PART ONE : THE USE OF TENSES IN ENGLISH

There are 12 tenses in English illustrated in the following table:

Simple
Continuous
Perfect
Perfect
continuous
Present
Simple
Present
Present
Present
present
continuous
perfect
perfect
continuous
Past
Simple past
Past
Past perfect
Past perfect
continuous
continuous
Future
Simple future
Future
Future perfect Future
continuous
perfect
continuous
I. THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE.
1. Form:
The simple present tense has
exactly the same form as the
infinitive but adds an S for the
third person singular
Verbs ending in ...SS, ...SH,
...X, and ... O, instead of... S
alone, we add ...ES to form the
third person singular
When ...Y follows a consonant
we change Y into ...I and
add ...ES
but verbs ending in .....Y
following a vowel obey the usual
rules (i.e. ....S is added)
2. Uses
The main use of the simple
present tense is to express
habitual actions
With adverbs of frequency:
always, never, usually,
sometimes, seldom, on
Monday, twice a year ...etc. Or
with time clauses expressing
habitual actions. When and
whenever are particularly useful.
It can express a general truth
It can express a future action
or plan, or a series of actions
It is used instead of the present
continuous tense with verbs
cannot be used in the continuous
tense
Verbs of emotions
Verbs of mental activities
Verbs of senses (perception)

- He works for a joint-venture

- He dispatches the consignment

- She passes her course in Business
Management
- The clerk copies the letter of inquiry
- She studies accounting at Central
College of Business Studies
- He says he will go into management
- The secretary always obeys the
Director
- Whenever we receive new orders,
we work round the clock
- When you accept the draft, we will
submit the shipping documents

- Brazil exports a lot of coffee and

cocoa
- Water boils at 100o C.
- The SS Orion leaves Osaka on 14th
and arrives in HCM City on the 20th
love, hate, admire, disgrace, despise
forget, recognize ,remember,
understand, digest
see, hear, notice feel, watch,
notice,have, possess, belong to,
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Verbs of possession
Verbs of contents, capacity

own, owe
consist of, comprise, hold

II. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. Form
The present continuous tense is
subject + be + v-ing
formed by:
Verbs ending in a silent ... E,
negotiate negotiating ; type
we drop E before ..... ING
typing; file filing; dance
dancing
Except:
age ageing; singe singeing;
and verbs ending in ... EE
dye dyeing; see seeing; be
being; agree agreeing
one-syllable verbs: one vowel
sit sitting; stop stopping; jog
+ one last consonant: We have
jogging; run running
to double the last consonant
For multi-syllable verbs, this rule
admit admitting/ admitted;
applies when the stress is on the
beginbeginning; prefer
last syllable
preferring/preferred
If the stress is not on the last
enter entering/entered ; budget
syllable, we just add ... ING as
budgeting/budgeted
usual
Verbs ending in ...L, we double
signal signalling, signalled ( B.E);
the last consonant except in
signaling, signaled (A.E)
American English
travel travelling , travelled
Verbs ending in ... IE, we
diedying; lie lying; tie tying
change ... IE into ... Y
but : dye dyeing
before ... ING
2. Uses
For a continuous action
- They are negotiating a new agency
agreement
happening now
- What's the boss shouting about?
For a continuous action
- We are building a hotel now.
happening around the moment of - They are launching a big advertising
campaign
speaking (not necessarily at the
moment of speaking)
For two continuous actions
- The customer is now sitting in Mrs.
Bards' office and he is making a
happening in parallel
complaint
For a definite arrangement in
- I'm flying to Bangkok tomorrow.
- What are you doing this weekend?
the near future
For a temporary action in the
- She is now working as a receptionist but
she's going to become a sales assistant
present
N.B. Verbs not normally used in
the continuous tenses.
Verbs of senses (voluntary
see , hear, fell, smell, look, taste
actions)
but gaze, look at, listen,
- I'm watching the slides; She's listening
watch, stare (involuntary
to the tape
actions).... can be used in the
continuous tenses
Verbs of feelings and
admire; adore; love; hate; care for;
desire; detest; dislike; fear; want
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emotions.
Verbs of mental activities

agree; appreciate; assume; believe;

expect; feel sure; certain; perceive;
understand; remember; forget
have; belong to; own; possess, owe
consist of ; hold; comprise; contain

Verbs of possession
Verbs of contents or capacity
and some other verbs such as
seem; appear
III. THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
1. Form
subject + have + past participle
2. Uses
The Present Perfect Tense
used with "just" for a recently
completed action
The Present Perfect Tense is
used for a past action whose
time is not mentioned
The Present Perfect Tense is
used for a recent action of which
the result is still felt now
The Present Perfect Tense is
used for action which we have
done several times in the past
The Present Perfect Tense is
used for an action which
happened in the past has
continued up to the present, (it
may be a finished or an
unfinished action). This is an
uncompleted action in a
uncompleted period of time (e.g:
this week, today, this year,
lately, recently in recent
months/ years ) Other adverbs
can be used : ever, never,
always ,often, since + a point
of time in the past, for + a
period of time
The Present Perfect Tense is
used for the first of the 2 related
actions in the present or in the
future.
The Present Perfect Tense
after it is the first, the
second , the only and the
superlatives

The Present Perfect Tense is

used to talk about experience

Note: The main different

She has been to Europe.

He has just finished his monthly report;

The company has just purchased
taken on new staff
I have read the instructions but I don't
understand them
Have you received the inquiry?
He has left for Paris. You can't see him
now
I have looked at your terms and
conditions. I do agree to them
She has been to Vietnam several times
We have sent a number of inquiries but
haven't received any answer
I've worked for Vietcombank for 5
years; He has been in this position for
20 years
He has been ill recently
We have stopped producing that
product lately.
I haven't had a pay rise for 5 years/
since 1992/ since I came here

He says he has been promoted to the

post of Sales Manager
- He will retire as soon as he has saved
1000 000 dollars
- This is the easiest job I have ever had
- This is the second time she has made
a complaint
-

Have you ever worked as a marketing

officer?
- She has been to number of countries in
Southeast Asia
- I met her in 1986 I have already met
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between the simple past and the

her.
present perfect is that the simple
past talks about an action at a
definite time in the past, while
the present perfect does not
mention the time.
There is no connection with the
He fell ill last week He has fallen
present if we use the simple past
ill and now he is still in hospital
IV. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
1. Form
subject +have + been + v-ing
- Lan has been typing since 7:00 am.
2. Uses
It is similar to the Present Perfect - Thank you so much for the radio,
Tense, but we put more emphasis
I've been wanting it for ages
on the continuous aspect of the
action (i.e. mainly for long and
continuous action, which began
in the past and has continued to
the present, maybe it is still
continuing now, or perhaps it has
just finished. Note that some
verbs cannot be used in the
continuous tenses, except some
special cases)
Comparison of the Present Perfect and the Present Perfect
continuous tenses
They are similar and can be used - I've been living / I've lived in HCM city
alternatively in most cases:
for 20 years
However, the Present Perfect
Time: He has been working in this office
Tense refers to the result, while
for 15 years ;
the Present Perfect Continuous
Result: He has worked for so many offices
Tense refers to the time.
- He has been saving for a year and he
has saved $ 40000
Time and result : He has been travelling all
his life and he has visited numerous
countries in the world
The Present Perfect Tense refers
- My hands are covered with paint. I've
to the result, while the Present
been redecorating the office (work)
Perfect Continuous refers to the
- The office looks new, we have just
work
redecorated it (result)
V. THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE
1. Form
The Simple Past Tense is formed
by adding ... ED to the regular
verbs. For the irregular verbs, we
should refer to the list of irregular
verbs.
Verbs ending in ... E, add ...
D only
We must double the last
consonant for verbs of one
syllable which have one vowel +
a single last consonant.

