Unioni Bullonate Con Abaqus

ABAQUS: Selected Topics
University of Sydney
28 Feb 2006 02 Mar 2006
Copyright 2005 ABAQUS, Inc.
Day 1
Lecture 1
Overview of ABAQUS
Workshop 1
Lecture 2
Introduction to Non-linear Analysis
Workshop 2
Lecture 3
Linear Static Analysis of Cantilever Beam

Non-linear Analysis of Skew Plate
Materials Metal
Workshop 3a
Plasticity and Hardening 2D Cantilever Beam
Workshop 3b
Skew Plate with Plasticity
Lecture 4
Materials Concrete
Workshop 4
Collapse of a Concrete Slab
Day 2
Lecture 5
Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis
Workshop 5a
Cargo Crane Critical Load Estimation
Workshop 5b
Eigenvalue Buckling of a Square Tube
Lecture 6
Static Post-buckling Analysis
Workshop 6a
Cargo Crane Riks Analysis
Workshop 6b
Buckling of a Square Tube with Imperfections
Lecture 7
Damped Static Post-buckling Analysis
Workshop 7a
Cargo Crane Stabilized Static Analysis
Workshop 7b
Cargo Crane Dynamic Analysis
Day 3
Lecture 8
Introduction to Contact Modeling
Workshop 8a
Hinge Model
Workshop 8b
Clip and Plate Model
Lecture 9
Bolted Connection Modeling
Workshop 9a
Pump Model Bolt Loading
Workshop 9b
Beam-Column Connection with Fasteners
Lecture 10
Including Initial Stresses (Optional)
Question Session
Legal Notices
The information in this document is subject to change without notice and should not be construed as
a commitment by ABAQUS, Inc.
ABAQUS, Inc., assumes no responsibility for any errors that may appear in this document.
The software described in this document is furnished under license and may be used or copied only
in accordance with the terms of such license.
No part of this document may be reproduced in any form or distributed in any way without prior
written agreement with ABAQUS, Inc.
Copyright ABAQUS, Inc., 2005.
Printed in U.S.A.
All Rights Reserved.
ABAQUS is a registered trademark of ABAQUS, Inc.
The following are trademarks of ABAQUS, Inc.:
ABAQUS/Aqua; ABAQUS/CAE; ABAQUS/Design; ABAQUS/Explicit; ABAQUS/Foundation;
ABAQUS/Standard; ABAQUS/Viewer; ABAQUS Interface for MOLDFLOW; ABAQUS Interface for
MSC.ADAMS; and the ABAQUS, Inc., logo.
All other brand or product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective
companies or organizations.
Lecture 1
Overview of ABAQUS
Overview
Introduction
Components of an ABAQUS Model
Structure of an ABAQUS Input File
ABAQUS Conventions
Workshop 1: Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam
L1.2
What is ABAQUS?
Introduction
ABAQUS is a suite of finite element analysis modules
L1.4
L1.5
Introduction
The heart of ABAQUS are the analysis modules, ABAQUS/Standard and
ABAQUS/Explicit, which are complementary and integrated analysis
tools.
ABAQUS/Standard is a general-purpose, finite element module.
It provides a large number of capabilities for analyzing many different
types of problems, including many nonstructural applications.
ABAQUS/Explicit is an explicit dynamics finite element module.
ABAQUS/CAE incorporates the analysis modules into a Complete
ABAQUS Environment for modeling, managing, and monitoring ABAQUS
analyses and visualizing results.
L1.6
Introduction
ABAQUS/CAE
Complete ABAQUS Environment for
modeling, managing, and monitoring
ABAQUS analyses, as well as
visualizing results.
Intuitive and consistent user
interface throughout the system.
Based on the concepts of parts and
assemblies of part instances, which
are common to many CAD systems.
Parts can be created within
ABAQUS/CAE or imported from
other systems as geometry (to be
meshed in ABAQUS/CAE) or as
meshes.
Built-in feature-based parametric
modeling system for creating parts.
ABAQUS/CAE main user interface
L1.7
Introduction
Solver modules
ABAQUS/Standard and ABAQUS/Explicit provide the user with two
complementary analysis tools.
ABAQUS/Standards capabilities:
General analyses
Static stress/displacement analysis:
Rate-independent response
Rate-dependent (viscoelastic/creep/viscoplastic) response
Transient dynamic stress/displacement analysis
Transient or steady-state heat transfer analysis
Transient or steady-state mass diffusion analysis
Introduction
Steady-state transport analysis
Coupled problems:
Thermo-mechanical (sequentially or fully coupled)
Thermo-electrical
Pore fluid flow-mechanical
Stress-mass diffusion (sequentially coupled)
Piezoelectric (linear only)
Acoustic-mechanical
L1.8
L1.9
Introduction
Linear perturbation analyses
Static stress/displacement analysis:
Linear static stress/displacement analysis
Eigenvalue buckling load prediction
Dynamic stress/displacement analysis:
Determination of natural modes and frequencies
Transient response via modal superposition
Steady-state response resulting from harmonic loading
Includes alternative subspace projection method for
efficient analysis of large models with frequency-dependent
properties (like damping)
Response spectrum analysis
Dynamic response resulting from random loading
L1.10
Introduction
ABAQUS/Explicits capabilities:
Explicit dynamic response with or without adiabatic heating effects
Fully coupled thermo-mechanical analysis
Structural-acoustic analysis
Annealing for multistep forming simulations
Automatic adaptive meshing allows the robust solution of highly nonlinear
problems
L1.11
Introduction
Comparing ABAQUS/Standard and ABAQUS/Explicit
ABAQUS/Standard
A general-purpose finite element program.
Can solve for true static equilibrium in structural simulations.
Provides a large number of capabilities for analyzing many different
types of problems, including many nonstructural applications.
L1.12
Introduction
ABAQUS/Explicit
Solution procedure does not require iteration.
Solves highly discontinuous high-speed dynamic problems efficiently.
Does not require as much disk space as ABAQUS/Standard for larger
problems.
Contact calculations are easier with ABAQUS/Explicit. Applications
such as quasi-static metal forming simulations are easier.
Provides an adaptive meshing capability.
L1.13
Introduction
Documentation
Unless otherwise indicated, all documentation is available both online
and in print.
ABAQUS Analysis Users Manual
ABAQUS/CAE Users Manual
ABAQUS Example Problems Manual
ABAQUS Benchmarks Manual (online only)
ABAQUS Verification Manual (online only)
ABAQUS Theory Manual (online only)
L1.14
Introduction
Additional reference materials
Installation and Licensing Guide
(Installation instructions)
Release Notes
(Explains changes since previous release)
Advanced lecture notes on various topics (print only)
Tutorials
Getting Started with ABAQUS
Getting Started with ABAQUS/Standard: Keywords Version
(online only)
Getting Started with ABAQUS/Explicit: Keywords Version
(online only)
ABAQUS Home Page
www.abaqus.com
L1.16

The ABAQUS analysis modules run as batch programs. The primary input
to the analysis modules is an input file
A text file which contains options from element, material, procedure,
and loading libraries.
When working in ABAQUS/CAE, this input file is created behind the
scenes when an analysis job is submitted
For many analyses, the user need never see the input file
In some cases, the user may need to manually edit the input file
before submitting the analysis
A basic understanding of the ABAQUS input file format and contents is
beneficial
L1.17

The input file is divided into two parts: model data and history data.
Model data
Geometric optionsnodes, elements

Material options
Other model options
History data
Procedure options
Loading options
Output options
L1.18

History subdivided into analysis steps
Steps are convenient subdivisions in an analysis history.
Different steps can contain different analysis proceduresfor example,
static followed by dynamic.
Distinction between general and linear perturbation steps:
General steps define a sequence of events that follow one another.
The state of the model at the end of the previous general step
provides the initial conditions for the start of the next step. This is
needed for any history-dependent analysis.
Linear perturbation steps provide the linear response about the base
state, which is the state at the end of the most recent general step.
L1.19

Example: bow and arrow
simulation
Step 3 = natural
frequency extraction
Step 1 = pretension
Step 2 = pull back
Step 4 = dynamic release
Step 1: String the bow

Step 2: Pull back on the bow string
Step 3: Linear perturbation step to extract the natural frequencies of the system
has no effect on subsequent steps
Step 4: Release the arrow
L1.21

Option blocks
All data are defined in option blocks that describe specific aspects of the
problem definition, such as an element definition, etc. Together the option
blocks build the model.
Property reference
option block
Node option
block
Model
data
Material option
block
Element option
block
Contact option
block
History
data
Analysis procedure
option block
Boundary conditions
option block
Initial conditions
option block
Loading option block
Output request
option block
L1.22

Each option block begins with a keyword line (first character is *).
Data lines, if needed, follow the keyword line.
Comment lines, starting with **, can be included anywhere.
Keyword lines
Begin with a single * followed
directly by the name of the
option.
May include a combination of
required and optional
parameters, along with their
values, separated by commas.
Example: A material
option block defines a set
of material properties.
*MATERIAL, NAME=material name

keyword
parameter parameter value
The first line in a material option block
L1.23

Data lines
Define the bulk data for a given
option; for example, element
definitions.
A keyword line may have many
data lines associated with it.
Example: An element
option block defines
elements by specifying the
element type, the element
numbers, and the nodal
connectivity.
*ELEMENT,
560, 101,
564, 102,
572, 103,
ABAQUS Conventions
TYPE=B21
102
103
104
keyword line
data lines
node numbers (as required

for beam B21 elements)
element numbers
L1.25
ABAQUS Conventions
Units
ABAQUS uses no inherent set of units.
It is the users responsibility to use consistent units.
Common systems of consistent units
ABAQUS Conventions
Time measures
ABAQUS keeps track of both total time in an analysis and step time for
each analysis step.
Time is physically meaningful for some analysis procedures, such as
transient dynamics.
Time is not physically meaningful for some procedures. In rateindependent, static procedures time is just a convenient, monotonically
increasing measure for incrementing loads.
L1.26
L1.27
ABAQUS Conventions
Coordinate systems
For boundary conditions and
point loads, the default
coordinate system is the
rectangular Cartesian system.
local rectangular
coordinate system
with YSYMM
boundary conditions
Alternative local
rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical systems can be
defined.
These local directions do
not rotate with the material
in large-displacement
analyses.
Boundary conditions on a skew edge
L1.28
ABAQUS Conventions
For material directions (i.e., directions
associated with each elements material or
integration points) the default coordinate
system depends on the element type:
Solid elements use global rectangular
Cartesian system.
Default material directions for solid elements
Shell and membrane elements use a

projection of the global Cartesian
system onto the surface.
Default material directions for shell and

membrane elements
L1.29
ABAQUS Conventions
Alternative rectangular, cylindrical,
and spherical coordinate systems
may be defined.
Affects input: anisotropic
material directions.
Affects output: stress/strain
output directions.
Local material directions
rotate with the material in
large-displacement analyses.
ABAQUS Conventions
Degrees of freedom
Primary solution variables at the nodes.
Available nodal degrees of freedom depend on the element type.
Each degree of freedom is labeled with a number: 1=x-displacement,
2=y-displacement, 11=temperature, etc.
L1.30
Workshop 1: Linear Static Analysis of

a Cantilever Beam
Workshop 1: Linear Static Analysis of a Cantilever Beam
Workshop tasks
1. Follow detailed instructions
to create a simple cantilever
beam model using the
ABAQUS/CAE modules.
2. Submit a job for analysis.
3. View the analysis results.
L1.32
Lecture 2
Nonlinear Analysis in
ABAQUS/Standard
Overview
Equilibrium Equations
Linear Analysis
Nonlinearity in Structural Mechanics
Solving Nonlinear Equilibrium Equations
Including Nonlinear Effects in an ABAQUS Simulation
Convergence Issues
Diagnostics
Workshop 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a Skew Plate
L2.2
L2.4
The finite element method seeks to find the displacements of a structure,
u, such that:
The solution is continuous across element boundaries.
Equilibrium is achieved, and the prescribed boundary conditions are
satisfied.
Static equilibrium
The basic statement of static equilibrium is that the internal forces exerted
on the nodes, I, resulting from the element stresses and external forces, P,
acting at every node must balance:
P (u ) I (u ) = 0
(Eq. 2.1)
Equation 2.1 is general, and makes no assumptions about the forms of

P(u) and I(u).
L2.5
L2.6
Linear Analysis
Linear assumptions
If we assume
the deflections, rotations and strains are small
the material behaves linearly, and
the loads and boundary conditions do not change as the
structure deforms
then P is constant and I = Ku where K is constant
The equilibrium equation is then linear in u and the solution can be
found directly:
u = K-1P
L2.7
Linear Analysis
Characteristics of a linear analysis
Results (stress, strain, displacement) vary in proportion to the
applied loads.
Eg twice the load gives twice the displacement
If the problem is solved once, the results can be scaled
For a given set of boundary conditions, the results from distinct
loads can be superimposed to find the combined effect
Linear Analysis
Linear analysis has historically been widely used
Linear methods are easy and fast to solve
ABAQUS can solve linear problems
But
Real world problems are only approximately linear
Linear analysis is often inappropriate:
Non-linear material response
Large deformations
Loads or boundary conditions dependent on solution
In these cases, a nonlinear analysis is required to correctly model the
structural response.
L2.8
L2.10

Sources of nonlinearity
Material nonlinearities:
Nonlinear elasticity
Plasticity
Material damage
Failure mechanisms
Etc.
Note: material dependencies on
temperature or field variables do
not introduce nonlinearity if the
temperature or field variables
are predefined.
Some examples of material nonlinearity
L2.11

Boundary nonlinearities:
Contact problems
Boundary conditions change
during the analysis.
Extremely discontinuous form
of nonlinearity.
An example of self-contact: Compression of

a jounce bumper, Example Problem 1.1.16
in the ABAQUS Example Problems Manual
L2.12

Geometric nonlinearities:
Large deflections and deformations
Large rotations
Structural instabilities (buckling)
Preloading effects
An example of a load-displacement curve

from a buckling analysis
L2.13

Typical nonlinear problems have all three forms of nonlinearity.
Must include the nonlinear terms in the equations.
An example of with nonlinearity

elastomeric keyboard dome
Video Clip
L2.15

Static equilibrium
As before, we have
P = Ku
However, now P and K can depend on u :
P = P(u) and K = K(u)

It is no longer possible to solve for u directly
Nonlinear problems are generally solved using an incremental and iterative
numerical technique
L2.16

Incremental solution scheme
For a static problem a fraction of the total load is applied to the structure
and the equilibrium solution corresponding to the current load level is
obtained.
The load level is then increased (i.e., incremented) and the process is
repeated until the full load level is applied.
P
Increments
in applied
load
Final equilibrium
solution at total load
u
Intermediate
equilibrium solutions
L2.17

