Writing with Style

by Suzanne Hudson and Molly LeClair

13.1 Definitions of Terms

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.

Define and give examples of each part of speech.

2.

Identify and explain the various parts of a sentence.

3.

Identify and explain the various types of sentences.

The following section will define and exemplify the parts of speech, the parts of a sentence, and the types of
sentences we use to compose compelling, readable papers.

Parts of Speech
The English language consists of nine parts of speech, whose basic understanding is a prerequisite to any
deeper understanding of grammar. These parts of speech
are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
In every sentence, each word functions as one part of speech. Although a word cannot be two parts of speech at
the same time, the same word can function as one part of speech in one sentence and another part of speech in
another sentence. For example, in the sentence I think we should camp here for the night, the word camp is a
verb. In the sentence I propose that we set up camp here, the word camp is a noun. Understanding the parts of
speech enables us to use words correctly and create clear, logically constructed sentences.

Noun
A noun is word or phrase that names a person, place, or thing. Nouns can be proper or common, singular or
plural, concrete or abstract, or possessive. Proper nouns are capitalized; possessive nouns contain apostrophes.
Verb forms known as gerunds (ending in -ing) are also nouns. The nouns in the following sentence are
emphasized.
A wall is a solid structure that defines boundaries, defends realms, protects property, and even separates populations.

Pronoun
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun and refers to a person, place, or thing. There are three
pronoun cases: subjective, objective, and possessive. Pronouns can be first, second, or third person; masculine,
feminine, or neuter; and singular or plural. The pronouns in the following sentences are emphasized.

The Epic of Gilgamesh recounts the adventures of the first epic hero. It begins by recounting his rule of Uruk
and its citizens, and theirdiscontent over what sets the story in motionGilgameshs edict that they build the city walls
higher and higher.
Pronouns might be personal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, relative, reflexive, or intensive.
1.

A personal pronoun is used to refer to someone or something already mentioned. A personal pronoun
might be first person, second person, or third person.

A first-person pronounI, me, my, mine, we, us, our, oursrefers to the speaker.
We will follow in the footsteps of the mythological hero Gilgamesh.

A second-person pronounyou, your, yoursrefers to the person being spoken to.

You can get to Uruk from Al-Muthanna.

A third-person pronounhe, his, she, hers, it, its, they, them, their, theirsrefers to the person or thing being
spoken about.
They recommend hiring a guide for the trip.

2.

A demonstrative pronounthis, that, these, and thoseimplies that the speaker is pointing at an object.
I will bring this if you will bring that.

3.

An interrogative pronounwho, whom, what, whichis used to ask a question.

Which do you want?

4.

An indefinite pronouneach, any, both, few, some, several, many, all, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone,
neither, none, nothing, somewhererefers to an indefinite person, place, or thing.
Someone must have an emergency kit.

5.

A relative pronounwho, whom, that, whichintroduces a clause that describes the noun.
The guide, whom we met in Al-Muthanna, speaks perfect English.

6.

A reflexive pronounmyself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselvesrefers to the subject of the
sentence.
We made ourselves individual rations of dried apricots and meats.

7.

An intensive pronounmyself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselvesaccentuates its

antecedent, the noun that comes before it.
The guide himself took the archaeological site photographs.

Hint: Myself is not an all-purpose form of me or I. Use myself when you have used I earlier in the same sentence: I
myself am not particularly fond of goat cheese or I forced myself to eat the goat cheese.

Verb
A verb is a word or phrase that expresses action or existence.

Verbs have four principal parts: present, past, past participle, and present participle. Regular verbs end in ed in the past and past participle forms. Irregular verbs are less predictable, as the following examples
demonstrate.

Principle Part

Regular Verb Irregular Verb

Present

talk

sing

Past

talked

sang

Past participle

talked

sung

Present participle talking

singing

Hint: An English language dictionary will tell you the principal parts of every irregular verb. The principal
parts of regular verbs are standard.

Verbs will be in one of six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect. The
following is the verb singconjugated in the simple, active voice.

Singular

Plural

Present
1st person

I sing

We sing

2nd person You sing

You sing

3rd person He, she, or it sings

They sing

Past
1st person

I sang

We sang

2nd person You sang

You sang

3rd person He, she, or it sang

They sang

Future

Singular
1st person

I shall sing

Plural
We shall sing

2nd person You will sing

You will sing

3rd person He, she, or it will sing

They will sing

Present Perfect
1st person

I have sung

We have sung

2nd person You have sung

You have sung

3rd person He, she, or it has sung

They have sung

Past Perfect
1st person

I had sung

We had sung

2nd person You had sung

You had sung

3rd person He, she, or it had sung

They had sung

Future Perfect
1st person

I shall have sung

2nd person You will have sung

We shall have sung

You will have sung

3rd person He, she, or it will have sung They will have sung

Note the following facts:

In the progressive, active voice, verbs are conjugated with be as a helping verb and paired with the present
participle: She is singing.

