective shroud and a wire tunnel in
the third stage. Engineers revised their understanding of the aerodynamic characteristics of the
GSLV and added an on-board camera system to better monitor the rocket's performance in flight.

Before approving the improved GSLV for flight, India completed two acceptance tests of the
GSLV's third stage fuel turbopump to ensure it will not succumb to the same problem that
plagued the April 2010 launch. Engineers also put the third stage engine into a vacuum chamber
to simulate ignition at high altitude.
"It was a big challenge to understand what really went wrong, and we had the benefit of the
knowledge and the counsel of all of the whole of the ISRO team as well as our seniors, elders
and veterans. Everybody put their heads together," said S. Ramakrishnan, director of India's
Vikram Sarabhai Space Center, which oversees rocket developments. "This definitely gives us
confidence that any technology we will be able to master with the kind of effort, the kind of
dedication and with the kind of teamwork and commitment that we have."
The reliability upgrades worked on Sunday's launch.

The GSAT 14 spacecraft seen in a prelaunch photo. Credit: ISRO

Radhakrishnan lauded the GSLV team for an "excruciating effort over the last three-and-a-half
years after we had the first test flight of this cryogenic engine and stage, and all the efforts by
team ISRO over the last few years in understanding the GSLV, to make it a reliable vehicle, to
understand the cryogenic engine and technology, to master and bring it to this level."
Sunday's flight, known as GSLV-D5, was delayed more than four months after Indian officials
aborted a countdown Aug. 19 when the second stage sprung a fuel leak, causing toxic hydrazine
to rain down on the rocket.
Engineers rolled the GSLV back to the vehicle assembly building, cleaned the launcher and
replaced the first and second stages. ISRO attributed the leak to cracks inside the second stage
fuel tank and quickly developed a new second stage with tanks made of a different aluminum
alloy less prone to corrosion.

The payload for Sunday's mission was a 4,369-pound Indian communications satellite. GSAT 14
will extend India's Ku-band and C-band communications capacity with 12 transponders, along
with a pair of Ka-band beacons for frequency attenuation studies.
After three orbit-raising maneuvers with its on-board engine and deployment of its solar panels
and two antennas, the satellite will be positioned in geostationary orbit at 74 degrees east
longitude for a 12-year mission.
GSAT 14 will be positioned near other Indian satellites, such as INSAT 3C, INSAT 4CR and
Kalpana 1, according to ISRO. The spacecraft also carries several technological experiments,
including a fiber optic gyroscope, an active pixel sun sensor and new types of thermal coatings.

SRO successfully tests the atmospheric re-entry of a crew

module
Dot 9.30 am, Indias first experimental flight GSLV Mark III took off successfully from the
second launch pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, in Sriharikota on Thursday. Also known as
LVM3/CARE, this suborbital experimental mission was intended to test the vehicle performance
during the critical atmospheric phase of its flight and this carried passive (non functional)
cryogenic upper stage.
"Everything went off as expected. This new launch vehicle performed very well and is a great
success. We had an unmanned crew module to understand re-entry characteristics. That also
went off successfully and it has touched down in the Bay of Bengal," said ISROs chief K.
Radhakrishnan.
In exactly about five and half minutes after taking off, the vehicle carried its payload the 3775
kg crew module Atmospheric Re-entry experiment (CARE) to the intended height of 126 km.
Two massive S-200 solid strap-on boosters, each carrying 207 tonnes of solid propellants,
ignited at the vehicle lift off and after functioning normally, separated 153.5 seconds later. L110
liquid stage ignited 120 seconds after lift off, while S200s were still functioning for the next
204.6 seconds.
CARE separated from the passive C25 cryogenic upper stage of GSLV Mark III 330.8 seconds
after lift off and began its guided descent for atmospheric re-entry. The CARE module landed
over Andaman Sea about 1,600 km from Sriharikota, this was the finishing line.
Following this the CARE separated from the upper stage of GSLV Mark III and re-entered the
atmosphere and safely landed over Bay of Bengal with the help of its parachutes about 20
minutes 43 second after lift off.
"As it made it's way back into our atmosphere the parachutes that brought it down really worked
well and we are pleased with the performance. This is a step towards manned space flight as the
module that has been designed to carry astronauts has touched down safely. The coast guard