To solve for equilibrium in nonlinear problems, ABAQUS/Standard uses an
incremental-iterative solution, based on the Newton-Raphson technique.
Assume that the solution to the previous load increment, u0, is known.
Assume that after an iteration, i, an approximation, ui, to the solution has
been obtained. Let ci+1 be the difference between this solution and the
exact solution to the discrete equilibrium equation, Equation 2.1, so that
P (ui + ci +1 ) I (ui + ci +1 ) = 0.
(Eq. 2.2)
Expanding the left-hand side of Equation 2.2 in a Taylor series about the
approximate solution, ui, then gives
P(ui ) I (ui )
P(ui ) I (ui ) +
ci +1 + .... = 0.
u
u
(Eq. 2.3)
L2.18

By ignoring higher-order terms, the equation can be written as
K i ci +1 = P (ui ) I (ui ),
where K i =
I (ui ) P (ui )
is the tangent stiffness.
u
u
The next approximation to the solution is
ui +1 = ui + ci +1.
Note that if the load depends on displacement (e.g., pressure on a surface
that rotates), the stiffness matrix includes a load stiffness contribution.
L2.19

ABAQUS then forms Ki+1 and calculates Ii+1 based on the updated state
of the model, ui+1.
The difference between the total applied force, PTOTAL, and the internal
force, Ii+1, is called the force residual, Ri+1: Ri+1= PTOTAL Ii+1.
If R1 is very small (within the tolerance limit) at every degree of freedom in
the model, the structure is in equilibrium.
The default tolerance is that R1 must be less than 0.5% of the time
averaged force in the structure.
ABAQUS automatically calculates the time averaged force.
If the iteration does not produce a converged solution, ABAQUS will
perform another iteration in an attempt to find a converged solution.
L2.20

This procedure is repeated until force residuals are within the tolerance
limits. Each iteration, i, requires:
1. Formulation of tangent stiffness, Ki.
2. Solution of simultaneous system of equations for ci+1.
Update the estimate of the solution: ui+1 = ui + ci+1.
3. Calculation of internal force vector Ii+1 based on ui+1.
4. Judgment of equilibrium convergence:
Is Ri+1 within the tolerance?
# iter
Is ci +1 <<
c ?
j
j =1
L2.21

The method can be understood quite easily (in one dimension) from a
load-displacement diagram:
Two convergence criteria:

Small residuals
Residual
Small corrections
1
Internal force
2
Correction

Steps, increments, and iterations
Analysis steps
The load history for a simulation consists of one or more steps.
Increments
An increment is part of a step.
In static problems the total load applied in a step is broken into
smaller increments so that the nonlinear solution path may be
followed.
In dynamic problems the total time period is broken into smaller
increments to integrate the equations of motion.
Iterations
An iteration is an attempt at finding the equilibrium solution in an
increment.
L2.22
L2.23

Automatic time incrementation
ABAQUS automatically adjusts the size of the increments so that nonlinear
problems are solved easily and efficiently.
Heuristic algorithm (based on many years of experience).
In static problems it is based on number of iterations required to converge.
Convergence is easily achieved:
increase increment size
Convergence difficult or divergence occurs:

cut back increment size
Otherwise:
maintain same increment size
Tip: For highly nonlinear problems, it is recommended that the initial time
increment be chosen as a small fraction (e.g., 10%) of the total step time.
L2.24

Incrementation data:
ABAQUS/Standard
Automatic time
incrementation chosen by
default.
Specify the initial increment

size and the number of
increments allowed.
Default maximum
number of increments
allowed for the step.
ABAQUS will stop if:

The maximum number of
increments is reached
before the total load is
applied
or
If increment sizes smaller
than the minimum are
required.
Suggested initial
increment size.
Default is the time
period.
Minimum and
maximum increment
sizes.
Defaults based on time
period for step.
Including Nonlinear Effects in an

ABAQUS Simulation

Material nonlinearity
Define a nonlinear material model (e.g., plasticity, hyperelasticity, etc).
Examples are discussed in Lectures 3 and 4
Boundary nonlinearity
Define contact interactions between bodies.
Discussed further in Lecture 8.
Geometric nonlinearity
Set the Nlgeom option when defining the analysis step.
L2.26
L2.27

Geometric nonlinearity
Include all nonlinear geometric
effects due to:
Large deflections,
rotations, deformation.
Specify time period

of the step.
Preloading (initial
stresses).
Load stiffness.
If the above are not important,
the answer will be the same as
with Nlgeom set to Off but the
analysis will be more
expensive.
Set Nlgeom to On to include include all

nonlinear geometric effects.
Convergence Issues
Edit Step dialog box
L2.29
Convergence Issues (Noncontact Related)

What does convergence mean?
For an implicit solver such as ABAQUS/Standard:
Equilibrium state has been obtained based on predefined criteria
(small residuals, small solution corrections, etc.).
Non-convergence
If ABAQUS is unable to converge to the equilibrium state in an acceptable
number of iterations, the analysis will terminate at that point
Information is available to help diagnose convergence problems
Error and warning messages
Detailed information about the solution progress
Available in
Message file (*.msg)
Job Monitor and Job Diagnostics in ABAQUS/CAE
L2.30
Convergence Issues (Noncontact Related)

Some common warning messages ABAQUS/Standard
Numerical singularities
These indicate that so many digits are

lost during linear equation solution that
the results are not reliable. The most
common cause is an unconstrained rigid
body mode in a static stress analysis.
Zero pivots
These occur during linear equation

solution when there is a force term but no
corresponding stiffness. Common causes
are unconstrained rigid body modes and
overconstrained degrees of freedom.
Negative eigenvalues
Negative eigenvalues indicate that the

stiffness matrix is not positive definite. For
example, a buckling load may have been
exceeded.
Diagnostics
L2.32
Diagnostics
Job Monitor
Summarizes the solution progress.
The same information is also printed to the status (.sta) file.
Job Diagnostics
Provides details of each iteration for an ABAQUS/Standard analysis.
The same information is also printed to the message (.msg) file.
L2.33
Diagnostics
Understanding the Job Monitor
Summarizes how analysis
proceedsshows automatic time
incrementation at work.
You can check the status file
while the job is running.
One line written after each
successful increment.
Diagnostics
Understanding Job Diagnostics in ABAQUS/Standard
Includes:
All iteration details.
Solver messages.
Useful troubleshooting information:
Locations of highest residuals.
Locations of excessive deformation.
Locations of contact changes.
The locations can be highlighted in the model.
L2.34
L2.35
Diagnostics
Tools
Job Diagnostics
Initial time increment
L2.36
Diagnostics
A similar display is given for

rotational degrees of freedom
Toggle on to see the locations in

the model where the largest
residuals and displacement
increments and corrections occur.
L2.37
Diagnostics
0.005
0.012
L2.38
Diagnostics
0.005
0.012
L2.39
Diagnostics
4 or fewer
iterations (do
this again and
t can increase)
L2.40
Diagnostics
no increase
Two consecutive
increments with 4 or
fewer iterations: t =
1.5 told
t = 1.5 told
L2.41
Diagnostics
Workshop 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a

Skew Plate
L2.43
Workshop 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a Skew Plate
Workshop tasks
1. Create model.
a. Local material directions.
b. Local boundary
condition directions.
2. Run static analysis:
a. Linear
b. Geometric nonlinearity
3. Postprocess the results.
Video Clip
Lecture 3
Materials - Metal
Overview
Introduction
Typical Metal Behaviour
Linear Elasticity
Metal Plasticity
Yield Functions
Hardening
Input of Material Data for Plasticity
Workshop 3a: Plasticity and Hardening
Workshop 3b: Skew Plate with Plasticity
L3.2
Introduction
Introduction
ABAQUS has a wide variety of built-in material models designed to be
used to model
Metals, ceramics, rubbers, foams, plastics, soils, concrete and other
geotechnical materials
Phenomenological Approach
Most material models (for metal and concrete) are based upon
experimental observations.
Capture critical material behaviour within a usable and stable continuum
description
Material Input
Key material parameters (eg Youngs Modulus) must be entered by the
user
ABAQUS has no inbuilt library of material parameters
L3.4
L3.5
Introduction
This course provides general information about modeling two particular
materials in ABAQUS
Metals
Concrete
The focus of this lecture is on modeling Metals
Conrete is discussed in the next lecture
L3.7

Consider a uniaxial tension test performed on a metal specimen at
relatively low temperature.
B
stress
E
1
C
strain
Uniaxial stress-strain data for a metal

L3.8

The material initially exhibits stiff linear response to the applied load:
Youngs modulus E quantifies the material stiffness.
The deformation is fully recoverableif the load is released, the
specimen will return to its original configuration.
At point A the material yields, and the deformation beyond this point is not
fully recoverableit is no longer purely elastic.
Yield is usually accompanied by a drastic reduction in the stiffness of the
material:
Response to further loading follows a much lower work hardening
modulus.
In extreme cases the material exhibits no stiffness beyond the initial
yield point and is considered perfectly plastic.
L3.9

If the strain is reversed at point B, the material immediately recovers its
elastic stiffness.
If the specimen is completely unloaded, the strain at point C represents the
permanent deformation in the material.
If the unloading does not continue beyond the elastic range and the
specimen is again loaded in the original direction, the material yields at, or
very close to, point B.
L3.10

If the unloading is continued so that yield occurs in the opposite direction,
the yield stress is reduced compared to that of the original specimen. This
is known as the Bauschinger effect.
B
stress
C
strain
D
A
The Bauschinger effect

L3.11

Discussion thus far has been limited to uniaxial stress-strain
measurements at one temperature and one strain rate. For most metals:
As the material temperature increases, the yield stress decreases.
As the strain rate increases, the yield stress increases.
Varying the temperature and strain rate provides results similar to those
shown in the figure below.
stress
stress
temperature
increasing
strain
Effect of temperature and strain rate on stress-strain data

Linear Elasticity
strain rate
increasing
strain
L3.13
Linear Elasticity
Most metals have some range of deformation in which their behavior
remains elastic and linear
The linear elastic material model:
Is valid for small elastic strains (normally less than 5%);
Can be isotropic, orthotropic, or fully anisotropic; and
Can have properties that depend on temperature and/or other field
variables.
Orthotropic and anisotropic material definitions require the use of local
material directions.
L3.14
Linear Elasticity
For a linear elastic material, Hooke's law states:
stress strain.
The generalized form of the law is written as
= D el : el
where is the Cauchy (or true) stress, D el is the fourth-order elasticity
el
tensor, and is the elastic log strain.
Uniaxial stress-strain curve

for a linear elastic material
L3.15
Linear Elasticity
Defining linear elasticity in ABAQUS
*Material, name=steel
*Elastic
2.e11, 0.3
Temperaturedependence
Metal Plasticity
L3.17
Metal Plasticity
When inelastic material models are used in ABAQUS, the total strain in the
model, , is decomposed into elastic, plastic, and creep strains:
= el + pl + cr .
ABAQUS plasticity models are usually formulated in terms of a yield
surface, a flow rule, and hardening.
A yield surface is a test function that determines if the material
responds purely elastically at a particular stress state.
A flow rule defines the plastic deformation that occurs if the material is
no longer responding purely elastically.
Hardening defines the way in which the yield and/or flow definitions
change as inelastic deformation occurs.
Yield Functions
L3.19
Yield Functions
0
The yield function of the metal plasticity models, f , , defines when
the metal begins to deform inelastically.
When f = 0, the metal is yielding.

is the true stress in the metal (it is a tensor quantity).
0 is the yield stress (usually a scalar quantity).
The yield function is often written in terms of stress invariants. The
commonly used stress invariants are
1
3
3
Mises equivalent stress, q =
( S : S ),
2
equivalent pressure stress, p = trace ( ) ,
where S is the deviatoric stress, defined as = S pI .

Note that for uniaxial loading, q = uniaxial.
L3.20
Yield Functions
There are two yield functions available for the classical metal plasticity
models in ABAQUS:
The Mises yield function,
f = q 0.
Hills anisotropic yield function,
f = F yy zz
+ G ( zz xx ) + H xx yy
F, G, H, L, M, and N are
material constants
2
2
2
+ 2 L yz
+ 2 M zx
+ 2 N xy
0.
L3.21
Yield Functions
The Mises yield function is suitable when:
The metal is subjected to monotonic loads, such as crash analyses
and forming simulations.
The material has isotropic yielding.
Hills yield function is intended for metals that have initial anisotropy in their
yield behavior.
The anisotropy does not evolve with plastic deformation of the
material.
Yield Functions
Defining Mises plasticity in ABAQUS
*Elastic
Linear elasticity
2.e11, 0.3
*Plastic
Plastic strain at
4.e8, 0.0
initial yield = 0.0
4.2e8, 0.02
5.e8, 0.2
6.e8, 0.5
True stress and log plastic strain
L3.22
L3.23
Yield Functions
Defining Hills plasticity in ABAQUS
*Elastic
2.e11, 0.3
*Plastic
4.e8, 0.0
4.2e8, 0.02
5.e8, 0.2
6.e8, 0.5
*Potential
1.5, 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.
Stress ratios; can

be functions of
temperature and
field variables.
L3.24
Yield Functions
ABAQUS calculates the values of the constants F, G, H, L, M, and N of
Hills yield function from stress ratios:
R11 = 11 0 , R22 = 22 0 , R33 = 33 0

R12 = 12 0 , R13 = 13 0 , R23 = 23 0
where 11, 22 , K are the yield stress values when ij is the only
nonzero component of stress, 0 is the reference yield stress value and
0 =0
3.
0 is given on the *PLASTIC option or in the Plastic definition area of

the material editor; it is usually chosen as one of the three direct yield
stress magnitudes.
L3.25
Yield Functions
Example: cylindrical cup deep drawing with transverse anisotropy
We examine two cases: one in which the material is considered isotropic,
another in which transverse anisotropy is assumed. This example is
modeled using the POTENTIAL option within the material block:
POTENTIAL
1., 1., 1.1511, 1., 1. , 1.
Plots of blank thickness in the final formed configuration for both cases are
shown in the figures on the next page.
L3.26
Yield Functions
The effect of the anisotropy on the thickness is readily apparent, as the
increased strength in the thickness direction results in less thinning of the
blank.
isotropic
anisotropic
Effect of transverse anisotropy on blank thickness

