Sunflower Cultural Practices In Turkey

ABSTRACT
Sunflower is the most important oil crop in Turkey. Turkish people prefer firstly sunflower oil in
the vegetable oil market. The over 75% of sunflower production areas are in Trakya Region
which is European part of Turkey. Sunflower growers use mainly hybrids in the production and
the seed quantity is about 4 kg ha-1. The pneumatic planters are used mostly by sunflower
farmers. The plant density is 70 x 35 cm and the plant population is 40-45.000 plants per ha. The
planting date usually is between the end of March and the beginning of May depending on years
and regions. The trifluarin herbicides are used mostly in the weed control in sunflower
production. However, Imidazolinones (IMI) herbicides started to use widely (expected about
25% of production in 2005) in IMI resistant hybrids in the last years. The composed fertilizers
(mostly 20-20-0) are applying only during the planting as mostly 50 kg ha-1 nitrogen and 50 kg
ha-1 phosphorus rate. The harvesting time is in between August 15 - September 15 depending on
climatic conditions. Sunflower producers sell their products to Trakya Birlik Farmer Association
(over 50%) and other private processor companies. In recent years, the sunflower area in Turkey
has been reduced due to low and variable prices and increased competition from alternate
summer crops.
Key Words: Sunflower, Production, Growing Techniques, Turkey.
INTRODUCTION
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is growing mainly for oil production and for confectionery in
Turkey. However, the uses for birdseed production, for ornamental purposes both in gardens and
cutting flowers, for livestock use as meal and silage are very common in Turkey and the world.
The preference of Turkish people mostly sunflower oil as vegetable oil and the being main crops
in the rotation system in Trakya Region which has more sunflower production increase the
importance of sunflower year by year in Turkey.
Turkey sunflower production is 800 850.000 M Ton and planted areas are 450-500.000 ha
depending on climatic conditions and sunflower price in recent years. Turkey which has 3% ratio
of sunflower production is in the first ten countries in the world (Kaya, 2003a). However, Turkey
sunflower production is not enough for domestic uses. Therefore, the half of Turkey oil need is
supplied by imported from some countries such as Ukraine, Argentina, Bulgaria, Romania etc
The majority of sunflower areas (75%) are in Trakya Region which is European part of
Turkey. Sunflower also exists in South Marmara (10%) and Black Sea Regions (10%) in the
rotation systems in Turkey. Although sunflower high could be planted in different regions due to
having high adaptation capability and high mechanization uses; sunflower could not produce in
large areas due to getting low income and could not compete with other more profitable crops
such as wheat, corn, soybean, cotton etc in both dry and irrigated conditions in Turkey (Kaya,
2003b).

CULTURAL PRACTICES IN TURKEY SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is well adapted to Turkey conditions. Sunflowers
generally grow best on well drained soils, are tolerant of clay loam or silty clay loam soils and
perform comparatively well on sandy loam soils. Sunflower is cultivating mainly under dry
conditions in Turkey. Sunflowers are efficient at extracting water from the soil profile, especially
in sandy loam soils, and can often tolerate drier conditions better than other crops. Sunflower
needs 2600 - 2850 C total temperature during vegetation period (between 100 - 150 days).
Planting
Sunflower is a broadleaf plant that emerges from the soil with two large cotyledons. Plant
emergence will take 5-6 days when planted 3-4 cm deep in warm soil, but will take a few days
longer in cooler soils or when planted deeper. Soil crusting can make it difficult for the large
seedlings to push out of the soil especially in heavy clay soils and after heavy rains. Sunflowers
should not be planted 6-7 cm deep. The seedbed should be prepared so that it is moist and firm
with the surface rough enough to minimize soil drifting. A firm seedbed is desirable so that seeds
planted at shallow depths in cool soils obtain adequate moisture for rapid and even emergence.
The most efficient and economic method for soil preparation before planting is determined by
researchers as the ploughing in the fall, then cultivating and harrow in the spring. The pneumatic
planters are used mostly by sunflower farmers in Turkey.
Row spacing is mostly 70 x 35 cm in Turkey to allow mechanization for weed control
and other cultural applications. Sunflowers are not particularly sensitive to seeding rate, since
head size (and seed number) per plant will increase in a thinner stand. Seeding rates can be from
40 - 45.000 per ha. Sunflower seeds vary in size, so seeding rate based on weight must take into
account seed size, but will be roughly about 4 kg ha-1. Sunflower seed are selling by number in
seed packages mostly 10 kg bags by seed companies in Turkey. Number 1 sunflower seeds are
largest, while number 5 are smallest. Most sunflower seed available is sized as a 2 or 3.
Planting sunflower could be anytime after soils have warmed to 10 degrees C from mid
March through last week of May. Seed germination is starting at 4-5 degrees C in sunflower.
However, the planting date usually is between the end of March and the beginning of May
depending on years and regions in Turkey. Soil temperatures should be 10 degrees C or above
when the seed is planted. This will probably occur in the end of March or early April. The
seedling sunflower plant will tolerate lower temperatures but plant growth is very slow.
Sunflower plants are generally resistant to frost before the six-leaf stage and become
progressively more susceptible as the plant ages. However, the degree of frost resistance depends
on the temperature and the duration of exposure. Seedlings may be able to withstand
temperatures of up to -4 C for short periods. Tolerance to cold and high temperatures
contributes to sunflower adaptation in different environments.
Variety Selection
Hybrid cultivars having high yield performance, uniformity and resistance to pest and
diseases are preferred mainly by sunflower farmers in both Turkey and the world. In today,

