CHAPTER 5 MOS FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS (MOSFETs)

Chapter Outline
5.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation
5.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics
5.3 MOSFET Circuits at DC
5.4 Applying the MOSFET in Amplifier Design
5.5 Small-Signal Operation and Models
5.6 Basic MOSFET Amplifier Configurations
5.7 Biasing in MOS Amplifier Circuits
5 8 Discrete-Circuit
5.8
Discrete Circuit MOS Amplifiers
5.9 The Body Effect and Other Topics

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5.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation

Device structure of MOSFET

MOS metal-oxide-semiconductor structure.

MOSFET is a four-terminal device: gate (G), source (S), drain (D) and body (B).
The device size (channel region) is specified by channel width (W) and channel length (L).
Two kinds of MOSFETs: n-channel (NMOS) and p-channel (PMOS) devices
The device structure is basically symmetric in terms of drain and source.
Source and drain terminals are specified by the operation voltage.

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Operation with zero gate voltage

The MOS structure form a parallel-plate plate capacitor with gate oxide layer in the middle.
Two pn junctions (S-B and D-B) are connected as back to back diodes.
The source and drain terminals are isolated by two depletion regions without conducting current.
The operating principles will be introduced by using the n-channel MOSFET as an example.

Creating a channel for current flow

Positive charges accumulate in gate as a positive voltage applies to gate electrode.
The electric field forms a depletion region by pushing holes in p-type substrate away from the surface.
Electrons start to accumulate on the substrate surface as gate voltage exceeds a threshold voltage Vt .
The induced n region thus forms a channel for current flow from drain to source.
source
The channel is created by inverting the substrate surface from p-type to n-type inversion layer.
The field controls the amount of charge in the channel and determines the channel conductivity.

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Applying a small drain voltage

A positive vGS > Vt is used to induce the channel and it is called n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET.
Free electrons travel from source to drain through the induced n-channel due to a small vDS.
The resulting current iD flows from drain to source (opposite to the direction of the flow of negative charge).
The current is proportional to the number of carriers in the induced channel.
The channel is controlled by the effective voltage or overdrive voltage: vOV vGS Vt
The electron charge in the channel due to the overdrive voltage: |Q| = CoxWLvOV
Gate oxide capacitance Cox is defined as capacitance per unit area.
MOSFET can be approximated as a linear resistor in this region with a resistance value inversely
pproportional
p
to the excess ggate voltage.
g
iD (mA)
vGS = Vt +4V

0.4

vGS = Vt +3V

0.3

vGS = Vt +2V

0.2

vGS = Vt +1V

0.1

100

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vGS Vt
vDS (mV)

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Operation as increasing drain voltage

As vDS increases, the voltage along the channel increases from 0 to vDS , and the voltage between the gate
and the points along the channel decreases from vGS at the source end to (vGS vDS) at the drain end.
Since the inversion layer depends on the voltage difference across the MOS structure, increasing vDS will
result in a tapered channel.
The resistance increases due to tapered channel and the iD-vDS curve does not continue as a straight line.
At the point vDSsat = vGS Vt , the channel is pinched off at the drain side.
Increasing vDS beyond this value has little effect on the channel shape and iD saturates at this value.
Triode region: vDS < vDSsat
Saturation region: vDS vDSsat
Gate
vGS Vt

vGS

vDS

0
Source

Channel

Drain

vDS

vDS = 0
vDS = vGS Vt

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Derivation of the I-V relationship

Induced charge in the channel due to MOS capacitor:
QI ( x) Cox [vGS Vt v( x)]

Equivalent resistance dR along the channel:

dR

dx
dx

qn( x) n h( x)W nWQI ( x)

I-V derivations:
dv iD dR
v DS

iD dx
iD dx

nWQI ( x) nCoxW [vGS Vt v( x)]

L

nCoxW [vGS Vt v( x)]dv iD dx

iD nCox

W
1 2
[(vGS Vt )vDS vDS
]
L
2

Process transconductance parameter (A/V2): kn= nCox

Aspect ratio: W/L
Transconductance parameter (A/V2): kn= nCox(W/L)
Drain current of MOSFETs:
2
Triode region: iD kn [(vGS Vt )vDS 1 vDS
]
Saturation region: iDsat

