The Nature of Research

Ways of knowing

Sensory experience (incomplete/undependable)

Agreement with others (common knowledge wrong)
Experts opinion (they can be mistaken)
Logic/reasoning things out (can be based on false premises)

Why research is of value

Scientific research (using scientific method) is more trustworthy than

expert/colleague opinion, intuition, etc.

Scientific Method (testing ideas in the public arena)

Put guesses (hypotheses) to tests and see how they hold up

All aspects of investigations are public and described in detail so
anyone who questions results can repeat study for themselves

Replication is a key component of scientific method

Scientific Method (requires freedom of thought and public procedures

that can be replicated)

Identify the problem or question

Clarify the problem
Determine information needed and how to obtain it
Organize the information obtained
Interpret the results

All conclusions are tentative and subject to change as new evidence is

uncovered (dont PROVE things)

Types of Research
Experimental (most conclusive of methods)
Researcher tries different treatments (independent variable) to see their
effects (dependent variable)
In simple experiments compare 2 methods and try to control all
extraneous variables that might affect outcome
Need control over assignment to treatment and control groups (to make
sure they are equivalent)

 Sometimes use single subject research (intensive study of single

individual or group over time)

Correlational Research
Looks at existing relationships between 2 or more variables to make
better predictions

Causal Comparative Research

Intended to establish cause and effect but cannot assign subjects to
trtmt/control
Limited interpretations (could be common cause for both cause and
effectstress causes smoking and cancer)
Used for identifying possible causes; similar to correlation

Survey Research

Determine/describe characteristics of a group

Descriptive survey in writing or by interview
Provides lots of information from large samples
Three main problems: clarity of questions, honesty of respondents,
return rates

Ethnographic research (qualitative)

In depth research to answer WHY questions
Some is historical (biography, phenomenology, case study, grounded
theory)

Historical Research
Study past, often using existing documents, to reconstruct what
happened
Establishing truth of documents is essential

Action Research (differs from above types)

Not concerned with generalizations to other settings
Focus on information to change conditions in a particular situation (may
use all the above methods)

Each of these methods is valuable for a different purpose

General Research Types
Descriptive (describe state of affairs using surveys, ethnography, etc.)
Associational (goes beyond description to see how things are related
so can better understand phenomena using correl/causalcomparative
Intervention (try intervening to see effects using experiments)

Quantitative v. Qualitative
Quantitative (numbers)
Facts/feelings separate
World is single reality
Researcher removed
Established research design
Experiment prototype
Generalization emphasized

Meta-Analysis
Locate all the studies on a topic and synthesize results using statistical
techniques (average the results)
Critical Analysis of Research (some say all research is flawed)
Question of reality (are only individual perceptions of it)
Question of communication (words are subjective)
Question of values (no objectivity only social constructs)
Question of unstated assumptions (researchers dont clarify assumptions

that guide them)

Question of societal consequences (research serves political purposes that
are conservative or oppressive; preserve status quo)

Overview of the Research Process

Introduction chapter
Problem statement that includes some background info and

justification for study

Exploratory question or hypothesis (relationship among variables
clearly defined); goes last in Ch.
Definitions (in operational terms)
Review of related literature (other studies of the topic read and
summarized to shed light on what is already known)
Subjects (sample, population, method to select sample)
Instruments (tests/measures described in detail and with rationale
for their use)
Procedures (what, when, where, how, and with whom);
Give schedule/dates, describe materials used, design of study, and
possible biases/threats to validity

4. Data analysis (how data will be analyzed to answer research questions

or test hypothesis)

The Research Problem

Statement of the Problem (identify a problem/area of concern

to investigate)
Must be feasible, clear, significant, ethical
Research Questions (serve as focus of investigation, see p. 28
list)
Some info must be collected that answers them (must be
researchable)
Cannot research should questions
See diagram,

RQ should be feasible (can be investigated with available resources)