ships that were 100 km away from the touchdown point lost sight of it briefly, but the module
continued to communicate it's location to us," said Unnikrishnan Nair, the man behind the
Manned Space Flight mission.
With todays successful launch, the vehicle has moved a step closer to its first development flight
with the functional C25 cryogenic stage. The payload capabilities that we can now handle have
been significantly enhanced. After the success of the dummy stage cry engine tested in this
rocket, we will have greater confidence to put the cryogenic engine in it within 2 years," said S.
Somanath, Mission Director of LVM-3.

Introduction
ISRO successfully tested a Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) that it developed using Russian design inputs,
atop GSLV-D5 on January 5, 2014.
Launching heavy satellites weighing over 2 tons into geostationary orbit requires an upper stage powered
by a cryogenic engine. Cryogenic technology involves the use of liquid oxygen at minus 183 degrees
Celsius and liquid hydrogen at minus 253 degrees Celsius. The technology is difficult to develop and
closely guarded by the five nations who currently have it - USA, Russia, Europe, China and Japan.

ISRO's Initial Cryogenic Engine Development Efforts

ISRO started developing a cryogenic engine shortly after the project to develop the Geostationary
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was launched in 1986. The GSLV is capable of placing a 2 ton satellite
into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).
Initially ISRO worked on a 1-ton pressure fed cryogenic engine to gain experience with handling cryo
fluids and developing some critical cryogenic technologies. In parallel, it started work ona 7-ton turbo fed
cryogenic engine to master other relevant technologies.

In 1987, General Dynamics offered to sell its RL-10 engines to ISRO for use on the GSLV, agreeing to
adapt the engine for use on the GSLV and transfer the technologies for its manufacture in India subject to
approval by the US Government. ISRO found the quoted cost - 800 million for2 engines including
adaptation cost - exorbitant. Wary of becoming ever dependent on the US company in case the US State
Department declined to clear the TOT, ISRO turned down the offer.
In 1989, Arianespace conveyed its willingness to sell two 7-ton single start HM7 engines, transfer the
technology and set up manufacturing facilities in India at a cost of $1,200.
Based on the confidence gained by its scientists in developing the Vikas engine and subscale 1-ton LOXLH2 engine, ISRO decided to independently develop a Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) with 12-ton fuel
load within eight years. The CUS was designated C12. Following the ISRO decision, Glavkosmos of the
USSRoffered to sell two 12-ton fuel load cryogenic engines and transfer the technology for Rs 230
crore.

Transfer of Technology (TOT) from Russia

The GSLV project including the Soviet cryogenic engines was approved by the Space Commission and
the GOI in October 1990. In 1991 ISRO entered into a$120 million (Rs 750 crore) contract with
Glavkosmos of Russia for the supply of two KVD-1 (RD-56) cryogenic engines and transfer the
technology for their manufacture in India. The transfer of technology (TOT) included transfer of
drawings, documents and sale of material for fabrication of the engines. Glavkosmos also agreed to train
ISRO scientists during development and testing of the C12 engine.
The KVD-1 is the one and only oxygen/hydrogen liquid-propellant rocket engine in Russia known to
have passed through full-scale ground testing routine. KVD-1's prototype known as RD-56 was
developed between 1965-1972 by the Design Bureau of Chemical Machine-Building (KB Khimmash) for
the fourth stage of a future version of heavy Lunar N-1 launch vehicle. Bench trials of the engine
commenced in 1966.
The KVD-1 engine is a single-chambered unit with a turbopump system designed to feed propellants; and
includes afterburning: a feature characteristic of any powerful Russian liquid-propellant rocket engine
design.
The engine can be used in cryogenic upper stages designed to put payloads into high-altitude elliptical,
geostationary orbits or escape trajectories.