love loved; file filed; negotiate

negotiated
jog jogged; stop stopped; rub
rubbed

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 Verbs of two or more syllables,

we only double the last
consonant when the stress falls
on the last syllable
Verbs ending in ... Y
following a consonant, change
the ... Y into ... I before ...
ED
But if there is a vowel
before ...Y , it doesn't change
2. Uses
The Simple Past Tense is used
to talk about an action which
happened at a definite time in
the past
When the time is asked and
answered about:
When the action clearly took
place at a definite time in the
past though the time is not
mentioned
As result of question and
answer in the present perfect
tense
The Simple Past tense is used
to talk about a past habit
VI. THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE.
1 . Form
be (in the past tense) + v-ing

2 . Uses
The Past Continuous Tense is
used for past actions which
continued for some time in the
past but the exact limits are not
known or not important
The Past Continuous Tense is
used to talk about a gradual
change in the past.
The Past Continuous Tense is
used to talk about a continuous
action at a point of time in the
past.
The time expression may be
replaced by a verb in the past
tense. In this case, the Past
Continuous Tense refers to a
continuous action in the past
during which a shorter past

admit admitted; prefer preferred

carry carried; marry married

obey obeyed, key keyed

I met him last week
He retired in 1895

When did you meet him? I meet

him last week
- The train was ten minutes late
- He studied engineering in Montreal
-

Where have you been? - I've

been to the theatre
- Did you enjoy yourself? - Yes, I
did.
- He always shouted at us whenever
we made a mistake but he was
really a good boss.
-

I was working with the photocopier

when I had an accident
- They were discussing the prices at
10 this morning.
-

I was working all day yesterday

They was having lunch.

It was getting darker when Mr.

Benson left his office

At eight o'clock yesterday she was

typing a memorandum
- I was having lunch with a customer
at that time
- When I arrived, Tom was talking on
the phone.
- The workers were arguing about
overtime payment when the boss
entered
-

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action happened
The Past Continuous Tense is
used to talk about an
arrangement in the past
The Past Continuous Tense is
used to talk about two or more
continuous actions happening in
parallel over the same period of
time in the past.
VII . THE PAST PERFECT TENSE
1. Form
had + past participle
2. Uses
The Past Perfect Tense is used to
talk about an action which
happened in the past before
another past action
The Past Perfect Tense is used to
talk about a completed action
before a definite time in the past.

When I came to see her, she was

busy packing her suitcases . She
was going to Bangkok the next day.
- She was typing when her manager
was checking the sales figures
-

He had left before I arrived

He retired last year. He had worked
for the company for twenty years

The meeting had started before I

arrived
He was 21 when the story began.
His father had died 5 years before
The secretary had typed all the
letters before lunch time yesterday.
By the age of 20, he had become a
tycoon in the computer business.
The office is clean now. The
charlady has just tidied it
The office was clean. The charlady
had just tidied it
He resigned last year, he had
worked there for 40 years
He resigned last year, he had
worked there since the end of the
war.

The Past Perfect Tense is used as

the past equivalent of the
Present Perfect Tense.

The Past Perfect Tense is also

used with since/ for for an
action which began before the
time of speaking in the past.

VIII. THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. Form

subject +had + been v-ing - He had been waiting for her for
twenty years
2. Uses
The Past Perfect Continuous
- It was six and he was exhausted
Tense has the same relation to
because he had worked/ had been
the Past Perfect Tense as the
working since dawn.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense - He had tried 5 times to get her on
bears to The Present Perfect
the phone
Tense
The Past Perfect Tense refers to
- The Managing Director retired last
the result, while the Past Perfect
year. He had been working for 40
Continuous Tense refers to the
years (time)
time, or the action itself.
- I went home at 6.00. I had typed
all the documents (result)
- I was exhausted because I had
been repairing the photocopier
(action)
- The photocopier was all right. I had
repaired it (result)
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IX. THE SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

1. Form

I, we + shall + verb
(without to)

You, he, she, it, they + will

+ verb (without to)
There is now a tendency of using
will for all persons
2. Uses
The Simple Future Tense is used
to express the speaker's
opinions, assumptions,
speculations about the future.
The Simple Future Tense is used
to talk about future habitual
actions which we assume will
take place
The Simple Future Tense is used
for an intention + a decision to
fulfil it
The Simple Future Tense is used
for an offer, request.

I'm sure he'll come back

I suppose they'll sell the house.

Prices will rise at Christmas

We will settle accounts once a
month

She will attend a secretarial course

next year.

Will you sign this receipt, please?

Shall I photocopy this document for
you?

The Future Of Intention

Form : subject + be + going +
to- verb
Uses: It is used to express the
subject's intention to perform a
certain future action. The
intention is premeditated and
always implies that some
preparation has been made.
An arranged action in the near - I'm going to meet Tom at 6 pm =
I'm meeting Tom at 6 pm
future. (Like the future of
arrangement: i.e. the present
continuous and a time
expression.)
The Future Of Arrangement
The Future of Arrangement is
- I am attending a conference next
formed exactly like the present
week;
continuous
- What are you doing this weekend?
But note that there is usually an
expression of future time,
otherwise there is a confusion
between present and past
meaning
X. THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
1. Form

I, we + shall/will +be + Ving

you, he, she, it, they + be

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+ V-ing
2. Uses
This tense does not talk about
intention
The Future Continuous Tense
- At 9.00 tomorrow, Mr. Blake will be
traveling to Paris agreement.
is used for a continuous action at
a definite time in the future.
(i.e. With a point of time in the
future, the Future Continuous
Tense expresses an action which
starts before this time and
probably continues after it)
An action which is expected to - He'll be coming here by train
tomorrow.
happen in the future. The Future
Continuous Tense does not tell us - We'll be seeing her off at the
airport next Tuesday.
whether it is an deliberate
intention or not. It is merely a
plan, or a scheduled happening.
XI. THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE:
1. Form

I/ we + will/shall + have +
past participle

He/ she/it/ you / they + will

+ + have + past participle
2 Uses
The Future Perfect Tense is used
to expressed and action which
will have finished before a future
given time. Therefore, it is chiefly
used with a time expression
beginning with by (by the
time, by that time, by the end
of next week, by 2000...)

By the end of next month, he will

have been here for 10 years.
- We'd better wait until September.
By then I will have taken my exam
- Don't worry! I' ll have finished the
report by 5 p.m.
- He saves $ 200 a month. By the
year 2000, He will have saved
$35000
-

XII. THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE.

1 . Form

I/we + shall/will + have +

been + V-ing

he/she/it/you/they + will +
+ have + been + V-ing
2. Uses
Like the Future Perfect Tense, the - By the end of this year, he will
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
have been working for 40 years
is used to with a time expression
beginning with by
However, the Future Perfect
- He will have been waiting for an
Continuous Tense is used when
offer for 2 years
the action is long and
continuous
PART TWO: THE GERUND
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I. FORMS
The gerund has exactly the same
form as the present participle
Present gerund
Perfect gerund

eating, speaking
working, dancing
having worked: He was accused of
having stolen the statuette)
being sent: He was punished by
being sent to a desert)
having been past participle : The
safe showed no signs of having
been touched

Passive gerund ( present)

Passive gerund (perfect)
II. FUNCTIONS

Subject of a sentence

Complement of a sentence
After prepositions
After certain verbs
In noun compounds
In short prohibitions

Tidying the office makes me

exhausted
Her hobby is painting
He was good at organizing
She hates being made redundant
A vending machine, typing paper
No camping! No fishing!