2
1
k n (vGS Vt ) 2
2

On-resistance (channel resistance for small vDS): rDS 1 / kn (vGS Vt )

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The p-channel enhancement-type MOSFET

p-channel enhanced-type MOSFETs are fabricated on n-type substrate with p+ source and p+ drain.
Normally, source is connected to high voltage and drain is connected to low voltage.
As a negative voltage applies to gate electrode, negative charges accumulate in gate and the resulting field
pushes electrons in n-type substrate away from the surface, leaving behind a carrier-depletion region.
As gate voltage exceeds a negative threshold voltage Vt , holes start to accumulate on the substrate surface.
The induced p region (inversion layer) thus forms a p-type channel for current flow from source to drain.
Negative gate voltage is required to induce the channel enhancement-type MOSFET.

Complementary MOS (CMOS)

CMOS technology employs both PMOS and NMOS devices.
If substrate is p-type, PMOS transistors are formed in n well (n-type body needed).
If substrate is n-type, NMOS transistors are formed in p well (p-type body needed).
The substrate and the well are connected to voltages which reverse bias the junctions for device isolation.

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5.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics

Circuit symbol
n-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET

The current-voltage characteristics

Cut-off region: (vGS Vt)
iD 0
T i d region:
Triode
i
(v
( GS > Vt andd vDS < vGS V
Vt)
iD nCox

W
1 2
]
[(vGS Vt )vDS vDS
L
2

Saturation: (vGS > Vt and vDS vGS Vt)

1
2

iD nCox

W
(vGS Vt ) 2
L

large-signal model (saturation)

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Channel length modulation

Channel length modulation: the channel pinch-off point moves slightly away from drain as vDS > vDSsat.
The effective channel length (Leff) reduces with vDS.
Electrons travel to pinch-off point will be swept to drain by electric field.
The length accounted for conductance in the channel is replaced by Leff :
vGS Vt

Leff

k W [vGS Vt v( x)]dv
'
n

dx

L
1 W
1
W
1 ' W
(vGS Vt ) 2 (1
)
(vGS Vt ) 2 k n'
(vGS Vt ) 2 k n'
kn
L
2 L
2 L L
2 Leff
L
1 W
vDS iD k n'
(vGS Vt ) 2 (1 vDS )
assuming that
L
2 L

iD

Finite output resistance

ro [

k' W
1
V
iD 1
]vGS constant [ n (vGS Vt ) 2 ]1
A
I D I D
vDS
2 L

VA (Early voltage) = 1/ is proportional to channel length: VA = VAL

VA is process-technology dependent with a typical value from 5 ~ 50 V/m.
Due to the dependence of iD on vDS, MOSFET shows finite output resistance in saturation region.
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The body effect

The BS and BD junction should be reverse biased for the device to function properly.
Normally, the body of a n-channel MOSFET is connected to the most negative voltage.
The depletion region widens in BS and BD junctions and under the channel as VSB increases.
Body effect: Vt increases due to the excess charge in the depletion region under the channel.
The body effect can cause considerable degradation in circuit performance.
Threshold voltage:
Vt Vt 0 [ 2 f VSB 2 f ]
where

2qN A Si
kT
N
and f
ln( A )
Cox
q
ni

Current equations:
W
1 2
[(vGS Vt )vDS vDS
]
L
2
1
W
n Cox (vGS Vt ) 2
2
L

iD nCox
iDsat

Temperature effect
Vt decreases by ~2mV for every 1C rise iD increases with temperature.
kn decreases with temperature iD decreases with increasing temperature.
For a given bias voltage, the overall observed effect of a temperature increase is a decrease in iD .