hybrids are used in more than 90% of sunflower production areas in Turkey. Almost all
commercial varieties of sunflowers are hybrids, so new seed should be purchased each year.
Commercial sunflowers have flowers that are self-compatible for pollination, meaning they do
not require a pollinating insect, although some studies have shown bee pollinators providing a
slight yield boost. Sunflower hybrid seed production plots require an average of one bee for each
410 heads for effective pollination.
Most major seed companies have several varieties of sunflower available. Because of
serious broomrape parasite (Orobanche cernua L.) infestation in more areas of Trakya Region
which is European part of Turkey, sunflower hybrids are selling in three groups: resistant (25%),
IMI herbicide resistant (25%) and susceptible or tolerant hybrids (25%). Pioneer has only one
resistant hybrid (XF-4223) and is the 2nd biggest private seed company in the sunflower seed
sector. Imidazolinone (IMI) herbicide resistant hybrid planted areas were increasing in the recent
years. Sanay by Syngenta Seed Co., Technosol by Monsanto Seed Co. and Rimisol Genc Seed
Co. that IMI resistant hybrids are very efficient solution in problem areas both for broomrape and
weed will be sold in the market in 2005. Additionally, broomrape susceptible sunflower hybrid
having high yield potential could be chosen in uninfected areas in Trakya region and other parts
of Turkey.
Regardless of whether they are grown as a single crop or double crop, sunflowers should
not be planted in the same field more than once every two to three years. Sunflowers do not
leave very much residues, so on erosive fields consider seeding a fall cover crop after
sunflowers.
Fertility
Sunflower has modest fertility needs, but does respond to nitrogen. P and K should be
applied based on soil test recommendation. On sandy soils, sunflower is often responsive to extra
potassium fertilizer. However, K fertilizers do not apply usually in sunflower production due to
rich K content in Turkey soils except recommendation after soil test. Sunflower appears tolerant
of soils with a pH down to 5.5, but considers liming if the pH is below 6.0, to improve nutrient
availability in the soil. Starter fertilizer for sunflower will usually be beneficial only in cool soils
of early spring and should not be placed in direct contact with the seed.
The composed fertilizers (mostly 20-20-0) are applying only during or before the planting
as mostly 50 kg ha-1 nitrogen and 50 kg ha-1 phosphorus rate by farmers in Turkey. However,
fertilizer recommendations are 70-80 kg ha-1 both for nitrogen and phosphorus and one time
application before or during planting by the researchers depend on soil fertility for optimum
yield. Because of higher uses of K by sunflower, if the soil tests recommend K fertilizer, the
composed fertilizers should be as 15-15-15 formula. Nitrogen could be given as Urea (46% N)
and Ammonium Nitrate (26% and 33% N) and Sulfate (21% N). These rates should be increased
a little bite more and Nitrogen should be divided two as in the planting and before hoeing in the
irrigated conditions. Farmer should check also fertilizer costs as pure nutrient component before
application.