1. The gerund as Subject of a Verb

A gerund can function as a
- Learning a foreign language takes
subject of a sentence when the
a lot of time;
action is considered in a general - Reading his letters is her favourite
sense.
thing
- Not being punctual makes him
unreliable
After find we can omit that and
- He found that parking was difficult
the verb be
or He found parking difficult
2. The gerund as Object of a Verb
In the following sentences
- Allison always imagines being a film
being, typing, phoning ... are
star
all objects of the verbs
- She practises typing everyday
- Do you remember phoning our
agent?
- I heard shouting in Mr Blake 's office
a. After : do + the + v-ing
- Who does the cooking in your
(referring to domestic work)
house?
- She did all the typing / the
shopping
b. Verbs commonly followed by - I don't fancy working in an office all
gerunds
my life
admit, appreciate, avoid, can't
- Susan denies having said that thing.
help, can't stand, consider,
delay, deny, dislike, enjoy,
- You must avoid arguing with him.He
excuse, imagine, feel like, finish,
is so rude
forgive, give up, imagine,
involve, keep = continue, mind ,
object to, postpone , practise ,
prevent , propose, put off, stop
= cease, suggest, understand
c. The verb -ing after come and
to go climbing, driving, fishing,
go. The verb -ing form relating
riding, sailing, shopping, skiing,
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to outdoor activities is often used

after come and go
3 . As a Complement of a Sentence
Subject complement
Object complement

walking, etc.

Her favourite pastime is singing

One of her bad habits is getting up
late.
- I saw him entering the garden.
- Nothing could prevent them (from)
getting married
-

4 . After Prepositions
a. When a verb is placed
immediately after a preposition
(e.g in , at, on, before,
after...) , the v-ing form
(passive or active) must be used.

b. The word to: sometimes it is

part of the infinitive. After some
auxiliary verbs such as: be, have,
ought, used and be going and
certain verb eg: want, hope.
But in many cases to is a
preposition
accustom (oneself to)
contribute to
be accustomed to
devote to
be agreeable to
in
addition to
be used to
get down to
look forward to get round
/down to
object to
be limited to/
to limit to
Nouns and adjectives can also be
followed by to + v - ing
In some fixed expressions

What can you do besides typing?

You shouldn't buy the machine
without seeing it
On receiving your confirmation, we
will dispatch the consignment.
We had a lot of difficulty in finding
a parking place.
After changing some money, we
went to the market.
I am going to leave my present job
You have to observe the traffic
regulations.
I want to buy some cheese.
I sent a letter to Mr. Blake
yesterday
He went to Hanoi this morning.
I have to get down to answering
his letter today
I object to being kept waiting.
He is used to driving on the left

alternative to ; close/ closeness to;

dedication/ dedicated to; opposition/
opposite to; similarity/ similar to;
limitation / limit to
in addition to, with a view to
- We've come here with a view to
doing business

c. be + adjective +
preposition + verb-ing
be accustomed to
be afraid
of
be ashamed of
be bored
with
be disappointed in
be exited
about
be
famous for
be fond of
-10-

be frightened of
be
interested in
be proud of
be
responsible for
be scared of
be sorry
for
be successful in
be tired
of
d. Verb + object +
preposition + verb-ing

accuse smb of smt/ doing

smt
suspect smb of smt/ doing smt
congratulate smb on smt/
doing smt
prevent smb from smt/ doing
smt
stop smb from smt/ doing smt
thank smb for smt/ doing smt
forgive smb for smt/ doing smt
warn smb against smt/ doing
smt

5 . In Noun Compounds
gerund + noun or gerund +
noun

- He accused me of arriving late

- The manager suspected him of
reading his letters
- They congratulated me on passing
the exam
- We cannot prevent prices from
rising
- The members of the Union stopped
workers from working
- Thank you for answering the phone
- Please forgive me for disturbing you
- The warned me against buying the
car by instalments
fruit picking, lorry driving, coal mining
waiting room, driving licence , typing
paper, weeping girl.

6 . In short prohibitions
No parking , No camping No smoking,
The gerund can be used in short No fishing, No parking
prohibitions. This is common in
public signs
III . SOME COMMON EXPRESSIONS WITH VERB-ING
1 . It's no use/ it's no good/ It's
- It's no use worrying about it.
little use/ it's hardly any use ...
There's nothing you can do
- It's no good working all day.
After: It's good, better, not good,
we use to -infinitive
2. There's no point in ...
- There 's no point in arguing with
him. He won't change his mind
- There was no point in waiting, so
we went.
3. It's (not) worth/ it's hardly
- The house is within a walking
worth/ It's scarcely worth/ It's
distance so it's not worth taking a
worthwhile ...
taxi
- We arrived home at 4 at night and
it's not worth going to bed
- This PC is hardly worth repairing
4. have difficulty / trouble (in).... - He had difficulty in finding a good
school for his children.
- Did you have any difficulty in
getting a visa?
- People often have (a lot of/ much/
great) difficulty reading his writing
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5. Its a waste of time/ money...

6. to spend / to waste
(time/money)...

7. there's nothing worse than...

8. what's the use/ point...

9. not much care
10. be busy...

PART THREE: THE INFINITIVE

I. FORM
1. Present infinitive: ACTIVE
PASSIVE
(to) ask (to)
be asked
2. Present continuous infinitive:
(to) be asking
Full infinitive : to work
Bare infinitive: work. It is not
advisable to place any word
between to and the verb (split
infinitive)
II. USES
1. As subject of a verb

We had much trouble getting the

goods.
Remember that we use difficulty,
not difficulties
It's a waste of time reading that
book. It's rubbish
It's a waste of money buying a solid
gold watch
He spent hours looking at the
report
I wasted a lot of time looking for a
job
There's nothing worse than walking
in the rain on a cold day
What's the point of learning Arabic?
I don't much care taking that job
He's now busy negotiating a
contract with a customer

She want to leave now

She asked to be given a pay rise

She seems to be sleeping

Ill be working tomorrow.

He needs to work harder

He must work harder.

2. As complement of a verb
Subject complement
Object complement

3. As object of the verb.

4. Be + infinitive to express
commands or instructions
5. The infinitive can express
purposes
6. The infinitive used after
some adjectives to modify
them (angry, glad, happy,
fortunate, likely, lucky)
7. The infinitive used after
nouns to modify them
8. The infinitive to replace
relative clauses

To work in a construction site is

dangerous
Your duty is to keep the files in
good order
We saw him leave the office at
4.30
He wants to leave (It follows the
verb directly)
He is to stay here until we come
back
I have come here to do business
with you
I am very glad to see you in Ho Chi
Minh City
It was stupid of him not to stay.

He has an ability to turn back the

clock
- She was the youngest candidate
who entered for the competition
-

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She was the youngest candidate to

enter for the competition.
A. The infinitive as subject of a verb
Examples:
-

To save money now seems

impossible
- To swim in this river is dangerous.
- It seems impossible to save money
now
- It is dangerous to save money.

It is more usual to place the

preparatory (or introductory)
pronoun it first and move the
infinitive (or infinitive phrase)
to the end of the sentence.
B. The infinitive as object or complement of a verb
Verbs followed directly by
the infinitive
afford ;agree ; appear ; arrange;
- Prices tend to rise at Christmas.
ask; beg; begin; cease; choose;
- Two men failed to return from the
continue; dare; decide; demand;
expedition
deserve; determine;(be
- We arent prepared to wait any
determined); expect; forget;
longer
happen; hate; help; hesitate;
- We guarantee to deliver the goods
hope; hurry; intend; like; love;
on time
manage; need; offer; pay; plan;
prefer; prepare; be prepared;
promise; propose; refuse; regret;
remember; seem ; start; tend;
try; wait; want; wish
C. The to infinitive is used to modify adjectives/ adverbs
Many adjectives are followed by
- I m pleased to meet you
to- infinitive e.g. clever, foolish,
- I am sorry to have missed the
generous, good, kind, unkind,
lesson
right, wrong.
adjective/ adverb + enough +
- He is old enough to join the army
- The chair is light enough to lift
to- infinitive
too + adjectives / adverb +
- I am too young to understand this
- This piano is too heavy to lift.
infinitive
D. The infinitive is used after some nouns
ability; ambition ; anxiety;
His ability to get on
attempt ; decision; demand;
with people is his chief asset
desire ; determination;
His attempt to escape
eagerness; effort ; failure; offer ;
from prison ended in vain
plan; promise; refusal; request;
He made a decision not
scheme;
willingness; wish...
to sell his house.
E. be + to-infinitive to express commands, instructions, orders
to express orders
You are to stay here.
to convey plans
She is to marry him
next month.
(In newspaper headlines be is
The Prime Minister is to
usually omitted to save place)
deliver a statement tomorrow.
be + about + to- infinitive
They are about to
leave.
expresses immediate future
When I came he was
( to be on the point of +
just about to leave (he was on the
gerund)
point of leaving)
F. The infinitive to express purposes