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Breakdown and input protection

Weak avalanche
pn junction between the drain and substrate suffers avalanche breakdown as VDS increases
Large drain current is observed
Typical breakdown voltage 20 ~ 150 V
Punch-through
Occurs at lower voltage (~20 V) for short channel devices
Drain current increases rapidly as the drain depletion region extends through the channel
Does not result in permanent damage to the device
Gate-oxide
Gate
oxide breakdown
Gate-oxide breakdown occurs when gate-to-source voltage exceeds 30 V
Permanent damage to the device
Input Protection
Protection circuit is needed for the input terminals of MOS integrated circuits
Using clamping diode for the input protection

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The p-channel enhancement-type MOSFET

For a p-channel MOSFET, the source is connected to high voltage and the drain is connected to low voltage.
To induce the p-channel for the MOSFET, a negative vGS is required Vt (threshold voltage) < 0V.
The body is normally connected to the most positive voltage.

The current-voltage
current voltage characteristics
Cut-off region: (vGS Vtp)
iD 0
Triode region: (vGS < Vtp and vDS > vGS Vtp)
W

iD pCox L [(vGS Vtp )vDS 2 vDS ]

Saturation: (vGS < Vtp and vDS vGS Vtp)
1

2
iD 2 pCox L (vGS Vtp )
Transconductance parameter kp = pCox 0.4 kn
The values of vGS , vDS , Vt and for p-channel MOSFET operation are all negative
Drain current iD is still defined as a positive current.

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5.3 MOSFET Circuits at DC

DC analysis for MOSFET circuits
Assume the operation mode and solve the dc bias utilizing the corresponding current equation.
Verify the assumption with terminal voltages (cutoff, triode and saturation).
If the solution is invalid, change the assumption of operation mode and analyze again.

DC analysis example

Assuming MOSFET in saturation

1 W
VSS VGS I D RS VGS k n'
(VGS Vt ) 2 RS
2 L
VGS 3V or 1V (not a valid solution)

Assuming MOSFET in saturation

VGS 3V and VDS 1.696V

VDS < VGS Vt not in saturation!

(VDS = 4V) (VGS Vt = 1V) saturation

Assuming MOSFET in triode

W
1 2
I D k n' [(VGS Vt )VDS VDS
]
L
2
VGS I D RS VSS
VDS I D ( RD RS ) VDD VSS

VGS 3.35V , VDS 0.35V and I D 0.33mA

VDS < VGS Vt in triode

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5.4 Applying the MOSFET in Amplifier Design

MOSFET voltage amplifier
MOSFET with a resistive load RD can be used as a voltage amplifier
The voltage transfer characteristic (VTC)
The plot of vI (vGS) versus vO (vDS)
DC analysis as vGS increases from 0 to VDD
Cutoff mode: (0 V vGS < Vt)
iD 0
vO vDS VDD
Saturation mode: (vGS > Vt)
1
2
iD 2 kn (vGS Vt )
1

2
vO vDS VDD 2 kn (vGS Vt ) RD

Triode mode: (vGS further increases)

1 2
]
iD kn [(vGS Vt )vDS vDS
2

1
2

2
]RD
vO vDS VDD kn [(vGS Vt )vDS vDS

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Biasing the MOSFET to obtain linear amplification

The slope in the VTC indicates voltage gain
MOSFET in saturation can be used as voltage amplification
Point Q is known as bias point or dc operating point
1
2

VDS VDD kn (VGS Vt ) 2 RD

The signal to be amplified is superimposed on VBE
vGS(t) = VGS + vgs(t)
The time-varying part in vGS(t) is the amplified signal
The circuit can be used as a linear amplifier if:
A proper bias point is chosen for gain
The input signal is small in amplitude

The small-signal voltage gain

The amplifier gain is the slope at Q:
Av

dvDS
dvGS

vGS VGS

k n (VGS Vt ) RD k nVOV RD

Maximum voltage gain of the amplifier

Av

I D RD
V
DD | Av max |
VOV / 2 VOV / 2

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Determining the VTC by graphical analysis

Provides more insight into the circuit operation
Load line: the straight line represents in effect the load
iD = (VDDvDS)/RD
The operating point is the intersection point

Locating the bias point Q

The bias point (intersection) is determined by properly choosing the load line
The output voltage is bounded by VDD (upper bound) and VOV (lower bound)
The load line determines the voltage gain
The bias point determines the maximum upper/lower voltage swing of the amplifier

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5.5 Small-Signal Operation and Models

The DC bias point
MOSFET in saturation
1
1
Drain current: I D kn (VGS Vt ) 2 knVOV2
Drain voltage: VDS

2
2
VDD I D RD VOV

The small-signal circuit parameters are determined by the bias point.