Russia Reneges on Cryogenic Engine TOT

In July 1993, under intense US pressure, Russia reneged on the agreement to transfer cryogenic
technology to India citing force majeure on the grounds that TOT would violate Missile Technology
Control Regime (MTCR).
India had already paid Russia 60% of the contract amount and Russia in turn had already supplied India
the drawings of the engine and other know under the TOT
.
India was forced to renegotiate the contract and complete development of the cryogenic engine on its
own. Glavkosmos agreed to compensate India by providing four fully qualified cryo-engines and two
mock ups, instead to two fully qualified cryo-engines as stipulated in the original contract. GK also
consented to supply an additional three cryo-engines at a total cost of $9 million.

ISRO's Cryogenic Upper Stage

ISRO has developed its cryogenic upper stage powered by 7.5-ton thrust CE-7.5 cryogenic engine at the
Liquid Propulsion Systems Center (LPSC), Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu.
ISRO's development efforts benefited from design drawings and other information obtained under the
original contract with Russia, and from the extensive training that ISRO engineers received in Russia.
ISRO is believed to have contracted former Russian space technicians to assist in the development effort.
The outright supply of two KVD-1 engines provided ISRO a conduit to the source of KVD-1 technology.
ISRO's biggest challenge was to develop the special alloys and high-speed turbines required for use with
cryogenic fuels. At very low temperatures of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, metals become brittle.

Indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage being lifted at Vehicle Assembly Building for stacking on
GSLV-D3 launcher.
The special alloys developed needed new welding techniques and the cryogenic engine fuel pumps
required new types of lubricants.
ISRO's painstaking development effort soon fell behind schedule, threatening its other space programs.
Because of delays in the production of the KVD-1 derivative, in December 2001, ISRO entered into an
agreement with Khrunichev Space Centre for supply of five additional KVD-1 engines. The additional
purchase ensured the continuity of the GSLV program.

Current Cryogenic Engine Inventory

Of the seven cryogenic upper stages supplied by Russia, ISRO has so far used six.
The last five GSLV flights from Sriharikota were powered by the Russian cryogenic stages. A cryogenic
stage includes the engine, propellant tanks, motor casing and wiring.

ISRO Cryogenic Upper Stage test. Photo Credit: ISRO

Indian Cryogenic Upper Stage Overview

The CUS broadly comprises the main CE-7.5 engine and two smaller gimbaled steering engines with a
nominal thrust of 73.55 kN in vacuum. CUS operates for a nominal duration of 720 seconds. Liquid
Oxygen (LOX) and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) from the respective tanks are fed by individual booster
pumps to the main turbopump to ensure a high flow rate of propellants into the combustion chamber.
Thrust control and mixture ratio control are achieved by two independent regulators.
The major components of the CUS are
1. A main cryogenic engine
2. Two smaller (cryogenic) steering engines for orientation and stabilization.
3. Insulated propellant tanks
4. Booster pumps
5. Inter-stage structures
6. Fill and drain systems

7. Pressurization systems
8. Gas bottles
9. Command block
10. Igniters
11. Pyro valves
12. Cold gas
The main engine is a regenerative cooled enginewhich works on staged combustion cyclein the pump fed
mode with an integrated turbo pump operating at 40,000 rpm.

Regenerative cooled engine working on staged combustion cycle Credit: Wikimedia / User Duk
It is also equipped with two steering engines, each developing a thrust of 2 kN, to enable three axis stability of the
launch vehicle during the mission. Another unique feature is the closed loop control of both thrust and mixture ratio
which ensures optimum propellant management for the mission.

The main engine, has two smaller (cryogenic) steering engines,each developing a thrust of 2 kN, to enable
three axis stability of the launch vehicle during the mission.Together the engines develop a nominal thrust of 73.55
kN in vacuum. The main engine of CUS achieves a specific impulse of 454 s

During the flight, CUS fires for a nominal duration of 720 seconds.
Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) from the respective tanks are fed by individual
booster pumps to the main turbo-pump, which rotates at 39,000 rpm to ensure a high flow rate of 16.6
kg/sec of propellants into the combustion chamber. The main turbine is driven by the hot gas produced in
a pre-burner. Thrust control and mixture ratio control are achieved by two independent regulators. LOX
and Gaseous Hydrogen (GH2) are ignited by pyrogen type igniters in the pre-burner as well as in the main
and steering engines during initial stages.
Apart from the complexities in the fabrication of stage tanks, structures, engine and its subsystems and
control components, CUS employs special materials like Aluminum, Titanium, Nickel and their alloys,
bi-metallic materials and polyimides. Stringent quality control and elaborate safety measures have to be
ensured during assembly and integration.