Hardening
L3.28
Hardening
Yield surface must be coupled to a hardening relationship
The yield surface may change as a result of plastic deformation. The
change in the yield surface is defined by the hardening law.
The following hardening laws are available in ABAQUS:
Perfect plasticity
Isotropic hardening
Intended for applications such as

crash analyses, metal forming,
and general collapse studies.
Kinematic hardening
Intended for applications

involving cyclic loading.
Combined isotropic/kinematic hardening

Johnson-Cook plasticity
Well suited to model high-strainrate deformation of metals; only

available in ABAQUS/Explicit.
L3.29
Hardening
Perfect plasticity (no hardening)
Simplest definition of plasticity
In perfect plasticity the metals yield function, f, does not evolve as the
metal accumulates plastic strains.
Perfect plasticity can be used with either the Mises or the Hill yield
function.
Perfect plasticity is defined by providing only one value for the yield stress
of the metal, 0.
Hardening
Defining perfect plasticity in ABAQUS
*Elastic
2.e11, 0.3
*Plastic
4.e8, 0.0
One value of the yield

stress of the metal, 0,
is provided.
L3.30
L3.31
Hardening
Isotropic hardening (default)
Isotropic hardening is used to model gross plastic straining or when
straining at a point is essentially in the same direction in strain space.
The yield stress increases (or decreases) uniformly in all stress directions
as plastic straining occurs
With isotropic hardening the metals yield stress evolves as the metal
accumulates plastic strains, 0 pl .
( )
pl
is the equivalent plastic strain, defined as
pl
2 pl pl
& : & dt.
3
L3.32
Hardening

pl
is obtained through the variable PEEQ in ABAQUS.
It is obtained by integrating the equivalent plastic strain rate over

the history of the deformation.
Thus, it always grows with any plastic deformation.
L3.33
Hardening
Define isotropic hardening by
providing tabular data of 0 and
pl
Isotropic hardening can be used

with either Mises or Hills yield
function.
*Elastic
2.e11, 0.3
*Plastic
4.e8, 0.0
4.2e8, 0.02
5.e8, 0.2
6.e8, 0.5
L3.34
Hardening
Linear kinematic hardening
Linear kinematic hardening is used to model the behavior of metals
subjected to cyclic loading.
The linear kinematic model defines the yield function as
f = q ( ) 0 = 0.
is the backstress tensor that describes how the center of the yield
surface moves in stress space as plastic strains accumulate.
q ( ) can be either Mises or Hills yield potential (function).
L3.35
Hardening
Pick the second data point

from stabilized cyclic test
data.
The linear kinematic
hardening data can be a
function of only.
No field variable ( fi ) or rate
dependence is allowed
pl
1.0
[103]
, 0)
0.5
StressS11
Define linear kinematic hardening

by providing the initial yield
stress, 0 , and the yield stress,
0( pl), at some finite plastic
strain.
0.0
0.5
1.0
10.
5.
0.
StrainE11
5.
10.
[103]
Calibrating the linear kinematic

hardening model
Hardening
Sample usage:
*Elastic
200.E3,.3
*Plastic, hardening=kinematic
200., 0.0
220., 0.0009
L3.36
L3.37
Hardening
The linear kinematic model can provide a first-order approximation of the
anisotropic hardening that occurs in metals when they are loaded
cyclically.
The model accounts for the translation of the yield surface with plastic
deformation but does not consider any change in the size of the yield
surface.
The linear kinematic model is valid only for relatively small strains
( < 0.05).
Approximates the Bauschinger
stress
A
Y
effect seen in cyclic loading.
B
O
strain
C
Y
The Bauschinger
effect
L3.39

Experimental measurements are often reported in terms of nominal
(engineering) stress versus nominal strain. For approximately
incompressible material behavior, a simple conversion to true stress and
logarithmic strain can be carried out:
true = nom (1 + nom ) ,

ln = ln (1 + nom ) .
These expressions relate true stress versus logarithmic total strain.
ABAQUS requires true stress versus logarithmic plastic strain to be
defined with the plasticity model options. Logarithmic plastic strain can be
obtained from logarithmic total strain using
lnpl = ln
true
E
Workshop 3a: Plasticity and Hardening

Workshop 3b: Skew Plate with
Plasticity
Lecture 4
Materials - Concrete
Overview
Introduction
Mechanical Behavior of Plain Concrete
ABAQUS Constitutive Models for Concrete
Concrete Smeared Cracking
Usage
Calibration
Modeling Aspects
Reinforcement Modeling
Workshop 4: Collapse of a Concrete Slab
L4.2
Introduction
Introduction
ABAQUS offers a variety of constitutive material models suited for the
analysis of concrete structures.
This lecture is intended as an introduction to the Smeared Cracking
Model in ABAQUS/Standard.
Suitable for modeling reinforced concrete under low confining pressures
and monotonic loading.
Other models are available, but are beyond the scope of this course.
This lecture also provides an overview of modeling reinforcement.
L4.4
L4.5
Introduction
Typical applications
Collapse load calculations of structural components, such as reinforced
beams, columns, shear walls, etc.
Nuclear reactor engineering: Failure analysis of reinforced concrete
containment by overpressurization
Road and bridge engineering
L4.7

Concrete behaves as a quasi-brittle material except under high triaxial
compression.
Unlike classically brittle solids, concrete can undergo inelastic
deformation that may be significantly larger than the elastic strains.
What follows are general observations about the macroscopic behavior of
typical plain concrete.
These observations are useful for constructing and understanding
constitutive models
No attempt is made to discuss the highly complex microscopic behaviour
of concrete
L4.8

Uniaxial behavior
Beyond some stress threshold, concrete behaves nonlinearly, exhibiting
progressive and irreversible damage until complete collapse occurs.
Strain softening results from the formation of micro-cracks.
Uniaxial compression behavior
Uniaxial tension behavior
Karsan and Jirsa (1969)
Mazars and Pijaudier-Cabot (1989)
L4.9

Dilatancy: Volume increase that results from the formation and growth of
cracks parallel to the direction of the greatest compressive
stress.
Typical plot of compressive stress vs. axial, lateral, and volumetric strain
L4.10

Biaxial loading
Under biaxial compressive loading, concrete strength is greater than the
one observed in uniaxial tests.
Compressive stress vs. strain components and volumetric strain under biaxial-compressive loading
Kupfer et al. (1969)
L4.11

Biaxial strength envelope
Biaxial strength envelope of concrete
Failure modes of biaxially loaded concrete
Kupfer et al. (1969)
L4.12

Triaxial loading
Under high confining pressure, crack propagation is prevented. The brittle
behavior disappears and is replaced by ductility with work hardening.
Triaxial concrete behavior

Chen (1982)
L4.13

Cyclic behavior
Plasticity and stiffness degradation
Stiffness recovery upon load reversal (unilateral effect)
Stress-deformation curve under cyclic

loading (small compressive stress)
Stress-deformation curve under cyclic

loading (large compressive stress)
Reinhardt and Cornelissen (1984)
Reinhardt and Cornelissen (1984)
ABAQUS Constitutive Models for

Concrete
L4.15

ABAQUS uses a continuum description of the concrete material response
instead of tracking discrete macro cracks. Constitutive calculations are
performed independently at each integration point.
Models for concrete at low pressure stress
Smeared cracking model (ABAQUS/Standard)
Brittle cracking model (ABAQUS/Explicit)
Concrete damaged plasticity model
Models for concrete under high compression
Cap model
This lecture will only cover the smeared cracking model
L4.16

Modeling reinforcement Tension Stiffening
In ABAQUS reinforcement in concrete structures is typically provided by
means of rebar and/or embedded elements.
With this modeling approach, the concrete behavior is considered
independently of the rebar.
Effects associated with the rebar/concrete interface, such as bond slip and
dowel action, are modeled approximately
This is done by introducing some tension stiffening into the postcracking concrete response to simulate load transfer across cracks
through the rebar.
L4.17

Brittle cracking model
Intended for applications in which the concrete behavior is dominated by
tensile cracking and compressive failure is not important.
Includes consideration of the anisotropy induced by cracking.
The compressive behavior is assumed to be always linear elastic.
A brittle failure criteria allows the removal of elements from a mesh.
This material model is not discussed further in this class.
For more information see Cracking model for concrete, section
11.5.2 of the ABAQUS Analysis User's Manual.

Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model
Intended as a general capability for the analysis of concrete structures
under monotonic, cyclic, and/or dynamic loading
Scalar (isotropic) damage model, with tensile cracking and compressive
crushing modes
Degradation of elastic stiffness in both tension and compression
Takes into account stiffness recovery effects in cyclic loading
This material model is not discussed further in this class.
For more information see Concrete damaged plasticity, section
11.5.3 of the ABAQUS Analysis User's Manual.
L4.18
Smeared Cracking Model
L4.20

Intended for applications in which concrete is subjected to essentially
monotonic straining and a material point exhibits either tensile cracking or
compressive crushing.
Plastic straining in compression is controlled by a compression yield
surface.
Tensile cracking occurs when the stress reaches the crack detection
surface.
Cracking is assumed to be the most important aspect of the behavior, and
the representation of cracking and post-cracking anisotropic behavior
dominates the modeling.
L4.21

Features of smeared cracking model
Compressive response
Elastic-plastic with
hardening/softening
Undamaged elastic
stiffness
Tensile response
Elastic with failure
Post-failure softening and
damaged elasticity
Unixaxial behaviour of plain concrete
L4.22

Multiaxial response
Yield and failure surfaces are
fitted to experimental data
Yield and failure surfaces in the (pq) plane
Yield and failure surfaces in plane stress
L4.23

Tensile Crack Detection
Cracking is assumed to occur when the stress reaches crack detection
surface.
Cracks are irrecoverable: they remain for the rest of the calculation (but
may open and close).
No more than three orthogonal cracks can occur at any point (in 3D).
Following crack detection, the crack affects the calculations because a
damaged elasticity model is used.
Stiffness degradation affects the normal stiffness and optionally the
shear stiffness as well (using the Shear Retention option).
L4.24

Post-cracking Response
Defined by tension
stiffening curve input
by user
This is the
mechanism by which
the rebar/concrete
interaction is modeled
Also includes
damaged elasticity
normal to crack
Optionally, can
include degradation
of shear stiffness
Post-failure response in tension
Usage
Usage
Isotropic Linear Elasticity for
undamaged elastic response
***
** MATERIALS
**
*Material, name=concrete
*Elastic
29000., 0.18
L4.26
L4.27
Usage
Defining the plastic response in compression
User enters the uniaxial stress-strain response
Give tabular data defining yield stress as a function of plastic strain
Data is usually readily available from a uniaxial compression test
Usage
Plastic response in compression
***
** MATERIALS
**
*Elastic
29000., 0.18
*Concrete
18.4,
0.
32., 0.0013
Yield stress as function of

plastic strain
L4.28
L4.29
Usage
Post-cracking tensile response tension stiffening
The post-crack response is defined by a tension stiffening curve
Two possible ways of specifying tension stiffening:
Postfailure stress-strain relation
Fracture energy cracking criterion (stress-displacement relation)
The default is to define a Postfailure stress-strain relation (Type=Strain)
Give tabular data defining fraction of stress remaining versus postcracking strain
Ratio of stress to
failure stress
1.0
Crack opening strain
L4.30
Usage
Tension stiffening continued
When there is no reinforcement in the concrete, the stress-strain softening
approach introduces unreasonable mesh sensitivity.
To deal with this, we assume that the fracture energy to open a unit area of
crack, Gf , is a material property.
With this approach the concretes brittle behavior is characterized by a
stress-displacement response rather than a stress-strain response.
Use Type=Disp to activate this approach
Specify the displacement, u0, at which linear loss of strength gives
zero stress
Ratio of stress to
failure stress
1.0
u0
Crack opening
displacement
L4.31
Usage
Mesh sensitivity for unreinforced concrete:
P
u
Constant softening slope

()
Constant fracture energy

(u)
1 element
1, 2, 4, and 8 elements
2 elements
*Tension Stiffening, Type=Strain
*Tension Stiffening, Type=Disp
Usage
Tension stiffening continued
The user must specify the tension stiffening behaviour; it cannot be
omitted.
However, this data is not easily specified since the tension stiffening
behaviour depends on the amount an orientation of reinforcement
But it is very important to the behaviour of the model
See later comments on Calibration and Modelling Aspects
L4.32
L4.33
Usage
Tension stiffening
***
** MATERIALS
**
*Elastic
29000., 0.18
*Concrete
18.4,
0.
32., 0.0013
*Tension Stiffening
1.,
0.
0., 0.0008
Fraction of
remaining
stress
Postcracking
strain
Usage
Defining the yield/failure surfaces
The user can enter four ratios to define the yield and failure surfaces
Ratio of ultimate biaxial compressive stress to ultimate uniaxial
compressive stress
Ratio of uniaxial tensile stress at failure to ultimate uniaxial
compressive stress
Ratio of magnitude of principal plastic strain at ultimate stress in
biaxial compression to plastic strain at ultimate stress in uniaxial
compression
Ratio of tensile principal stress at cracking in plane stress (when the
other principal stress is at the ultimate compressive value) to the
tensile cracking stress in uniaxial tension
If this data is not specified, default values are used
L4.34
L4.35
Usage
Failure ratios
***
** MATERIALS
**
*Elastic
29000., 0.18
*Concrete
18.4,
0.
32., 0.0013
*Tension Stiffening
1.,
0.
0., 0.0008
*Failure Ratios
1.16, 0.0625,
1.28, 0.3333
Usage
Shear retention
The user can specify data to define how the shear modulus degrades in
the presence of cracking.
The data required is
Fraction of shear modulus applicable to a closed crack
Crack opening strain at which the shear modulus is zero
If this option is omitted, the default is for full shear retention (i.e. the
shear modulus is unaffected by cracking)
L4.36
L4.37
Usage
Shear retention
***
** MATERIALS
**
*Elastic
29000., 0.18
*Concrete
18.4,
0.
32., 0.0013
*Tension Stiffening
1.,
0.
0., 0.0008
*Failure Ratios
1.16, 0.0625,
1.28, 0.3333
*Shear Retention
0.9, 0.002
Calibration
L4.39
Calibration
Minimum of two experiments are required to calibrate the simplest
version of the concrete model (using all possible defaults)
Uniaxial compression test
Uniaxial tension test
Uniaxial compression
This test gives the compressive stress-strain curve
Uniaxial tensile test
This test is difficult to perform, and data is often not available
Assumption required for tensile failure strength (usually about 7-10% of
compressive strength)
Calibration of post-failure response depends on nature of reinforcing
Calibration
Shear Retention
Combined tension and shear experiments are required to calibrate the
post-cracking shear behaviour
Tests are difficult so default (full shear retention) is often used
Failure Ratios
Biaxial experiments are required to calibrate the Failure Ratios
Tests are difficult so default values are generally used
L4.40
Modeling Aspects
L4.42
Modeling Aspects
Choice of material properties
The users success in analyzing concrete problems depends significantly
on making sensible choices regarding the concrete material parameters.
The values chosen for tension stiffening are the most important item when
analyzing problems that involve cracking failure of the concrete. Generally,
the more tension stiffening is included, the easier it is to obtain numerical
solutions.
The tensile postfailure behavior is not easily specified: the loss of strength
depends on such factors as the density of reinforcement and the quality of
the bond between the rebar and the concrete.
Some trial and error may be required to calibrate the tension stiffening in
each particular case
L4.43
Modeling Aspects
A reasonable starting point for reinforced concrete is to assume that the
strain softening after failure reduces the stress linearly to zero at a total
strain about 10 times the strain at failure.
t
t0
t0
10 t0
The strain at failure is typically 10-4, so a total strain of 10-3 is reasonable
L4.44
Modeling Aspects
Elements
ABAQUS offers a variety of elements for use with the concrete cracking
model including beam, shell, plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric, and
three-dimensional continuum elements.
For general shell analysis more than the default number of 5 integration
points through the thickness of the shell should be used; 9 thickness
integration points are commonly used to model progressive failure of the
concrete through the thickness with acceptable accuracy.
L4.45
Modeling Aspects
Output
In addition to the standard output identifiers available in ABAQUS, the
following variables relate specifically to material points in the smeared
crack concrete model:
CRACK
Unit normal to cracks in concrete
CONF
Number of cracks at a concrete

material point
These variables are only available in the printed results file (*.dat)
Not currently supported through ABAQUS/CAE
Must be manually requested
*El Print, Elset=concrete_elems
CONF, CRACK
Modeling Aspects
Other considerations
Considerable nonlinearity is expected in the response of concrete
structures, including the possibility of unstable regimes as the concrete
cracks. The following is recommended to alleviate possible convergence
difficulties:
Use automatic stabilization in static steps, STATIC, STABILIZE. In
problems with global instabilities, use the modified Riks method,
RIKS.
Since the overall convergence of the solution is expected to be nonmonotonic, use CONTROLS, ANALYSIS=DISCONTINUOUS to
prevent premature termination of the equilibrium iteration process
because the solution may appear to be diverging.
L4.46
Reinforcement in ABAQUS
In ABAQUS, concrete reinforcement is modeled using REBAR LAYERS
Shell, membrane, and surface elements are reinforced by directly
specifying a rebar layer in the element.
Surface elements do not have any element properties other than the
rebar layer and are used primarily as place-holders for rebar layers.
Solid elements are reinforced using the embedded element constraint.
In this technique, either surface or membrane elements reinforced
with rebar layers are embedded in the solid host elements.
L4.48
L4.49
Reinforcement
Solid elements
Embedded
element
constraint
Rebar layers in
membranes
Structural elements
Rebar layers in
membranes
Rebar layers
in shells
Rebar layers in
surface elements
Rebar layers in various element types in ABAQUS