RQ should be clear (specifically define terms usedoperational needed,
but give both)
Constitutive definitions (dictionary meaning)
Operational definitions (specific actions/steps to measure term; IQ=time to
solve puzzle, where <20 sec. is high; 20-40 is med.; 40+ is low)

RQ should be significant (worth investigating; how does it contribute to

field and who can use info)
RQs often investigate relationships (two characteristics/qualities tied
together)

Variables and Hypotheses

Important to study relationships

Sometimes just want to describe (use RQ)
Usually want to look for patterns/connections
Hypothesis predicts the existence of a relationship

Variables (anything that can vary in measure; opposite of

constant)
Variables must be clearly defined
Often investigate relationship between variables
Variable Classifications
Quantitative (variables measured as a matter of degree, using real numbers;

i.e. age, number kids)

Categorical (no variationeither in a category or not; i.e. gender, hair color)
Independent: the cause (aka the manipulated, treatment or experimental

variable)
Dependent: the effect (aka outcome variable)
Extraneous: uncontrolled IVs

Hypotheses predictions about possible outcome of a study; sometimes

several hypotheses from one RQ

RQ: Will athletes have a higher GPA that nonathletic?

H: Athletes will have higher GPAs that nonathletic

Advantages to stating a hypothesis as well as RQ

Clarifies/focuses research to make prediction based on previous research/theory

Multiple supporting tests to confirm hypothesis strengthens it

Disadvantages

All extraneous variables must be accounted for in an experiment

Can lead to bias in methods (conscious or un) to try to support hypothesis

Sometimes miss other important info due to focus on hypothesis (peer review/replication is a
check on this)

Some hypothesis more important than others

Directional v. non-directional
Directional says which group will score higher/do better
Non-directional just indicates there will be a difference, but not who
will score higher/do better
Directional more risky, so be careful/tentative in using directional
ones

Ethics and Research

Examples of unethical practices

Requiring participation from powerless (students)
Using minors without parental permission
Deleting data that dont agree w/ hypothesis
Invading privacy of subjects
Physically or psychologically harming subjects
APA statement of ethical principles in research
Each student must sign one and have it signed by workplace
supervisor

Protecting participants from harm requires informed consent

Subjects must know the purpose of the study, possible benefits/harm; participation is
voluntary and they can w/draw without penalty any time

Researchers should ask: Could subjects be harmed? Is there another way to

get the info? Is the info valuable enough to justify study?
Researchers must ensure confidentiality of data (limit access; no names if

possible; tell subjects confidential or anonymous)

Deceiving subjects is sometimes necessary (Milgram study), ask if results
justify ethical lapse

When deception used subjects they should be okay with it after (and they can refuse use
of their data)

Research with children

Parental consent required (signed permission from parents
APA Ethics in Research Form addresses this also
Regulation of Research (National Research Act of 1974)
If federal funding received must have an IRB to check: risks to subjects,

informed consent guidelines met, debriefing plans for subjects

HHS made changes in 1981 so that educational research is exempt under
certain conditions

Sampling

Sample any group on which info is obtained

Population group that researcher is trying to represent
Population must be defined first; more closely defined, easier to do,
but less generalizable
Study a subset of the population because it is cheaper, faster, easier,
and if done right, get same results as a census (study of whole pop)
Accessible population the group you are able to realistically
generalize tomay differ from target population

Random v. Nonrandom Sampling

Random every population element has an equal and

independent chance to participate
Uses names in a hat or table or random numbers
Elimination of bias in selecting the sample is most important
(meaning the researcher does not influence who gets selected)
Ensuring sufficient sample size is second most important

Nonrandom/purposive - troubles with

representativeness/generalizing
Simple random sampling

Names in a hat or table of random numbers--p.99

Larger samples more likely to represent pop.