Indian Cryogenic Engine First Test Flight Failure

The first test flight of ISRO developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) on board the GSLV D-3 failed on
Thursday, April 15, 2010.

GSLV D3 Launcher fitted with indigenous CUS

Initial indications are that the CUS ignited after the first two stages performed flawlessly, lifting the
rocket to a height of 60 km and imparting it a velocity of 4.9 km/sec as designed.
Subsequently, the rocket was seen to tumble indicating a failure of the two vernier engines on the CUS.
While the main engine of the CUS provides the thrust necessary to loft the satellite to a GTO orbit, two
smaller cryogenic vernier engines help steer the rocket along its programmed trajectory.
The failure initially drove ISRO chairman K Radhakrishnan to tears but he soon gathered himself and
promised that ISRO will perform a detailed analysis to determine why the vernier engines did not ignite,
and whether the main cryogenic engine did ignite.
Pointing out the ISRO scientists and technicians had worked hard for 18 years to come to this level,
Radhakrishnan promised to be ready for another launch within an year.
The GSLV D3 launcher was carrying the 2.4 ton GSAT-4.

Cryogenic Engine Failure Analysis

On Sunday, April 18, 2010, after a two day meeting chaired by ISRO Chief K. Radhakrishnan to analysze
GSLV D-3 telemetry data, space scientists announced that the CUS ignited but shut down within a second
because the turbo pump supplying fuel to the engine stopped working.
"The data clearly shows that combustion [of the cryogenic engine fuel, liquid hydrogen at minus 253
degree Celsius, and the oxidiser, liquid oxygen at minus 183 degree Celsius] had indeed taken place. The
rocket's acceleration had increased for a second before it drifted off the designated flight path. Indications
are that the turbine that powered the fuel turbo pump had somehow failed. [The propellants are pumped
using turbo pumps running around 4,000 rpm.] There could be various reasons for its failure," a senior
ISRO scientist told The Hindu.
A 'Failure Analysis Committee' will now attempt to zero in on the exact reason for the failure and submit
its report by May-end. Next, the national experts' panel, constituted to review and give clearance to the
GSLV-D3 mission, will examine the report.
Failure Analysis Committee Pinpoints Cause of Failure
The committee submitted its report on July 9, 2010. It attributed the failure of the third stage to a
malfunction of the Fuel Booster Turbo Pump in the liquid hydrogen tank of the CUS.
The following are relevant excerpts from the committees report:
"Following a smooth countdown, the lift-off took place at 1627 hrs (IST) as planned. All four liquid strapon stages (L40), solid core stage (S139), liquid second stage (GS2) functioned normally.
The vehicle performance was normal up to the burn-out of GS-2, that is, 293 seconds from lift-off.
Altitude, velocity, flight path angle and acceleration profile closely followed the pre-flight predictions.
All onboard real time decision-based events were as expected and as per pre-flight simulations.
The navigation, guidance and control systems using indigenous onboard computer Vikram 1601 as well
as the advanced telemetry system functioned flawlessly. The composite payload fairing of 4 metre
diameter inducted first time in this flight, also performed as expected. Performance of all other systems
like engine gimbal control systems and stage auxiliary systems was normal.
The initial conditions required for the start of the indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) were attained
as expected and the CUS start sequence got initiated as planned at 294.06 seconds from lift-off.
Ignition of the CUS Main Engine and two Steering Engines have been confirmed as normal, as observed
from the vehicle acceleration and different parameters of CUS measured during the flight. Vehicle
acceleration was comparable with that of earlier GSLV flights up to 2.2 seconds from start of CUS.
However, the thrust build up did not progress as expected due to non-availability of liquid hydrogen
(LH2) supply to the thrust chamber of the Main Engine.
The above failure is attributed to the anomalous stopping of Fuel Booster Turbo Pump (FBTP). The startup of FBTP was normal. It reached a maximum speed of 34,800 rpm and continued to function as
predicted after the start of CUS. However, the speed of FBTP started dipping after 0.9 seconds and it
stopped within the next 0.6 seconds.