L4.50
Rebars layers are used for modeling uniaxial reinforcement in shell,
membrane and surface elements.
Rebars layers have the following properties:
Their material properties are independent of those of the underlying
elements.
As many different combinations and orientations of rebar layers as are
needed can be defined within a single element.
The rebar layer volume is not subtracted from the volume of the
element to which the rebar layer is added.
Thus, rebar layers should be used only when the volume fraction
of reinforcement is small (such as with reinforced concrete where
the volume fraction of the rebar is between 1% and 4%).
L4.51
Specification of rebar layers
The REBAR LAYER option is used in conjunction with the
SHELL SECTION,
MEBRANE SECTION, or
SURFACE SECTION
options to specify reinforcement layers in shell, membranes, and surface

elements, respectively.
L4.52
Sample usage:
*SHELL SECTION, ELSET=...
*REBAR LAYER, ORIENTATION=ORI1
name, a, s, f, mat, alpha, 1
name
mat
alpha
*SHELL SECTION, ELSET=...

*REBAR LAYER, ORIENTATION=ORI1
name, a, s, f, mat, alpha, 1
L4.53
For each rebar layer, specify
rebar layer name (used to identify the layer in the list of section points
when postprocessing with ABAQUS/Viewer);
the rebar material name;
cross-sectional area a of each rebar;
the rebar spacing s in the plane of the membrane, shell, or surface
element;
the angular orientation alpha, in degrees, measured relative to the
local 1-direction, positive in the direction of the element normal; and
the position of the rebars in the thickness direction f (for shell
elements only), measured from the midsurface of the shell (positive in
the direction of the positive normal to the shell).
Repeat the data to define each rebar layer
Similar method is used to define rebar in membrane and surface element
L4.54
Prestresses in rebar layers
Prestress can be defined in the rebars using the *INITIAL CONDITIONS,
TYPE=STRESS, REBAR option, with or without using the *PRESTRESS
HOLD option.
With the *PRESTRESS HOLD option the initial stress defined in the
rebar is held constant.
While equilibrium iterations are performed to obtain the
corresponding (self-equilibrating) stresses in the matrix material,
the rebar layer will strain, but this strain is not allowed to cause
changes in the stress in the rebar layer.
Without the *PRESTRESS HOLD option, the initial stresses are
allowed to change during an equilibrating static analysis step as both
the matrix and the rebar stresses adjust to the equilibrium
configuration.
L4.55
For example, in reinforced concrete:
The rebar are initially stretched to a desired tension before being
covered by concrete.
After the concrete cures and bonds to the rebar, release of the
initial rebar tension transfers load to the concrete, introducing
compressive stresses in the concrete.
The resulting deformation in the concrete reduces the stress in
the rebar.
L4.56
Output
ABAQUS/CAE supports visualization of rebar layer orientations and results
in rebar layers.
Output of variables such as stresses and strains at the rebar integration
points is available
Results can be viewed on a layer-by-layer basis.
To display results for a given rebar layer, select the named rebar layer
from the list of available section points.
L4.57
The force in the rebar is available at
the layer integration points as
RBFOR, which is the rebar stress
times the current cross-sectional area
(see the figure on the following page).
RBANG and RBROT identify the
current orientation of rebar within the
element and the relative rotation of
the rebar layer as a result of finite
deformation.
Sample output request:
*Element output, rebar
S, E, RBANG, RBROT, RBFOR
Rebar force output
L4.58
L4.59
Embedding Rebar Layers
Membrane and surface elements reinforced with rebar layers can be
embedded in continuum (solid) elements in an arbitrary manner such that
the two meshes need not match.
This is accomplished using an EMBEDDED REGION constraint.
Usage:
*EMBEDDED ELEMENT, HOST ELSET=tread,
ROUNDOFF TOLERANCE=1.e-6
belt1, belt2
The ROUNDOFF TOLERANCE

parameter is used to adjust the
position of embedded nodes such that
they lie exactly on a host element face
or edge.
This reduces the number of constraint
equations required, allowing for a
more economical solution.
L4.60
L4.61
rebar orientation
embedded membrane element
host solid element
Reinforced solid element using the embedded element technique

Workshop 4: Concrete Slab Analysis
L4.63

This workshop illustrates reinforced concrete modeling of typical slab-type
structures.
The square slab is supported at its four corners and loaded by a point load
at its center.
The slab is reinforced in two directions at 75% of its depth.
Noteworthy features:
Reinforced concrete shell modeling using rebar layer
Tension stiffening is modeled assuming a linear loss of strength
beyond the cracking failure of concrete
Use of the Riks solution algorithm for globally unstable response
L4.64
Geometry of the square slab and reinforcement
L4.65

Load-deflection response:
ABAQUS/Standard
Load-deflection response for three different values of tension stiffening
Lecture 5
Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis
Overview
Introduction
Eigenvalue Problem Formulation
ABAQUS Usage
Closely Spaced Eigenvalues
Concluding Remarks
Workshop 5a: Cargo Crane Critical Load Estimation
Workshop 5b: Eigenvalue Buckling of a Square Tube
L5.2
Introduction
L5.4
Introduction
The stability of structures is a problem that analysts face frequently.
These problems predominantly occur in beam and shell structures.
Such stability studies usually require two types of analyses:
Eigenvalue buckling analysis
Postbuckling or collapse analysis
We focus on eigenvalue buckling analysis, which very often is a required
step for the more general collapse or load-displacement response
analysis.
Eigenvalue buckling analysis is used to obtain estimates of the critical load
at which the response of a structure will bifurcate, assuming that the
response prior to bifurcation is essentially linear.
The simplest example is the Euler column, which responds very stiffly
to a compressive axial load until a critical load is reached, at which
point it bends suddenly and exhibits much lower stiffness.
L5.5
Introduction
Load-displacement response of an Euler column
Introduction
Deformed configurations of an Euler column
L5.6
L5.7
Introduction
The purpose of eigenvalue buckling analysis is to investigate singularities
in a linear perturbation of the structures stiffness matrix.
The resulting estimates will be of value in design only if the linear
perturbation is a realistic reflection of the structures response before it
buckles.
Therefore, eigenvalue buckling is useful for stiff structures
(structures that exhibit only small, elastic deformations prior to
buckling).
In most cases of stiff structures, even when inelastic response may occur
before collapse, eigenvalue buckling analysis provides a useful estimate of
the collapse mode shape.
Only in quite restricted cases (linear elastic, stiff response; no imperfection
sensitivity) is it the only analysis needed to understand the structures
collapse limit.
L5.8
Introduction
In many cases the post-buckled response is unstable; the collapse load
will then depend strongly on imperfections in the original geometry.
This is known as imperfection sensitivity.
In this case the actual collapse load may be significantly lower than
the bifurcation load predicted by eigenvalue buckling analysis.
Thus, eigenvalue buckling analysis provides a nonconservative
estimate of the structures load carrying capacity.
Even if the pre-buckling response is stiff and linear elastic, nonlinear loaddisplacement response analysis (of the imperfect structure) is generally
recommended to augment the eigenvalue buckling analysis.
This is essential if the structure is imperfection sensitive.
L5.10

The objective of an eigenvalue buckling analysis is to
find the load level at which the equilibrium becomes unstable
or
estimate the maximum load level which the structure can sustain.
The critical load level depends on the structures stiffness
The stiffness is dependent on the internal stress and, if the load follows the
structure, on the applied load.
It will be assumed that the loading is conservative, so the stiffness
matrix is symmetric.
L5.11

First apply a dead load, P0.
This defines the stiffness of the base state K0 which includes preload
effects (even if NLGEOM is not used).
Now add a live load, P, where is the magnitude of the live load being
added and P is the pattern of the live load.
As noted earlier, the method works best if the response is linear prior to
bifurcation. Thus, as long as the response is stiff and linear elastic, the
stress and, hence, the structural stiffness will change proportionally with ,
as
Stiffness change is proportional to .
K 0 + K ,
and
K = K + K P .
Due to incremental loading pattern; made up

of two parts: the internal stress and the
applied load.
L5.12

We need to find values of , which provide singularities in this tangent
stiffness; this poses the eigenproblem.
In other words, a loss of stability occurs when the total stiffness matrix
is singular:
( K 0 + K )V = 0.
L5.13

Values cr, which provide nontrivial solutions to this problem, define the
critical buckling load as P0 + cr P with corresponding buckling mode
shapes V .
Buckling mode shapes V are normalized vectors, just as modes of free
vibration are, and do not represent actual magnitudes of deformation at the
critical load.
They are often the most useful outcome of the eigenvalue analysis
since they predict the likely failure mode of the structure.
The mode shapes are also often used to generate perturbations in
geometry for collapse analysis.
They are typically scaled to a fraction of a relevant structural
dimension (such as a beam cross-section or a shell thickness) before
they are used to perturb the geometry.
L5.14

Estimating the maximum load level
Nonlinear pre-buckling makes the method approximate.
The estimate is more accurate if the structure is preloaded to a level
close to the pre-buckling load capacity.
Generally alternative solution techniques (e.g., Riks) are required for
accurate prediction.
ABAQUS Usage
ABAQUS Usage
ABAQUS will calculate the initial stress and
load stiffness matrix corresponding to the live
load directly.
The BUCKLE step is a linear
perturbation step, and the magnitude of
the live load is not important.
The live load is specified in the
BUCKLE step.
The BUCKLE step may be preceded by a
STATIC step in which the dead load is
applied.
L5.16
L5.17
ABAQUS Usage
The buckling mode shapes of
symmetric structures are either
symmetric or antisymmetric.
For such structures it is more
efficient to model only part of the
structure and to perform the
buckling analysis twice: once with
symmetric boundary conditions
and once with antisymmetric
boundary conditions.
The live load pattern is usually
symmetric, so symmetric boundary
conditions are needed for the
calculation of the perturbation
stresses used in the formation of the
initial stress stiffness matrix.
ABAQUS Usage
The boundary conditions must be
switched to antisymmetric in the
BUCKLE step to obtain the
antisymmetric modes.
This is done by giving the
antisymmetric boundary
conditions with LOAD CASE=2 on
the BOUNDARY option in the
BUCKLE step.
L5.18
L5.19
ABAQUS Usage
Example 1: Antisymmetric buckling of a symmetric structure
Finite element model
Boundary conditions
for load case 1
Boundary conditions
for load case 2
B21 elements
Rectangular cross-section (1 in 1in)
Linear elastic material:
E = 30E6 psi
=0
ABAQUS Usage
Partial input for antisymmetric buckling of a symmetric structure
*heading
antisymmetric ring buckling
eigenvalue estimate
:
:
*nset, nset=left
4
*transform, nset=left
1., 1., 0., -1., 1., 0.
*boundary
right, 2
right, 6
left, 2
left, 6
*step, name=Step-1
*buckle
3,
*boundary, load case = 2, op=new
right, 2
right, 6
left, 1
*dsload
ring, p, 1.
*end step
L5.20
L5.21
ABAQUS Usage
The dead and live loads can be point loads, distributed loads, or thermal
loads; dead loads can also include nonzero prescribed boundary
conditions.
If the live loads include uniform motion of a boundary, use multi-point
constraints to constrain these nodes to a single point and load that
point.
The dead load, P0, and the live load, P, can be entirely different in
magnitude and in nature.
Multiple buckling modes and associated critical load values can be
obtained in a single eigenvalue buckling step.
Obtaining multiple buckling modes is often useful since many common
systems (such as short cylindrical shells) have several closely spaced
critical modes.
L5.22
ABAQUS Usage
Negative eigenvalues are sometimes obtained.
These values can indicate that there is a buckling mode
corresponding to the load applied in the opposite direction.
For example, a pressure vessel under internal pressure might
buckle under external pressure.
However, they can also point to spurious modes if nonlinearities occur
before buckling.
L5.23
ABAQUS Usage
The load stiffness can have a significant effect on the critical buckling load.
ABAQUS will use the symmetric form of load stiffness in eigenvalue
calculations.
Follower force effects are associated with pressure, hydrostatic pressure,
buoyancy effects, centrifugal loading, and Coriolis loading and also with
concentrated loads with the FOLLOWER option.
Eigenvalue buckling analysis with concentrated FOLLOWER loads will not
yield the correct results since the follower force effects are not taken into
account (the load stiffness is generally not symmetric).
L5.24
ABAQUS Usage
If temperature-dependent elastic properties are used, the elastic stiffness
will be based on the temperatures prior to the eigenvalue buckling step.
Modifying temperatures in an eigenvalue buckling step will not change
the elastic stiffness matrix.
When nonlinear material properties such as hyperelasticity are present in a
model, ABAQUS/Standard ignores the nonlinear effects during the
eigenvalue buckling analysis.
The material response during the buckling analysis is based on the
linear elastic stiffness in the (potentially nonlinear) base state at the
end of the previous step.
Inelastic behavior such as plasticity can be used if the eigenvalue buckling
step is applied before the stress at any point has reached yield.
ABAQUS will use the elastic stiffness, defined with linear elasticity, in
the eigenvalue buckling procedure to calculate K, not the tangent
stiffness from the hardening curve.
L5.25
ABAQUS Usage
Choice of eigenvalue extraction method
In ABAQUS/Standard you have the choice of using either the subspace
iteration or the Lanczos method to extract the eigenvalues.
The Lanczos method is generally faster when a large number of
eigenmodes are required for a system with many degrees of freedom.
The subspace iteration method may be faster when only a few (less
than 20) eigenmodes are needed.
ABAQUS Usage
By default, the subspace iteration method is used when extracting the
buckling modes.
To use the Lanczos solver, include the EIGENSOLVER=LANCZOS
parameter on the BUCKLE option.
L5.26
L5.27
ABAQUS Usage
When the Lanczos eigensolver is requested, you can also specify the
minimum and/or maximum eigenvalues of interest on the data line.
ABAQUS extracts eigenvalues until either the requested number of
eigenvalues has been extracted in the given range or all the
eigenvalues in the given range have been extracted.
The Lanczos eigensolver has the following restrictions for buckling
simulations; it cannot be used with:
A model containing hybrid elements
A model containing distributing coupling elements
A model containing contact pairs or contact elements
A model that has been preloaded above the bifurcation (buckling) load
L5.29