-13-

1. Purposes can be expressed

by a to infinitive
We can use so as + to-verb
and in order + to- verb
But so as and in order are
usually omitted
Negative purposes: we cannot
omit so as or in order
2. The infinitive can be placed
after nouns/ pronouns to show
how they can be used or what is
to be done with them (uses,
functions)
THE BARE INFINITIVE
1. After can ,could, do did,
may, might, must, shall, will,
would
2. Need, dare If they are
treated as auxiliaries, they take
the bare infinitive. If they are
used as ordinary verbs, they take
the full infinitive
3. feel/ see/ hear/ listen (to)
watch/ notice
These verbs can be followed by
object + bare infinitive or verbing
4. let
let takes the bare infinitive in
both active and passive.
But let in the passive is usually
replaced by another verb
(usually by be allowed)
5. make (compel)
make (= compel , cause sb to
do st ) can be followed by a bare
infinitive.
In the passive, make is followed
by to-infinitive

6. help
help can be followed by an
object and an infinitive ( with or
without to)
It is possible to use help
without an object
can't help + verb-ing.
7. would rather/ would
sooner , rather than/ sooner
than
These are used to express

- He went to France (in order/ so as)

to study French

- I usually go early so as not to be

late for work.
I have a letter to write
I have a letter that I must write
She has erected a
fence to prevent children from
getting into her garden
He can do it today
He might object

You needn't say

anything / You don't need to say
anything
I dared not wake him / I
didn't / would dare to wake him
I heard him go down
the stairs
I heard him going down
the stairs
-

They let me go
I was let go (I was
allowed to go)
They let me know = I
was told...
They let me leave early
= I was allowed to leave early
-

Miss Stern made the

boys stay in very late.
The beard makes you
look old than you really are.
I was made to tell the
whole truth
The children were
made to stay in very late.
-

Can you help me ( to )

find my ring?

Can you help check the

figures?

I would rather/ would

sooner stay at home than go out in
the rain
Rather than lose his
-

-14-

preference.
rather than; sooner than can
be followed by v-ing)
8. had better (d better) +
bare infinitive
9. If two infinitives are joined
by and, but, or, except,
than, the to in the second
infinitive is usually dropped.
but; except take the bare
infinitive when they follow do +
anything; nothing;
everything
PART FOUR: DIFFERENT

job, he decided to obey the

director.
Rather than waste/
wasting your time doing it yourself,
why don't you call in a builder
You had better arrive
on time for the appointment.
Hed better not smoke
I want you to stay
beside me and hold the torch
-

He did nothing but

complain
-

She can do everything

except cook meals

INFINITIVE & V-ING CONSTRUCTIONS

Verbs which may take either (to-) infinitive or the gerund (V-ing)
advise; agree; allow; attempt;
- I don't advise going to sea in this
begin; can't/ couldn't bear;
weather
cease; continue; forget; hate; go - I don't advise you to go out in this
on; hear; intend; like; love;
weather
mean; need ; permit; prefer;
- I prefer to wait here
propose; regret; recommend;
- I'd prefer waiting here
remember; see; start ; stop ; try; - I am interested in getting a job in
want; watch
your company
- I was interested to read in the
newspaper that ...
- He used to play cards a lot (past
habitual action)
This is also the case with
certain adjectives: accustomed,
afraid, ashamed, certain,
interested, sorry, sure.
1. begin, start, continue, cease
There is no difference.
- I began to work I began working.
- He continued to live on his pension
He continued living on his
pension.

But with verbs of thinking and I began to understand/

knowing the to-infinitive is
see/ realize why he acted like that
more usual.

When these verbs are used in I am beginning to feel

the continuous tense, the tosorry for him
infinitive must be used.

begin and start are often

She began/ started
used with V-ing form to talk
playing the piano when she was
about long or habitual actions.
only six
2. can / could/ can't/ couldn't bear.
There is no difference, but when
I can't bear to talk/
the to-infinitive is used to refer
talking to him
-15-

to a deliberate action, the

expression implies that the
subject's feelings prevent him
from performing the action.
3. intend
The to-infinitive is more usual,
but we can use V-ing.

The to-infinitive is necessary

if intend has an object
4. allow, advise, permit, recommend,
If these verbs have personal
objects, the to-infinitive must be
used
-

I can't bear to tell him

(so I didn't)

I intend to sell the

house I intend selling the house
He intends his son to
study medicine

He advised me to apply for the

post advertised in the paper
He recommended housewives to
buy big tins
- They dont allow parking

If there is no object the V-ing is

used
5. It/ the car ...+ need ; want; require.
These can be followed by the VMy car wants cleaning
ing or passive to- infinitive, the
My car wants to be cleaned
V-ing being more usual
The garden requires
watering The garden requires to
be watered.
6. regret , remember, forget, stop, go on
V-ing refers to the past if the
action expressed by the gerund
is the earlier action. The infinite
refer to action that follows.
a. remember + V-ing =
I'll remember meeting
remember what one has done or
you for the first time
did.
I remembered giving
him 5 dollars (I had given him the
money first and I remembered it)
remember + to-infinitive =
Remember to lock the
remember what one has to do.
door properly. won't you
b.
forget + V-ing = forget
what one has done, what has
happened.
forget + to-infinitive = forget
what one has to do
c. stop + V-ing = stop what
one is doing, or has been doing
or does
d.
stop + to-infinitive = to
make a break or pause in order
to do smt, to halt.
e.
regret + V-ing = be sorry
for what has happened

I'll never forget seeing

the museum

She forgot to give me

the letter

I really must stop

smoking. An object or possessive
before the gerund is possible
I can't stop him talking
to the press
Every half hour he
stops to smoke a cigarette
-

I don't regret telling

her that, even if it upset her.
I helped him and now I
regret doing that
I regret spending so
much money (i.e. I regret that I
-

-16-

regret + to-infinitive = be sorry for what one is going to say;

regret is usually followed by say, inform, tell and it is usually in
the present tense
f. go on

go on + V-ing = continue what

one has been doing

spent so much money- spending is

the first action, regret is the second
action)
I regret to inform you
that the meeting is cancelled
I regret to inform you
that I can't accept your proposal
(regret is the first action, inform is
the second action)
How long do you intend to go on
listening to those bloody records?
The director welcomed
the students and went on to explain
the college regulations
He showed me the
island and went on to talk about the
climate

go on + to-infinitive = change,
move on to something new
7. try

8.

The verb try + to-infinitive

means make an effort, to
attempt to do smt difficult and
the sentence doesn't tell us
whether it is / was successful or
not

try + V-ing means make an

experiment to see what will
happen
interested
interested + in +V-ing refer to
what will or may happen, and
interested + to-infinitive refers
to what has happened

9.

- The prisoner tried to escape from

the jail.

- Have you tried taking some

aspirins?