Two plausible scenarios have been identified for the failure of FBTP, namely, (a) gripping at one of the
seal location and seizure of rotor and (b) rupture of turbine caused probably due to excessive pressure rise
and thermal stresses. A series of confirmatory ground tests are planned.
After incorporating necessary corrective measures, the flight testing of Indigenous Cryogenic Upper
Stage on GSLV is targeted within a year."
In the meantime, the next two GSLVs would fly with the available Russian Cryogenic Stages.

Modifications to the Cryogenic Engine

ISRO has redesigned the fuel booster turbo pump (FBTP) to better accommodate the expansion and
contraction of the bearings and casing at cryogenic temperatures, and modified theignition system of the
engine to ensure smooth and sustained ignition for main engine (ME), steering engine (SE) and gas generator (GG).

Cryogenic Engine Ground Tests

A second and final vacuum ignition test of the CUS was carried out in May and the CUS wasmoved from
LPSC Mahendragiri on May 13, 2013.

It's currently being integrated with the vehicle at Sriharikota and further checks will be completed within
45 days. It will be ready by July end and tentatively the launch is set for August 6, 2013.
The CUS has been successfully hot tested twice in the past three months at the newly-built high altitude test facility
(HAT) at ISROs Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Mahendragiri.

LPSC director MC Dathan told TOI on Friday, June 28, 2013 that a mission readiness meet for GSLVD05 launch was held on Thursday.
Dathan added, We are very confident after the repeat successful High Altitude Tests in the last three
months. Yet we are anxious about the indigenous cryogenic stage which was moved from LPSC
Mahendragiri on May 13, it is being integrated with the vehicle at Sriharikota and further checks will be
completed within 45 days. It will be ready by July end and tentatively the launch is set for August 6.
A final second vacuum ignition test of the CUS remains to be conducted before the second test tentatively
scheduled for June,
ISRO Chairman told the TOI on April 22, 2013. [Also TOI on April 25, 2013]:
"We did about 35 tests to find the causes of its failure on ground on cryogenic engine and its sub systems.
This time around the flight engine has been tested on ground, and has been integrated, while the
cryogenic engine is in the final stage of integration," he added.
Vacuum Ignition Test
ISRO successfully tested ignition of the cryogenic engine under simulated high altitude conditions on
Wednesday, March 27, 2013 at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadus Kanyakumari district.
The 3.5 seconds test confirmed stable ignition of the cryogenic engine under high altitude conditions.

The hot-test took place in the newly-built high altitude test facility (HAT) at ISROs Liquid Propulsion
Systems Centre (LPSC) at Mahendragiri.
"The test was held at 7.55 p.m. on Wednesday, simulating the high altitude conditions to see whether
ignition of the indigenously developed cryogenic engine takes place smoothly, as per the expected
temperature, pressure and flow parameters," said Director of LPSC M.C. Dathan.
"The ignition was perfect and it gave all the parameters as per our predictions and it has given us an
excellent confidence to go ahead with the GSLV-D5 launch from Sriharikota in July." he added.
With the successful test, the indigenous cryogenic engine would be fully assembled and the cryogenic
stage itself delivered at Sriharikota in a months time.
"Once it reaches Sriharikota, it may take more than two months to fully assemble the vehicle and conduct
all tests. So we are planning to launch the GSLV-D5 in the second half of July, said Mr. Dathan.
Sea Level Test
On Saturday, May 12, 2012, ISRO carried out the first test of the the indigenous cryogenic engine since
the failure of the engine on April 15, 2010 during the launch of GSLV D-3.
The engine was tested at the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Mahendragiri for 200 seconds.
Following the successful test, ISRO chief K Radhakrishnan told reporters that the engine would undergo
another two tests, including endurance test of 1, 000 seconds and vacuum ignition test.

Indian Cryogenic Engine Second Test Flight Success

The Indian CUS was successfully tested on January 5, 2014 onGSLV D-5. The launcher placed GSAT-14 in
its intended orbit (Perigee: 179-km, Apogee: 36,000-km) achieving a precision of 40m!