Certain buckling problems may have many buckling modes with very
closely spaced critical loads.
The eigenvalue algorithm may converge slowly in such a case.
Cylindrical shells with axial compressive loads are a good example of this
case.
Radius = 100
Length = 800
Thickness = 0.25
Youngs modulus = 30 106
Poissons ratio = 0.3
L5.30

Example 2: Buckling of a thin cylinder
S9R5 elements
Linear elastic material
Lanczos eigensolver
Symmetry (only half the cylinder length is modeled)
*heading
cylinder buckling
:
:
:
*step
*buckle, eigensolver=lanczos
5,
*cload
Midside nodes
bot1, 3, 65450.0
Corner nodes
bot2, 3, 32725.0
*boundary
bottom, 1, 2
top, zsymm
*node file
u
*end step
bottom
top
L5.31

Critical stress as a function of mode shape (analytical results)
Axial modes
Circum. modes
Critical stress
40718.09
43291.86
44283.65
44292.48
10
44662.13
44711.87
11
44751.29
10
11
44867.94
44874.56
10
44909.49
45608.18
45718.54
10
12
45792.77
45827.96

Critical buckling mode of axially compressed cylinder
L5.32
L5.33

Closely spaced eigenvalues are usually an indication that a structure is
imperfection sensitive.
The imperfections cause the buckling modes to interact and will trigger
collapse at a much lower level than predicted by the eigenvalue
buckling analysis.
Hence, the actual buckling mode shape is usually not the same as the
lowest buckling mode in the eigenvalue analysis.
Convergence can be improved substantially by applying part of the critical
live load as a dead load, loading the structure to just below the buckling
load.
This provides a larger separation of the eigenvalues and much
improved convergence.
The process is equivalent to a dynamic eigenfrequency extraction with
shift.

If you exceed the critical (lowest) buckling load of the structure when
applying the dead load, the analysis may terminate prematurely because
ABAQUS will not be able to find the lowest buckling loads.
In addition, the Lanczos method will fail in that case.
L5.34
L5.35

Buckling of axially loaded cylinder without imperfections

Buckling of axially loaded cylinder with imperfections
L5.36
L5.37

Example 3: Buckling of a thin cylinder with preload
*heading
cylinder buckling with preload
:
:
:
*step, nlgeom
*static
*cload
bot2, 3, 130900.0
preload
bot1, 3, 261800.0
*endstep
*step
*buckle, eigensolver=lanczos
5,
*cload
bot2, 3, 32725.0
bot1, 3, 65450.0
*node file
u
*end step
L5.38

The analysis with the preload converges much faster.
The analysis without the dead load has 5 converged eigenvalues after
60 iterations.
The analysis with the dead load obtains 5 converged eigenvalues after
only 19 iterations.
Buckling of thin-walled cylinders often involves high numbers of waves in
both axial and circumferential directions.
For accurate results very refined meshes are needed.
If reduced-integration elements are used, pseudobuckling modes involving
extensive hourglassing may be found.
These modes do not affect physical buckling modes and can be
suppressed by increasing the hourglass control with the
HOURGLASS STIFFNESS option.
Concluding Remarks
L5.40
Concluding Remarks
Eigenvalue buckling analysis yields a reliable estimate for the buckling
load only if the assumptions of small geometric changes and linear elastic
material response before buckling are realistic for the structure being
modeled and if the collapse is not imperfection sensitive.
If in doubt, introduce an imperfection (in the shape of the lowest buckling
modes) into the structure and use STEP, NLGEOM with the STATIC,
RIKS procedure to obtain the complete pre- and postbuckling history.
L5.41
Concluding Remarks
For more examples of buckling and collapse analysis with ABAQUS see:
ABAQUS Benchmarks Manual:
1.2.1 Buckling analysis of beams
1.2.2 Buckling of a ring in a plane under external pressure
1.2.3 Buckling of a cylindrical shell under uniform axial pressure
ABAQUS Example Problems Manual:
1.2.2 Laminated composite shells: buckling of a cylindrical panel with
a circular hole
1.2.6 Buckling of an imperfection sensitive cylindrical shell
Workshop 5a: Cargo Crane Buckling

Workshop 5b: Square Tube Buckling
Lecture 6
Static Postbuckling and

Snap-Through Analysis
Overview
Introduction
ABAQUS Implementation
ABAQUS Usage
Snap-Through Problems
Postbuckling Problems
Introducing Imperfections for Postbuckling Simulations
Postbuckling Examples
Usage Hints
Limitations
Summary
Workshop 6a: Cargo Crane Riks Analysis
Workshop 6b: Square Tube with Imperfections
L6.2
Introduction
L6.4
Introduction
Eigenvalue buckling analysis is useful for the analysis of stiff structures.
The method is not suitable if large geometry changes occur prior to
buckling and can provide very misleading results if the structure is
imperfection sensitive.
In cases where the eigenvalue buckling procedure is not applicable or its
results are questionable, a fully nonlinear transient analysis is required.
A transient analysis can be done dynamically or by addition of viscous
forces to the static problem.
The disadvantage of such analyses is that it is hard to understand the
characteristics of the structure after the load maximum is reached.
L6.5
Introduction
To avoid any of the effects of the stabilizing forces,
we would like to obtain a solution to the static
equilibrium equation without adding such forces.
An algorithm is needed in which the applied loads
are adapted automatically.
The solution algorithm must solve
simultaneously for loads and displacements.
As a consequence another quantity must be selected
to measure the progress of the solution.
For this we choose the arc length, l, which is
the length along the static equilibrium path in
load-displacement space.
A form of this method is activated in ABAQUS by
adding the RIKS parameter on the STATIC option.
L6.6
Introduction
Static analysis of snap-through and postbuckling problems with the arclength method provides valuable information about the characteristics of
structures in the unstable regime.
The method works well if the equilibrium path in the load-displacement
space is smooth and does not branch.
Otherwise, convergence and incrementation problems may occur.
Generally, this means that the method should always be applied to
imperfect geometriesthe perfect structures initial coordinates
should be perturbed to create a suitable imperfection.
This converts a pure bifurcation behavior into a snap-through problem.
L6.8
Riks method for globally
unstable problems
Consider this loaddisplacement curve:
Load
P2
P1
Converged solution for increment 1
Displacement
Unstable force-displacement curve
L6.9
At the top of the curve the gradient equals zero and the stiffness is
singular. This can occur when structures snap-through, buckle, or
collapse.
The structures instability may be the result of geometric or material
effects.
In an unstable problem the structure must release energy to remain in
equilibrium. In reality, this energy is converted to kinetic energy.
A way of studying a buckling problem is to use displacement control rather
than force control; i.e., you prescribe the motion of a particular part of the
model and look at the reaction forces to understand the load-displacement
behavior.
Even with displacement control the structure may buckle dynamically.
L6.10
An alternative is to use the modified Riks method.
The basic solution method is still the Newton-Raphson method, so the
usual convergence rules apply.
It is the method by which the analysis progresses along the solution
path that is changed.
The Riks method solves for both the displacements and the applied loads
to find the equilibrium path.
The method can calculate solutions even when the slope of the forcedeflection curve is negative.
The magnitude of the load must be expressed in terms of a load
proportionality factor, .
The method uses the concept of arc length (l) to track the size of the
increment and how far the analysis has progressed.
L6.11
RIKS is an arc-length control procedure
The solution is advanced along the load-deflection curve by
solving for the equilibrium position a particular arc-length away
from the last position.
Load
l
l
Displacement
L6.12
In the Riks method we always deal with proportional loading within an
analysis step. The load is assumed to consist of:
An initial load vector, P0, which has already been applied at the start
of the step and remains constant throughout the step.
A load, P, where P is a nominal load vector and is the load
proportionality factor that ABAQUS will find as part of the solution.
In the simplest case P0 will be zero and P will be the result of distributing,
for example, a uniform pressure of unit magnitude onto the structure.
In general, P is obtained as the difference between the reference load Pref
specified in the Riks step and the dead load, P0 :
P = Pref P0 .
ABAQUS Usage
ABAQUS Usage
The Riks procedure is invoked by including the Riks parameter on the
STATIC option.
Since the method is generally used with geometrically nonlinear
cases, the NLGEOM parameter is usually included on the STEP
option.
L6.14
L6.15
ABAQUS Usage
A typical input sequence for a postbuckling analysis is
*STEP, NLGEOM (apply optional dead load)
*STATIC
(define the dead load and specify output requests)
*END STEP
*STEP, NLGEOM, INC= (postbuckling Riks step)
*STATIC, RIKS
linit, lperiod, lmin, lmax, end, node, dof, umax
(define the reference load and specify output requests)
*END STEP
L6.16
ABAQUS Usage
The first two entries on the STATIC, RIKS data line define the initial and
estimated total arc lengths associated with the step.
*STATIC, RIKS
linit
lperiod
L6.17
ABAQUS Usage
The second two entries are optional and form bounds for the arc length
increment, l.
*STATIC, RIKS
ABAQUS Usage
The last four optional entries serve as alternate termination criteria.
*STATIC, RIKS
end is provided to terminate the

step when the load exceeds a
certain magnitude.
node, dof, umax are provided to

terminate the step when a
particular displacement
component exceeds a given
value.
L6.18
L6.19
ABAQUS Usage
ABAQUS will not stop exactly at these values but will stop when the values
are exceeded.
If none of the above termination criteria is included, ABAQUS will stop
when the maximum number of increments is reached or when the solution
fails (for example, because of excessive distortion).
L6.20
ABAQUS Usage
Any amplitude references are ignored in the Riks procedure.
All loads are ramped from the initial (dead load) value to the reference
value specified.
If the reference load is equal to the dead load, the Riks procedure will
fail.
The load magnitudes are available as output.
The status (.sta) file shows clearly that a step uses the Riks procedure.
SUMMARY OF JOB INFORMATION:
MONITOR NODE:
1 DOF: 2
STEP INC ATT SEVERE EQUIL TOTAL
DISCON ITERS ITERS
ITERS
1
1
1
0
3
3
1
2
1
0
2
2
1
3
1
0
3
3
1
4
1
0
3
3
1
5
1
0
3
3
1
6
1
0
3
3
TOTAL
TIME/
FREQ
STEP
TIME/LPF
0.0471
0.0882
0.138
0.184
0.200
0.177
0.04713
0.04110
0.04958
0.04638
0.01590
-0.02278
INC OF
TIME/LPF
DOF
IF
MONITOR RIKS
-0.195
-0.397
-0.714
-1.22
-2.00
-2.93
R
R
R
R
R
R
flag indicating that this

is a Riks analysis
L6.22
The Riks method works very well for snap-through problems.
Classical snap-through problems are characterized by a smooth loaddisplacement curve and do not exhibit branching (bifurcation).
As a result, the Riks procedure can solve this kind of problem with
ease.
Generally, you do not need to take any special precautions to ensure
a successful analysis.
An example of a problem with a smooth load-displacement curve (taken
from the ABAQUS Example Problems Manual) is the shallow-arch problem
shown on the following pages.
L6.23
Example 1: Shallow circular arch under pressure
History input for shallow circular arch
*step, nlgeom
loading
*static, riks
0.05, 1.0, , 0.2, 0.4
*dsload
arch, p, 5000.
.
.
.
*end step
L6.24
L6.25
Load-displacement curve of shallow arch
L6.27
The Riks method can also be used to solve postbuckling problems, both
with stable and unstable postbuckling behavior.
The exact postbuckling problem cannot be analyzed directly because of
the discontinuous response at the point of (bifurcation) buckling.
To analyze the problem, you must turn it into a problem with continuous
response instead of bifurcation.
The problem can be converted by introducing an initial imperfection in
the model so that there is some response in the buckling mode before
the critical load is reached.
If the imperfection is small, the deformation will be quite small (relative to
the imperfection) below the critical load.
L6.28
The response will grow quickly near the critical load, introducing a rapid
change in behavior.
Such a rapid transition is difficult to analyze.
If the imperfection is large, the postbuckling response will grow steadily
before the critical load is reached.
The transition into postbuckled behavior will be smooth and relatively
easy to analyze.
Imperfections are usually introduced as perturbations in the initial
geometry of the model.
Imperfections can also be introduced by perturbations in the loads or the
boundary conditions.
Moreover, imperfections based on linear buckling modes can be useful for
analyzing structures that behave inelastically prior to reaching peak load.
Introducing Imperfections for

Postbuckling Simulations
L6.30

Imperfections in otherwise perfect models are necessary to develop
models that are suitable for use in postbuckling analyses.
Two methods are used to introduce imperfections into a model:
1. Geometric imperfections are the most commonly used method.
Perturbations in the models initial geometry cause the structure
to buckle in the appropriate manner.
2. Loading imperfections may also be used to ensure that the structure
buckles in the appropriate manner.
Small fictitious trigger loads are used to deform the model so
that it buckles correctly.
L6.31

Geometric imperfections:
They are typically based on previous eigenvalue buckling analyses.
A few of the buckling modes are used typically to perturb the geometry.
However, the lowest buckling modes are assumed to provide the most
critical imperfections, so usually the lower modes are scaled and
added to the perfect geometry to create the perturbed mesh.
L6.32

The magnitude of the imperfection should be chosen realistically.
For example, the size of the imperfections may be determined by
manufacturing tolerances.
Often the magnitude is chosen as a few percent of a relevant
structural dimension such as a beam cross-section or a shell
thickness.
In shells the imperfection magnitude is typically chosen to be
1%100% of the thickness.
Only the coordinates of the nodes are affected; the nodal normals are not
modified.
L6.33

