ME 54

Notes of lesson

Unit 2

ME 54 HEAT TRANSFER
NOTES OF LESSON
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Unit - 2: One dimensional transient heat conduction

[Syllabus: Steady state conduction in a slab, in a cylinder and in a sphere with heat

generation; One-dimensional Transient Conduction - Conduction in solids with negligible

internal temperature gradients (Lumped system analysis); Use of transient temperature charts
(Heisler Charts) for transient conduction in slab, long cylinder and sphere; Use of transient
temperature charts for transient conduction in semi-infinite solids; Numerical problems]

Introduction
The temperature of a body, in general, varies with time as well as position. Transient (or
unsteady) state refers to the variation of heat flow and temperature distribution with
respect to time at any given location of the system continuously. In Cartesian coordinates,
this variation, in one-dimensional heat transfer problems, is expressed as T(x, t), where x
indicates the variation of temperature in x-direction and t indicates variation with time.
The transient heat conduction problems may be solved by either analytical or graphical
methods.

Lumped system analysis (Heat conduction in infinite solids

with negligible internal resistance)
In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a lump whose interior
temperature remains essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer process. The
temperature of such bodies can be taken to be a function of time only, T (t). Heat transfer
analysis that utilizes this idealization is known as lumped system analysis.

Solids that have very high (infinite) thermal conductivity with surface area large in
comparison to their volume (for example, plates, thin metallic wires, small metal balls),
the internal (or conduction) resistance can be assumed to be very small (or negligible)
compared with the surface (or convective) resistance. In other words,

L
1
. The
<<<
kA
hA

temperature gradient within such solids is negligible and hence the entire mass of the
solid (lump) is considered to be at a uniform temperature at any given time. Heat
transfer in such solids is known as Newtonian heating (or cooling) and temperature is a
function of time only.
[No. of Pages:

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Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

Unit 2

Expression for temperature variation with respect to time in a lumped

system
Consider a body of arbitrary shape of mass m, volume V, surface area AS, density , and
specific heat cp initially at a uniform temperature Ti. At time t=0, the body is placed into a
medium at temperature T, (with assumption, Ti > T) and heat transfer takes place
between the body and its environment, with a heat transfer coefficient h. During a
differential time dt, the temperature of the body lowers by a differential amount dT. The
heat balance at the surface of the body is given by:
The decrease in the heat content of the body = Heat convected to the medium during dt

mc p dT = hA[T (t ) T ]dt

(1)

Separating the variables of equation (1),

dT
hA
=
dt
T (t ) T
Vc p

{After substituting for m = V}

On integration,

hA
t +C
Vc p

ln[T (t ) T ] =

(2)

The integration constant C can be evaluate by

applying the initial condition to equation (2);

m, V,

at t=0, T (0) =Ti

Ti

Therefore, ln[Ti T ] = C
Substituting for C in equation (2)

ln[T (t ) T ] =

hA
t + ln (Ti T )
Vc p
ln

Simplifying,

Qt

Qt

T (t ) T
hA
=
t
Ti T
Vc p

h, T

h, T
Lumped
System

(3)

hA

t
T (t ) T
Vc p
=e
Ti T

Or

(4)

Let = T (t ) T and i = Ti T
hA

Vc
Then
=e
i

[No. of Pages:

t
p

(5)

9]

Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

hA
Vc
p

The term

Unit 2

t can be arranged in terms of non-dimensional numbers Biot number

(Bi) and Fourier number (Fo).

A
hA
1
t = h S
t
Vc p
V cp
1
t
Lc k

= h

Where Lc = Characteristic length =

{After substituting for

V
k
= Lc ; c p = }

AS

Volume
Surface area

Multiplying and dividing by Lc and re-arranging we get

hL t
hA
t = c 2 = Bi.Fo
Vc p
k Lc
hLc
t
= Bi = Biot number and 2 = Fourier number
k
Lc
Equation (5) can thus be re-written as

= e BiFo
i

(6)

Significance of Biot number and Fourier number

Biot number is defined as the ratio of conduction (or internal) resistance to the
convective (or surface) resistance.

Lc
Thus, Bi =

k = hLc
1
k
h

(7)

It indicates that for smaller values of Bi, the system has smaller conduction resistance
and hence a uniform temperature exists throughout the system, thus favouring the
idealization of lumped system. The transient heat transfer is controlled by the convective
heat transfer. For Bi 0.1, the lumped system analysis can be used for transient
conduction in simple shapes such as thin plates, long cylinders, cubes and small spheres.