Stratified random sampling

Any difference between population and sample is random and small (called
random sampling error)

Ensures small subgroups (strata) are represented

Normally proportional to their part of pop.
Break pop into strata, then randomly select w/in strata
Multistage sampling

Cluster random sampling

Select groups as sample units rather than individuals
REQUIRES a large number of groups/clusters
Multistage sampling
Systematic (Nth) sampling
Considered random is list if randomly ordered or nonrandom if
systematic w/ random starting point
Divide pop size by sample size to get N (ps/ss=N)
Systematic can be nonrandom if list is ordered

Convenience sampling

Using group that is handy/available (or volunteers)

Avoid, if possible, since tend not to be representative due to homogeneity of
groups
Report large number of demographic factors to see likeliness of
representativeness

Purposive sampling

Using personal judgment to select sample that should be representative (i.e.,

this faculty seems to represent all teachers) OR selecting those who are
known to have needed info (interested in talking only to those in power)
Snowball is a type (used with hard to identify groups such as addicts)

Sampling

Sample size affects accuracy of representation

Larger sample means less chance of error
Minimum is 30; upper limit is 1,000 (see table)
External validity how well sample generalizes to the population
Representative sample is required (not the same thing as variety in a
sample)

High participation rate is needed

Multiple replications enhance generalization when nonrandom sampling is
used
Ecological generalization (gen to other settings/conditions, such as using a
method tested in math for English class)

Measurement

Data information researchers obtain about subjects

Demographic data are characteristics of subjects such as age, gender,

education level, etc.

Assessment data are scores on tests, observations, etc. (the device used to
measure these is called the measurement instrument)

Key questions in data measurement/ instrumentation

Where and when will data be collected
How often will data be collected
Who will collect the data

Validity measures what it is supposed to (accurate)

Reliability a measure that consistently gives same readings
(repeatable)
Objectivity absence of subjective judgments (need to
eliminate subjectivity in measuring)
Usability of instruments
Consider ease of administration; time to administer; clarity of
directions; ease of scoring; cost; reliability/validity data availability

Researcher Completed Instruments

Rating scales (mark a place on a continuum for example numeric rating

1=poor to 5= excellent)
Interview schedules (complete scales as interview takes place; use
precoding; beware of dishonesty)
Tally sheets (for counting/recording frequency of behavior, remarks,
activities, etc.)
Flow charts (to record interactions in a room)
Anecdotal records (need to be specific and factual)
Time/Motion logs (record what took place and when)

Subject Completed Instruments

Questionnaires (question clarity to reader essential)
Self checklists
Attitude scales (Likert is one type, how much subject agrees/disagrees with
descriptive statements about a topic indicates a positive/negative attitude
toward topic)

Item Formats
Selection items or closed response (T/F; Yes/No; Right/Wrong; Multiple

Semantic differential (good/bad; poor/excellent ratings)

Personality profiles
Achievement/Aptitude tests
Performance tests
Projective devices (Rorschach Ink Blot Test)
Sociometric devises (peer ratings)

choice)
Supply items or open ended (short answer; essay)
Unobtrusive measures (no intrusion into event usually direct observation
and recording)

Types of Scores
Raw scores (initial score or count obtainedw/out context)
Derived scores (raw scores translated to meaningful usage with
standardized process)

Age/Grade equivalence; Percentile ranks; Standard scores (how far a score is from a given
reference point, i.e. z and T scores);
Which to use depends on the purpose; usually standard scores used

Norm Referenced v. Criterion Referenced Tests

Norm referenced scores give a score relative to a reference group (the
norm group)
Criterion referenced scores determine if a criterion has been mastered
These are used to improve instruction since
they indicate what
students can or cannot do
or do or do not know

Measurement Scales
Nominal (in name only)

Numbers are only name tags, they have no mathematical value (gender: 1=male and 2=
female OR race: 1= Blk, 2=Wht, 3=other)

Ordinal (in name, plus relative order)

Numbers show relative position, but not quantity (grade level, finishing place in a race)

Interval (in name w/ order AND equal distance)

Numbers show quantity in equal intervals, but an arbitrary zero (can have negative numbers;
degrees C or F)

