Apologia Pro Alexander VI: The Case For Rodrigo Borgia

1
Apologia Pro Alexander VI
by Matthew Olson
2014
Table of Contents
Personality .................................................................................................................. p. 3
Family ........................................................................................................................... p. 5
Cardinalate ................................................................................................................ p. 8
Election ...................................................................................................................... p. 10
The Italians ................................................................................................................ p. 13
The French ................................................................................................................. p. 17
The Spanish ............................................................................................................... p. 21
Legacy ......................................................................................................................... p. 24
Personality
Rodrigo Borgia was born on 1 January 1431, in Xativa, Spain. Thus, he was most likely
baptized at the site of St. Mary's Basilica there, like his uncle. Both he and his uncle are
now honored by statues outside of its entrance.1
Rodrigo was of a generally happy temperament and of high intelligence. He was

certainly talented and also rumored to be quite handsome, with a medium complexion
and piercing dark eyes. According to Pope Nicholas V, he was also "of honest life and
morals and generally praiseworthy for his virtue".2
Msgr. Peter de Roo, Rodrigo's most formidable chronicler, pointed out that he was
also an apologist, a gifted orator, a master of canon law, a brilliant theologian, a
liturgical expert, and a man marked by tremendous piety and strong devotion to the
Blessed Virgin Mary.3
In addition, Orestes Ferrara, another one of Rodrigo's few decent biographers, said:
"Alexander was a jovial, far-sighted, moderate man, well-balanced in mind and body.
Having lived nearly half a century in Rome, and having been for almost the whole of his
life part of the ecclesiastical organization, he had come to a profound respect for all the
interests of the Catholic Church, a respect greater than for his own life. He was prepared
to compromise upon all purely human questions, but inflexible upon whatever
concerned the rights of religion. He was the type of 'political priest', cautious and slow to
act in the fact [sic] of the unforeseen, but brave to the point of heroism in defen[s]e of
the great Institution whose direction had been entrusted to him." 4
Rodrigo also had an overpowering charitable bent. He was a patron of more than one
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2
3
4
Frederick Rolfe, Chronicles of the House of Borgia, p. 12

Michael de la Bedoyere, The Meddlesome Friar and the Wayward Pope, p. 55
Msgr. Peter de Roo, Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His Relatives, and His Time, Vol. 2, p. 272-278
Orestes Ferrara, quoted by N. M. Gwynne in The Truth about Rodrigo Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, p. 17-18
4
hospital, and he gave alms regularly (weekly, sometimes bi-weekly).
One man said publicly to Rodrigo, "During the many years that thou hast been a
cardinal and vice-chancellor, no one has requested help from thee, which thou didst not
grant at once; to no one didst thou ever refuse legitimate protection; no one, struck by
misfortune or provoked by injustice, has implored thy aid in vain. It was not unusual for
thee, not only to come to the assistance of one to one [sic] who did not request it." The
man elaborated for a while.
And not only was Rodrigo charitable toward the poor, but he was charitable with his
time, too, in that he frequently assisted his fellow cardinals with their administrative
duties. He slept little.5
Of course, any analysis of his personality would be remiss if it were to not also mention
the central role of Rodrigo's family in his life. As the reader will learn throughout this
series, loyalty was a trait of the utmost importance to the isolated Borgia clan. Rodrigo
was dedicated to his four children (Cesare, Giovanni, Lucrezia, and Gioffre), and they
were dedicated to him and, under the patriarch's guiding hand, the whole family was
dedicated to God. When Juan died in 1497, the tragedy shook Rodrigo and instilled in
him an even better devotion.
Rodrigo has been the victim of much undeserved calumny. At least three of his
contemporary accusers never even met him!6 Of an essentially good character, he was a
devout follower of Christ and the Madonna. He deserves better treatment.
5 Msgr. Peter de Roo, Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His Relatives, and His Time, Vol. 2, p. 281-283
6 Msgr. Peter de Roo, Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His Relatives, and His Time, Vol. 2, p. 284
Family
Vannozza dei Cattanei was Rodrigo Borgia's mistress and the mother of his children.
She "doubtless was of great beauty and ardent passions; for if not, how could she have
inflamed a Rodrigo Borgia? Her intellect too, although uncultivated, must have been
vigorous; for if not, how could she have maintained her relations with the cardinal?" 7 He
was "faithful through his life to [this] one woman". After the births of their children and
before he ascended to the Papacy, she was put away in luxurious accommodations and
received provision for the rest of her life. She "agreed with the Cardinal about the need
for her to live a life of retirement rather than presume on a position which would then
have given far less scandal than at any other period of history". She paints a picture of
Rodrigo as anything but a "debauched man".8
Cesare, Rodrigo's first-born, was a fiery man. Under his father's patronage, he rose to
the rank of cardinal, a position which he later resigned in order to become more
involved with military efforts in the Papal States. He is the first person in history to
resign the cardinalate.
Giovanni, the militant second-born, served as gonfaloniere (military "standard-
bearer") in the Papal States until his death likely as a result of a sexual encounter 9 in
1497.
Lucrezia, the third in line, was exceptionally beautiful, graceful, and precocious. "She
had received instruction in the languages, in music, and in drawing, and later the people
of Ferrara were amazed at the skill and taste which she displayed in embroidering in silk
and gold. 'She spoke Spanish, Greek, Italian, and French, and a little Latin, very
correctly, and she wrote and composed poems in all these tongues,' said the biographer
7 Ferdinand Gregorovius (translated by John Leslie Garner), Lucretia Borgia
8 Michael de la Bedoyere, The Meddlesome Friar and the Wayward Pope, p. 64
6
Bayard in 1512."10 She was, no doubt, good fruit from the Church's many investments in
education up to that point. Out of all of Rodrigo's children, she lived the longest: until
1519, at the age of 39.
As for Gioffre, little is known of him. Overshadowed by his brothers, his place in
history has been a tad undermined. He was mild-mannered.
There are more than a few that raise objections to the fact that Rodrigo broke his
clerical vows of chastity, but these persons almost always neglect two key points. First,
that he legitimized them and provided for his family, when he could have just discarded
them, reveals an immense amount of love and charity. Second, St. Peter, the first pope,
is traditionally believed to have been the father of at least St. Petronilla, a first-century
martyr.
Some, like writers for The Dublin Review in 1858, dispute Rodrigo's paternity of his
children, saying things like, "..[I]t is admitted that, in certain legal proceedings, sworn
depositions attested that [Cesare] and [Lucretzia] were the children of another -- we
believe of his brother. It is easy to say that the depositions were false, but no one said so
at the time; and it is too much to dispose of sworn evidence by ex post facto assertions.
The truth is, that it was the custom of [p]opes in those troublous times, to have a
relative, generally a nephew, a man of [vigor] and martial prowess, to conduct the
defen[s]e of the Papal territories against the rapacious states by which it was
surrounded, and who were for ever seeking to spoil it. And the relative, according to
papal usage, would be called 'my son:' which is probably foundation enough for
malignant enmity to base a foul calumny upon. Assuredly just as much foundation exists
for the imputation in the case of many a pontiff acknowledged to have been good and
holy."11
Others, meanwhile, try to say that he had more children. Some say three more:
Geronima, Isabella, and Pedro Luis, because these three are thought to have Vannozza
as their mother. 12 Others say there may have been even more than that, including
Ottaviano.13
10
11
12
13
Ferdinand Gregorovius (translated by John Leslie Garner), Lucretia Borgia