In the simple, passive voice, verbs are conjugated with be as a helping verb and paired with the past participle: The
song is sung.

In the progressive, passive voice, verbs are conjugated with the verb be as a helping verb, combined with being and
the past participle:The song is being sung.

Some verbs are main verbs, and some are helping verbs. Helping verbs are various forms of be, have, and do.

Modals are a subset of helping verbs: can, could, may, might, must, should, will, and would.

Verbs may be active or passive. In an active construction, the subject of the verb is acting. In a passive
construction, the subject is being acted upon, as the following examples demonstrate.

Active Construction Passive Construction

I teach.

I am taught.

The verbs in the following sentence are emphasized.

Uruk was the most splendid of the seven cities of Sumer with temples, marketplaces, orchards, and a towering wall
that protected it from enemies, floods, and Humbaba the Terrible, who breathed fire and guarded the Cedar Forest.

Adjective
An adjective is a word or combination of words that modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives usually answer one
of the following questions: What kind? Which one? How many? Some verb forms, called participles, are used as
adjectives. For example, the word recurring in the example that follows is a verb form being used as an adjective
modifying the noun theme, and the word loving is a verb form being used to modify the noun companion. In
English, adjectives routinely precede the nouns they modify. The adjectives in the following sentences are
emphasized.
A recurring theme in Gilgamesh is the loving companion who influences profound change. For example, through
friendship, Enkidu transforms from a savage man into a noble one, and Gilgamesh changes from a tyrannical king into
an exemplary one.

Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs usually answer one of the
following questions: How? Why? When? Where? The adverbs in the following sentence are emphasized.
In 1849, William Loftus could scarcely imagine, in the desolation he encountered at the ancient site of Uruk, that the walls
were once intricately and colorfully decorated with mosaics of painted clay.

Article
An article is any of three words used to signal the presence of a noun. A and an are indefinite articles; the is
a definite article. The articles in the following sentence are emphasized.
A second theme of the epic is the quest for eternal life.

Preposition
A preposition is a word or phrase that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another noun or pronoun.
Common prepositions are in, out, above,below, under, beside, by, on, across, to, from, between, of, and with. The
prepositions in the following sentence are emphasized.
A ziggurat temple was in Uruk. Gilgamesh stood on the fortification wall and looked across the Abzu Sea.

Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that connects other words, phrases, or sentences. There are three kinds of
conjunctions: coordinate, subordinate, andcorrelative.

1.

Coordinate conjunctions connect items of equal importance. The seven coordinate conjunctions
are but, or, yet, for, and, nor, and so. The coordinate conjunctions in the following sentence are emphasized.
Both King Nebuchadnezzar II and Saddam Hussein built palaces to glorify their realms, but Husseins, built on
top of the ancient stronghold, was never occupied.

Hint: To remember the seven coordinate conjunctions, use the acronym BOYFANS.
2.

Subordinate conjunctions connect subordinate clauses to main clauses. Some common subordinate
conjunctions are after, although, because,even though, if, since, unless, when, whenever, whereas, and wherever.
The subordinate conjunction in the following sentence is emphasized.
Whereas the original bricks bore inscriptions eulogizing Nebuchadnezzar, Saddam Hussein had bricks engraved,
In the reign of Saddam Hussein who rebuilt Babylon.

3.

Correlative conjunctions come in pairs (either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also). The correlative conjunctions
in the following sentence are italicized bold.
Either you see the connection between Saddam Hussein and the Chaldean conquerors he so admired or you
dont.

Interjection
An interjection is a word or phrase used as an exclamation and capable of standing by itself. Interjections such
as hooray or yikes are often set off from sentences and followed by an exclamation point. Mild interjections, such
as oh and well, are usually incorporated into sentences and set off with commas. Interjections are seldom used
in formal writing.
Oh, so you want to hear more about walls.

CONCEPT CHECK
Understanding Parts of Speech
1.

Underline the nouns in the following sentence. Double-underline the proper noun.
The construction of the Great Wall of China began over 2,000 years ago.

2.

Underline the pronouns in the following sentence.

We think that everyone should see it when they visit China.

3.

Underline the verbs in the following sentence, including any helping verbs and/or modals.
The ruling powers believed that the Wall would protect their territories from invasion.

4.

Underline the adjectives in the following sentence.