Ratio (in name, w/ order, eq. distance AND absolute zero)

Numbers show quantity with base of zero where zero means the construct is absent

Higher levels more precisecollect data at highest level possible; some statistics
only work with higher level data

Preparing for Data Analysis

Scoring data use exact same format for each test and describe

scoring method in text

Tabulating and Coding carefully transfer data from source
documents to computer
Give each test an ID number
Any words must be coded with numerical values
Report codes in text of research report

Validity and Reliability

(Quality of instruments is important)

Validity is most important aspect of measures

Means accuracy, correctness, usefulness of instrument
Validation is the process of collecting and analyzing evidence to
support inferences based on an instrument
Test publishers usually give a statement of intended use as well as
evidence to support validity

Reliability (consistency in scoring) is part of validity

Three ways to establish validity

1. Content validity is entire content of construct covered by test,
are important parts emphasized?

Established by expert judgment

Facial validity is part of this

2. Criterion validity is there consistency between the instrument

and some predicted or concurrent criterion?

Established by empirical evidence using validity coefficient (-1 to +1 scores)

Correlate scores of the test with the criterion (SAT and GPA in college)

3. Construct validity Does the measure correctly identify

those with different levels of the construct
Established with empirical evidence
Correlate scores on test with known indicator of the construct
(prisoners score low on test of ethics)

Validity problems come from systematic error (also known as

biassomething the research did wrong)
Reliability means that scores are consistent from one time
measuring to the next
Can have a reliable measure that may not be valid
Must be reliable to be valid
See p. 166, target shooting

Errors of measurement there is always some variation from

measure to measure
Look at reliability coefficient to determine reliability

Test/Retest give the same test (of enduring trait) to the same
people at two times and correlate the scores

Equivalent forms give two parallel forms of a test to the

same people and correlate scores

Internal consistency several methods

Split halves (score two halves of test and correlate scores)
KR-21 and Cronbach Alpha Correlate each item to overall score

Standard Error of Measurement variations in

measurement result in some error which is reported

Scoring Agreement for subjective tests or direct observations

(check of internal reliability)

Validity and Reliability should be addressed in all research

Experimental Research

Most powerful design

Used to establish cause and effect by manipulating
(influencing) an IV (independent variable, aka treatment or
experimental variable) to see its effect on a DV (dependent
variable (aka criterion or outcome variable)
Goes beyond description and prediction

Characteristics of Experimental Research

Comparison of groups (at least two groups of subjects, called treatment and
control groups)
Manipulation of the IV (experimenter changes something for the treatment
group thats different than the control group)
Randomization (true experiments require random assignment into
treatment/control conditionsafter random selection of subjects to participate
in study)

Assignment takes place at start of experiment

Do not use already formed groups
Groups should be equivalent (any differences due to chance)
Randomization eliminates threats from extraneous variables
Groups must be sufficiently large to be equivalent

Control of Extraneous Variables

All extraneous variables must be controlled to eliminate threats to
validity/rival hypotheses
Ensure groups are equivalent to begin using randomization
Hold certain variables constant (i.e. age, IQ) or build them into to the design
Use matching when necessary
Use subjects as their own controls (treat same group first in control

condition then in treatment OR use pre-test/posttest on same group)

Use analysis of covariance to statistically equate unequivalent groups

Weak Designs
One Shot Case Study (X O)

One group exposed to treatment then DV is measured

No controls
Example: Try new teaching method then see how students do on post test

One Group Pretest-Posttest Design

(O X O)

Adds a pretest but no control group

X1 O
Need control for diff subj characteristics X2 O
Static Group Pretest/Posttest Design (adds a pretest)

Static-Group Comparison Design

True Experimental Designs

Randomized Posttest Only Design

R X1 O
(Random assign to trtmt/cntrl, then posttest) R
O
Randomized Pretest/Posttest Control Group R O X1 O
(controls history, maturation, etc.)
R O X2 O