The Dublin Review, Vol. XLV, September-December 1858, p. 341-342
Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 30
7
The former theory sounds more likely than the latter, at least, but to deny his
fatherhood which has been corroborated by so many comes off as ludicrous. In fact,
Stefano Infessura (an Italian humanist historian) records that Rodrigo, "wishing to
make his natural son [Cesare] a cardinal, caused it to appear, by false testimony, that he
was the legitimate son of a certain Domenico of Arignano". So, such testimonies were, in
actuality, only to further legitimize his children!14
The second group, alternatively, presents a serious quandary: if these were indeed his,
why would Rodrigo not recognize them, seeing as he recognized the others and they
would all have been in similar circumstances? Such a possibility seems even more
ludicrous.
Anyway, perhaps, on this topic, Christians should exercise charity like Rodrigo did.
14 Ferdinand Gregorovius (translated by John Leslie Garner), Lucretia Borgia
Cardinalate
Rodrigo Borgia was given the red hat by his uncle, Pope Callixtus III, when he was 25
years old. While some have criticized Callixtus for this, it is important to remember that
the established families of Italy were very hostile to the Spanish Borgias, and so the
foreign family took a close-knit approach whenever possible.
In short order about 2 years later Rodrigo was appointed Vice-Chancellor to the
Holy See, again by his uncle, and eventually made the Archbishop of Valencia.
By the time he was Vice-Chancellor, Rodrigo had substantial income. He received
benefices from multiple cathedrals, including the one at Valencia, and cloisters, on top
of the automatic salary (8,000 ducats) associated with his position. As he was a scholar
and devotee of learning, much of this income was spent on books.15
Interestingly, the Cardinal may have been in substantial debt, due to his funding of
many diocesan and papal projects, among them many parties and building restorations,
as well as Pius II's Crusade.
"..[W]hen we consider that a goodly portion of his revenues was spent in habitual
charities and rich donations, we could not expect his alleged accumulation of gold coin
to be very great. We know, on the contrary, that, more than once, he was on the verge of
financial ruin or actually penniless."16
Despite his otherwise-grand expenditures and lifestyle, perhaps due to a mixture of