On numerous maps, the Wall is depicted as a writhing sea monster.

5.

Underline the adverb in the following sentence.

Over the centuries, the Wall eventually developed into a system of towers, loops, and spurs.

6.

Underline the articles in the following sentence.

A nonprofit organization of conservationists has made an effort to protect the Wall from further
deterioration at the hands of nature.

7.

Underline the prepositions in the following sentence:

It is fiction that the Great Wall of China is visible from the moon.

8.

Underline the coordinate conjunction in the following sentence. Double-underline the subordinate
conjunction.
Because the villages nearby were built as a result of the Wall and from the same materials, they are
considered part of the wallscape.

9.

Underline the interjection in the following sentence.

As at least one world leader has said, Wow! That is a great wall!

Sentence Parts
A sentence is a syntactically independent word group containing at least a subject and a verb (actor and action).
Every word, phrase, or clause in a sentence has a function or plays a part in the sentence. The parts of sentences
are verbs, subjects, objects, complements, modifiers, and connectors.

Verb
A verb is both a part of speech and a sentence part. As a sentence part, the verb is sometimes called a predicate.
A verb is a word or phrase that expresses action or existence. Every complete sentence contains at least one
verb. The emphasized word in the following sentence is a verb.
The Romans thrived.

Subject
To be complete, a sentence needs a subjectan actor. To find the subject, first find the verb. For example, if the
verb is built, ask, Who built? The answer to that question is the subject of the sentence. The emphasized word
in the following sentence is the subject of the verb built.
The Romans built walls.

Object
There are three kinds of objects: direct object, indirect object, and object of a preposition.
1.

Direct object. A direct object is the person, place, or thing on which the action was performed. Not every
sentence has a direct object, but if there is one, you find it by first finding the verb. If the verb is built, ask,
Built what? The answer is the direct object of the sentence. The emphasized words in the following
sentence are the direct object of the verb built.
The Romans built Hadrians Wall, extending seventy-three miles from the North Sea to the Irish Sea.

2.

Indirect object. An indirect object is the person, place, or thing for whom the action was performed. Not
every sentence has an indirect object, but if there is one, you find it by first finding the verb. If the verb
is gave, ask, Gave to whom? The answer is the indirect object of the sentence. The emphasized word in
the following sentence is the indirect object of the verb gave.
Hadrian gave his enemies in occupied Britain a reminder of Roman power.

3.

Object of the preposition. The object of the preposition is the noun or pronoun that comes after the
preposition. For example, if the preposition is beside, ask, Beside what? The answer is the object of the
preposition. The emphasized word in the following sentence is the object of the preposition beside.
Visitors might see wild chives and rockrose beside the wall.

Complement
There are two kinds of complements: subject complements and object complements.
1.

Subject complement. Some sentences are not complete unless they contain a subject complement. Subject
complements either rename or describe the subject of the sentence. Subject complements follow linking
verbs, which are a form of the verb be or a word that approximates the meaning of be, such
as seem or appear. To find the subject complement, first find the linking verb. If the linking verb is might

have been, ask, Might have been what? The answer is the subject complement of the sentence. The
emphasized word in the following sentence is a subject complement.
Hadrians Wall might have been a lookout that allowed troops to observe marauders from the north and the
south.
Rather than rename the subject, the subject complement might describe it. In this case, the subject
complement is an adjective. The emphasized word in the following sentence is subject complement.
Hadrians Wall is impressive.
2.

Object complement. Object complements either rename or describe objects. They follow the objects they
complement. The emphasized words in the following sentences are object complements.
We now call the stone-and-turf wall Hadrians Wall.
The Romans made the wall durable.

Modifier
Many sentences contain more than the basic elements. These additional parts are modifiers or describing
words. Modifiers can be a single word, a phrase, or an entire clause. They can be adjectives, adjective clauses,
adverbs, adverb clauses, absolute phrases, infinitive phrases, participle phrases, and prepositional phrases.
(These phrases and clauses are discussed in more detail in the next section of this chapter.)
Modifiers can contain modifiers; for example, an adjective clause might contain a prepositional phrase, and a
prepositional phrase might contain an adjective. The emphasized words in the following sentence are modifiers.
The versatile Hadrian, who supervised construction of a stone-and-turf wall to protect against invaders,
also built sophisticatedaqueducts and sumptuous baths, wrote classical verse, hunted enthusiastically,
traveled extensively, and ruled the Roman Empiresuccessfully for twenty-one years.
The preceding sentence contains the following modifiers:

Adjectives: versatile, stone-and-turf, sophisticated, sumptuous, classical, twenty-one

Adverbs: also, enthusiastically, extensively, successfully

Prepositional phrases: of a stone-and-turf wall, against invaders, for twenty-one years

Infinitive phrase: to protect against invaders

Adjective clause: who supervised construction of a stone-and-timber wall to protect against invaders

Connector

In sentences, the connectors are simply conjunctions.