Randomized Solomon 4-Group Design combines the above two (eliminates

testing threat; problem is number of subjects needed)
Random Assignment w/ Matching

Match pairs on factors that influence DV then randomly assign to treatment or control
(subjects limited by no match elimination)
Statistical matching can be done using predicted scores

Quasi Experimental Designs

Matching only different from random assignment / matching (uses
existing groups)

Match subjects in trmt and cntrl groups on known extraneous variables

If possible, use multiple groups, and randomly assign them

Counterbalanced Each group exposed to all the same treatments but in

different order
Time series Repeated treatments and observations over a period of time
(both before and after treatment)
Factoral designs Multiple IVs or DVs investigated simultaneously (i.e. look
for interactions between 2 IVs)

Survey Research

(Used to describe what people think/do/believe)

Types
Cross sectional provide a snapshot in time
Longitudinal collect data at different points in time to study changes
over time
Trend study - random sample each year on same topic
Cohort study - sample from same cohort members year after year
Panel study - same individuals surveyed year after year (mortality a
problem over long time periods)

Often surveys are the data collection instrument in

correlation (or cc/expl) studies

Steps to conduct survey research

Define the problem

Needs to be important enough respondents will invest their time to
complete it
Must be based on clear objectives

Identify the target population

Defined by sample unit or unit of analysis
Unit can be a person, school, classroom, district, etc.)
Survey a sample or do a census of the population
Methods of data collection

Direct administration to a group (such as at a meeting) - good response rate,

limited generaliz.
Mail survey (inexpensive way to get large amount of data from widespread
pop) - lower response rates, not in-depth info, illiterate missed
Telephone survey (cheap/fast) - response rates higher due to encouragement
(Im not selling); miss some pop members, interviewer bias possible
Personal interviews (face-to-face has good response rate but time and cost
high) - lack anonymity, interviewer bias

Select the sample (randomly, but check to see respondents are

qualified to answer)
Pilot test can indicate likely response rate and problems with data
collection or sample

Prepare instrument (questionnaire and interview schedule)

Appearance important - look short and easy
Clarity in questions is essential
Question types (same questions need to be asked of all
respondents)
Closed ended (multiple choice) - easier to complete, score, analyze
Categories must be all inclusive, mutually exclusive

Open ended - easy to write, hard to analyze and hard on respondents

Chapter 10

Descriptive Statistics
(Tools to summarize data)

Descriptive statistics describe many scores with just one or two indices
(such as mean or median)
Sample of a pop is described w/ indices called statistics
Entire pop is described w/ indices called parameters
Types of data (words or numbers)
Quantitative data scales measure how much (test scores, amount of
money spent, etc.

Interval, Ratio, and sometimes Ordinal, variables

Categorical data total number of objects in a category (ethnicity, gender,

etc.)

Nominal and sometimes Ordinal, variables

Chapter 10 - Continued

Descriptive Statistics
(Summarizing Quantitative Data)

Frequency distributions or tables show the layout of the data

(see text example p. 201)
Frequency polygons shows where most scores are and how spread
out data are
Pay attention to shape (positive, negative skews)
Normal curves smoothed polygons most scores in the center, fewer in
the tails many variables follow a normal shape (height, weight, age, etc.)
Normal curves are the foundation for inferential statistics

Chapter 10 - Continued

Descriptive Statistics
(Summarizing Quantitative Data)

Averages measures of of central tendency

Three indices tell what is a typical score

Which to use depends on what you are trying to show

Mode most frequent score

Median middle score (50th percent)
Mean takes into account all scores
See example pp. 205/206

Spreads measures of variation or dispersion

Three indices tell how closely scores cluster together

Range (highest lowest); a crude indicator of spread

Standard deviation (average distance of each point from the mean)

Smaller SD means less spread out, larger one means more spread out

Quartiles, percents, IQR, boxplots

SD and normal curves68/95/99.7 rule

Chapter 10 - Continued

Descriptive Statistics
(Summarizing Quantitative Data)