piety and frugality, Rodrigo fasted often and typically limited himself to one dish per
meal. This made him unpopular company, and the other cardinals usually found cause
to avoid his table.17
Politically, the Cardinal was a brilliant and valuable legate. Rodrigo had a rather
15 Arnold H. Mathew, D.D., The Life and Times of Rodrigo Borgia, p. 38
16 Msgr. Peter de Roo, Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His Relatives, and His Time, Vol. 2, p. 303
17 Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 83-84
9
notable penchant for solving delicate diplomatic issues, which would serve him well in
his later years. He was instrumental in the rise of Isabella (and Ferdinand) in Spain,
whose claims to the throne, thanks to him, were endorsed by the Pope and for whose
firstborn he even offered to serve as godfather.18
Five popes (Callixtus III, Pius II, Paul II, Sixtus IV, and Innocent VIII) utilized
Rodrigo's services. Even Pius, who was pressured to remove Spanish from positions of
influence, insisted on keeping him on, saying that Rodrigo was both "an extraordinarily
able man"19 and "young in age assuredly, but..old in judgment".20
Cardinal Borgia was an extremely loyal man and an excellent lieutenant. He told Pius
II, "I will be at your side, Pontiff, on sea and on land, and even, if necessary, will follow
you through fire!"21
After Paul II removed less-competent Curia employees, Bartolomeo Sacchi de Piadena

(aka Platina), one of the fired workers, made a pamphlet threatening the overthrow of
Paul. Continuing in this constant vein of loyalty, Rodrigo was furious, and he ensured
the rebel's arrest. Still, this pamphlet led to a murderous plot against the Holy Father in
1468, which was only foiled at the last minute. Such incidents caused the Cardinal to be
wary of heretics and dissidents.22
Due to his high offices (not just the aforementioned, but also that of camerlingo
treasurer and dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals), though, the question has been
asked: Would the popes have accepted his alleged notoriety, if indeed he was notorious?
I believe not. The awful things that he has been accused of many of which will be
addressed in this book would surely bar him from office, if indeed he participated in
them.
Innocent VIII said that Rodrigo was "distinguished by noble gifts, abounding
remarkable by [his] virtues".23 Was the pope just ignorant, or did he know something
then that many do not know today?
18 Ivan Cloulas (translated by Gilda Roberts), The Borgias, p. 46
19 Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 20
20 Br. J.B. Darcy, CFC, What you don't know about the Borgia Pope: Alexander VI (1492-1503) (Catholic Insight)
23 Br. J.B. Darcy, CFC, What you don't know about the Borgia Pope: Alexander VI (1492-1503) (Catholic Insight)
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Election
The conclave of 1492 was an awesome, if typical, affair.
After the death of Pope Innocent VIII, the primary contenders to succeed him quickly
became obvious: Rodrigo Borgia, Ascanio Sforza, and Giuliano della Rovere (who later
became Pope Julius II).24
Rodrigo was the obvious choice, a man of high honors and popularity. However, that
he was Spanish, and therefore seen as an outsider, was likely a point of considerable
contention. Ascanio, the Italian and scion of the powerful House of Sforza, had an
establishment look and was probably thought a safe choice, but he was somewhat
lackluster he was the moderate candidate. Giuliano, meanwhile, had the backing of
the French, who were most powerful allies at the time.
From the start, Rodrigo appeared to be in the lead, and after only a few ballots, he was
elected, likely by a unanimous vote excepting, possibly, the vote of Giuliano.25 The
Florentine ambassador's report of the election confirms this.26
While allegations of simony in this conclave still circulate today, there is no legitimate
basis for them. "The wealth needed to buy the votes of so many rich and supposedly
hostile men to tempt them to elect a Spanish Pope against their inclinations would have
been far beyond even Rodrigo's means".27 Had such been decisive, Giuliano, surely,
would have been elected.
In fact, Bernardino de Carvajal, a Spaniard and friend of Rodrigo, delivered a speech
before the Sacred College in which he laid out vices found within the Church and
exhorted the cardinals to choose a pontiff who would restore Her virtue. He pleaded,
24
25
26
27

Br. J.B. Darcy, CFC, What you don't know about the Borgia Pope: Alexander VI (1492-1503) (Catholic Insight)
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"The whole Church has [H]er eyes upon you, Excellent Fathers; give [H]er a Pontiff who
may draw after him to salvation all [C]hristian nations, through the very odor of his
good name."28
It must be noted that, had Rodrigo been as horrible as usually alleged, this speech
would have absolutely precluded him from the high office.
Upon his election, Rodrigo took the name of Alexander, after Pope Alexander III (who
dared to confront the inimical Frederick Barbarossa) and likely after the indomitable
Alexander the Great, becoming Pope Alexander VI. "There were murmurings that the
new pope wanted to make his pontificate a universal reign where all nations would be
subject to him, as would the heavenly powers, through the power Christ had granted St.
Peter to bind and unbind all things on earth and in heaven." 29
(Alexander chose to be referred to as the sixth so that he would not be confused with
anti-pope Alexander V.)
The people loved him. After his election, "the greatest honor was done to him
throughout the city by the Roman people with triumphal arches and with more than
there was ever done to other [p]opes."30 He was crowned in "a ceremony of
unprecedented grandeur", where more than 800 notable leaders came to pay him
homage, and he was showered with compliments in an above-and-beyond fashion
by many ambassadors. Here, he gave a special greeting to our rabbinical brethren. 31 At