Fourier number signifies the degree of diffusion of heating (or cooling) effect through the
system. It can be expressed as

[No. of Pages:

9]

Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

A
Lc T
1
k
.
Fo = 2 = 2 t =

c p V T
Lc
Lc
t

That is, Fo =

Unit 2

(8)

Rate at which heat is conducted across Lc of a body of volume L3c

Rate at which heat is stored in a body of volume L3c

Therefore, Fourier number is a measure of heat conducted through a body relative to heat
stored. Thus, a large value of the Fourier number indicates faster propagation of heat
through a body.

Temperature variation in lumped solids with respect to nondimensional numbers

The nature of graph of the temperature variation in solids with respect to nondimensional numbers is shown in the figure below.

(a) Infinite plates

(b) Infinite cylinders and square rods
(c) Cubes and spheres

Instantaneous heat flow rate (Qi)

Instantaneous heat flow rate is given by:

dT
dt

Qi = Vc p

= Vc p

(9)

hA
d
t
T + (Ti T ) exp

dt

Vc
p

hA

exp hA t
= Vc p (Ti T )
Vc
Vc
p
p

Qi = hA(Ti T ) exp( Bi Fo )

Qi = hA(Ti T ) e BiFo

(10)

Total (or cumulative) heat transfer (Qt)

Total or cumulative heat transfer is given by:
t

Qt = Qi dt

(11)

0
[No. of Pages:

9]

Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

Unit 2

hA
= hA(Ti T ) exp
t dt
Vc

p
0

Vc p
hA
= hA(Ti T )
exp
t

hA

Vc
p

Qt = Vc p (Ti T ) e BiFo 1

(12)

Lumped system analysis for mixed

boundary condition
Consider a slab of thickness L with a uniform

m, , Cp

temperature Ti at initial time t=0. For time t > o, let a

heat flux q0 be supplied at one surface (x = 0) while the
other surface (x = L) be exposed to an ambient

q0

2
W/m

Ti

h, T

temperature T convective coefficient h. The heat

balance for the slab is given by:
Heat influx Heat out flux = Rate of heat increase in
the slab

q 0 A hA[T (t ) T ] = Vc p

dT
dt

(13)

Dividing throughout by Vc p , we get

q0 A
hA

[T (t ) T ] = dT
Vc p Vc p
dt
Let Q0 =

q0 A
hA
dT d
;m =
; = T (t ) T ;
=
Vc p
Vc p
dt
dt

After substitution,

Q 0 m =
Or

d
dt

d
+ m = Q0
dt

(14)

The general solution to equation (14) is given by:

Q0
+ Ce mt
m

(15)

The integration constant C is evaluated by applying initial condition, at t = 0, T (0) = Ti

[No. of Pages:

9]

Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

Unit 2

Or = i = Ti T
Substituting for and t, into equation (15), we get

C = i

Q0
m

{Q e 0 = 1 }

Substituting for C in equation (14),

Q0
Q
+ i 0 e mt
m
m

Simplifying, = i e mt +
As t , then =
That is, T ( ) =

Q0
1 e mt
m

Q0
m

(16)
{Q e = 0 }

Q0
+ T
m

(17)

Response time and thermal time constant of a thermocouple

An important application of the lumped heat-capacity analysis is the measurement of
temperature by a thermocouple or thermometer. A thermocouple should rapidly reach the
temperature of the system within it is measuring, i.e., it should come into thermal
equilibrium with the system rapidly. The response time of a thermocouple is the time
taken by it reach thermal equilibrium. For a rapid response of the thermocouple, the term

hAt
should be as large as possible, so that the exponential term reaches zero faster
c pV
(when T = T). This can be achieved by decreasing the wire diameter, density and specific
heat, or by increasing h. Hence, a thin wire should be used in a thermocouple for rapid
response to reach thermal equilibrium quickly, particularly for measuring transient
temperatures. The quantity

c pV
hA

, having the dimension of time, is often called the time

constant of a thermocouple, t*. Substituting this in Eq. (4), we can write

T (t ) T
= e t / t*
Ti T
When t = t*,

T (t ) T
1
= e 1=
= 0.368
2.718
Ti T

(18)

(19)

Thus, at the end of the time period equal to t*, the temperature difference between the
body and the ambient is 0.368 of the initial temperature difference. In other words, the
[No. of Pages:

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Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

Unit 2

temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2%. The time required by a thermocouple

to reach 63.2% of the initial temperature difference is called the sensitivity of the
thermocouple.
Significance of thermal time constant (t*): The lower the value of the time constant,
the better would be the response of the thermocouple. For all practical purposes a reading
of the thermocouple should be taken after a period of 4t*. Thermocouple materials have
nearly the same and cp. Thus the response time essentially is a function of the wire
diameter. The value of time constant varies between 0.04s and 2.5s for the thermocouples
used in practice.