I'm interested in
working in Switzerland. Do you
know any one who can help me? (I
might do this)
I was interested to
read in the newspaper that
scientists have found out how the
universe began (it interested me)
-

afraid
afraid + to-infinitive: we don't
want to do it because it is
dangerous or the result could be
unpleasant. It is deliberate
action

When we talk about something

bad which happens
unexpectedly, without wanting
or choosing them, only of the Ving is possible (involuntary
action)

I 'm afraid to fly (of

flying is possible)
I 'm afraid to climb that
tree
I don't want to speak
French because I'm afraid of making
mistakes
The boy were afraid to
play football in the garden because
they were afraid of breaking the
window
-17-

10.

afraid + that-clause to
express a fear or, in the first
person, a regret
like

like + V-ing = enjoy

like + to-infinitive = choose to

do, be in the habit of, think it
right to

out.

11.

would like means wish,

want and is always followed
by to-infinitive. Similarly after
would love; hate; prefer
We can also use would like + to have done something (I
regret that I didn't or couldn't do
it.)
love, hate, prefer, can't stand
There is not much difference
dislike, enjoy, hate, cant
stand are often used with the Ving (would hate are used with
to-infinitive)
But when we refer to one
particular occasion, the toinfinitive is more usual

12.

Im afraid that he is

She likes walking in the

rain (to-infinitive is also possible)
She likes to do the
washing-up immediately after the
meal
I like to wash my car
twice a week
I would like to ask you
a question
What would you like to
do tomorrow?
She would like to have
become a singer (but she couldnt)

- I love lying/ to lie on my back and

staring/ to stare at the sky
- I hate/dislike/don't enjoy washingup.

I hate to break things

up, but I must leave now
I hate to mention it,
but you owe me some money
see, hear, watch, notice, observe, notice
There is often a difference in
meaning between the two
structures. We use an infinitive
to say that we saw/ heard the
whole action from beginning to
end. The V-ing is used when we
saw/ heard part of an action (i.e.
someone, something was in the
middle of the action and we did
not see the complete action)

The V-ing is possible for both

cases
These verbs can be followed
by an object + a past participle
( with a passive meaning)
After the passive form of
these verbs, we use to-infinitive
(watch and notice are not
used in this passive structure)

I saw him fall off his

bike

I saw Tom waiting for

the bus yesterday I saw Tom
yesterday. He was waiting for the
bus
I saw the accident
happen The accident happened. I
saw this
-

I heard your name

repeated several times
Have you ever seen a
television thrown through a window
He was never heard to
say " thank you"
He was seen to stand
outside the bank at the time of the
-

-18-

robbery
-

13.

Justice must not only

be done. It must be seen to be done
Can you smell
something burning?
She found him reading
her letters.
I saw him enter the
room, unlock the drawer, take out
the document, photo it and put it
back.
I watched him step off
the pavement, cross the road, and
disappear into the post office

smell and find can be used

with V- ing only

The V-ing is more usual and it

can express both complete and
action in progress. But the toinfinitive is used especially when
we want to emphasize that the
action is complete. It is also
neater than the V-ing when there
is a succession of actions
hear; smell; watch can be
followed by V-ing without a noun
or pronoun object when the
action is perceived in a general
way (as object of the verb).
sorry

sorry + to-infinitive when we

apologize for smt that we are
doing or about to do
sorry + for + V-ing ( or perfect
infinitive, or a that-clause) when
we apologize for smt we have
already done)

- Sorry to disturb you , but could I

speak to you for a moment ?

sorry + V-ing can be used for

an immediately following action
14. ashamed
be ashamed of + V-ing
be ashamed of yourself + for
+ V-ing.
The gerund here refers to a
previous action
be ashamed + toinfinitive:
the to-infinitive refers to a
subsequent action
would be ashamed + toinfinitive implies that the subject
feeling prevents him from
performing the action
15. used
Subject + used + to - infinitive
is used to talk about a past habit
Subject + be/ become/get +
used + to (preposition) is
followed by a noun, pronoun,
gerund and means be;
become; get accustomed to

We heard shouting in

the distance

She watches boxing

very often

- Sorry for waking you up so late

yesterday ( sorry to have
woken ...., sorry for having
woken ..., sorry that I woke you
up .... are all possible)

- You should be ashamed of lying to

him (you did lie to him)
- You should be ashamed of yourself
for lying to him
- I'm ashamed to tell you that I can't
read
- I'd be ashamed to ask for money
( so I won't do that)

His father used to beat

him
-

I'm used to heat/ living

in hot climate

-19-

16.

agree/ mean

agree takes the to-infinitive

(opposite of refuse + infinitive)

agree cannot take a noun or

pronoun object. The opposite of
refuse + object is accept +
object

agree to (preposition) can be

followed by possessive + V-ing

or a noun/ pronoun object

(agree to smt/ on smt)

Tom agreed to wait for

a week but Bill refused to wait
He refused a reward
He accepted a reward
-

mean (= intend) takes the

to-infinitive

mean (= involve) takes the

V-ing

17.

18.

help & can't help

help + infinitive, with or
without to
can't help; couldn't help (=
can'/ couldn't stop oneself from
doing smt) always takes the Ving
chance & opportunity
chance of + doing smt

Everybody helped (to)

clean the house
Everybody helped me
(to) clean the house
We tried to be serious
but we couldn't help laughing
-

no; any; little; much +

chance of
What are the chances of ...

There is a chance of smt

happening

chance to do smt = time/

opportunity to do smt

opportunity to do smt (of

doing smt is also possible with
similar meaning)
any; no; little; much;
plenty of; more opportunity
to do smt

He agreed to my
leaving early on Saturday
He agreed to the
change of plan/ to this proposal / to
my proposal
He agreed on a 5%
discount.
I was in a hurry
because I meant to get home early
He is determined to
get a seat even if it means standing
in a queue all night
New orders mean
working all night

Do you think I have a

chance of passing the examination?
We have a very good
chance of winning the match
I don't think he has
much chance of finding a job
What are my chances
of passing the exam?
There's a chance of
him lending me his money (There's
a chance that he will....)
There's a chance of our
match winning the coming match
(There's a chance that..)
Have you read the
book I lent you? - Oh! I haven't had
a chance to read it yet
We didn't have much
chance to talk when we last met.
I have the opportunity
to study in the States
We have more
opportunity/ plenty of opportunity
to go skiing

-20-

Do not say possibility to do

smt
19. 'prefer' and 'would rather'
These are used to talk about
preference
a. prefer to do and prefer
doing
We can use prefer to do and
prefer doing to say what you
prefer in general. Prefer to do is
more usual
Remember these structures:
b. prefer something to
something else
c. prefer doing smt to doing
smt
d. prefer to do something
rather than do something else

countryside
-

e. would prefer (`d prefer) to do something rather than do

something else
We use would prefer to do smt to say what someone wants to
do in a particular situation, not in general
-

g. Subject + would rather;

would sooner + another subject
+ past tense (past subjunctive)
This structure is used when
one person would prefer another
person to do smt. We use the
past here but the meaning is
present or future, not past (a
present tense is possible but
very unusual )
We use would rather; would

I prefer big cities to the

But many people say that

with would prefer, only the
preferred action is mentioned. If ,
therefore, we want to mention
both actions, we should use
would rather
f. would rather; would
sooner do smt than do smt (=
would prefer to do smt)
After would rather would
sooner we use bare infinitive

I don't like politics. I

prefer to study economics

I always prefer starting

early, rather than leaving every
thing to the last minute
I prefer driving to
traveling by train
I prefer to drive rather
than travel by train
I prefer to live in big
cities rather than (live) in the
countryside
Would you prefer tea
or coffee? - Coffee, please
Shall we go by train?
Well, Id prefer to go (not going) by
train
Id prefer to stay here
tonight than drive all the long way
home
Id prefer to stay here
tonight I would rather stay here
tonight than drive home

I would rather stay at

home tonight than go to the cinema
Id sooner not go out
this evening
Do you want to go
dancing now? Id rather not
-

Id rather go home now

Id rather you / she/ he
went home now
Shall I give you a
cheque? Id rather you paid cash
-