the pope's instruction, the celebrations were also uplifting: a Eucharistic procession was
to be the focus of the event, countless coins were thrown into the crowd, and all of his
revenues were donated.32
Sung at the coronation was, "Hic est sacerdos Alexander quem coronavit Dominus.
Alleluia." (This is the priest, Alexander, whom the Lord has crowned. Alleluia.) 33
28
29
30
31
Ivan Cloulas (translated by Gilda Roberts), The Borgias, p. 67-68
Johann Burchard (edited by Dr. F. L. Glaser), Pope Alexander VI and His Court, p. 53
Michael de la Bedoyere, The Meddlesome Friar and the Wayward Pope, p. 91 (Quote: "Hebrews, we admire and
respect your Holy Law since it was given your ancestors by the most High God through the hands of Moses. But
we are opposed to the false observance and interpretation you have of it, because the Apostolic Faith teaches that
the Redeemer whom you await in vain has already come, and that he is Our Lord Jesus Christ who with the
Father and the Holy Spirit is the Everlasting God.")
32 Ivan Cloulas (translated by Gilda Roberts), The Borgias, p. 69, 71
33 Stuart Robb, To Begin, Continue and Complete: Music in the Wider Context of Artistic Patronage by Pope
Alexander VI (1492-1503) and the Hymn Cycle of CS 15, p. 43
12
Alexander's pontificate was here entrusted to the Mother of God, also. 34
34 Stuart Robb, To Begin, Continue and Complete, p. 45 (Quote: Pronoscemus hilari, protegens Virgo, intuitu ut
que felix investitus per curiam terminet annos, te favente, certos. Talis enim, Virginum gemma, dignus est
honoris.)
13
The Italians
Once his installment was settled, the pope set about making many changes.
Alexander was a reformer. He despised the corruption prevalent in some ranks of
clergy, and so he proclaimed, "We are well aware that morals have notably fallen back.
No longer can we tolerate the way in which the former salutary measures instituted by
our predecessors to keep sensuality and avarice within bounds have been violated so
that we fall headlong into corruption. Even though we were only in a lesser position as
cardinal under our predecessors, Pius II, Paul II, Sixtus IV and Innocent VIII, we always
wanted to see the present licen[s]e of morals restrained by new constitutions. That is
why at the beginning of our Pontificate we wished to give this matter priority over all
others."35
Alexander soon nominated a commission of six cardinals known for their piety and
had his "Bull of Reformation" prepared. The Bull outlined several proposed disciplines:
new limits on the sale and transfer of Church property, the restriction of cardinals to one
bishopric each, cuts to their households and property, bans on their participation in
popular secular events, limits to their funeral expenses, and a firm zero-tolerance policy
for clergy caught accepting bribes or utilizing concubines.36
Michael de la Bedoyere says of this, "We need to bear in mind in assessing the true
character of Alexander Borgia this extraordinary capacity to see so clearly the right path
and to will it with all his heart..."37
Unfortunately, he was never able to push through those reforms. This was the biggest
tragedy of Alexander's reign and it is one that surely upset him to a great extent. There
was always something in the way: battles with the French, political squabbles, clerical
36 John Julius Norwich, Absolute Monarchs, p. 268-269
14
revolts, and so on.
Nonetheless, he quickly accomplished much.
He was able to cut the rampant crime in Rome by implementing measures like the
appointment of new prison inspectors and commissaries. He also held public audiences
where anyone, no matter their status, could lodge complaints and receive justice from
the Vicar himself, further ingratiating the Church to Her people. 38 In addition, he
planned a new constitution to outline the rights and liberties of his citizens. The prisons
became better-managed and the new judicial districts, each run by accountable
magistrates, brought about increased safety and effectiveness. 39
Alexander also immediately set himself apart by his erudition. This was nothing new,
but he now had a wider audience. He was "so familiar with Holy Writ, that his speeches
were fairly sparkling with well-chosen texts of the Sacred Books."40
The Italians, as a whole, liked him. But seeds of their republican spirit had begun to
spread, notably among the aristocrats.
The Sforzas were certainly a thorn in Alexander's side. Ascanio was greedy. Ludovico
was crazy, putting whole territories at risk to further his ambitions. Caterina, "the widow
of Count Girolamo", on top of her other crimes, even tried to poison him! 41 This family
was quite dysfunctional, despite its occasional good work in Milan.
The Orsini were treacherous and especially powerful. Virginio and the rest of his
family continually plotted against the pope and Cesare. Alexander wisely kept Cardinal
Giambattista Orsini as a hostage while the French were about, to prevent further
betrayals at that critical time and that worked, for a while. The cardinal was arrested
again, in 1503, and held along with Franciotto (the protonotary apostolic) and other
members. Their properties were seized for a time in that year.42 The Orsini have also
long been suspected of assassinating Alexander's brother, Don Pedro Luis, after he fled
to Civitavecchia for safety, when his uncle was near death. 43
38
39
40
41
42
43
Johann Burchard (edited by Dr. F. L. Glaser), Pope Alexander VI and His Court, p. 114-115
Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages, Vol. 2, p. 476-478
15
As for the Colonna, weaker at the moment but influential still, Prospero (a military
man) had to be imprisoned. At one point, in June 1501, their properties were finally
taken, in the name of the Holy Father.44 Had the Orsini and Colonna not been feuding
incessantly, they might have done irrevocable damage to the Papacy.
And then there was Naples, ruled by Ferrante I (aka Ferdinand I). Ferrante had many
enemies, because of Naples' importance to others, and he was ruthless in response to
any perceived slight. After he realized that Alexander could not secure his position, he
fiercely plotted against the pontiff.45 He died in 1494, "without the light of grace, without
the cross, and without God," still an enemy of the Church. 46
The Medici, alternatively, were not bad. Giovanni, a cardinal and the future Pope Leo
X, at just 16, is rumored to have loudly denounced Alexander's election. Such a
statement is unlikely, however, in light of both his youth and his family's cordial
relations with the Borgias. Cesare was on particularly good terms with the Medici "the
greatest confidence existed between him" and Giovanni's older brother, Piero. 47
Lastly, there was Savonarola. This fiery preacher condemned his age and he was filled
with conviction against perceived wickedness, though there was nothing particularly
special about him. Even his admirers recognize that, while he had holy intent, "there are
no grounds whatever for believing that Savonarola's prophecies and revelations are to be
attributed to any special divine inspiration."48 While he had his quibbles with Alexander,
it must be noted that he accepted a plenary indulgence granted to him at his death by
the pope, subtly assenting to his authority.49 Importantly, this friar set the stage for
future discussions on papal infallibility.50
Alexander's enemies were definitely better at one thing: churning out propaganda.
"Literature happened then to be a rising power; it was mostly under the influence of the
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Br. J.B. Darcy, CFC, What you don't know about the Borgia Pope: Alexander VI (1492-1503) (Catholic Insight)
Ferdinand Gregorovius (translated by John Leslie Garner), Lucretia Borgia
Michael Davies, Savonarola (MP3)
Ferdinand Gregorovius (translated by John Leslie Garner), Lucretia Borgia (Quote: "In 1497 Hieronymus, then
in Cesena, composed a dialogue on Savonarola and his 'heresy concerning the power of the Pope.' The kernel of
the whole thing was the fundamental doctrine of the infallibilists; namely, that only those who blindly obey the
Pope are good Christians.")
16
enemies of the Holy See (because princes were rich and [p]ontiffs were poor) and the
venal writers of Florence or Venice".51 Unfortunately, he did not feel the need to correct
these rumors, laughing them off and saying, "Plenty of things are said of me, but I take
no notice."52 "It never occurred to him to attempt to curtail the liberty of speech or
writing in Rome."53
The pope had to put up with a lot. "Perhaps no [p]ontiff had ever been exposed to such
a combination of wicked and abandoned princes; or ever one defended himself so nobly
and successfully."54
51
52
53
54
The Dublin Review, Vol. XLV, September-December 1858, p. 342

Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages, Vol. 6, p. 113
17
The French
With a devout personality, encouraged by his friend, St. Francis of Paola, King Charles
VIII was just the man to bring about needed reforms. He was quirky, but responsible,
and he was a little naive, but full of ideas. There was only one snag to him: Charles had
been taught to covet Naples, and he saw it as a gateway to further expansion. He wanted
Alexander to give it to him, but the pope, wanting to carve it out as a distinctly Italian
state, refused.55
To advance his goals, he built up one of the greatest fighting forces that the world has
ever seen. His military was "provisioned by a large quantity of artillery of a type never
before seen in Italy": he had his special, signature cannonry. 56
On his way to the Middle East, the king was determined to depose or forcefully reform
Alexander, whom he had been led to believe was immoral. In this, the king was
encouraged by Ascanio and Giuliano, the two most influential cardinals. The former was
an opportunist, and the latter retained jealousy. The Orsini, in their typical level of
bravery, quickly surrendered to the king use of their nearby fortress, known today as the
Castello Orsini-Odescalchi (in Bracciano).57 Other cardinals proved similarly helpful.
For their treachery, Alexander would have been well within his rights to later demand
their execution, but he pardoned them instead. The Ferrarese ambassador, Beltrando
Costabili, recorded what the pope said of this: "I could easily have had the ViceChancellor and Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere killed; but I did not wish to harm any
one, and I pardoned fourteen of the nobles."58
Luckily, Alexander managed to maneuver himself into a position of safety. As turmoil