Loading imperfections:
The trigger loads should perturb the structure in the expected buckling
modes.
Typically, these loads are applied as dead loads prior to the Riks step so
that they have a fixed magnitude.
The magnitude must be sufficiently small so that the trigger loads do not
affect the overall postbuckling solution.
L6.34

Introducing geometric imperfections
Use the IMPERFECTION option to introduce geometric imperfections for
postbuckling and collapse simulations.
The geometric imperfection can be based on nodal displacements written
to the results (.fil) file during a previous simulation.
The FILE parameter is used to identify the name of the results file
from the previous simulation.
The STEP parameter must be used to identify the step from the
previous analysis containing the results that will define the geometric
imperfection.
An imperfection that uses only a subset of the models nodes can be
created by using the optional NSET parameter to identify the subset.
L6.35

Imperfections can be formed by the superposition of weighted eigenmodes
from a previous eigenvalue buckling or frequency extraction analysis.
Any number of eigenmodes can be specified and scaled with this option.
The syntax for this case is:
*IMPERFECTION, FILE=file_name, STEP=n [, NSET=name]
mode_number, scale_factor
Eigenmodes are stored such that the largest component of displacement

has a magnitude of 1.0.
Therefore, they must be scaled to give an appropriate imperfection.
This option is not currently supported by ABAQUS/CAE. You

may use the Keywords Editor to add it to your model, however.
L6.36

Geometric imperfections can also be based on the scaled displacements
from a previous static simulation.
Only the displacements from a single increment can be used to form
the imperfection.
Use the INC parameter to identify the specific increment containing the
results that will define the geometric imperfection. The syntax for this case
is
*IMPERFECTION, FILE=file_name, STEP=n, INC=m
1, scale_factor
First data line entry must

be set to 1 in this case.
L6.37

You can also define geometric imperfections directly with the
IMPERFECTION option.
By default, such imperfections are given in the global Cartesian
coordinate system.
The SYSTEM parameter may be used if the imperfections are defined
in an alternative coordinate system (either cylindrical or spherical).
The data for this format of the IMPERFECTION option can be read
from a separate file. The INPUT parameter identifies the additional file
containing the imperfection data.
The syntax for this format is:
*IMPERFECTION [, SYSTEM=C or S, INPUT=file_name]
node_number, U1, U2, U3
where U1, U2, and U3 are the components of the imperfection that will be
added to the nodes initial position.
L6.38

For accurate postbuckling analysis of such structures, it is important that
the imperfections be chosen correctly.
The magnitudes of the imperfections should be chosen appropriately.
It is safest to introduce an imperfection of the proper magnitude
consisting of several superimposed buckling modes.
The weight of the various modes must be chosen by the user; usually
the lowest buckling mode should have the largest weight.
Imperfections consisting of a single buckling mode tend to yield
nonconservative results.
L6.39

No default protections are provided to check whether or not the resulting
perturbed geometry is reasonable.
It is the users responsibility to ensure that the geometry of the model
to be analyzed is representative of the problem being considered.
ABAQUS/Viewer can be used to visualize the imperfections to the
model.
Likewise, no default protections are provided to check whether or not any
of the applied trigger loads are reasonable.
It is the users responsibility to choose appropriate magnitudes and
locations for such fictitious loads.
Most often, a number of analyses are carried out to investigate the
sensitivity of the results to the types of imperfections used in a
postbuckling calculation.
L6.40

Certain structures (in particular thin shells) can be very imperfection
sensitive.
Imperfection sensitivity means that the load-carrying capacity
decreases rapidly with increased imperfection size.
The actual load-carrying capacity of such structures is usually much
less than that predicted by eigenvalue buckling analysis.
Often these structures are characterized by closely spaced eigenvalues in
an eigenvalue buckling analysis.
The interaction of the buckling modes causes the rapid degradation in
load-carrying capacity.
Use all (or many) of the eigenmodes associated with closely spaced
eigenvalues to seed the imperfection.
Example 2: Rectangular frame with point load at corner
The (lowest) critical load and buckling mode are easily obtained with the
eigenvalue buckling procedure.
L6.42
L6.43
We use the buckling mode to introduce an imperfection with an amplitude
of 0.1% of the frame height and analyze the resulting structure with the
Riks method.
name of previous analysis

scale factor
eigenmode
L6.44
The load-displacement curve is shown below:
Since this is a nonsymmetric structure, different behavior is obtained if the

sign of the imperfection is reversed.
L6.45
Example 3: Buckling of an imperfectionsensitive cylindrical shell
Problem 1.2.6 in the ABAQUS Example
Problems Manual.
Simply supported cylinder loaded by
uniform, compressive axial load.
Internal pressure also applied
(increases imperfection sensitivity of the
cylindrical shell).
Very thin shell (t/r = 1/500).
Refined mesh: Full length model
accounts for both symmetric and antisymmetric buckling modes.
Perturbed geometry of the cylindrical

shell (imperfection factor = 5 thickness
for illustration only; actual imperfection
factor used = .5 thickness).
L6.46
Solution procedure:
1. Perform linear eigenvalue buckling analysis.
2. Introduce imperfections using different combinations of modes.
Fix imperfection size by prescribing the maximum out-ofroundness.
3. Postbuckling analysis using the Riks method.
Repeated eigenvalues:
The presence of repeated eigenvalues implies there is no preferred

direction.
The mode shapes associated with repeated eigenvalues are always

the same; their phases, however, may vary between analyses (and
computer platforms).
L6.47
As the relative phase between repeated modes changes, the
imperfection and therefore the postbuckling response changes.
To overcome these problems, the phase is fixed before the
postbuckling analysis is performed.
In this example, the eigenvectors associated with repeated
eigenmodes are scaled such that their linear combination generates a
maximum displacement of 1 on the X-axis.
A FORTRAN program is run to read the results file from the linear
eigenvalue analysis to generate the imperfection:
The scale factors are computed for linear combinations of repeated
eigenmodes.
The maximum out-of-roundness is enforced.
L6.48
Results: First 19 eigenvalues of the cylindrical shell.
Eigenvalues of the cylindrical shell
Mode number
Eigenvalue
11721
2, 3
11722
4, 5
11726
6, 7
11733
8, 9
11744
10, 11
11758
12, 13
11777
14, 15
11802
16, 17
11833
18, 19
11872
L6.49
The buckling load is normalized with respect to the linear eigenvalue
buckling load. The results when different modes are used to seed the
imperfection are shown below.
Normalized buckling loads
Mode used to seed
the imperfection
Normalized
buckling load
0.902
2, 3
0.707
4, 5
0.480
6, 7
0.355
8, 9
0.351
10, 11
0.340
12, 13
0.306
14, 15
0.323
16, 17
0.411
18, 19
0.422
All modes (119)
0.352
L6.50
Load-displacement curve
Load displacement curve when first 19 modes

are used to seed the imperfection
Usage Hints
L6.52
Usage Hints
The Riks procedure works very well for problems exhibiting global snapthrough behavior.
Since the solution may pass unstable points, it is important that the
residuals at the beginning of a new increment be small.
The default tolerances in ABAQUS are sufficiently tight in most cases;
however, for very unstable postbuckling problems, tighter tolerances
may need to be specified with the CONTROLS optionparticularly if
the prebuckling behavior is nearly linear and very rapid stiffness
changes occur near the instability point.
Even with tight controls, the procedure may fail if such a point is
approached with large load increments.
Under such circumstances the load and the solution may track back to
the starting point, as shown in the following figure.
L6.53
Usage Hints
Backtracking near a sharp transition:
Usage Hints
You can make the problem easier by
introducing a larger imperfection into
the initial model so that the
nonlinearity in the overall response is
less severe.
You can avoid the problem by limiting
the arc length increment with lmax.
If the problem has already
occurred, you can correct it by
using the RESTART, READ,
END STEP option just before the
instability point to make sure that
the point is approached with
small arc length increments.
L6.54
L6.55
Usage Hints
The analysis of problems involving local instabilities sometimes leads to
difficulties.
Such instabilities cause local growth of the solution, which may be
insufficiently constrained by the algorithm.
In addition, local instabilities can be fueled by release of elastic
energy from other parts of the structure, which makes it difficult to
control the solution by changing the applied load.
Nevertheless, with careful control of the increment size, it is often possible
to complete such analyses successfully.
Limitations
L6.57
Limitations
The Riks postbuckling procedure requires that the equilibrium path be
continuous.
Such continuity is not present in instability problems involving loss of
contact constraints, as shown below:
Snap-through of shallow, cylindrical roof under a point load applied to A
L6.58
Limitations
Loss of contact occurs as the roof snaps through.
When the contact force is zero, the roof and Point A have separated.
L6.59
Limitations
Problems with discontinuities typically occur when the load on a structure
is applied by motion of a rigid surface and the structure buckles under the
applied load.
Once the structure buckles away from the constraints, the solution can
no longer be controlled by the applied loads and the Riks algorithm no
longer has any beneficial effect.
In such cases a successful solution will be obtained only if the regular
Newton algorithm is able to bridge the gap in the equilibrium path at this
point.
If the jump cannot be made, the analysis may fail or backtrack.
In some cases the contact surface moves back but the structure
freezes in a load-free, unstable equilibrium configuration.
Summary
L6.61
Summary
The static Riks procedure in ABAQUS is a useful tool for the analysis of
snap-through and postbuckling problems.
Snap-through problems are handled with relative ease.
For postbuckling problems you must ensure that:
Suitable imperfections are introduced.
Sufficiently small load increments are chosen.
Extra tight controls may be required for very unstable postbuckling and
localization problems.
For postbuckling problems involving loss of contact, the Riks method will
usually not work and inertia or viscous damping forces must be introduced
to stabilize the solution.
Such procedures are discussed in Lecture 7.
Workshop 6a: Cargo Crane Riks

Workshop 6b: Square Tube with
Imperfections
Lecture 7
Damped Static Postbuckling Analysis
Overview
Motivation
Automatic Stabilization and Dashpots
Postbuckling and Loss of Contact
Example
Summary
Workshop 7a: Cargo Crane Damped Static Analysis
Workshop 7b: Cargo Crane Dynamic Analysis
L7.2
Motivation
L7.4
Motivation
To obtain an accurate assessment of the postbuckling behavior of
structures, static analysis methods are preferred because they provide
insight into the postbuckling characteristics of the structure.
However, it is not always possible to carry out such an analysis: in
situations where loss of contact occurs or where the deformation localizes,
the static postbuckling method may fail to yield a solution.
In such cases a transient analysis can be done, either dynamically or
statically with viscous forces.
L7.5
Motivation
The addition of inertial forces provides a solution to the physical
postbuckling behavior.
However, it is not always required or even desired that the actual dynamic
solution be obtained.
In many cases the objective of the analysis is not to simulate the
actual dynamic response but to obtain the static equilibrium state after
buckling.
In some cases, such as in automotive roof crush or side intrusion
calculations, elastic buckling is only an initial effect that is followed by
extensive bending and plastic deformation.
L7.6
Motivation
In such cases a more effective and less noisy solution may be obtained
through the addition of suitable damping forces in a static analysis.
There are two ways in which damping can be introduced in a static analysis:
Damping can be introduced using automatic viscous damping with the
ABAQUS static procedure options.
Alternatively, discrete dashpots can be added to the model.
Element type DASHPOT1 can be used to damp absolute motions.
Element type DASHPOT2 can be used to damp relative motions.
L7.7
Motivation
If damping is used in static analysis, the velocity is assumed to be equal to
the displacement increment divided by the time increment.
Assume that the cumulative effect of all damping added to the static model
is described by the damping matrix C.
The equilibrium equations can then be written in the form
Cu& + I = C u / t + I = P.
In linearized form this becomes
K + t C cu = P I C u / t.
It is clear that the damping matrix becomes more important when the time
increment decreases.
L7.9

When damping is applied through the automatic stabilization procedure,
ABAQUS builds a volume proportional damping matrix:
C = cM1,
where
M1 = mass matrix with unit density and

c = damping factor.
ABAQUS automatically determines the damping factor, c, based on the
following premises:
The models response in the first increment of a step to which
stabilizing damping is applied is stable.
Under stable circumstances the amount of dissipated energy should
be very small.
L7.10

This is accomplished as follows:
During the first increment of the step, calculations are made of the
strain and dissipation energies.
These energies are extrapolated to the time scale of the step, as if the
solution were to be scaled linearly in time.
The damping factor, c, is determined in such a way that if the solution
were linear, the viscous dissipation energy would be a small fraction of
the models strain energy at the end of the step.
This small fraction, called the dissipation intensity, a, is controlled by
the user.
It has a default value of 2 104.
L7.11

Alternatively, the user may specify the damping factor directly.
Since c is related to the model size and material stiffness in nonobvious
ways, it may be difficult to choose a proper value.
Initiate a run without explicit declaration of a damping factor.
ABAQUS prints out the value of the damping factor, which can then be
used as a guideline for selecting appropriate values.
L7.12

There are cases where the first increment is either unstable or singular
(e.g., due to a rigid body mode).
In such cases it is not possible to obtain a solution in the first
increment without damping.
ABAQUS precomputes the damping factor based on a sampling of the
average element stiffness.
If the calculated strain energy in the first increment indicates the
solution without damping is stable, the damping factor is recalculated
as described earlier; otherwise, the initially calculated factor is
maintained.
Warning: The damping factor may be stronger than desired;
critically review the solution.
L7.13

ABAQUS usage: Automatic stabilization
Automatic stabilization can be added in the
following quasi-static procedures in ABAQUS:
*STATIC
*VISCO
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT
*SOILS, CONSOLIDATION
It is specified by including the STABILIZE

parameter on the procedure option.
In addition, the FACTOR parameter can also be
included on the procedure option.

For example,
*STATIC, STABILIZE
or
*STATIC, STABILIZE=
dissipated energy fraction
or
*STATIC, STABILIZE, FACTOR=
damping factor
L7.14
L7.15

Volume proportional damping can be activated during any step of an
analysis.
The values of the damping coefficient are not carried from one step to
the next.
They are deactivated if the STABILIZE parameter is not re-declared
and recalculated if this parameter is re-declared.