CONCEPT CHECK
Understanding Sentence Parts
1.

Underline the verb in the following sentence.

In the Biblical account, Israelites destroyed the walls of Jericho by shouting and blowing horns.

2.

Underline the subject in the following sentence.

In a failed attempt at excavation, Sir Charles Warren dug through the mud bricks of the wall.

3.

Underline the subject complement in the following sentence.

Kathleen Kenyon was the archaeologist who dated the oldest wall of Jericho at around 8000 BCE.

4.

Underline the object complement in the following sentence.

Archaeologists named the time period the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A stone age.

5.

Underline the modifiers in the following sentence.

Apparently, the wall was part of an early protocity that contained an organized community of 3,000
people.

6.

Underline the connectors in the following sentence.

It is unclear what the purpose of the wall of Jericho was, but it may have been intended to prevent
flooding or to protect the people from marauders.

Word Groups
Some sentences contain word groups called phrases and clauses.

Phrase
A phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb. Some phrases function as essential
parts of sentences; others function as modifiers.
1.

Prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with the object of the
prepositiona noun or a pronoun. The prepositional phrases in the following sentence are emphasized.

The Great Wall of China was a symbolic boundary of the empire, a 5,500-mile line separating civilization from
barbarism.
2.

Appositive phrase. An appositive phrase is a noun or adjective phrase that renames or describes another
noun. The appositive phrase is emphasized in the following sentence.
Mur des Lamentations, the Wailing Wall, is located in the Old City of Jerusalem.

3.

Infinitive phrase. An infinitive is a verb form consisting of the word to plus the verb. To locate is an infinitive.
An infinitive phrase begins with an infinitive and includes all the modifiers and objects that belong to the
infinitive. The infinitive phrase in the following sentence is emphasized.
To locate the monument to the 200,000 French citizens who died during the Holocaust, visit the nearest
kiosk and purchase your Plan de Paris.

4.

Gerund phrase. A gerund is a verb form that ends with -ing and is used as a noun. A gerund phrase usually
begins with a gerund and includes all of its objects and modifiers. A gerund or gerund phrase functions the
same way a noun functionsas subject, object, complement, or appositive. The gerund phrases are
emphasized in the following sentence.
Studying the Potsdam Agreement and the establishment of Stalins Eastern Bloc is helpful
in understanding how the Berlin Wall became a reality.

5.

Participial phrase. A participle is a verb form that is used as an adjective. A participial phrase usually begins
with the participle and includes all of its objects and modifiers. Adjectives are not essential parts of
sentences, and because participles and participial phrases function as adjectives, they are also
nonessential. In other words, a sentence can be complete without the participial phrase. The participial
phrases in the following sentence are emphasized.
Working with sandstone and mud mortar, the Ancient Pueblo People constructed massive dwellings along
cliff walls situated in the Four Corners area of the Southwest United States.

6.

Absolute phrase. An absolute phrase would be a complete sentence if some form of the verb be had not been
omitted. An absolute phrase is a modifier and therefore not essential to the structure of the sentence. The
absolute phrase in the following sentence is emphasized.

The Earl of Belvederes Jealous Wall, its length approximately 100 feet, still stands today near Mullingar in
County Westmeath, Ireland.

Clause
Clauses are word groups that contain both subjects and verbs. Clauses can be independent (main)
or dependent (subordinate).
1.

Independent clause. An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and stands as a complete
sentence. The following sentence is an independent clause.
Shards of broken ceramics cover Raymonde Isidores house, La Maison Picassiette.

2.

Dependent clause. A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence.
There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adjective, adverb, and noun.

Adjective clause. An adjective clause performs the function of an adjective: it modifies or describes a noun
or pronoun. An adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun, usually who, whose, whom, which, or that. The
adjective clause in the following sentence is emphasized.
Isidore, whose nickname, Picassiette, means Picasso of plates, used fifteen tons of china and crockery to
decorate his house and garden courtyard in Chartres, France.

Adverb clause. An adverb clause performs the function of an adverb: it modifies or describes a verb, adverb,
or adjective. Adverb clauses begin with subordinate conjunctions. The adverb clause in the following
sentence is emphasized.
After you visit Chartres Cathedral, consider walking through Isidores votive grottoes that recreate images of
the great Cathedral.