Heat conduction in infinite solids with considerable internal

and external resistances (Use of Heisler charts)
In general, the temperature within a body changes from point to point as well as with
time. Consider a plane wall of thickness 2L, a long cylinder of radius r0, and a sphere of
radius r0 initially at a uniform temperature Ti, as shown in figures. At time t = 0, each
geometry is placed in a large medium that is at a constant temperature T and kept in
that medium for t > 0. Heat transfer takes place between these bodies and their
environments by convection with a uniform and constant heat transfer coefficient h. All
the three bodies posses geometric and thermal symmetry; the plane wall is symmetric
about its center point (x = 0), the cylinder is symmetric about its center line (r = 0), and
the sphere is symmetric about its center point (r = 0). The temperature distribution is
thus symmetrical about the mid plane or center line.
Under the conditions of constant thermo physical properties, no heat generation, thermal
symmetry about the mid plane, uniform initial temperature, and constant convection
coefficient, the one-dimensional transient heat conduction problem in the half domain
0 x L of the plane wall can be expressed as:
Differential equation:

2T
x

1 T
t

Boundary conditions:

T (0, t )
=0
x

Initial conditions:

T(x,0) = Ti

and

T ( L, t )
= h[T (L, t ) T ]
x

The partial differential equation is non-dimensionalized and can be solved using several
analytical and numerical techniques. The analytical solution obtained involves infinite
[No. of Pages:

9]

Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

Unit 2

series and implicit equations, which are difficult to evaluate. Therefore, the analytical
solutions are simplified and presented in tabular or graphical form using one-term
approximation, known as transient temperature charts. The transient temperature charts
for a large plane wall, long cylinder and sphere were presented by M. P. Heisler in 1947
and are called Heisler charts. They were supplemented in 1961 with transient heat
transfer charts by H. Grober. There are three charts associated with each geometry: the
first chart is to determine the temperature T0 at the center of the geometry at a given
time t. The second chart is to determine the temperature at other locations at the same
time in terms of T0. The third chart is to determine the total amount of heat transfer up to
the time t.

Transient heat conduction in semi-infinite solids

A semi-infinite solid is an idealized body that has a single plane surface and extends to
infinity in all directions, as shown in Figure. This idealized body is used to indicate that
the temperature change in the part of the body in which we are interested (the region
closed to the surface) is due to the thermal conditions on a single surface. The earth, for
example, can be considered to be a semi-infinite medium in determining the variation of
temperature near its surface. Also, a thick wall can be modeled as a semi-infinite medium
if all we are interested in is the variation of

temperature in the region near one of the

surfaces, and the other surfaces are too far to

have any impact on the region of interest during
the time of observation. The temperature in the

core region of the wall remains unchanged in

this case.

For short periods of time, most bodies can be

modeled as semi-infinite solids since heat does
not have sufficient time to penetrate deep into

Plane
Surface

the body, and the thickness of the body does not

enter the heat transfer analysis. A steel piece of any shape, for example, can be treated as
a semi-infinite solid when it is quenched rapidly to harden its surface. A body whose
surface is heated by a laser pulse can be treated the same way.

[No. of Pages:

9]

Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]

ME 54

Notes of lesson

Unit 2

Consider a semi-infinite solid with constant thermophysical properties, no internal heat

generation, uniform thermal conditions on its exposed surface, and initially a uniform
temperature of Ti throughout. Heat transfer in this case only in the direction normal to to
the surface (the x direction), and thus it is one-dimensional. The depth of the solid is large
(x ) compared to the depth that heat can penetrate, and these phenomena can be
expressed mathematically as a boundary condition as T(x , t) = Ti. Heat conduction in
a semi-infinite solid is governed by the thermal conditions imposed on the exposed
surface, and thus the solution depends strongly on the boundary condition at x = 0. When
the surface temperature is changed to Ts (boundary condition of first kind) at t = 0 and
held constant at that value at all times, the formulation of the problem can be expressed
as:

2T

Differential equation:

1 T
t

Boundary conditions:

T (0, t) = Ts and T(x , t) = Ti

Initial condition:

T(x,0) = Ti

The partial differential equation is converted into an ordinary differential equation by

combining two independent variables x and t into a single variable , called the similarity
variable. After necessary simplification and integration, the temperature variation is
given by:

x
= erf

Ti Ts
2 t

T x, t Ts

(20)

The instantaneous heat flow rate at x is given by:

Q=

kA(Ts Ti ) 2 t
e

(21)

The total heat flow rate from the surface (x = 0) is given by:

Q=

Or

Q=

kA(Ts Ti )

1
t

kA(Ts Ti )
2 t
t

dt

(22)

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[No. of Pages:

9]

Notes of lesson by S. K. Jagadeesh, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dr. Ambedkar Inst. of Technology, BLR-56
[Last Update: Oct-14]