Output variables: Automatic
stabilization
The total amount of viscous energy
dissipated by volume proportional
damping is reported separately from
other viscous dissipation energies by
means of the element output variables
ELSD and ESDDEN and the global
energy variable ALLSD.
Use the ENERGY OUTPUT or
ENERGY PRINT option to
request this output.
The reported energy can be
limited to a group of elements.
L7.16
L7.17

The nodal viscous forces and
moments are available as nodal
output variable VF (VFn and VMn).
The damping factor calculated by
ABAQUS is reported in the
message (.msg) file.
L7.18
ELSD
ELSDDN
ALLSD
Not output
by default to
.odb file!
Element stabilization dissipation energy

Element stabilization dissipation energy
density
Element set or model stabilization dissipation
energy
VF
Nodal viscous forces
Damping factor (message file)
L7.19

If you want to know how much you
altered a problem by adding
stabilization, look at:
1
Energy dissipation due to stabilization

Look at whole model energies.
Here, the total energy dissipated due

to stabilization is very small compared
to the total energies involved in
deformation.
VF
L7.20

2 Viscous forces during deformation
10000
The figures at right show the load

and viscous forces at the load
application point as functions of
displacement
VF varies significantly in time; its
order-of-magnitude is very small
compared to the global load,
however.
Can conclude the presence of
stabilization has not changed the
problem significantly.
1.5
L7.21

Automatic stabilization usage hints
The automatic calculation of the damping factor, c, is done based on
information obtained during the first increment of a step.
Thus, the first increment should be representative of the deformation
pattern that follows.
If the character of the deformation changes during the step, split the
step to force a reevaluation of damping.
If the first part of the step can be completed without stabilization, it is better
to split the step and introduce stabilization in the latter steps.
This ensures that a stable response is the basis for computing the
damping factor.
L7.22

Dashpot usage hints
To select the damping coefficients in the dashpots, the following procedure
can be used:
Estimate the magnitude of the displacements that will occur after
buckling.
Divide the estimated displacement magnitude by the step time to get
an estimate for the velocity that would occur if the response were
stable.
Determine typical nodal forces in the model prior to buckling.
Choose the damping coefficients such that, for the estimated velocity,
the damping forces will be one to two orders of magnitude less than
the static forces.
L7.23

Dashpot output variables
The total viscous energy dissipated by dashpots is included in the global
energy variable ALLVD.
The viscous forces in the dashpots are reported as element variable S11.
L7.24

Summary
The methods described on the previous pages will have the result that,
prior to buckling, the damping has almost no effect on the solution.
However, as soon as instability in the structure develops, the
velocities increase rapidly and damping starts to become effective.
For the solution procedure to converge, the time increment will usually
decrease as the velocities increase, leading to a controlled
postbuckling behavior.
Damping in a static analysis should not be combined with the Riks
procedure.
The Riks procedure will calculate the velocities as displacement
increments divided by the arc length; hence, these pseudo-velocities
will not increase sufficiently for the dashpots to become effective.
L7.25

Example 1: Damped static
postbuckling analysis
As an example of dynamic
postbuckling, consider this frame
structure.
This structure can also be
analyzed with the quasi-static
method.
The structure is expected to buckle
at a load of about 57,500 lbs.
L7.26

To investigate the postbuckling behavior, we apply a load of 150,000 lbs.
The load-displacement curve obtained with the Riks quasi-static method
and the deformed shape at approximately 250,000 lbs are shown below:
Buckling
occurs here
unstable
stable
L7.27

To analyze the problem as a damped static problem, we add DASHPOT1
elements to every single node in degree of freedom 1 and 2.
To calculate a damping value for the dashpots, we estimate typical
nodal forces on the order of 10,000 lbs.
Considering that the load is applied over a period of 10 sec and the
total deflection is on the order of 100 in, a typical constant velocity to
attain the total deformation would be about 10 in/sec.
With these assumptions the damping coefficient corresponding to the
velocity would be 1000 lb sec/in.
We choose 1% of this value as the actual damping coefficient.
The partial input for this problem follows; the load-deflection and energydeflection curves are shown on the subsequent pages.

Damped static postbuckling analysis: partial input
*Heading
Frame -- damped static postbuckling analysis
:
*Imperfection, file=framEigen, step=1
1, -0.12
*Boundary
ends, 1, 2
*Element, type=dashpot1
:
*Dashpot, elset=dashpotx
:
*Dashpot, elset=dashpoty
:
*Step, nlgeom, inc=400
*Static
0.1, 10., , 0.25
*Cload
corner, 2, -200000.
*End step
L7.28
L7.29

Damped static postbuckling analysis: results
Snap-through
Instability
starts here
Energy-displacement curve
L7.30

As can be seen from the load-displacement curve, the load increases until
the instability develops.
When the instability develops, the load remains almost constant while the
structure snaps through to a stable state.
The final deformed shape of the frame is in static equilibrium without
significant forces in the dashpots and agrees with the solution obtained
with the Riks method.
The energy curves show how the strain energy stored in the structure is
released in the form of dissipated energy when the snap-through occurs.
L7.31

Example 2: Stabilized static postbuckling analysis
The same problem is repeated with the dashpots replaced by volume
proportional damping.
The problem is run with a dissipation intensity two orders of magnitude
smaller than the default.
The default value is too high, because the first increment of the
analysis captures essentially axial deformation of the vertical member
of the structure.
Later on, the snap-through behavior is dominated by bending of the
structure.
Since the bending behavior is much less stiff than the axial behavior, a
small fraction of the axial strain energy is still relatively high when
compared with the bending strain energy.

Stabilized static postbuckling analysis: partial input
*Heading
Frame -- stabilized static postbuckling analysis
:
:
*Imperfection, file=framEigen, step=1
1, -0.12
*Boundary
ends, 1, 2
*Step, nlgeom, inc=400
*Static, stabilize=2.e-6
0.1, 10., , 0.25
*Cload
corner, 2, -200000.
*End step
L7.32
L7.33

Stabilized static postbuckling analysis: results
Snap-through
Energy-displacement curve
L7.34

Both the load-displacement curves and the energy curves are very similar
to those in the static analysis damped with dashpots.
The amount of damping was somewhat less than in the dashpot case
and can be controlled with the dissipation intensity.
L7.36

Often buckling and postbuckling problems are driven by moving contact
surfaces, and the structure buckles away from the contact surface.
As discussed in Lecture 6, the Riks method is not able to analyze this kind
of problem.
This kind of discontinuity does not present problems for damped static
analysis.
At the load level at which contact is lost, the structure deforms without
being moved by the boundary conditions, and the inertia and viscous
forces ensure that the solution does not diverge.
L7.37

Example 3: Stabilization
static snap-through analysis
with contact

The contact load and the sum of reaction forces as a function of the
prescribed displacement are shown below.
L7.38
Example
L7.40
Example
Local buckling of reinforced plate
Plate with small and large reinforcements
Spring connections to the rest of the structure
and symmetry boundary conditions
Linear elastic material
Axial loading
Courtesy of IRCN-France
L7.41
Example
First, localized buckling
occurs in the plate sections
between the small
reinforcements.
Then, buckling of a line of

sections and small
reinforcements occurs
corresponding to the
maximum load carrying
capacity.
Total collapse of the plate
follows.
global buckling
Contours of localized plate section buckling

(displacements normal to structure)
Buckling of a line of sections in the

structure
L7.42
Example
Buckling of line of sections

(loss of load-carrying capacity)
Local plate buckling
Axial force vs. axial displacement
Energy history plots
Summary
L7.44
Summary
Damped static postbuckling analysis is a useful technique to complement
classical eigenvalue buckling and static postbuckling analysis with the Riks
method.
The primary advantage of this method is the reliability it offers, in particular
in conjunction with contact changes.
Like static postbuckling analysis, the method provides an accurate
estimate of the critical load of imperfect structures, even if the structures
are imperfection sensitive.
Unlike static postbuckling analysis, however, it does not provide detailed
insight into the nature of the postbuckling behavior.
L7.45
Summary
The method is often useful for the analysis of crash and crushing
problems.
In such problems buckling of the structure away from an indenter may
occur in the early phases of analysis, prior to large scale plastic
deformation.
In such cases the postbuckling behavior is not the primary interest.
The damped analysis technique regularizes this initial instability and
enables the analysis to proceed quickly to the deformation phase that is of
primary interest.
The local contact surface damping option is provided specifically for
such applications.
Workshop 7a: Cargo Crane Damped

Static Analysis
Workshop 7b: Cargo Crane Dynamic
Analysis
Lecture 8
Introduction to Contact in
ABAQUS/Standard
L8.2
Overview
Introduction
Contact Output
Contact Examples
Solution of Contact Analyses
Contact in Finite Element Analysis
Some Important Contact Issues
Strict Master/Slave Contact
Workshop 8a: Hinge Model
Overview of Defining Two-surface

Contact
Workshop 8b: Clip and Plate Model
Surface Definition
Adjusting Surfaces
Local Surface Behavior
Relative Sliding of Points in
Contact
Introduction
Introduction
When two solid bodies touch, contact stress is transmitted across their
common surface.
In some cases only normal stress is transmitted.
If friction is present, a limited amount of shear stress can also be
transmitted.
The general objective is to determine contacting areas and stress
transmitted.
Contact is a severely discontinuous form of nonlinearity.
The contact constraint is either active or inactiveit is not smoothly
varying.
L8.4
Contact Examples
Contact Examples
Hertz contact
Small
displacements of
the contact
surfaces relative to
each other.
Contact over a
distributed surface
area.
L8.6
L8.7
Contact Examples
Deformable to rigid
body contact
Typical examples:
Rubber seals
Tire on road
Pipeline on seabed
Forming
simulations (rigid
die/mold,
deformable
component).
Example: metal forming simulation
Video Clip
L8.8
Contact Examples
Large-sliding contact
between deformable bodies
This is the most general
category of contact.
Example: threaded
connector.
Contact pressure
distribution due to
interference
resolution
L8.9
Contact Examples
Self-contact
SURF1
(rigid)
Self-contact is contact of a
single surface with itself. It is
available in two- and threedimensional models in
ABAQUS.
SURF2
Contour of minimum principal stress

Example: Compression of a rubber gasket
(taken from Self-contact in rubber/foam
components: rubber gasket, Example
Problem 1.1.17 in the ABAQUS Example
Problems Manual)
L8.11

Finite elements are based
on the concept of local
supportnodes and
elements communicate with
their nearest neighbors.
Exploded view of a mesh:

center element communicates with
its neighbors through its nodes
L8.12

Why is it necessary to define contact?
The concept of local support is not
sufficient for contact problems.
Points and surfaces on one body
may need to recognize points and
surfaces on other bodies.
There is currently no logic in
ABAQUS/Standard to detect contact
unless the user indicates that specified
surfaces and/or nodes might come into
contact.
The surface of one body cannot
penetrate the surface of another
body (or itself if it folds).
The example shown here comes from

Submodeling of a stacked sheet metal
assembly, Section 1.1.18 of the
ABAQUS Example Problems Manual.
L8.14

Contact surfaces must be discretized because the underlying bodies are
discretized.
With strict master/slave contact:
Nodes on one surface (the slave surface) contact the discretized segments
on the other surface (the master surface).
L8.15

The strict master/slave formulation used in ABAQUS/Standard has
kinematic implications.
Slave nodes cannot penetrate master surface segments.
Nodes on the master surface can penetrate slave surface segments.
L8.16

Approaches to master/slave contact
Node-to-surface
Contact is enforced between the slave node and the master surface
facets local to the slave node
Default method for contact interactions
slave
master
These nodes are
free to penetrate
L8.17

Surface-to-surface
Contact is enforced in a weighted sense, between the slave node and
a larger number of master surface facets surrounding it.
slave
master
More master surface nodes are

involved in contact, reducing
the likelihood of penetration.
In effect, contact is smeared over a larger number of facets.

Analogous to converting the slave contact force to a local surface
pressure and applying that pressure to the master surface.
Alternative for small sliding contact; default for tie constraints.
L8.18

Choice of master and slave surfaces
The proper choice of master and slave surfaces is critical.
Slave surfaces allow penetration; master surfaces do not.
With the keywords interface, the slave surface is the first surface
named under the *CONTACT PAIR option:
*CONTACT PAIR, INTERACTION=EXAMPLE
slave, master
With the GUI interface, the

slave and master surfaces
are specified explicitly.
L8.19

Mesh density considerations
Choose slave surfaces to be the more finely meshed surface.
If mesh densities are equal, the slave surface should be the surface with
the softer underlying material.
Incorrect
Master surface placed on fine mesh
Gross penetration into slave surface
Correct
Master surface placed on coarse mesh
Minimal penetration into slave surface
Overview of Defining Two-surface

Contact
L8.21
Overview of Defining Two-surface Contact

For even the simplest contact problem the user must decide:
What constitutes each surface.
Which pairs of surfaces will interact.
Which surface is the master, and which is the slave.
Which surface interaction properties are relevant: friction, softened
layers, etc.
ABAQUS automatically creates internal contact elements based on these
decisions.
These internal elements are almost completely transparent to the user.
The only time a user will typically want to review these elements is
when something goes wrong.
L8.22

Defining a contact interaction
in ABAQUS/CAE
1 Create an interaction, and
select the steps in which it

will be active.
Create Interaction dialog box
L8.23

2 Select the application surfaces
from geometric surfaces,

element faces, surface sets, or
node sets.
Surfaces on orphan meshes
can be selected by picking one
element face and a feature
angle. Individual edits make it
easy to clean up anomalies.
L8.24

3 In the Edit Interaction dialog
box, complete the interaction

definition (for example, for
contact interactions define the
friction model).
Create Interaction Property dialog box

Edit Interaction dialog box
L8.25

4 Use the Interaction Manager to manage multiple contact
interactions as necessary.
Interaction Manager
Surface Definition
L8.27
Surface Definition
User-specified contact faces: GUI
interface
Solid bodies
The surface on a solid is defined
by selecting the appropriate
region of the exterior of the part.
Regions may be selected
individually or based on face
angles.
Surface Definition
User-specified contact faces: GUI interface (cont'd)
Shells and beams
The surface on a
shell/membrane or
beam/truss is defined by
choosing the
appropriate side of the
part.
L8.28
Adjusting Surfaces
L8.30
Adjusting Surfaces
The slave nodes of any contact pair can be adjusted automatically so that
they are initially in contact with the master surface.
This process is useful when preprocessors do not place nodes in
exact positions.
ABAQUS modifies coordinates of slave nodes before the analysis
starts.
The adjustment does not generate any strain.
L8.31
Adjusting Surfaces
The initial positions of the nodes on the contact surfaces can be adjusted
without stress or strain prior to the analysis.
ABAQUS/Standard allows the user to adjust the nodes by specifying
either
an absolute distance or
a node set.
Warning: With either method only surface nodes are relocated.
Gross (large) adjustments can severely distort initial element shapes.
L8.32
Adjusting Surfaces
1.0
CONNODE

General contact modeling
includes contact interactions in
directions:
Normal to the master
surface
Tangent to the surfaces
Other contact interactions
include contact damping.
L8.34
L8.35

Behavior in the contact
normal direction
Hard contact
Hard contact is the default
local behavior in all contact
problems.
Pressure-clearance relationship
L8.36

Alternatives to hard contact
Contact without separation.
Softened contact
(exponential or tabular
pressure-clearance
relationship)
Contact with separation
Soft contact
L8.37

Behavior in the contact
tangential direction
Frictional shear
stresses, , may develop
at the interface between
contacting bodies.
If the magnitude reaches
a critical value, the
bodies will slip;
otherwise they will stick.
Friction is a highly nonlinear effect.
Solutions are more difficult to obtain.
Do not use unless physically important.
L8.38

Four friction models are available in ABAQUS:
Isotropic Coulomb friction (with shear stress cap)
Anisotropic Coulomb friction (with shear stress cap)
Exponential form where s decays to k exponentially
User-defined (through user subroutine FRIC or UINTER)
Two friction algorithms are implemented:
Penalty method
Lagrange multiplier method
The most common (and default) combination is isotropic Coulomb friction
using the penalty method.
L8.39

Default Coulomb friction model
The critical frictional stress depends on
contact pressure: cr = p.
The friction coefficient, , can be a
function of the relative slip velocity,
pressure, temperature,
L8.40

By default, ABAQUS uses an
adaptive penalty method.
crit
It approximates stick with

stiff elastic behavior.
Small elastic slip, crit, is
permitted before eq = crit.
ideal
penalty
crit
L8.41
Relative Sliding of Points in Contact
L8.43

Two slide distance options:
Finite sliding
Finite sliding is the most generalused by default.