The signal-signal operation

The small-signal drain current:
vGS VGS v gs
1 'W
1 W
W
1 W 2
k n (VGS vgs Vt ) 2 k n'
(VGS Vt ) 2 k n'
(VGS Vt )v gs k n'
v gs
2 L
2 L
L
2 L
1 W
W
k n'
(VGS Vt ) 2 k n'
(VGS Vt )vgs I D id
2 L
L
W
id k n'
(VGS Vt )v gs
L

iD

The small-signal voltage gain:

vD VDD iD RD VDD ( I D id ) RD VD id Rd VD vd
vd id RD k n
Av

W
VOV RD v gs
L

vd
W
k n VOV RD
vgs
L

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The small-signal parameters

Transconductance (gm): describes how id change with vgs
gm

id
i
D
v gs vGS

vGS VGS

k n'

W
W
(VGS Vt ) 2k n'
ID
L
L

Output resistance (ro): describes how id change with vds

ro [

1
iD 1
V
]vGS constant
A
I D I D
vDS

Drain current varies with vDS due to channel length modulation

Finite ro to model the linear dependence of iD on vDS
The effect can be neglected
g
if ro is sufficientlyy large
g
Body transconductance (gmb): describes how id changes with vbs
1 'W
k n (vGS Vt ) 2
2 L
Vt
V
i
i Vt
W
(vGS Vt ) t g m
g mb D vGS constant D
k n'
vSB
vBS
vBS vDS constant Vt vBS
L

iD

Vt Vt 0 [ 2 F vSB 2F ] where 2qN A Si / Cox

Vt

vSB
2 2F VSB
g mb g m

+
vgs
gmvgs

gmbvbs

+
ro vbs

D
B

The body effect of the MOSFET is modeled by gmb

Can be neglected if body and source are connected together
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The small-signal equivalent circuit models

Hybrid- model

Neglect ro

T-model

Neglect ro

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5.6 Basic MOSFET Amplifier Configuration

Three basic configurations
Common-Source (CS)

Common-Gete (CG)

Common-Drain (CD)

Characterizing amplifiers
The MOSFET circuits can be characterized by a voltage amplifier model (unilateral model)
The electrical properties of the amplifier is represented by Rin, Ro and Avo
The analysis is based on the small-signal or linear equivalent circuit where dc components are not included
vo
RL

Avo
vi RL Ro
RL
Overall voltage gain: Gv vo Rin Av Rin
Avo
vsig Rin Rsig
Rin Rsig RL Rso

Voltage gain: Av

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The common-source (CS) amplifier

Characteristic parameters of the CS amplifier
Input resistance: Rin
Output resistance: Ro RD || ro RD
Open-circuit voltage gain: Avo g m ( RD || ro ) g m RD
Voltage gain: Av g m ( RD || RL || ro ) g m ( RD || RL )
Overall voltage gain: Gv

r
r
g m ( RD || RL || ro ) g m
( RD || RL )
r Rsig
r Rsig

CS amplifier can provide high voltage gain.

Input
p and output
p are out of phase
p
due to negative
g
gain.
g
Output resistance is moderate to high.
Small RD reduces Ro at the cost of voltage gain.

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The common-source (CS) with a source resistance

Characteristic parameters (by neglecting ro)
Input resistance:
Rin

Output resistance:
Ro RD

Open-circuit voltage gain:

Avo

g m RD
1 g m Rs

Voltage gain:
Av

g m ( RD || RL )
1 g m Rs

Overall voltage gain:

Gv

g m ( RD || RL )
1 g m Rs

Source degeneration resistance Rs is adopted.

Gain is reduced by the factor (1+gmRs).
It is considered a negative feedback of the amplifier.