Noun clauses. A noun clause functions just as a noun functionsas a subject, object, complement, or
appositive. Noun clauses begin with relative pronouns, usually who, what, which, or that. The noun clause in
the following sentence is emphasized.
Isidore, who by various accounts was a road mender or graveyard sweeper, could not have imagined that his
house would attract over 30,000 visitors every year.
Picassiette House
Raymonde Isidore built the Picassiette House, with its mosaic walls, between 1938 and 1964.

CONCEPT CHECK
Understanding Phrases and Clauses
1.

Underline the prepositional phrase in the following sentence.

The Berlin Wall was a barrier between East Berlin and West Berlin.

2.

Underline the appositive phrase in the following sentence.

The United States fortieth president, Ronald Reagan, said to the Soviet leader, Mr. Gorbachev, tear
down this wall!

3.

Underline the infinitive phrase in the following sentences.

The Berlin Wall was intended to prevent fascist influences in the newly formed socialist state in East
Berlin.

4.

Underline the gerund phrase in the following sentence.

However, it resulted in restricting the freedom of East Berliners to travel wherever they pleased.

5.

Underline participial phrase in the following sentence.

Made of concrete and barbed wire, the Wall stood as a symbol of totalitarian oppression.

6.

Underline the absolute phrase in the following sentence.

Ronald Reagan delivered his speech in front of Brandenburg Gate, two bulletproof panes of glass
protecting him from potential snipers.

7.

Underline the independent clause in the following sentence.

Although the Berlin Wall was obliterated by ecstatic East and West Berliners, a section of it is on
display at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California.

8.

Underline the adjective clause in the following sentence.

The Eastern Bloc, which was controlled by the Soviet Union, included East Germany, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

9.

Underline the adverb clause in the following sentence.

Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the destruction of the wall because he agreed that it was time to increase
freedom in the Eastern Bloc.
10. Underline the noun clause in the following sentence.
Historians believe that the infiltration of rock n roll music was another cause of the collapse of the
Iron Curtain.

Sentence
A sentence is a word group containing a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought. Basic sentence
structures are the following:
1.

Subject and verb: Romans thrived.

2.

Subject, verb, and direct object: Romans built walls.

3.

Subject, verb, and subject complement: Romans were builders.

Longer sentences are achieved by compounding any of the preceding elements and by adding modifying
phrases and clauses.
There are four types of sentences in the English language: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.
Striving to use all four types of sentences in your writing will ensure variety in length and structure.
1.

A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. While it may contain more than one subject or
verb, it is not divisible into more than one clause. The following is a simple sentence.
Andy Goldsworthys sculpture, Storm King Wall, is 2,278 feet long.

2.

A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses. The following is a compound sentence.
Goldsworthy produces site-specific sculptures, but much of his earth art is ephemeral.

3.

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The following is a
complex sentence.
Goldsworthy, who collected fieldstones on the premises in Mountainville, New York, spent over two years
completing the Storm King Wall.

4.

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses, making the sentence compound,
and at least one dependent clause, making the sentence complex. The following is a compound-complex
sentence.

Goldsworthy built the wall known as Taking a Wall for a Walk in Grizedale Forest in northwest England, and
several years later he completed the Storm King Wall, which also interacts with the environment by snaking
through the trees, in New York.

Andy Goldsworthy, Storm King Wall

Andy Goldsworthy built his earth sculpture, Storm King Wall, in the hamlet of Mountainville, New York.

CONCEPT CHECK
Understanding Sentence Types
In the blank beside each of the following sentences, write S beside the simple sentence, C beside the compound
sentence, CX beside the complex sentence, and CCX beside the compound-complex sentence.
1.

___C__

o
2.

___S__

o
3.

The First Amendment has created a wall between church and state. US Supreme Court

__CX___

o
4.

Before I built a wall, Id ask to know what I was walling in or walling out. Robert Frost

Joshua fit the battle of Jericho, and the walls come tumblin down. Anonymous

_CCX____

He knows he has a short span of life, that the day will come when he must pass through the wall of
oblivion, and he wants to leave a scratch on that wallKilroy was herethat somebody a hundred, or a
thousand years later will see. William Faulkner

KEY TAKEAWAYS

The nine parts of speech are noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, article, preposition, conjunction, and
interjection.

Complete sentences always contain a subject and a verb.

Besides a subject and a verb, a sentence may contain objects, complements, modifiers, and connectors.

Besides a subject and a verb, a sentence may contain phrases and clauses.

Types of phrases are prepositional, appositive, infinitive, gerund, participial, and absolute.

Types of clauses are independent and dependent.

Types of dependent clauses are adjective, adverb, and noun.

The four sentence types are simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.