Would you mind my

-21-

sooner + subject + didnt for

negative preference
prefer, however, like like,
can take object + to-infinitive

smoking? Id rather you didnt

(smoke)
Ann wants to tell Tom,
but Id sooner she didnt
Id prefer you/ him/ her
to go home now
Id prefer him not to
smoke.
I'd rather he hadn't
done that I'd prefer him not to
have done that I wish he hadnt
done that

h. would rather/ would sooner and would prefer + perfect

infinitive

This structure is used to talk

about a past action and similar
to would like + perfect
infinitive, which is used to talk
about an unfulfilled wish ( wish
+had or hadn't is more usual)
20. used to-infinitive and be; get; become + used to V-ing
a. used to + infinitive
We use used to - infinitive to He used to play cards a
lot.
say about something which
Tom used to travel a
happened repeatedly in the past lot,
but
he
is
too lazy to leave home
(a past habit ) or a permanent
Lan used to dislike Tom
state in the past. It no longer
but
now
she
loves
him passionately
happens or exists now.
He smokes a lot.
To express the same idea in
He usually goes on
the present, the simple present
business trips
is usually enough
We can use used + to infinitive (usually stative verbs)
to talk about permanent state or
situation which existed in the
past only

cinema here
He used to have a

Mercedes
-

For a past habit, would +

verb is sometimes used
But unlike used to
infinitive , would + verb can be
used to talk about repeated
actions only, not states.
Neither used to or would +
verb is used to talk about how
often something happened, or
how long it took

There used to be a

This town used to be a

small village but it developed into a
town about 5 years ago
He used to live in
London before going to London
Do you see the hill
over there? There used to be an old
castle on top of it
Ann used to grow long
hair but she had it cut last year
When we were
children, we would go swimming in
the river nearby every day
There used to be a
shop here # There would be a shop
here (future in the past)
Last year, he went to
Thailand seven times ( not he used
to go to Thailand seven times )
I lived in Hanoi for
seven years ( not I used to live in

-22-

for 7 years)
The negative and
interrogative form of used to is
formed in two different ways:
As an ordinary verb:
As an auxiliary verb (not very
common)
Mid-position adverbs can
come before (more usual) or
after used to
b. used + V-ing
get ; become + used to +
noun/ V-ing = not very much
strange
be used to + noun / V-ing =
not strange at all
They are the same as be
accustomed to; be familiar with

cards?
I didn't use to like
coffee but now I drink it a lot now
Used you to play
cards?
I used not / usedn't to
like coffee ...
I always used to be
afraid of dogs
-

The structure can be used to

talk about the past, present and
future

Did you used to play

At first, she wasn't

used to driving on the left. Then she
got used to it so she often hired a
self - driven car and now she is
used to driving on the left. She has
bought a car.
Hung is used to live
alone. He even enjoys living alone
I'm familiar with
staying up late at night
I was not used to living
in a tiny flat
I am getting used to it
now
I will be used to it soon
They are getting used
to living in a big city now

get/ become + used to + n/ V- ing can be used instead of be to

express a gradual adjustment to
something
to in this structure is a
preposition, not part of the
infinitive
Very often, be/ get/ become
I'm used to not
drinking
wine
with my meal ( so
used to + V-ing means I don't
now it's all right if I don't have it)
mind
PART FIVE : THE PASSIVE VOICE AND THE CAUSATIVE FORMS
I. FORM
1. Examples:
Active:
- He cooks the meal
- He is cooking the food
- We have despatched the
consignment
- Mr. Benson wrote the report
yesterday
- He was cooking the food
when I came
- He had tidied the office before

Passive:
The meal is cooked by him
The food is being cooked
The consignment has been
despatched
The report was written by Mr.
Benson ...
The food was being cooked when I
came
The office had been tidied before I
-23-

I came
I shall tidy the office
He will check the sales figures
I am going to revise the
contract
He is installing a coffee
machine tomorrow
I can/ could do the filing
He should keep the file
You ought to tell him
You should/ ought to have told
him

2. Procedure
To construct the passive of an
active sentence, you must
remember the following steps:
1. The active object becomes
the passive subject
2. The passive verb is formed by
putting the verb to be into the
same tense as the active verb
and adding the past participle
of the active verb.
3. The subject of the active verb
becomes the agent. The
agent is very often not
mentioned. When it is
mentioned, it is preceded by
by and placed at the end of
the sentence.
II. USES
1. When it is not necessary to
mention the doer of the action
as it is obvious who he is/ was/
will be.

came
The office will be tidied by me
The sales figures will be checked
by him
The contract is going to be revised
by me.
A coffee machine is being
installed ...
The filing can/ could be done by
me
The file should be kept by him
He ought to be told
He should/ ought to have been told
Active:
- She made the cake
Passive:
- The cake was made by her
Active:
- I am going to clean the room
Passive:
- The room is going to be cleaned by
me

2.
When we dont know, or dont know exactly, or have
forgotten who did the action.
3.
When the subject of the active verb is people, anyone
as they are vague words used as
subjects. Instead of someone
asked me to explain a point I had

The post has been delivered/ The

rubbish hasnt been collected
The classrooms are swept
everyday
Your hand will be X-rayed.
The goods were delivered
yesterday.
The telephone was invented in the
last century.
President Kennedy was
assassinated on 22/11/1963 in
Dallas.
The soft drink Coca-Cola was
invented in Atlanta on 8 May, 1886
You will be met at the station
My car has been moved./ Ive been
told that.....
People suspect him of
receiving stolen good He is
suspected of receiving stolen goods
It is suspected that he receives
stolen goods. That he receives

-24-

made we often say: After my

stolen goods is suspected by people
talk, I was asked to explain a People suppose that
point I had made.
they are now living in
Bangkok
They are supposed to be living in
Bangkok
People believe that he
stole the picture He is believed to
have stolen the picture.
4.
When the subject of the One
sees
this
sort
of
active sentence is the indefinite
advertisement everywhere This
pronoun one
sort of advertisement is seen
everywhere
However, in colloquial speech, You see this sort of advertisement
we can use the indefinite
every where.
pronoun you and an active
verb. But in formal English, we
uses one + active verb or the
more usual passive form.
The passive is obligatory in English (is) spoken,
public notices such as:
Loans (are) arranged, Shoes (are)
repaired
5.
When we are more The house next door
interested in the action than the
has been bought.
person who does it. We wish to An airport is going to
focus on the happening which is
be built in the neighborhood
more important than who or The building was built
what caused the happening
long before the war.
In informal speech, we can use They /we are going to
the indefinite pronoun they ,
build an airport.
we and an active verb
6. When we want to avoid an When their father was
awkward
or
ungrammatical
away, the neighbours looked after
sentence. This is usually done by
the children When their father
avoiding a change of subject.
was away, the children were looked
after by the neighbours.
7.
The passive is used for Overtime rates are
psychological
reasons.
The
being reduced/ will be reduced
speaker may use the passive to The flight VN 568 has
disclaim
responsibility
for
been cancelled due to bad weather
disagreeable announcements
condition.
On the contrary, the active is We
are
going
to
increase overtime rates.
used
for
agreeable
announcements.
Sometimes, we want to avoid This letter has been
sent (instead of: You have sent the
mentioning the name of the
letter)
person who performs the action
though we know it
SOME TYPICAL CONTEXTS FOR THE PASSIVE
1. Formal
notices
and Candidates are
advertisements
required to present themselves
fifteen minutes before the
examination.
They are asked to be
punctual.
-25-