Indian CUS fitted on GSLV-D5. Photo Credit: ISRO

The launch of GSAT-14 and the second test of the Indian CUS was earlier scheduled forAugust 19, 2013, but the
launch countdown was aborted 2-hr before liftoff after a leak was detected in the second stage liquid propellant
engine of the launcher.
On July 24, 2013,ISRO Chairman K Radhakrishnan toldPTI, "The moment we are talking about is August 19th, as
a tentative schedule and the time is around 5 PM.
"Vehicle (GSLV or rocket) is already assembled and we have done electrical checks on the vehicle.
"We have done nearly 35 ground tests since we had the April 2010 failure, on sub-systems, on the engine and on a
similar engine in high altitude conditions."

ISRO started stacking the GSLV D-5 on January 31.The launcher will place GSAT-14 in orbit.
"The first stage has already been stacked, and the four strap-on are available. The review committee for integration
has cleared the second liquid stage for launch," ISRO chairman K Radhakrishnan told the TOI on April 22, 2013
.

A final test of the CUS is planned, after which a launch date, tentatively in July 2013 will be firmed up.
The launch ofGSLV D-5was earlier scheduled forSep/Oct 2012.

ISRO Chief K Radhakrishnan told the press on March 17, 2013, "We are planning to move the engine to Sriharikota
by April end and will carry out high vacuum testing by the end of this month. Then, maybe, one more test is
required. Once the flight stage is in Sriharikota, it is a question of preparing for the launch."

A follow-up GLSV launch using the ISRO CUS is planned to flight certify the engine.

The two GSLV missions using the ISRO CUS, if successful, will make the GSLV operational following
two back-to-back failures of the launcher in 2010.
The single remaining Russian cryogenic engine will be flown after Russia fixes the shroud defect that led
to the failure of GSLV-F-06.

HAL's Contribution to CUS

In a press release dated January 5, 2014 HAL ChairmanDr. R.K. Tyagisaid.
HALs Aerospace Division contributed in a significant way for the launch by supplying 13 types of riveted
structural assemblies and seven types of welded propellant tankages and feed lines which include three structures
and two propellant tankages.

HAL integrated and delivered all the four L40 booster rockets and provided the bare structure of the
communication satellite (GSAT-14), an assembly of composite and metallic honeycomb sandwich panels
with a composite cylinder.

Cryogenic Engine Test Facility

ISRO has built a new facility for static testing of the cryogenic engineat the Liquid Propulsions Systems
centre (LPSC) at Mahendragiri.
Speaking to the press on June 18, 2011, after inaugurating a two-day National Conference on "Expanding
Frontiers in Propulsion Technology," ISRO Chairman K Radhakrishnan said the facility will be ready in
another two months an will be a big boon for the LPSC.
Following the successful launch of PSLV C19XL on April 26, 2012,ISRO Chairman K Radhakrishnan
saidISRO has studied the reasons for the failure in 2010. "Now GSLV will undergo an endurance test of
1,000 seconds and a vacuum test at a special facility at the Liquid Propellant System Centre at
Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu, where a Rs 300 crore facility for vacuum test has been made," he said.
"Once we get the green signal from the Ground Testing Team, we would be ready for the GSLV launch,''
he said.

More Powerful Cryogenic Engine

ISRO is already working on a more powerful version of the cryogenic engine that it has developed.
"Our next step is to develop a bigger cryogenic engine with a stress of 20 tons compared to 7.5 tons now,"
ISRO Chairman, G Madhavan Nair, told PTI in September 2009.
The current version of the CE-7.5 Indigenous Cryogenic Engine develops a thrust of 73 kilo Newtons
(kN) in vacuum with a specific impulse of 454 seconds and provides a payload capability of 2200 Kg to
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) for GSLV.

Work is underway to increase the thrust to 90 kN.

