1. What phonological processes have been studied ?

There are four kinds of phonological processes, those are assimilation,

syllable structure, weakening and strengthening and neutralization. Here, I have
studied assimilation. In assimilation processes a segment takes on features from a
neighboring. There are four kind of neighboring in assimilation, those are :
a) A consonant may pick up features from vowel.
b) A vowel may take on features of consonant.
c) A consonant may influence another.
d) A vowel may have an effect on another.
Consonant Assimilates Vowel Features
Features of a vowel may be extended onto consonant as secondary
modifications. Palatalization and labialization are common process of this type.
Platalization means the tongue position of front vowel is superimposed on an
adjesent consonant. Labialization means the lip position of a rounded vowel
induces a secondary articulation onto the consonant.
The example of palatalization and labialization are semi vowels. Those are
yeh and weh.
Example : 1. The term palatalization denotes a phonological process by which
consonants acquire secondary palatal articulation or shift their primary place
towards or close to the palatal region. Palatalization is a type of consonant-vowel
interactions.

The first process - called coronal palatalization involves an alternation between

alveolars /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/ and palato-alveolars /t/, //, //, and // as shown is (1).

(1)
/t/ - /t/
perpetuity - perpetual
/d/ - //
residue - residual

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/s/ - //
grase - grasious
/z/ - //
please - pleasure
The second process called velar softening is exhibited by alternations between
velar stops /k/ and /g/ and coronal fricatives or affricates /s/ and //respectively as
shown in (2)

(2)
/k/ - /s/
medication - medicine
critic - critisize
/g/ - //
analog - analogy
pedagogue - pedagogy
The third process called spirantization exhibits alternations between the
alveolar stop /t/ and the alveolar fricative /s/ (or // in conjunction with coronal
palatalization). The latter segment occurs before suffixes with an unsyllabified /i/
as shown in (3).

(3)
/t/ - /s/
secret - secrecy
regent - regency
emergent - emergency
/t/ - //
part - partial

2. Labialisation also refers to a specific type of assimilatory process

where a given sound become labialised due to the influence of neighboring labial

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sounds. For example, /k/may become /k/ in the environment of /o/, or /a/ may
become /o/ in the environment of /p/ or /k/.
In

the Northwest

Caucasian

languages as

well

as

some Australian

languages rounding has shifted from the vowels to the consonants, producing a
wide range of labialized consonants and leaving in some cases only two phonemic
vowels. This appears to have been the case in Ubykh and Eastern Arrernte, for
example. The labial vowel sounds usually still remain, but only as allophones next
to the now-labial consonant sounds.
Vowel Assimilatess Consonant Features
Features from a consonant may be superimposed on a vowel. The
modification of the vowel usually allophonic. Allophonic means does not change
the meaning.
Example : mean
E and A are oral but in this word, e and a get nasalized so that the features
of consonant is superimposed to the vowel. Thus the e and a are nasal.

Consonant Assimilates Consonant Features

One of the most widespread phenomena is for consonan cluster to agree in
voicing. This process can be seen in English where the endings for the plural,
third person singularm and past tense agree in voicing with a preceeding
consonant. One finds s and t after voiceless consonant, z and d after voiced ones.
Example :
Sits

[Sts]

boy

[boyz]

Clapped

[klpt]

grabbed

[grabd]

Vowel Assimilates Vowel Features

The vowel of one syllable may become more like the vowel of some other
syllable. Here, we can distinguish vowel harmony from umlauting.

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2. What are phonological processes ?

Phonological pocesses are changes when morphemes are combined or
come together to form words, the segments of neighboring morphemes become
juxtaposed and sometimes undergo change. All changes scuh word initial and
word final positions, the relation of a segment stressed vowel. There are four
kinds of phological processes, those are are assimilation, syllable structure,
weakening and strengthening and neutralization.
3. How they occur ?
Assimilation
In linguistics, assimilation is a common phonological process by which
one sound becomes more like a nearby sound. This can occur either within a word
or between words. In rapid speech, for example, "handbag" is often pronounced
[hmb]. As in this example, sound segments typically assimilate to a
following sound (this is called regressive or anticipatory assimilation), but they
may also assimilate to a preceding one (progressive assimilation). While
assimilation most commonly occurs between immediately adjacent sounds, it may
occur between sounds separated by others ("assimilation at a distance").
Syllable Structure
Syllable structure affects the relatve distribuiton of consonants and vowels
within word. Consonants or vowels may be deleted or inserted. To segments may
coalesce into a singe segment. A segment may change the major class, features,
such as a vowel becoming glide. Two segments may be interchange. Any of these
processes could cause a alteration in the original syllable structure.
Gliding occurs when /r/ becomes /w/ or /l/ becomes /w/ or /j/.
Ex: rail /rel/ is pronounced whale /wel/; leap /lip/ is pronounced weep
/wip/.
Coalesce When two phonemes are substituted with a different phonem that
still has similar features

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Weakening and Strengthening

Not all changes in syllabic structure necessarily lead to simpler syllable
structure. Sometimes it can be complex. Such if a vowel in an original CVCV
configurations to be deleted so thattwo consonants come together. Such deletion
are often caused by segments occupying a weak position in the syllabic.
Vowel redaction involves the weakening of unstressedvowels to schwa.
Diphthongization are stressed and tense vowels are the strong ones. Whereas
weak vowels may undergo syncope, apocope or reduction, strong vowels.
Segments make may be reduced in less prominent positions within the syllable.
On the other hand, a weak segment may be strengthened in a prominent position.
a.

Syncope a vowel in a less prominent position word internally is

deleted.

b.

Apocope a vowel in final non-prominent position is deleted.

c.

Reduction.

d.

Diphthongization.

Neutralization
Neutralization is a process whereby phonological distinctions are
reduced in a particular environment. Hence, segment which contrast in one
environment have the same representation in the environment neutralization.
Neutralization of word final obstruent takes place in German. In initial and
intervocalic position, voiced and voiceless obstruent are in contrast, only
voiceless ones are found in word final position. There appears to be an
interrelationship between neutralization and assimilation, or between
neutralization and weak position. Where obstruent clusters agree in voicing,
contrasts in voicing are neutralized. By the same token, if a nasal consonant
becomes homorganic to following consonant, then nasal consonant of
different places of articulation can no longer contrast in those environments,
and one could view this assimilation as a type of neutralization.

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