3.RS Image Enhancement 2014

11/14/2014
Image Enhancement
Image
Enhancement
S.Sivanantharajah
Lecture 05
2014/11/15
Modification of an image to alter its impact on viewer

Enhancements are used to make it easier for visual
interpretation and understanding of imagery.
Process of making an image more interpretable for a

particular application
to accentuate certain image features for subsequent
analysis or for image display
Useful since many satellite images give inadequate

information for image interpretation.
Attempted after image is corrected for distortions
Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah
Enhancement Types:
RADIOMETRIC ENHANCEMENT
Modification of brightness values of each pixel in
an image data set independently (Point
operations).
SPATIAL ENHANCEMENT
Modification of pixel values based on the values
of surrounding pixels. (Local operations)
SPECTRAL ENHANCEMENT
Enhancing images by transforming the values of
each pixel on a multiband basis
CONTRAST
Amount of difference between average gray level
of an object and that of surroundings
Difference in illumination or gray level values in an
image
RADIOMETRIC ENHANCEMENT
Modification of brightness values of each
pixel in an image data set independently
(Point operations).
Brings out contrast in the image
Applied separately to each band of data.
Enhancement applied to one band may
not be appropriate to other bands.
Contrast Enhancement falls under
Radiometric enhancement
Image Histogram
Histogram- distribution of gray describes the
statistical levels(pixel values) in an image in terms
of the number of pixels( or percentage against the
total number of pixels) at each gray level.
Ratio of Maximum Intensity to Minimum Intensity

Larger the ratio more easy it is to interpret the
image
CONTRAST = Max . Grey Value / Min. Grey Value

11/14/2014
Histogram and Image Characteristics
Why is it needed to contrast stretch?
Band1
Band 3
FCC (4,2,1)
Reasons for Low Contrast

Scene itself has low contrast ratio
Band2
Band4
LOW CONTRAST IMAGE AND ITS

HISTOGRAM
The individual objects and background that make

up the terrain may have a nearly uniform
electromagnetic response at the wavelength
band of energy that is recorded by the remote
sensing system.
Different materials often reflect similar amounts of
radiant through out the Visible, NIR and MIR
portion of EM Spectrum.
Cultural Factors e.g. People in developing
countries use natural building material (wood,
soil) in construction of urban areas.
ORIGINAL IMAGE AND ITS

HISTOGRAM
Contrast Enhancement
Expands the original input values to make use of the
total range of the sensitivity of the display device.
The density values in a scene are literally pulled
farther apart, that is, expanded over a greater range.
The effect is to increase the visual contrast between
two areas of different uniform densities.
This enables the analyst to discriminate easily
between areas initially having a small difference in
density.
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Contrast Enhancement Types

Linear Contrast
Stretch
Input and Output
Data Values follow a
linear relationship
Min Max Stretch
% stretch
Std. deviation
Stretch
Piecewise Linear
Stretch
Saw tooth Stretch
Non Linear Contrast

Stretch
Input and Output Data
Values do not follow a
linear relationship
Logarithmic
Inverse Log
Exponential
Square
Square root etc .
Linear Contrast Stretch

A DN in the low range of the original
histogram is assigned to extreme
black(0), and a value at the high end is
assigned to extreme white (255).
The remaining pixel values are
distributed linearly between these two
extremes.
Enhancement of Image data: Linear stretch
By expanding the original input values of the image,

the total range of sensitivity of the display device
can be utilized.
Linear contrast enhancement also makes subtle
variations within the data more obvious.
These types of enhancements are best applied to
remotely sensed images with Gaussian or nearGaussian histograms, meaning, all the brightness
values fall within a narrow range of the histogram
and only one mode is apparent.

255
Y = ax + b
grey
shade
min DN
max DN
Linear stretch
0
0
DN
255
transfer function
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Computations
Maximum Minimum Linear Contrast Stretch
Y = ax+b Eq. 1
The values of 'a' and 'b' are computed from the equations.
a =
(Ymax - Ymin )/Xmax - Xmin
b =
(Xmax Ymin - Xmin Ymax )/Xmax - Ymin
where,
X =
Input pixel value
Y =
Output pixel value
Xmin, Xmax , Ymin and Ymax are the min and max input and
output values
DN - DNmin
DN1= ---------------- . 255
DNmax Dnmin
For Example DN value 100 will become
59 after the enhancement
To stretch the data between 0- 255 Eq.1 takes the form
X Xmin
Y= -------------- . 255
Xmax - Xmin
DN DNmin
DN1 = ---------------- . 255
DNmax - DNmin
Linear stretch
Linear stretch
Linear Stretch Min Max
Histogram
Distribution of Grey Values
(Jensen 1996)
TM band 4
Look Up Table
There is only one entry for a
combination of an Input and
Output ( No Duplicate Entries)
Data is not destroyed once an
irreversible operation is
performed
Need to only change the LUT if
another operation is to be
performed