55
56
57
58
Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 56-57

18
brewed, he sought assistance from the Germans, but was denied. He fled to the Castel
Sant'Angelo, deciding to defend it himself, prepared to "stand on its walls in full

canonicals, carrying the Blessed Sacrament".59
Meanwhile, the king was reluctant to actually lay siege to the holy city, in contrast to
the bloodlust of much of his army. His army, frustrated, ransacked and confiscated
houses for their own quartering. They also targeted our rabbinical brethren, for whom
Alexander, in response to abuses in the Spanish Inquisition, had made safer living
arrangements.60
At their first meeting, Charles rushed to genuflect before Alexander; the pope, in turn,
reacted informally, stopping the king (as St. Peter did for St. Cornelius, in Acts 10),
charming him with humility. These attitudes continued until, finally, the pope granted
Charles passage through his States and Charles swore obedience in return. 61
"..[T]he most heroic of the popes could not have sustained the stability of the Holy See
at this crucial moment with greater firmness. From the crumbling ramparts of St.
Angelo, the defen[s]es of which were still incomplete, he looked calmly into the mouth
of the French cannon; with equal intrepidity he faced the cabal of della Rovere's
cardinals, clamorous for his deposition. At the end of a fortnight it was Charles who
capitulated."62
Alexander and Charles, on 15 January 1495, reached a formal agreement, the first
clause of which read, "Our Holy Father shall remain the king's good father, and the king
shall remain a good and devoted son of Our Holy Father."63 Rome was bruised, but
saved, and the king wanted to "smother [Alexander's] feet with kisses". 64
While Charles went on to cause trouble elsewhere (especially in Naples), he did so with
good intentions and a clear conscience. It can be argued that this heir to St. Louis'
throne took to heart Savonarola's cautionary words: "If wickedness should by your
means be increased, know that the power given to you from on high will be shattered." 65
59
60
61
62
63
64
65

The Catholic Encyclopedia (1907), Pope Alexander VI
Ivan Cloulas (translated by Gilda Roberts), The Borgias, p. 108
19
Nevertheless, Alexander had to respond. Later that year, he asked the newly-formed
"Holy League" to reclaim papal territories taken by Charles, after efforts for diplomacy
had failed. They did so.
Charles died a somewhat broken man, and in an "embarrassing" way: he struck his
head on the top of a door and died soon after. He was interesting, even in death. Most
unfortunately, he never fulfilled his (and Alexander's) dream of reclaiming Jerusalem
for Christendom.
Then, there was King Louis XII. Of strong will, and of equally strong physicality, his
reign was a mixed bag. His relationship with Joan of Valois was annulled she went on
to found a monastic order (confirmed by Alexander) and was eventually canonized. He
warmly welcomed Cesare, the papal representative, agreeing to help the young man find
a wife, give him a position in the French army, and bestow on him entry into the Order
of St. Michael. 66 Also, Charles began and Louis constructed a beautiful Roman church,
the Trinit dei Monti, to the pope's delighted approval, and, to this day, it remains under
the patronage of the French government. Finally, by helping Alexander occupy key
territories, he maybe inadvertently greatly increased the temporal power of the
Church, even over and above his own. (Machiavelli greatly criticized him for that!) 67 It is
truly a shame that this monarch was a Gallican; that, regrettably, must preclude any
fervent support.
Ascanio, tellingly, publicly protested the new king's closeness to the Borgias, no doubt
out of fear that Louis, with a better claim to Milan, would oust the Sforzas (which he
did). Alexander "shouted in reply that it had been Ascanio's brother who had first
brought the French into Italy" and, in the heat of the argument, threatened to throw him
into the Tiber River. That shut the belligerent cardinal up.68
As for Alexander: "..[S]urely no pontificate could more strongly illustrate the
importance of territorial independence of the Papacy."69 This was one of his main goals
all along, actually, and this is further evidenced by the fact that he wisely started
66
67
68
69

Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, Chapter 3
20
fortifying defenses, including those of his Castel, early on.70
21
The Spanish
Br. J.B. Darcy points out some necessary background information: "For centuries,
Spain had been almost completely overridden by the Moors. The Spaniards had been
trying to take back their country from the Moors for almost 800 years. By the middle of
the 15th century, this reconquest was almost complete, but Spain was still a hodgepodge
of competing principalities and, because of its constant state of warfare, still a very
backward country."71
As mentioned earlier, Alexander enjoyed good relations with the reigning Spanish
monarchs, even as a cardinal. King Ferdinand, while wily and of the arrogant, antiRoman Aragonese, would often have no choice but to assent to the devout Queen
Isabella's wishes, for "love held their wills in unison".72 Alexander understood this and
worked around it.
While papal legate to the country (1472-1473), he exhorted to the clergy, "..I beg of you
not only to be of one mind in guarding and defending [the Church] as the most precious
thing, but also to spare yourselves neither pain nor peril for its preservation." 73 He was
also able to convince the people to rise up against the Muslims (which they definitely
did, in Granada) and support a Crusade.74
Alexander was, very obviously, a lover of Spanish culture. While legate, he "seems to
have had a pleasurable time in his native land, for he stayed there more than a year and
many letters from the Cardinal of Pavia were needed to entice him back to Rome." 75
Cesare had a great fondness for the culture, as well, including bullfighting. 76
71
72
73
74
75
76
Br. J.B. Darcy, CFC, What you dont know about the Borgia Pope: Alexander VI (1492-1503) (Catholic Insight)
Warren H. Carroll, Isabel of Spain, The Catholic Queen
Ivan Cloulas (translated by Gilda Roberts), The Borgias, p. 45
Arnold H. Mathew, D.D., The Life and Times of Rodrigo Borgia, p. 50
22
One thing that the government would not tolerate from Alexander was his shielding of
our rabbinical brethren, the Hebrews, at this time. To their great consternation, the
pope made living arrangements for them in Rome, after their expulsion. This, it seemed
to them, only undermined the Spanish position. Alexander allowed Spain to tax
churches in its territory in response to Spain's complaints about expenses incurred from
its incentivized conversions of infidels. However, he refused to back down when it came
to treating people of other faiths with Christian charity.77 He tolerated the Spanish
Inquisition, but, like Sixtus IV, he tried to rein it in: he personally curbed Torquemada's
power and hired four "assistants" to supervise him.78
The Spanish also were not happy about Alexander's close relations with the French.
But in 1503, "a change [occurred] in the Borgia politics, an inclination to draw nearer to
Spain and retire from France consequent on the latter s humiliation".79 It is too bad that
death prevented him from capitalizing on this.
There were plenty of healthy developments.
In May 1493, two months after explorers returned from the New World they had just
discovered, Alexander published a papal bull marking the boundaries of the territories
of Spain and Portugal, entrusting the Americas (minus Brazil) to the former. He wrote,
"In these unknown lands where Christopher Columbus has stepped, lives a people,
naked, vegetarian, who believe in one God and ask but to be taught to believe in Jesus
Christ."80
The impact of all of this is profound: nearly 50% of Catholics today live in the
Americas. In recognition of this, renditions of Native Americans were painted in the
Borgia Apartments. "In addition, he installed the golden ceiling of Santa Maria
Maggiore, using the precious metal brought back by Columbus and donated to the
[P]apacy by Ferdinand and Isabel[la]."81
Alexander also helped reform parishes and convents in Spanish territories,
77
78
79
80
81

Rafael Sabatini, Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition, p. 383-384
Charles A. Coulombe, Vicars of Christ, p. 330
23
commanded the Spanish bishops to crack down on the abuse and forgery of
indulgences,82 assisted with evangelizing Granada, and extended the indulgence for
those still fighting the Moors.83 And the monarchs helped him in the "Holy League",
granting him use of their Gran Capitan, Gonzalo Fernndez de Crdoba, and more.
82 Rafael Sabatini, The Life of Cesare Borgia, Book 2, Chapter 5

83 Rafael Sabatini, The Life of Cesare Borgia, Book 2, Chapter 2
24
Legacy
"..the history of Alexander VI as it has reached us is a tissue of inaccuracies,
extraordinarily easy to disprove the moment recourse is had to contemporary
documents in a spirit of sane criticism."84
"Surely the very statement of the simple facts and dates might suffice to dispose of the
foul calumny, just as perjured testimony is destroyed in the courts by a few searching
questions: and like most perjured witnesses, the calumniators of Alexander went too far,
proved too much, overshot their mark, and have destroyed their own credibility." 85
In this series, I have recalled many wondrous works of Alexander. Here are, in no
particular order, five other notable things:
1. He defended the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, well before Pope Pius IX
proclaimed it as dogma. He also promoted devotion to St. Anne, the Virgin's own
mother, and granted the Dominicans the right to establish confraternities of the
Rosary.86 This is not surprising, because of his intense devotion to the Theotokos; he
would often exhort his children to "pray diligently to the Madonna".87
2. He ordered and supervised the creation of his master of ceremonies', Johann
Burchard's, improved rubrics and Ordo, setting in place some liturgical reform and
84
85
86
87
Orestes Ferrara, quoted by N. M. Gwynne in The Truth about Rodrigo Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, p. 17
25
regularizing just prior to that of Pope St. Pius V.88 89 In this vein, he also codified Jubilee
celebrations, with the utmost magnificence, and he instituted the daily three-fold
recitation of the Angelus.90
3. He was the first to suggest forbidding the printing of books without an imprimatur. 91
He wrote, in Inter Multiplices (1501), "The art of printing can be of great service in so far
as it furthers the circulation of useful and tested books; but it can bring about serious
evils if it is permitted to widen the influence of pernicious works. It will, therefore, be