Eventually, all GSLVs will use the Indian Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) that develops 90 kN ton of
thrust, against 75 kN of the Russian CUS; and they will carry 15 ton of propellant against 12.5 ton of the
Russian engine.
As a comparison, one of the most powerful cryogenic engines in use is the RS-24. Three of them power
the Space Shuttle at lift off along with two solid rocket boosters. Each RS-24, commonly referred to as
the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME), produces almost 1.8 mega-newtons (MN) or 400,000 lbf of
thrust at liftoff.
Cryogenic Engines Compared

Introduction
ISRO plans to develop a2000 kN Semi Cryogenic Engine (SCE) using liquid oxygen (LOX) and
kerosene under a Rs. 1,798 crore six year project cleared by the Union Cabinet on December 19, 2008.
The Semi-Cryogenic engine will be used as the booster engine for the Common Liquid Core of thefuture
heavy liftUnified Launch Vehicles (ULV) and Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV).
The project envisages foreign collaboration with a foreign exchange component of Rs. 588 crore.
The liquid stages of PSLV and GSLV engines use toxic propellants that are harmful to the environment.
The trend worldwide is to change over to eco-friendly propellants.
Liquid engines working with cryogenic propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) and semi
cryogenic engines using liquid oxygen and kerosene are considered relatively environment friendly, nontoxic and non corrosive. In addition, the propellants for semi-cryogenic engine are safer to handle and
store. It will also reduce the cost of launch operations.
This advanced propulsion technology is now available only with Russia and USA. The worlds most
powerful liquid engine, the Russian RD 170, is powered by a LOX - kerosene combination.
LOX - Kerosene engines have powered several American launchers as well, including Saturn V, which
carried American astronauts to the moon.

SCE Specifications
Thrust (vacuum)
Isp (vacuum)
Mixture Ratio
Thrust Throttling
Engine gimbal

2000 kN
3285 N-s/kg
2.65
65-105 (% of nominal thrust)
8 degrees (in two planes)

SCE. Credit: Slide from presentation of Dr. B.N. Suresh, (VSSC)

Use in GSLV Mk-3 Upgrade

The 2000 kN SCE is envisaged to initially replace the L-110 core stage of the GSLV Mk-3 allowing an upgraded
version of the launcher tolift a 6 ton payload into a GTO, instead of the current 4 ton.

Use in Two-Stage-to-Orbit Reusable Launcher

Besides serving as the main building block for expendable launchers, the SCE will also be used to power
a Two Stage to Orbit (TSTO) launcher being actively researched by ISRO.

Development Time Frame

The engine is planned to be developed and qualified over a span of 6 years. In this, the first four years is earmarked
for subsystem development and the remaining two years, for development and qualification of the engine. The
facilities needed for testing the engine would be made operational in parallel with subsystem development during
the first 4 years.

Progress
ISRO Annual Report 2014 states:
Realization of semi-cryogenic engine involves the development of performance-critical metallic and nonmetallic materials and related processing technologies. 23 metallic materials and 6 non-metallic
materials have been developed. Characterisation of injector elements and hypergolic slug igniters with
different proportion of Tri-ethyl Aluminium and Tri-ethyl Boron has been completed. Sub-scale models of
thrust chamber have been realized and ignition trials have been carried out successfully. Single element
thrust chamber hot test in stage combustion cycle mode was also conducted successfully.

Establishment of test facilities like Cold Flow Test Facility and Integrated Engine Test Facility are under
various stages of realization. Fabrication drawings are realised for all sub-systems and fabrication of
booster turbo-pump and pre-burner subsystem commenced.
In an interview published on The Asian Age on January 13, 2014, ISRO Chairman, when asked about the
semi-cryogenic engine, replied:
"We are working on the semi-cryogenic engine for the next generation launch vehicles which can transport satellites
weighing six tonnes or more into space.

"Approximately Rs 2,500 crore will be spent on this project where we replace liquid hydrogen with
kerosene. It is easier to handle kerosene compared to liquid hydrogen. It will take five years to design the
engine which will be 10 times more powerful than the cryogenic engine."
According to the Department of Space Outcome Budget for 2013-2014, ISRO plans to complete the
development of Semicryogenic engine and establish the supporting test facilities with the 12th Five Year Plan
(2012-2017).