Passengers are requested to

remain seated until the aircraft
comes to a complete stop.
2. In press reports where the Many
people
have
agent is not known, or does
been questioned and the driver of
not need to be mentioned
the getaway car has been traced.
3. In newspaper headlines.
KENNEDY ASSASSINATED!;
TRADE AGREEMENTS BROKEN
PETROL COUPONS ACCEPTED
4. In
scientific
writing
(to - The mixture is placed in a crucible
describe process)
and is heated to a temperature of
3000 c
PREPOSITIONS WITH PASSIVE VERBS
1.
The agent is the doer The
window
was
(who or what did the action) and
broken by a stone/ a boy who lived
is preceded by the preposition
opposite.
by.
by + agent is necessary only The window was
broken
by
a
slate
that fell off the
when the speaker wishes to say
roof.
(or the hearer has to know) who
or what is responsible for the
event.
It
gives
particular
emphasis.
Information can be given by
The bridge was built in
1816/ of stone/ before the war.
other means of phrases
Common verbs in the passive
with by: build, compose,
damage, design, destroy,
discover,
invent,
make,
wreck, write.
2. When we deal with materials /
- The room is filled with smoke
methods / means / instruments
- The lock was covered with paint
etc. used to help the agent to do - The streets were filled with football
the work, not with the agents,
fans during the World Cup
we use with (cram; crowd;
Compare: He was killed by a stone
fill; pack; cover ...)
(accidental) and
- He was killed with a knife
(deliberate)
3. Verb + preposition + object,
- You can play with these cubs quite
the proposition remains
safely These cubs can be played
immediately after the verb
with quite safely
- You should write to him He
should be written to
PHRASAL VERBS
Verb + adverb particle
A gust of wind blew
down the tent (... blew the tent
down) The tent was blown down
by a gust of wind
They switched off the
television (....the television off)
The television was switched off
Verb + preposition: The - They broke into the house The
preposition should be placed
house was broken into
immediately after the past - They look after the children
-26-

participle.
Verb +
preposition

adverb

particle

properly The children are looked

after properly.
+ - The children look up to football
players Football players are
looked up to
We have done away
with the old rules The old rules
have been done away with.

NOTES :
by is not used after adjectives.
We never say afraid by, but
afraid of; angry about / at
When a past participle is used
like an adjective (to describe a
state of mind, not an action) by
is not usually used. The correct
prepositions may be: about,
with of
Compare: - I was worried about
you all night (adjective: state)
and I was worried by the news
(passive: dynamic verb)

I'm interested in
buying a computer.
I'm excited about
going.
I was frightened by a
mouse running into the room (verb)
I'm always frightened
of death.
scared of, amazed at /by,
disappointed in/with/ about, worried
about, bored with, disgusted
at/by/with, annoyed at/ with/ about /
satisfied, dissatisfied with, depressed
about/ concerned about
-

POSITION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES IN THE PASSIVE

SENTENCES
Adverbs of place stand before
by + agent.
Adverbs of time stand after by
+ agent
Adverbs of manner usually
stand between be and the past
participle (esp. in written English)

The chairs were

carried into the house by the
children this morning
The house will be
bought at that price by Mr. Brown
next week
They have been
cruelly treated by the boss
These figures must
be carefully checked
-

by + agent is generally omitted

from the passive sentence. It is
only necessary when the speaker
wishes to say (or the hearer has to
know) who or what is responsible
for the event in question.
INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS AFTER PASSIVE VERBS
1. After acknowledge, assume, People think that he
believe, claim, consider,
is rich It is thought that he is
estimate, feel, find, know,
rich He is thought to be rich
presume, report, say, think,
That he is rich is thought by
understand etc. Sentences such
people
as: People think/ know/
People said that he
consider etc that he is .... have
did the work well It was said
three possible passive forms:
that he did the work well He
N.B. The infinitive is neater and it
was said to do the work well
is chiefly used with the verb be
That he did the work well was said
though other verbs can be used
by people
similarly.
-27-

He is thought to have
information which will be useful to
the police
When the thought concerns a People think that he
previous
action,
the
perfect
was a spy He is thought to have
infinitive can be used
been a spy
People thought that
he was rich He was thought to
be/ to have been rich
2. The continuous infinitives can People believe/ say ...
be used with believe;know;
that he is living abroad He is
report; say; suppose; think;
believed/ said to be living ....
understand
The perfect form is possible for People believe that
previous actions:
he was living abroad He is
believed to have been living
You should have been
working You are supposed to
have been working
3. After suppose,expect the You are supposed to
present infinitive conveys an idea
know how to drive You should
of duties, obligations. Therefore it
know how to drive It is your
is used in reproaches, criticisms
duty to know how to drive
and not the normal equivalent of You are supposed to
suppose and expect in the
keep quiet You must keep quiet
active.
suppose can be followed by You are supposed to
perfect infinitive.
have finished the test
He is supposed to
have escaped disguised as a
woman People suppose that he
escaped..
4. Infinitive after passive verbs are We saw them go out
usually full infinitives
They were seen to go out
He made us work
We were made to work
let, however, is used without to They let us go We
were let go (We were allowed to
go)
SOME SPECIAL PASSIVE STRUCTURES
advise, suggest, propose, They advised using
bullet-proof glass They advised
recommend + V-ing: We can use
a should - clause
that bullet-proof (should) be used
There (be + past participle + There is said to be
plenty of oil off our coast
complement)
with
a
limited
There are known to
selection of verbs: acknowledge, be thousands of different species
allege,
believe,
consider,
of beetles
fear, feel, know, presume,
report, say, suppose, think,
and understand.
It is possible/ impossible
It is impossible to
grow maize here Maize cant be
grown here
It is possible to
-

-28-

change sea water into drinking

water Sea water can be
changed
Public notices
Dont feed the
animals The animals mustnt be
fed
Do it now please
Let it be done now, please.
THE CAUSATIVE FORMS AND STRUCTURES WITH HAVE
The causative is similar to the
passive. We focus on what is done
to something or someone.
1. have + sb + do st
Please have the boy
deliver my letter to her house.
I had the mechanic
service my motorbike
He got the builder to
repair the roof.
2. get + sb + to do st
Ill get my boss to
ring you this afternoon
I had built my house
(past perfect)
I had my house built
(causative: simple past)
There are sentences where past I had a tooth out
participle can be omitted.
yesterday = I had a tooth pulled
out
3. have/get + st /sb +
Please have the
past participle
things delivered to my house
I got my car serviced
last week
I'll have my eyesight
checked next week
The fridge isn't
working properly. I'm going to
have it looked at
In these examples, object 1 is
caused (asked, paid, ordered,
employed ...) to do the action of
the verb following it . In the cases
the object receives the action
denoted by the past participle
following it. The person
performing the action is either not
mentioned or indicated by by +
agent. Care should be taken with
the word order to avoid confusion.
PART SIX : THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
I . THE CONDITIONAL TENSES
1. The present conditional tense.
I/ we + should / would + verb
( I'd work )
He / she/ it / you / they + would -29-

I would (should) work

He would work (He'd

+ verb

work )

2. The perfect conditional tense

If I had worked
would/should/could + have +
harder, I would have passed last
past participle
years exam
II. TYPES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Types
If-clause
Main clause
Present
Simple Present Tense
Simple Future Tense (will/shall
Probable
(works, work)
work)
Present
Past Subjunctive
Present Conditional (would
Unreal
(worked)
work)
Past Unreal Past Perfect (had worked) Perfect Conditional (would have
worked)
TYPE 1: PRESENT PROBABLE.
1.
Basic form
The verb in the main clause is in
the simple future; the verb in the
if-clause is in the present tense.

If she comes she'll be

surprised
-

The lecture will

punish the boy if he doesn't obey
his orders.

Uses: This type of conditional

sentences implies that the action
in the if-clause is quite possible (or
the conditions can be easily
fulfilled in the present or future
time). Note that the meaning is
either present or future but the
verb in the if-clause is in a
present, not a future tense.
2. Possible variations of the basic form.
In the main clause
may and might for present
If the price is
satisfactory, we may/might place
or future possibility
repeat order (perhaps we will
place ...)
If you ask him he
may agree (... perhaps he agrees)
may and can for permission If your car breaks
down you can/may have a day off.
(present or future)
If she is sick, she may
leave early.
can and could for ability
If it stops raining, we
can go out.
(present or future)
If he attends this
secretarial course, he can take
shorthand
must , should for commands, If you want to reduce
the
costs,
you
should lay off some
requests, advice.
clerical staff
If you don't want to
get into trouble, you must abide
by the school regulations

had better for advice

If you want to pass
-30-

Imperative for orders or

advice.