Weed Control
One of the real advantages of sunflower is that its vigorous growth and robust size make
it very competitive with most weeds. However, weeds must not be allowed to get a head start on
sunflower. Weeds can be controlled either through herbicides or tillage, but most sunflower
producers in Turkey make use of both, applying a pre-plant herbicide and then row cultivating
when sunflower plants as 25 - 30 cm with hoeing machine between rows. Additionally, some of
farmers are controlling weeds in over rows by hand hoeing too. Some of the pre-emergence
herbicides (mostly trifluarin) are available for sunflower and all of which are primarily grass
herbicides with control of some broad leaves.
Some key weed species such as Xanthium strumarium L., Sinapis arvensis L.,
Chenopodium album L., Cirsium arvense (L) Scop., Convolvulus arvensis L., Avena spp.,
Datura stramonium, Amaranthus spp. etc. are important problem in sunflower production in
Turkey. Using IMI herbicide and resistant hybrids both controlling weeds and broomrape is so
important to increase sunflower yield in sunflower in especially broomrape problem areas both
controlling key weeds and broomrape will be getting more profit to farmers (Kaya et al., 2004).
For post emergence weed control, Intervix herbicide (Imazamox+Imazapyr (33+15 g/l)) were
registered by BASF Company for 1,25 l/ha to control both O. cernua and key weeds in
sunflower production and IMI resistant sunflower hybrid known as CLEARFIELD System
developed by BASF Co. (Kaya et al., 2004).
Irrigation
Sunflower grows mainly without irrigation in Turkey. Although sunflower water use
varies with the amount of water from the soil and rainfall, it is about 700-800 mm during the
growing season to grow without water stress in Turkey conditions. This could come as a
combination of stored soil water, growing season rainfall, and irrigation. The irrigation is one of
the most increasing factors on effecting sunflower yield other than fertility, weeds, insects,
diseases, etc. This yield increase is with increasing water use about 1000 kg per ha for each 100
mm water depend on season (Blamey et al., 1997).
Sunflower yield is most sensitive to water stress just prior to flowering through seed
development. Sunflower is a deep-rooted crop, but will respond to irrigation if properly timed
with the peak water use period of bud formation to petal fall (Blamey et al., 1997). In Turkey,
these growth stages occur during June and early July. Single 100 mm irrigation at either bud or
full bloom produces the same yield. Thus waiting until full bloom, if possible, is a more
conservative method to schedule if only one irrigation application is possible or desired. If two
irrigations are made, one should be near early bud stage and the other at full bloom. With a
sprinkler system, which uses smaller application amounts, irrigation should start just prior to bud
formation and if sufficient water is available, continued until petal drop unless there is adequate
rainfall. On sandy soils, irrigation normally will be needed earlier and more frequently.
Pest and Diseases

Broomrape (Orobanche cernua Loeffl.) is the most important problem in the sunflower
production in Turkey. Additionally, head rot problems are determined frequently such as
Rhizopus spp., Botrytis spp. and Sclerotinia spp. and also Macrophomina spp. as stalk rot in
recent years. Head rot diseases caused economic loss was observed most summers following rain
periods in last two years. There is no any common insect damaging economically in Turkey
sunflower production. All commercial seeds were treated with Metalaxyl to protect against
sunflower mildew.
Broomrape made epidemic each 20 years (1960, 1980, 2000) and broke resistance of
sunflower cultivars in Turkey (Kaya, 2003c). The 80% of sunflower production area is infected
by new races of broomrape in Trakya region. New broomrape races other than known races (A,
B, C, D, E) were observed mostly in Spain and Turkey but also Bulgaria and Ukraine rarely.
However Turkish F race is more virulent than other countries and there are additionally probably
one or two more races than known in the region. Although some resistant and tolerant sunflower
hybrids are planted, these cultivars could have susceptibility after a couple years due to high
virulence attack of these new races.
Broomrape was controlling effectively using resistant and tolerant hybrids as genetically
and using IMI resistant hybrids and IMI herbicide as chemically in Turkey. INTERVIX
herbicide controlling some weeds and broomrape were used by farmers without any problem in
recent seasons. The best time to control both broomrape and weeds 6-8 leaf stages in the
sunflower plant using IMI herbicide (Kaya et al., 2004). Another solution for broomrape control
chemically is OROBAN herbicide (Imazaphyr) application as post emergence in planting
susceptible hybrids. However, the best solution for broomrape is the use of genetically resistant
sunflower cultivars due to extra cost and time of herbicide application.
Harvest
Sunflower yield is about 1500-1800 kg ha-1 in Turkey in recent years. However 25003000 kg ha-1 seed yield could be obtained on dryland when enough rainfall and 3500-5000 kg ha1
in irrigated conditions in normal soils. Sunflower seeds are generally physiologically mature
when 10% of the heads have turned brown. When the head turns brown on the back, seeds are
usually ready for harvest. This occurs at about four to five months (about five weeks after
flowering), depending on variety. At this stage the moisture content is around 35-40%.
Harvesting can commence when the seed is at 13% moisture but the optimum is under 10%. The
time for harvest is about in September in Turkey.
Combine settings must be adjusted for sunflower very carefully, because dirty seed
production is one of the biggest complaints by Turkish oil processor companies. Airspeed should
be lower, due to the lighter weight of sunflowers and the concave should generally be run wide
open. The overall goal of the threshing process should be passing the head through nearly intact
through the combine, or in a few large pieces, with all developed seed removed from the head.
Storage