LUT
I/P
O/P
10
20
64
30
128
40
191
50
255
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Enhancement of Image data: Piece wise linear stretch
Allows for the enhancement of a specific portion of

data by dividing the lookup table into sections
It enables to create a number of straight line
segments that can simulate a curve.
Can also enhance the contrast or brightness of any
section in a single color gun at a time.
This technique is very useful for enhancing image
areas in shadow or other areas of low contrast.
Non-Linear Contrast Enhancement

Input and Output Data Values do not follow linear
relationships
Input and output are related via a transformation
function
Y = (x)
Increases or decreases contrast in different
regions of histogram
Transfer Function Types:
Mathematical
* Logarithmic
* Inverse Log
* Exponential
* Square
* Square root
* Cube
* Cube Root
Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization
Statistical
* Histogram Equalization
* Gaussian Stretch
Trigonometrical
* Arc tangent ( tan-1)
Redistributes pixel values with a

nonlinear contrast stretch.
There are approximately the same
number of pixels with each value within a
range.
Contrast is increased at the peaks of
the histogram and lessened at the tails.
11/14/2014

N - the number of bins to which pixel values can be
assigned.
T = the total number of pixels in the image
If there are many bins or many pixels with the
same value, some bins may be empty.
The total number of pixels is divided by the number of
bins, equaling the number of pixels per bin, A =T/N the
equalized number of pixels per bin.
The pixels of each input value are assigned to bins, so
that the number of pixels in each bin is as close to A
as possible.
11/14/2014
Enhancement of Image data
SPATIAL ENHANCEMENT
SPATIAL ENHANCEMENT
Modification of pixel values based on the
values of surrounding pixels. (Local
operations)
While radiometric enhancements operate on each
pixel individually, spatial enhancement modifies pixel
values based on the values of surrounding pixels.
Spatial enhancement deals largely with spatial
frequency, which is the difference between the
highest and lowest values of a contiguous set of
pixels.
Spatial Filtering
Spatial Frequency
Spatial Filtering is the process of dividing the image into its

constituent spatial frequencies, and selectively altering
certain spatial frequencies to emphasize some image
features.
Process of suppressing (de-emphasizing) certain
frequencies & passing (emphasizing) others.
zero spatial frequency - a flat image, in which every pixel

has the same value
low spatial frequency - an image consisting of a smoothly
varying gray scale
high spatial frequency - an image consisting of a
checkerboard of black and white pixels
Spatial Frequency
Spatial Filtering
This technique increases the analysts ability to
discriminate detail.
This is known as local operation i.e. pixel value is
modified based on the values surrounding it.
Main purpose of this technique is to
SPATIAL FREQUENCY:
variation of the Digital
Count per space unit.
enhance certain features.

remove the noise in the image.
Smoothening of image.
"Smooth image" : low spatial frequency
"Rough image" : high spatial frequency
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Spatial enhancement
Spatial enhancement
Convolution Filtering
Convolution ( Filtering Technique)
Convolution filtering is the process of

averaging small sets of pixels across an
image. Convolution filtering is used to
change the spatial frequency characteristics
of an image.
A convolution kernel is a matrix of numbers
that is used to average the value of each
pixel with the values of surrounding pixels in
a particular way. The numbers in the matrix
serve to weight this average toward
particular pixels.
Process of evaluating the weighted neighbouring

pixel values located in a particular spatial pattern
around the i,j, location in input image.
Technique
Mask window is placed over part of image
Convolution Formula is applied over the part of image
(Sum of the Weighted product is obtained (coefficient
of mask x raw DN value)/ sum of coefficients)
Central value replaced by the output value
Window shifted by one pixel & procedure is repeated
for the entire image.
Compute the output

integer [(-1 8) + (-1 6) + (-1 6) + (-1 2)
+ (16 8) + (-1 6) + (-1 2) + (-1 2) + (-1
8) (-1 + -1 + -1 + -1 + 16 + -1 + -1 + -1 + -1)]
= int [(128-40) / (16-8)]
= int (88 / 8) = int (11) = 11
Filters
are Algorithms for filtering
Composed of
Window mask /Kernal / Convolution mask and