Standard scores and the normal curve

Standard scores use a common scale for all scores
z scores are simplest tell how far from the mean in SD units
Score on mean then z=0; score 1 SD above then z=1.0; 1SD below then
z=-1.0, etc.
Use mean and SD to calculate z scores so you can compare
apples/oranges (p. 210)
Z = any score mean
standard deviation

Chapter 10 - Continued

Descriptive Statistics
(Summarizing Quantitative Data)

Probability based on z scores

All scores in normal distribution are equal to 100%
A z-table gives percent of scores from any score to the mean (Appendix, pp.

A-4/5)
The probability for getting higher or lower than any given score can then be
calculated

T-scores are often used because negative z scores awkward (all T-scores
are positive)
Multiply z times 10, then add 50 (p. 212 Table 10.15)
Standard test scores often given with T-scores and percents above/below the
given score

Noteuse z and T scores only with NORMAL distributions!

Chapter 10 - Continued

Descriptive Statistics
(Summarizing Quantitative Data)

Correlation examines relationships between two quantitative

variables (interval/ratio data)
Scatterplot shows the relationship visually
Use it to check for pattern in data (hi/hi or hi/lo?)
If linear pattern, can us Pearsons r coefficient

Use it to look for strength (scatteredness)

Pay attention to outliers (p. 215/216 examples)

Correlation coefficient is a numerical indicator or strength of the

relationship

Pearsons ppm (r) is for linear data (-1 to +1)

Eta is for curved data

Chapter 10 - Continued

Descriptive Statistics
(Summarizing Categorical Data)

Frequency tables
Give percents for ease in interpreting
Crossbreak or crosstabulations for relationships (IV goes on
the side, then give row percents)
Bar charts and pie charts used
Bars for ordered categories
Pies for unordered categories

Chapter 11

Inferential Statistics

Inferences about a population based on data from a sample

Answers questions about how likely a sample is to represent
some parameter about a population
Inferential test used depends on the level of data (quantitative
or categorical)
Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics
(The logic of inferential statistics)

Sampling error
Samples differ from their parent populations (no two samples are the same)

Difference is called sampling error

Distribution of sampling means (the sampling distribution)
Large collections of random samples of at least 30 follow a normal curve
pattern
Its mean (mean of means) is the mean of the population
Its SD (SD of means) is the standard error of the mean (SEM)

Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics
(The logic of inferential statistics)

Standard error of the mean (SEM)

Its the SD of the sampling distribution

Since distribution is normal, then +1SEM has 68% of cases; +2SEM has
95%; +3SEM has 99.7%

Once we can estimate the mean and SD of the sampling distribution can determine how
likely it is that a particular sample mean came from that population
i.e. Mean of pop=100, SD=10 and draw a sample with a mean of 110, yes could be from
that popbut if draw a sample with a mean of 140, most likely NOT from that popsince
is +4SEM from the mean (almost zero probability)

Express means as z scores; a z score move that 2SEM is going to occur less
than 5% of the time (2.5% each side)

Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics
(The logic of inferential statistics)

Estimating the SEM

It is estimated from the SD of the sample, adjusted for sample size:
SEM=SD/n-1

Confidence Intervals (CI)

Use the SEM to indicate boundaries
95% of the time a pop mean will be within +2 SEM from the sample mean
(actually + 1.96 SEM)
If sample mean IQ=85 (& SEM=2) then 95% of the time the pop mean IQ will
be 85+1.96(2) or 85 +3.92 which is 81.08 to 88.92; 99% CI=79.84 to 90.16
Can be 95% confident that true pop mean is 81.08-88.92

Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics
(The logic of inferential statistics)

Probability is a predicted occurrence such as 5 in 100 times (5% or .05)

In previous example, the probability of the population mean being outside
the 95% CI (of 81.08 to 88.92) is 5%

Usually comparing more than one mean

Examine difference in 2 sample means to see if how likely the difference in
the sample is to represent a true difference in the populationis it due to a

true difference in the pop or only due to sampling error

The SEM of the difference between sample means, called the SED or
standard error of the difference is used and w/in +1SED is 68%; +2 SED is
95%; +3 SED is 99%

Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics
(Hypothesis Testing)

A hypothesis is a predicted relationship

Usually comparing means, proportions, or looking for correlations
between groups
The heart of infer. statsis the relationship found in the sample most
likely due to a relationship in the pop, or just due to random
sampling error?