During colder periods, sunflower can be safely stored at 10% moisture or less, but during
warmer months the storage moisture should be at 8% or less. Higher moisture content on
sunflower seed could be decayed and heated easily because of being oil crops. Sunflower drying
has a higher risk of fire hazard than some crops. The primary problem is that small fibers rub off
the sunflower hulls and float in the air, and these fibers readily burn.
Marketing
Trakya Birlik, farmer cooperative for oil crops but mostly sunflower, was the biggest
buyer for sunflower seed in the sector activated in Trakya, Marmara, Aegean and Middle
Anatolia regions. Trakya Birlik are buying almost over 50% of sunflower production and use
some parts of products in its oil processing and sunflower cake factories and sold other than
needs to other private oil processors. Another oil crop farmer cooperative, Karadeniz Birlik,
activated in mainly in the Black Sea region, Middle and Eastern Anatolia regions followed it
respectively in the oil seed sector. However, almost over 30% of seed production was bought by
private oil factories located mainly in Trakya Region and other different cities in Turkey (Kaya
et al., 2000).
All sunflower production in Turkey is linoleic type and not high or mid oleic types. There
is no contract between farmers and oil processors and there is no buying according to oil content
and no premium for higher oil content also.
CONCLUSIONS
Sunflower has high planting potential in Turkey due to high mechanization use, large
adaptation capability and easy marketing. There is no more common problem on sunflower
production in Turkey except lower prices in the recent years. Sunflower planted areas and
production was decreasing in the last years due to low prices mainly both in Turkey and the
world. Sunflower could not compete with wheat and other crops in the rotation system even
under dry conditions due to low profit. Turkey is importing each year almost the same amount
sunflower or other oil crops for domestic need of vegetable oil.
LITERATURE
Blamey, F. P. C., R. K. Zollinger and A. A. Schneiter 1997. Sunflower Production and Culture.
In A. A. Schneiter (ed.) Sunflower Technology and Production. Agron. Monogr. 35.
ASA, CSSA and SSSA, Madison, WI, USA. 595-670.
Kaya, Y. and A. S. Tan H. G. Kaya. 2000. Sunflower Production and its Future Strategies of
Turkey in 2001-2005. Turkey 8th Five-Year Developing Plan 2001 - 2005. The State
Planning Organization. ANKARA. 164-208.
Kaya, Y. 2003a. Sunflower Production Techniques. Istanbul Agriculture Magazine. 84:
24-25.

Kaya, Y. 2003b. The problems and solution suggestions of oil sunflower production in
Turkey. CINE TARIM Magazine. 5: 43. 34-35.
Kaya, Y. 2003c. Orobanche Parasite and Control Methods in Sunflower. Istanbul
Agriculture Magazine. 84: 26-28.
Kaya, Y., G. Evci and M. Demirci. 2004. Broomrape (Orobanche cernua Loeffl.) and
Herbicide Resistance Breeding in Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in Turkey. Helia. 27:
40. 199-210.
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