necessary to maintain full control over the printers so that they may be prevented from
bringing into print writings which are antagonistic to the Catholic faith or which are
likely to cause trouble to believers."92
4. He was a major patron of beauty. He repaired and refurbished churches, 93 built up

musical industry,94 and commissioned artists such as Pinturicchio.
5. He was extremely talented at discipline and canon law. "[A]t leaving school, he was
honored with an unusual title, graduating not simply as Doctor of Law, but as '[t]he
most eminent and judicious jurisprudent'".95 He wrote "several learned works" in this
field.96 He vociferously tackled laxity and abuses (of doctrine and of practice), even as
Archbishop of Valencia.97 From Rome, he tried to quash the violations then prevalent in
Venice and elsewhere.98
Alexander survived death twice, in 1500. First, a large piece of iron fell and almost
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
Piero Marini, Office for the Liturgical Celebrations of the Supreme Pontiff, The Magistri Cremoniarum
The Catholic Encyclopedia (1910), Liturgical Books
Michael de la Bedoyere, The Meddlesome Friar and the Wayward Pope, p. 91-92
Charles A. Coulombe, Vicars of Christ, p. 338
George Haven Putnam, The Censorship of the Church of Rome, Vol. 1, p. 80-81
Stuart Robb, To Begin, Continue and Complete: Music in the Wider Context of Artistic Patronage by Pope
Alexander VI (1492-1503) and the Hymn Cycle of CS 15
Msgr. Peter de Roo, Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His Relatives, and His Time, Vol. 2, p. 29
Msgr. Peter de Roo, Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, His Relatives, and His Time, Vol. 5, p. 262
26
struck him in the Basilica99 -- then, the next day (29 June, the Feast of Sts. Peter and
Paul), a roof caved in on him, at his throne.100 He just kept working, but he was
nevertheless taken from earth in 1503.
After his death, an oration given by Bishop Alexius Celadonius declared that, "He had
such a sharp and shrewd wit as to aid not only those before his pontificate but also those
after his time".101 And, "Alexander was a very successful man and generally healthy --
not weak, not feeble, but full of hope and understanding of the many things which could
be accomplished".102
Perhaps, though, Alexander's greatest legacy resides in the canonization of his greatgrandson, St. Francis Borgia.
Alexander -- savior of Rome, unifier of Italy, father of Europe, evangelist of the
Americas, defender of the Church, blasphemabitur reformator -- pray for us.
100 Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 160-161
101The English Historical Review, Vol. VII, 1892, p. 311-314 (Quote: Ingenio quidem tam acri et callido fuit ut et
alios ante se ad pontificatum iuverit et post modum se quoque ipse)
102 The English Historical Review, Vol. VII, 1892, p. 311-314 (Quote: Ecce Alexandrum tam prospera valetudine in
toto corpore hominem non imbecillem non decrepitum sed longioris vitae spe plenum eaque animo concipientem
vel gerentem quae vix annis pluribus compleri potuissent)

Apologia Pro Alexander VI: The Case For Rodrigo Borgia

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Apologia Pro Alexander VI: The Case For Rodrigo Borgia

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Apologia Pro Alexander VI

Rodrigo was of a generally happy temperament and of high intelligence. He was

Frederick Rolfe, Chronicles of the House of Borgia, p. 12

Giovanni, the militant second-born, served as gonfaloniere (military "standard-

Ferdinand Gregorovius (translated by John Leslie Garner), Lucretia Borgia

14 Ferdinand Gregorovius (translated by John Leslie Garner), Lucretia Borgia

Despite his otherwise-grand expenditures and lifestyle, perhaps due to a mixture of

After Paul II removed less-competent Curia employees, Bartolomeo Sacchi de Piadena

Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 37

by many ambassadors. Here, he gave a special greeting to our rabbinical brethren. 31 At

The Dublin Review, Vol. XLV, September-December 1858, p. 342

Castello Orsini-Odescalchi (in Bracciano).57 Other cardinals proved similarly helpful.

Luckily, Alexander managed to maneuver himself into a position of safety. As turmoil

Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 56-57

Sant'Angelo, deciding to defend it himself, prepared to "stand on its walls in full

Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 64-65

territories, he maybe inadvertently greatly increased the temporal power of the

As for Alexander: "..[S]urely no pontificate could more strongly illustrate the

Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies, p. 137

70 Ivan Cloulas (translated by Gilda Roberts), The Borgias, p. 101

Alexander also helped reform parishes and convents in Spanish territories,

Ivan Cloulas (translated by Gilda Roberts), The Borgias, p. 79-80

82 Rafael Sabatini, The Life of Cesare Borgia, Book 2, Chapter 5

2. He ordered and supervised the creation of his master of ceremonies', Johann

evils if it is permitted to widen the influence of pernicious works. It will, therefore, be

4. He was a major patron of beauty. He repaired and refurbished churches, 93 built up

Americas, defender of the Church, blasphemabitur reformator -- pray for us.

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