Arbitrarily large sliding between surfaces
and large rotations are allowed.
Small-sliding
Small relative sliding between surfaces.

Allows large rotations of the surfaces, as long as
the surfaces do not move significantly relative to
each other.
Computationally less expensive than finite sliding.
While small-sliding is less expensive, take care to use it only in cases

where small tangential motions are expected
Non-physical behaviour can result if it is used inappropriately
L8.44
Edit Interaction dialog box

Contact Output
Contact Output
Contact information is available for all surfaces.
Contact stresses: CSTRESS (contact pressure CPRESS and frictional
shear stresses CSHEAR1 and CSHEAR2)
Contact displacements: CDISP (contact opening COPEN, relative
tangential motions CSLIP1 and CSLIP2)
L8.46
L8.47
Contact Output
Field output requests
CPRESS,
CSHEAR1, and
CSHEAR2
COPEN,
CSLIP1, and
CSLIP2
Contact Output
Solver contact output
Controls output to the message file during the analysis phase.
Gives details of the iteration process.
Use to understand where difficulties are occurring during contact.
Activate in the Edit Diagnostic Print dialog box of the Step module
L8.48
L8.50

Contact requires the imposition of constraints between the points that are
in contact.
Different ways of imposing constraints.
ABAQUS/Standard uses the Lagrange multiplier method.
For each potential contact point the contact condition is described by a
single, often nonlinear, inequality constraint:
h(u1 , u 2 , u 3 , ...) 0,
where h is the penetration and uN are degrees of freedom.
L8.51

Contact algorithm
h0
2
determine
contact state
begin increment
open
do not apply
constraint
point opens;
severe
discontinuity
iteration
h>0
closed
apply
constraint
perform
iteration
5
p<0
check for
changes in
contact
point closes;
severe
discontinuity
iteration
h>0
no changes
end increment
8
convergence
check
equilibrium
no convergence
L8.52

The algorithm distinguishes between severe discontinuity iterations and
equilibrium iterations and can be described as follows:
1 Determine current contact state at each point (closed or
open).
2 Impose contact constraints, calculate stiffness.
3 Perform iteration pass through the solver once.
4 Contact pressures and clearances consistent with contact
state? If yes, go to 6. If no, go to 5.
Point was closed; confirm that p > 0.

Point was open; confirm that h < 0.
L8.53

5 Contact state changed: the start of the iteration was
based on the wrong state.
Flag the point as having an incorrect contact estimate.

Label and count this iteration as an SDI (severe discontinuity
iteration).
Reset equilibrium iteration counter to zero. Go back to 1.
6 After all SDIs, check force residuals to determine
equilibrium.
Label and count this iteration as an equilibrium iteration.

7 If equilibrium is not satisfied, iterate again with the same
contact state. Go to 3.
8 If equilibrium is satisfied, the increment ends.

Contact diagnostics example
Reference: Example Problem 1.3.4, Deep drawing of a cylindrical cup
L8.54
L8.55

Visual diagnostics are available in the Visualization module of
ABAQUS/CAE.
Step 3, Increment 6: 4 SDIs +

2 equilibrium iterations
Visualization module: Tools

Job Diagnostics
L8.56
Slave nodes
that close: h > 0
Toggle on to see the locations

in the model where the contact
state is changing.
L8.57
Slave nodes
that open: p < 0
L8.58
Slave nodes that slip;

stick/slip messages cause
SDIs only if the Lagrange
multiplier method is used.
L8.59
There are no residual checks in

this iteration since the contact
consistency checks did not pass.
L8.60

3 additional SDIs are required
before the contact state is
established; once the contact
checks pass, the residuals
checks are performed.
L8.62

Contact is an extremely discontinuous form of nonlinearity
During solution of contact problems, ABAQUS has to perform iterations to
resolve the correct contact state, ie
which nodes are in contact and what the contact pressures are
which nodes are not in contact
This adds another level of complexity to the solution process
Contact problems in general require more CPU time to solve
L8.63

Contact with Friction
Friction is a highly nonlinear effect.
Solutions are more difficult to obtain.
Do not use unless physically important.
Friction is nonconservative unsymmetric equation system.
ABAQUS/Standard will automatically use the unsymmetric solver
when > 0.2 or when contact pressure dependency is detected.
The unsymmetric solver will be used for the entire analysis.
L8.64

F1
Rigid body motion

Many mechanical assemblies use
contact between bodies to prevent rigid
body motions.
This is not effective until the bodies are
actually in contact.
If loads are applied to the body, typically
a singular system is produced, with
unbounded rigid body motion resulting.
Can add stabilization to help in such
cases:
Contact pair damping
Automatic viscous damping (whole
model)
F2
F1
L8.65

Overconstraining the model
A slave node involved in contact is
subject to contact constraints.
The user should be careful not to
overconstrain a slave surface:
A particular slave surface should
only be paired with one master
surface (it cannot be slave to two
masters).
Do not apply boundary conditions
or other constraints to nodes on
the slave surface
Overconstraining the model can lead to
non-convergence or unreliable results
master surface 1
slave node
master surface 2
Slave node is overconstrained

L8.67
L8.68
Lecture 9
Bolted Connection Modeling
Overview
Modeling Bolted Connections
Mesh-Independent Point Fasteners
Beam + Coupling Technique
Modeling Bolts with Solid Elements
Bolt Pre-tension Loads
L9.2
L9.3

Modeling bolted connections usually involves:
Modeling the bolts and their interaction with the bolted components; and
Modeling contact between the bolted components
Contact between the components is achieved through surface-to-surface
contact, as usual
Several modeling techniques are available for considering the bolts and
their interactions with the other components.
The appropriate choice of modeling technique depends on the desired
outcomes of the analysis. For example:
Is it sufficient to have correct load transfer across the joint?
Or are accurate local stress solutions require in and around the bolts?
In this lecture, we aim to give a brief overview of some common modeling
techniques
L9.4
Rigid or deformable point fasteners

(ignores holes in parent components)
Deformable beam fasteners with
couplings
Coarse system
models
Not interested in local
detail, just overall
load transfer
Deformable solid fasteners with tie

constraints
Deformable solid fasteners with threaded
bolt interaction capability (new in v6.6)
Deformable solid fasteners with detailed
thread modeling
Detailed component
models
Interested in accurate
local results in vicinity
of bolts
L9.6

Mesh-independent point fasteners allow
you to conveniently define point-topoint connections between surfaces.
They can be located anywhere
between surfaces.
They need not be defined at
nodal locations.
They can connect multiple layers;
multiple
surfaces
attachment
points
i.e., the number of connected

surfaces is not restricted.
The fastener acts over a specified
radius of influence.
The meshes on the surface do not
need to match
radius of
influence
L9.7

The fastener capability combines either:
connector elements or
beam multi-point constraints
coupling
constraint
with distributing coupling constraints to

define a connection.
connector
element
or MPC
Translation and rotation of the

attachment points are related to the
translation of nodes on the shell surface.
Fasteners can model either rigid, elastic, or inelastic connections with

failure by using the generality of connector behavior definitions.
Fasteners are not currently supported by ABAQUS/CAE
L9.8

Example: Rail crush with fasteners
Video Clip
Nodes involved in couplings for

mesh-independent fasteners
Fasteners
L9.9

A major advantage of mesh-independent fasteners is that the necessary
elements and couplings are generated automatically by ABAQUS
The user need only define:
The coordinates of a single point to locate each fastener
The properties to be used for the fasteners (eg rigid, deformable,
failure, etc.)
This is only a very brief description of mesh-independent fasteners
For more detailed information, see
Section 20.3.4 in the ABAQUS Analysis Users Manual, Meshindependent fasteners
Section 1.2.3 in the ABAQUS Example Problems Manual, Buckling of a
column with spot welds
L9.11

This is quite a common technique for
approximating a bolted connection
Similar to the mesh-independent point
fastener technique, but requires more
manual work
manually defined
coupling constraint
Manually create beam elements to

approximate the bolts
Connect the ends of the beams to the
circumference of the hole using
coupling constraints (manually
defined)
Commonly used in joining
components modeled with shell
elements, where the holes are
included
manually created
beam element
L9.13

If accurate local stress solution is
required in and around the bolt,
use a detailed component model
Contact pressure
distribution due to
interference
resolution

Detailed component models are good for local stress analysis
Can give good accuracy of local stress and contact pressure on threads
However, they are computationally expensive
All components are modeled as deformable bodies
3D finite-sliding contact with friction
Threads must be meshed quite finely large model
L9.14
L9.15

Coarse system model approach
Only remote stresses in the bolted components are of interest (not
detailed local stresses around the bolt)
The bolt and other components are still modeled with solid elements
The bolt thread interaction is approximated by tie constraints
A much coarser mesh can be used for the bolt
The advantages with this technique are
Good for fast system response
Low computational effort
Ease of modeling
These pairs of surfaces are Tied to

approximate the meshed threads

Tie Constraints
A tie constraint provides a simple way to bond surfaces together
permanently.
Surface-based constraint using a master-slave formulation.
The constraint prevents slave nodes from separating or sliding
relative to the master surface.
Boundary conditions should not be applied to the nodes on the
slave surface of a tie constraint pair; doing so will overconstrain
the model at those nodes.
L9.16
L9.17

*TIE,NAME=TubePlateTie, POSITION TOLERANCE=0.01, ADJUST=YES
Surface-based constraint.
(Can select either predefined
surfaces or regions directly in
the viewport.)
The surface-to-surface
method is used by default
Only slave nodes
within this distance
from the master
surface are tied to
the master surface.
Both translational and
rotational degrees of
freedom can be
constrained.
Warnings will be issued in the

data (.dat) file for these nodes.
Slave nodes can be moved

onto the master surface in the
initial configuration without any
strain.
L9.18

Starting in V6.6, ABAQUS provides a new
threaded bolt interaction capability
Provides accurate detailed response within a
system model framework
Bolt
Tension
Axial force
Compromise between meshing and ignoring

threads
Radial
force
Mesh-independent surface interaction using

bolt-thread specification
Capture 3-D thread interactions
Frictional contact at thread angle (axial
and radial)
Model radial spread and load due to axial
bolt load
Asymmetric torsion response due to
thread helix angle
Bolt
Bolt hole
L9.19

Supported through ABAQUS/CAE as
an extension of surface-to-surface
contact
User enters common bolt parameters
to define the interaction, such as
Clearance region on slave surface
Bolt direction vector
Half-thread angle
Pitch
Bolt diameter

Example comparison (Mises stress)
L9.20
L9.21

Total axial load differ by 2.3%
Axial bolt load versus engaged threads
45
38.7
Axial load in bolt (% of total)
40
35
34.8
30
25
20
Meshed threads
New bolt feature
15.6
14.0
15
10.1 9.9
10
8.1
7.7
6.2
6.1
5.1
4.8
4.3
4.2
0
1
Number of engaged threads
L9.23

The pre-tensioning capability
can be used to simulate the
tightening of fasteners that are
used to assemble a structure.
A fastener is identified by
means of a pre-tension
section, across which a
desired load is applied to
tighten the fastener.
bolt
pre-tension
section
gasket
A
Example of a fastener
L9.24

The pre-tension section is controlled with a pre-tension node that has
only one degree of freedom and is used to:
apply a load across the pre-tension section; or to
apply a tightening adjustment (displacement) of the pre-tension
section, which also results in a preload of the fastener; and to
maintain the tightening adjustment so that the load across the fastener
can increase or decrease upon loading of the entire structure.
The load or tightening adjustment acts along the normal to the pre-tension
section.
Use concentrated loads to prescribe a pre-tension load at the pre-tension
node.
Use boundary conditions to prescribe a pre-tension tightening or to
maintain the pre-tension adjustment during further analysis.
L9.25

The total force transmitted over the pre-tension section is the sum of the
reaction force (identified as RF1) at the pre-tension node, plus any
concentrated load (identified as CF1) at that node.
The stress distribution across the pre-tension section can be obtained
from the underlying elements.
The tightening of the pre-tension section appears as the U1 displacement
of the pre-tension node.
Pre-tension sections can be defined in fasteners modeled with:
Continuum elements
Beam or truss elements
L9.26

Fastener modeled with beam or
truss elements
If a beam or truss element is
used to model the fastener, the
pre-tension section is chosen to
be inside an element.
The pre-tension direction
points from the first node of
the element to the last
node (following the element
connectivity).
n
2
beam or truss
element
1
pre-tension
node
pre-tension
section
L9.27

The normal n to the pre-tension section:
Is by default a unit vector oriented from the first node to the last node
of the element
Can be given directly by the user
Remains fixed, even for large displacement analysis
L9.28

Fastener modeled with continuum
elements
If continuum elements are used to
model the fastener, the pre-tension
section is defined with a surface across
the fastener.
pre-tension node
pre-tension section
elements chosen by
user to describe the
pre-tension section
L9.29

The pre-tension section:
Does not have to be continuous.
May be connected to elements other than continuum elements as long
as only continuum elements are used to define the pre-tension
section.
The normal n to the pre-tension section:
By default is oriented in the direction of the positive surface normal.
May be given directly by the user.
Hence, the pre-tension section does not have to be orthogonal to
the pre-tension direction.
Remains fixed, even for large-displacement applications.
L9.30

Usage in ABAQUS/CAE
Create a new
bolt load
Select an internal
surface for the pretension section
Choose how to specify

the pre-tension
L9.31

In subsequent steps, you can modify the bolt
load
Option to fix the bolt at its current length
This maintains the initial adjustment of the
pre-tension section by fixing the degrees of
freedom at their current values
This technique enables the load across the
pre-tension section to change according to
the externally applied loads.
If the initial adjustment of a section is not
maintained, the force in the fastener will
remain constant.
L9.32

Example: Bolted pipe joint
A pre-tension load of 15 kN
is applied across the bolt to
place the gasket under
compression.
flange
gasket
bolt
Assembly load between bolt, flange, and gasket

Contour of
stress S22
L9.33

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