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The common-gate (CG) amplifier

Characteristic parameters of the CG amplifier (by neglecting ro)
Input resistance: Rin 1 / g m
Output resistance: Ro RD
Open-circuit voltage gain: Avo g m RD
Voltage gain: Av g m ( RD || RL )
Overall voltage gain: Gv

1
g m ( RD || RL )
1 g m Rsig

CG amplifier can provide high voltage gain.

Input
p and output
p are in-phase
p
due to ppositive ggain.
Input resistance is very low.
A single CG stage is not suitable for voltage amplification.
Output resistance is moderate to high.
Small RD reduces Ro at the cost of voltage gain.
The amplifier is no longer unilateral if ro is included.

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The common-collector (CD) amplifier

Characteristic parameters of the CD amplifier (by neglecting ro)
Input resistance: Rin
Output resistance: Ro 1 / g m
Voltage gain: Av RL /( RL 1 / g m ) g m RL /( g m RL 1) 1
Overall voltage gain: Gv ( RL ) /( RL 1 / g m ) g m RL /( g m RL 1) 1
CD amplifier is also called source follower.
Input resistance is very high.
Output resistance is very low.
The voltage gain is less than but can be close to 1.
1
CD amplifier can be used as voltage buffer.
It is noted that, in the analysis, the amplifier is not unilateral.

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5.7 Biasing in MOS Amplifier Circuits

DC bias for MOSFET amplifier
The amplifiers are operating at a proper dc bias point.
Linear signal amplification is provided based on small-signal circuit operation.
The DC bias circuit is to ensure the MOSFET in saturation with a proper collector current ID.

Biasing by fixing gate-to-source voltage

1
2

1
2

Fix the dc voltage VGS to specify the saturation current of the MOSFET: I D kn (VGS Vt ) 2 kn (VG Vt ) 2
The bias current deviates from the desirable value due to variations in the device parameters Vt and n

Biasing by fixing gate voltage and connecting a source resistance

1
2

1
The bias condition is specified by: VG VGS kn (VGS Vt ) 2 RS and I D kn (VGS Vt ) 2
2

Drain current has better tolerance to variations in the device parameters

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Biasing using a drain-to-gate feedback resistor

A single power supply is needed.
RG ensures the MOSFET in saturation (VGS = VDS)
MOSFET operating point: VDD VGS 1 k n (VGS Vt ) 2
RD

The value of the feedback resistor RG affects the small-signal gain.

Biasing using a constant-current source

The MOSFET can be biased with a constant current source I.
The resistor RD is chosen to operate the MOSFET in active mode.
The current source is typically a current mirror.
mirror
Current mirror circuit:
MOSFETs Q1 and Q2 are in saturation.
The reference current IREF = I = ID
VDD VGS 1
k n (VGS Vt ) 2
2
R
1
I REF k n (VGS Vt ) 2
2

When applying to the amplifier circuit, the voltage

VD2 has to be high enough to ensure Q2 in saturation.

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5.8 Discrete-Circuit MOS Amplifiers

Circuit analysis:
DC analysis:
Remove all ac sources (short for voltage source and open for current source)
All capacitors are considered open-circuit
DC analysis of MOSFET circuits for all nodal voltages and branch currents
Find the dc current ID and make sure the MOSFET is in saturation
AC analysis:
Remove all dc sources (short for voltage source and open for current source)
All large capacitors are considered short-circuit
Replace the MOSFET with its small
small-signal
signal model for ac analysis
The circuit parameters in the small-signal model are obtained based on the value of ID
Complete amplifier circuit

DC equivalent circuit

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AC equivalent circuit

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The common-source (CS) amplifier

The common-source amplifier with a source resistance

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The common-gate (CG) amplifier

The common-drain (CD) amplifier

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The amplifier frequency response

The gain falls off at low frequency band due to the effects of the coupling and by-pass capacitors
The gain falls off at high frequency band due to the internal capacitive effects in the MOSFETs
Midband:
All coupling and by-pass capacitors (large capacitance) are considered short-circuit
All internal capacitive effects (small capacitance) are considered open-circuit
Midband gain is nearly constant and is evaluated by small-signal analysis
The bandwidth is defined as BW = fH fL
A figure-of-merit for the amplifier is its gain-bandwidth product defined as GB = |AM|BW

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