The null hypothesis is stated and tested

THE NULL ALWAYS SAYS THERE IS NO RELATIONSHIP OR
DIFFERENCE!!!
Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics
(Hypothesis Testing)

Research hypothesis is what you really think is going on; opposite of the
null
Example of hypothesis test
H0 (null) is that mean1=mean2, meaning the mean scores are equal OR the

difference between the mean scores is 0

The distribution for a difference of zero between the means is a normal
curve centered on zero
As diff between means gets larger, meaning further from the center (in SEM
units), the more likely it is to represent a true diff in the pop means
If the prob is .05 or less, reject nullcalled a statistically significant
difference (some fields use .01 or .001)

Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics

(Hypothesis Testing Process)

State the research hypothesis (Ha or Hr)
State the null (H0) (Remember NO)
Obtain the sample statistics (means, proportions, correlations)
Determine the probability of getting the sample results just by chance if the
null is true
Small probability (p<.05) means reject null; there is a significant difference
(or correlation) in pop.

Large probability (p>.05) means do not reject; there is no significant

difference (or correl) in pop.
Note: Just because finding is statistically significant does not mean it is a
practical difference (given a large enough sample most are significant)

Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics
(Hypothesis Testing)

One tailed versus two tailed tests

When literature strongly indicates the need for directional hypothesis
then do a one-tail
In a one tail all 5% is on one side (2-tailed cutoff is 1.96SD while 1
tailed cutoff is 1.65)

Type I (alpha) versus Type II error

See Figure 11.16, p. 240
Type I reject true null; Type II accept a false
Inversely related errors
Chapter 11 - Continued

Inferential Statistics

(Inference Techniques)
Parametric tests (for quantitative I/R data from normal distributions of sample
size 30+)

t-tests compare means of two groups (can be independent or correlated/paired samples)

ANOVA tests compare means of two or more groups (use post hoc)
Correlations t-test (with computers just use significance of r)

Nonparametric tests (for categorical data and I/R from non-normal pops or
small samples)

Mann Whitney U compares ranks of two groups

Kruskal Wallis Oneway ANOVA compares ranks of two plus groups
Chi-square test (compares proportions)

Power of tests use parametrics and increase sample size

Chapter 12

Statistics in Perspective

Approaches to research
Either 2 or more groups compared OR variables in 1 group studied AND
data are either categorical or quantitative

Comparing groups on quantitative data

Can compare freq distributions (histograms), m. of center, and m. of spread

OR all three
Interpretation improves with experienceneed to know when something
statistically significant is not practically significant

Calculate effect size - look at size of difference or delta if it is greater

than .5, practically significant
Use infer. stats judicially paying attention to size of diff. and sample size and
method it is based on

Chapter 12 - continued

Statistics in Perspective

Relating variables within group w/ quant data

Scatterplot and correl coeff examine plot carefully
Beyond significance pay attn to size of r and especially to r-squared
Examine how sample data collected
Comparing groups w/ categorical data
Use freq and percent in crossbreak tables
Look at summary stats carefully and pay attn to sample size
Relating variables within a group with categorical data use one sample
chi-square

Chapter 12 - continued

Statistics in Perspective

Recap
Use graphics and numbers
Pay attention to outliers
Pay attention to magnitude of differences
Use inference tests for generalizing purposes and examine sampling
Use multiple techniques and CIs