"The Preliminary Design Review (PDR) for Semi-cryogenic engine development has been completed.
Preparation of fabrication drawings of subsystems have been completed. A MOU has been signed with
NFTDC for the realization of copper alloy for Thrust chamber. Single element Pre-Burner (PB) injector
realized and injector spray characterization using PIV was carried out. Test facility for single element
pre-burner commissioned at PRG facility, VSSC. Semi Cryo Test facility design by M/s Rolta has been
completed. Design of Semi Cryo Engine including heat exchanger and ejector is competed. Fabrication
drawings and documents are generated based on the PDR and joint reviews. Configuration design of
subscale engine is completed. Preliminary Design Review (PDR) of Hydraulic Actuation System (HAS)
and Hydraulic Power System (HPS) for Engine Gimbal control is completed and Technical specifications
are finalized.
"Single Element Pre-Burner injector element has been hot tested successfully. Ignition of LOX/ Isrosene
propellant with hypergolic slug igniter and flame holding, demonstration of safe handling of pyrophoric
fluid TEA, validation of start sequence, characterization of injector elements and qualification of
Hayness-214 material are the major achievements of the tests.
"Design of single element thrust chamber is completed and fabrication drawings are generated. Single
element thrust chamber injector elements are realized and cold flow tests were carried out. Special pre
burner which will provide hot gases for testing the single element thrust chamber has been realized."
In its 2012 annual report, ISRO reported that it had completed the design of single element thrust chamber
injectorelements and tested cold flow.

A rubber composition resistant to Kerosene had been developed and tested.

Other components developed include rectangular rings, gaskets and O-rings for control components and
turbo pump of semi cryogenic engine as well as Tri-ethyl aluminum (TEA) based hypergolic igniter.
ISRO has done hot test with LOX step injection mode on semi cryogenic pre-burner injector at high
pressure aftercompleting cold flow trials and sequence validation tests.
Further tests with step injection for Keroseneand LOX are planned.

In its2011 annual report, ISRO reported:

Engine design,generation of fabrication drawing of sub systems and integration drawings have been completed.
PreliminaryDesign Review of Engine Gimbal Controlsystem have been completed and technical specification
document ofboth Hydraulic Actuation System and Hydraulic Power System generated.

Hypergolic igniter trials have beensuccessfully demonstrated. Single element of pre burner and thrust
chamber arerealized. 3 tests have beencompleted for single element Semicryo pre-burner injector.

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Tell me something about yourself: (Be precise and do not flaunt about yourself a lot. Be focused.) What
are your hobbies (The answer to this question should be specific and to the point. Take care not to give
many options to the interviewer as it will increase the scope of questions for him)? What are your
strongest points? What are your weak points (Do not be very frank. State your weak point in such a
manner that it appears that it will not be obstacle in your future. The answer should be such that you are
admitting that no one is perfect, but any weak point is not good enough to stop you to accept challenges!
)? technically speaking the weakest point comes from your strongest point. Have full knowledge about the
technical details of your hobby. Name 2 3 favourite players of National and International level. The
reason why he is your favourite should be based on technical reasons and not on likings. A technical
explanation will give you an edge. What extra-curricular activities do you participate in apart from being
good in academics? If you get KVPY Scholarship, how will you utilise the money (Students may have
different answers. Some say that they will deposit it in a bank so that it can be used during higher
studies.)? What is your daily schedule? How many hours do you dedicate to studies? Which is your
favourite subject (If you have reached your IXth class, go through the NCERT book of class VIII and
class IX again-few chapters. You may choose any other subject. It is not necessary that you choose
science as a subject. KVPY is not only for science students.)? Who is your favourite teacher? What
subject she teaches (Expect questions related to that subject)? What is your aim (Also include the
explanation of reason of choosing it as your aim.)? How will your aim, when achieved will serve our
country? Tell me something about yourself. What is your favorite topic in maths, science and social
science? What all preparations you have done for the Interview? What are known as suicidal bags of cell?

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The Indian Super League trophy went to the traditional and most passionate home of Indian football as
Atletico de Kolkata edged past Kerala Blasters 1-0 in the final on Saturday, bringing the curtains down on
what proved to be a successful inaugural event.
Mohammad Rafique scored the most-important goal in the dying minutes to help Atletico de Kolkata
emerge triumphant at the DY Patil