Constants (Weights given to mask)
Mask size 3x3, 5x5, 7x7, 9x9

ex.
Square mask
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
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Convolution Process
c1 c2 c3
c4 c5 c6
Convolution Process
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
Step 1 : Window mask is placed over

part of Image
c1 c2 c3
c4 c5 c6
c7 c8 c9
c7 c8 c9
Filter
Filter
Input Image
Input Image
Convolution Process
Convolution Process
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
Step 2 : Central Pixel values is

calculated based on its neighbouring
values
C1
BV1
C2
BV2
C3
BV3
C4
BV4
C5
BV5
C6
BV6
C7
BV7
C8
BV8
C9
BV9
c1
cc12
cc23
cc31
cc12
cc23
c3
c4
cc45
cc56
cc64
cc45
cc56
c6
c7
cc78
cc89
cc97
cc78
cc89
c9
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
BV5, out = ( C1* BV1 + C2* BV2 + C3* BV3 + C4* BV4 +
C5* BV5 + C6* BV6 + C7* BV7 + C8* BV8 +
C1* BV9 )
Input Image
Ci
Step 3: Central Pixel Value is replaced

by the new value and window is shifted
by one pixel to the right and the entire
process is repeated
Input Image
Convolution Process
Please Note that:
Central Pixel
Using 3x3 kernel results in output

image 2 lines and 2 columns smaller.
Boundary pixels are either copied from
original image
Or
Duplicated from the sides and then

computed
Window mask
010
111
010
BV5, out = 932 / 5 = 186
11/14/2014
Filtering
Low Pass Filters

Low pass filter eliminate high frequency
components, while leaving low frequencies
untouched (ie, the filter passes low frequencies).
block high frequency details

has a smoothening effect on images.
Used for removal of noise
Removal of salt & pepper noise
Before Filtering
After filtering
Blurring of image especially at edges.
LOW PASS FILTERS:
MEDIAN FILTER:
TYPES:
MEAN
MEDIAN
MODE
Effect
- Retains sharpness of linear feature along with
smootherning of image
MEAN FILTER:
-
weights of
pixel values are sorted within the window

- median of sorted value is used to replace the central pixel.
MODE FILTER:
1
1
1
3x3 mean filter mask 1
1
1
1
1
1
Effect smoothens the image
blurring the image at edges
Central pixel replaced by most common neighbour in the

window
Used to Remove Random (Spike like) noise.
-
Post Classification filter
Low Pass Median Filter
3x3
5x5
Low Pass Filters - Mode
7x7
3x3
5x5
7x7
10
11/14/2014
Low Pass Filter
High Pass Filters

Preserves high frequencies and
Removes slowly varying components
Emphasizes fine details
Low
pass
Filter
Used for edge detection and

enhancement
Edges - Locations where transition from
one category to other occurs
0 -1 0
-1 5 -1
0 -1 0
Delineates Edges and makes the shapes and

details more prominent
background is not lost.
-1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
-1 -1 -1
High Pass Filtering

Edge Detection Background is lost
Edge Enhancement
1
or
Edge Detection
Zero-Sum Kernels
Zero-sum kernels are kernels in which
the sum of all coefficients in the kernel
equals zero.
This generally causes the output values
to be:
zero in areas where all input values are
equal (no edges)
extreme in areas of high spatial
frequency (high values become much
higher, low values become much lower)
Edge Enhancement
Edge Detection
Therefore, a zero-sum kernel is an edge
detector, which usually smoothes out or zeros
out areas of low spatial frequency and creates
a sharp contrast where spatial frequency is
high, which is at the edges between
homogeneous (homogeneity is low spatial
frequency) groups of pixels.
The 3 x 3 kernel
-1
-1 -1
1
-2
1
1
1
1
Non Zero Sum Kernel

High-frequency kernels serve as edge enhancers, since
they bring out the edges between homogeneous groups of
pixels. They highlight edges and do not necessarily
eliminate other features. (The sum of coefficients of kernel
is not zero)
Kernel
-1
-1
-1
-1
16
-1
-1
-1
1
11
11/14/2014
Edge Enhancement
Edge Detection
BEFORE
AFTER
204 200 197
204 200 197
201 106 209
201 9
209
198 200 210
198 200 210
...the low value gets lower. Inversely, when the kernel is used
on a set of pixels in which a relatively high value is
surrounded by lower values...
BEFORE
AFTER
64 60 57
64 60 57
61 125 69
61 187 69
58 60
70
58 60 70
...the high value becomes higher. In either case, spatial
frequency is increased by this kernel.
Original image
3 x 3 Edge Detection
5x5 Edge Detection
Edge Enhancement
Original Image
Enhancement
3x3 Edge
SPECTRAL ENHANCEMENT
Enhancing images by transforming the values
of each pixel on a multiband basis.(Image
Transformation)
Spectral Enhancement
Image Transformation (1)
The enhancement techniques that follow

require more than one band of data.
They can be used to:
Image transformations typically involve

the manipulation of multiple bands of
data, whether from a single multispectral
image or from two or more images of the
same area acquired at different times.
Either way, image transformations
generate "new" images from two or
more sources which highlight particular
features or properties of interest, better
than the original.
extract new bands of data that are more

interpretable to the eye.
apply mathematical transforms and
algorithms.
display a wider variety of information in the
three available color guns (R, G, B).
12
11/14/2014
Image Transformation (2)

Basic image transformations apply simple
arithmetic operations to the image data.
Image subtraction
Image division (spectral ratioing)
Image subtraction is often used to identify changes
that have occurred between images collected on
different dates.
Image ratioing serves to highlight subtle variations in
the spectral responses of various surface covers.
Vegetation Indices
This group of algorithms contains a
number of simple band combinations
that are commonly used for either
vegetation or mineral delineation.
Indices are used extensively in mineral
exploration and vegetation analyses to
bring out small differences between
various rock types and vegetation
classes.
NDVI
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

One widely used image transform is the
Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI) which has been used to
monitor vegetation conditions on
continental and global scales using the
Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR) sensor onboard
the NOAA series of satellites.
NDVI = (Infra Red Red)/(Infra Red + Red)
= (TM 4 TM 3)/(TM 4 + TM 3)
VI = Vegetation Index
= TM 4/TM 3
Clay Minerals = TM 5/7
Ferrous Minerals = TM 5/4
Ferric Minerals (iron oxide) = TM 3/1
NDVI
For Landsat TM NDVI = (Band 4 Band3/(Band 4 + Band3)
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) = (IR R)/(IR + R)
The NDVI itself varies between -1.0 and +1.0.
Negative values of NDVI (values approaching -1)
correspond to deep water.
Values close to zero (-0.1 to 0.1) generally correspond to
barren areas of rock, sand, or snow.
Low, positive values represent shrub and grassland
(approximately 0.2 to 0.4), while high values indicate
temperate and tropical rainforests (values approaching 1).
The typical range is between about -0.1 (for a not very
green area) to 0.6 (for a very green area).
NDVI
Increasing positive NDVI values, shown
in increasing shades of green on the
images, indicate increasing amounts of
green vegetation.
NDVI values near zero and decreasing
negative values indicate non-vegetated
features such as barren surfaces (rock
and soil) and water, snow, ice, and
clouds.
13
11/14/2014
Applications - NDVI
Indices are used extensively in mineral
exploration and vegetation analysis to bring
out small differences between various rock
types and vegetation classes. In many cases,
judiciously chosen indices can highlight and
enhance differences that cannot be observed in
the display of the original color bands.
Certain combinations of TM ratios are routinely
used by geologists for interpretation of Landsat
imagery for mineral type. For example: Red
5/7, Green 5/4, Blue 3/1.
14

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11/14/2014

Modification of an image to alter its impact on viewer

Process of making an image more interpretable for a

Useful since many satellite images give inadequate

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Ratio of Maximum Intensity to Minimum Intensity

CONTRAST = Max . Grey Value / Min. Grey Value

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Histogram and Image Characteristics

Why is it needed to contrast stretch?

Reasons for Low Contrast

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

LOW CONTRAST IMAGE AND ITS

The individual objects and background that make

ORIGINAL IMAGE AND ITS

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Contrast Enhancement Types

Non Linear Contrast

Linear Contrast Stretch

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Linear Contrast Stretch

Enhancement of Image data: Linear stretch

By expanding the original input values of the image,

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Linear Contrast Stretch

Enhancement of Image data: Linear stretch

Maximum Minimum Linear Contrast Stretch

To stretch the data between 0- 255 Eq.1 takes the form

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Linear Stretch Min Max

Enhancement of Image data: Linear stretch

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Piece wise linear stretch

Enhancement of Image data: Piece wise linear stretch

Allows for the enhancement of a specific portion of

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Piece wise linear stretch

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Non-Linear Contrast Enhancement

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Redistributes pixel values with a

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data: Histogram equalization

Fundamentals of Remote Sensing S.Sivanantharajah

Enhancement of Image data