The simple present tense to

express automatic or immediate
or habitual results

Other future tenses.

In the if-clause
The present continuous to
express a continuous action in the
present or an arrangement in the
future.

The present perfect / or present perfect continuous to talk about

something which has just
happened ...(see the use of the
present perfect tense)
can ; may; must etc.
NOTES: We can use if + should
in type 1 to indicate that the
action , although possible, is not
likely. It is usually combined with
an imperative (chiefly in written
instructions, polite requests, or tell
people what to do and business
correspondence.) This make the
condition more doubtful.
Inversion happened when if is
omitted from the sentence.

TYPE 2 : PRESENT UNREAL

1. Form
If-clause (past subjunctive)

this examination, you had better

enroll in this course.
If you have any
queries, please don't hesitate to
contact us
If we heat ice, it turns
into water. (will turn is possible)
If you say you are
right, I'm wrong.
If there is a shortage
of any product, the prices of that
product go up.
If he gets the job, he
is going to go abroad ; - If we don't
run, the train will have left.
If you are now also
waiting for the bus , you'd better
join the queue.
If you are looking for
Peter, you will find him upstairs.
If you are coming
tomorrow, we'll put you up so that
you don't have to waste money on
hotel accommodation
If you have just eaten
dinner, I'll bring you some dessert.
If Ann has visited
Paris, she will serve as a guide.
If you haven't seen
the exhibition, you'd better do it
today.
If he has been
travelling all night, he'll need a
rest.
If you should write to
her, send her my love.
If you should find the
goods unsatisfactory, please
inform us without delay.
If the spare parts
should arrive in a damaged
condition, please ring this number
and we'll see to it.
Should the goods
arrive in a damaged condition ...
Should I see him, I'll
tell him to ring you back.
Should you not wish
our agent to call, please let us
know.

-31-

If I met him now I

Main clause (would/ should)

would tell him all the truth.
2. Uses
a. This type of conditional
If I were you I would
sentences is used to talk about an
accept the terms and conditions
imaginary situation in the if-clause
and we speculate about its
imaginary consequence in the
main clause. Though the past
tense is used, the reference is to
the present and future time, not to
past time. (That is why this use of
the past tense after if is often
called 'the unreal past tense' )
The speaker doesn't think about a
real possibility. The conditions are
contrary - to - fact in the present
or future.
b. When the supposition is
If I lived near my
contrary to known fact.
office I'd be on time for work. (In
fact I do not live near my office)
I were you I would
apply for the job
c. When we don't expect the
If someone tried to
action in the if- clause, although
blackmail me, I would tell the
quite possible, to take place
police.
If we went
bankruptcy, a lot of workers would
lose their jobs
3. Possible variations of the basic form.
In the main clause
a. might; could instead of
If you tried again, you
would (The consequence is less
would succeed (certain result)
likely)
If you tried again, you
might/ could succeed (possible
result)
b. could for ability/permission
If I knew her number I
could ring her now.
If he got a work
permit, he could get a job (ability
or permission).
c. ought to for duty, advice
If he failed, he ought
to try again.
In the if-clause
a. Past continuous

b. Past perfect. This is a mixture

of type 2 an 3
TYPE 3 : PAST UNREAL.
1. Form:

We are traveling by
car and I'm sick. If we were
traveling by train, I would feel
much better
If we weren't sitting
in the class now, we would be
playing games.
If he had taken my
advice, he would be rich now.
-

-32-

The verb in the if-clause is in the

past perfect tense. The verb in the
main clause is in the perfect
conditional. The time is past and
the condition cannot be fulfilled be
cause the action in the if-clause
didn't happen.
2. Usage:
This type is used to talk about
something imaginary in the ifclause (in the past) and consider
the imagined consequences in the
main clause. In this respect, they
are like type 2. However, type 2
talk about the present and the
future, while type 3 refers to the
past. We also use this type to
speculate about a range of
possibilities, from what might
have been reasonably expected to
what would have been completely
impossible.
a. If I had been you/ if I had
been in your position (an advise
after the event)
b. If it hadn't been for to
explain why something did not
happen in the past.
3. Possible variations in the
main clause
a. could, should & might can
be used in the main clause

If we had known
about the cancellation of the
meeting, we wouldn't have come
If he hadn't placed a
big order, we wouldn't have given
him a discount
-

If I had worked harder

at school, I would have become a
mathematician. (regret)
If there hadn't been a
fog, the train hadn't been held up.
-

If I had been you, I

would have accepted the offer.

If it hadn't been for

the inflation, we would have lost
so much business

If he had been here

yesterday, he could have told us
(ability)
If he had been here
yesterday, he might have told us
(possibility)
If he had received a
present, he should have thanked
her (duty)
b. The continuous form of the
If there had been
perfect conditional may be used.
nobody in the front of the car, I
would have been sitting there and
would have been hurt.
IN THE IF-CLAUSE. We can use
I was wearing a seat
the past perfect continuous in the
belt and was unhurt. If I hadn't
if-clause.
been wearing a seat belt, I would
have been seriously injured.
CONJUNCTIONS THAT CAN SOMETIMES BE USED IN THE PLACE OF 'IF'
Conditional sentences can be
introduced by the following
conjunctions: as long as,
assuming (that), but for, even
if/even though, if only, on (the)
condition (that), in case, or (+
else) ,
-

-33-

otherwise ,providing/provided
that, so long as,
suppose/supposing (that) + a
question
1. even if / even though

2. whether ... or/ if ... or.

3. Unless + affirmative = if +
negative. (unless is stronger than
if .... not)

4. But for = If it were not for/ If

it hadn't been for

5. otherwise = if this doesn't

happen/if this didn't happen/ if
this hadn't happened.
In colloquial English or (+ else)
can replace otherwise

6. provided/ providing
(that)
can replace if when there is a
strong idea of limitation or
restriction. It is chiefly used with
permission
7. suppose/ supposing
(that) = what ... if.
This is used to introduce a
question or a suggestion

You must go
tomorrow even if you aren't ready
We intend to go to
India even if air fares go up again
between now and summer.
You must go
tomorrow whether you are ready
or not
Whether I feel well or
not on Monday, I'm going back to
work.
Unless you start at
once, you'll be late
Unless you had a
work permit, you couldn't get a
job.
My father pays the
fees. But for that I wouldn't be at
this college.
My car broke down.
But for that we would have arrived
on time.
But for his pension,
he would starve
We must be back
before mid-night : otherwise we'll
be locked out = If we are not back
before mid-night, we'll be locked
out.
Her father pays the
fees; otherwise she wouldn't be
here = if her father didn't pay the
fees, she wouldn't be here
I used a calculator;
otherwise I'd have taken a longer
time = If I hadn't used a
calculator, I'd have taken a longer
time
You must leave my
house or (else)/otherwise I'll call
the police.
You can camp here
provided/providing (that) you
leave no mess.

Suppose/supposing
(that) we miss the train, what shall
we do ?
Suppose the train is
-

-34-

8. as long as; so long as

9. on (the) condition (that)

10. in case
in case give reason for the action
in the main clause. In case +
present tense means because this
may happen/ because this will
perhaps happen or for fear that
this may happen
In case + past tense means
because this might happen or
for fear that this would happen
In case can be dropped without
changing the meaning of the
sentence

late = What if/what will happen if

the plane is late
So long as/ as long as
you clear your desk by this
evening, you can have tomorrow
off.
They'll lend us their
flat on condition that we look after
it.
I always carry an
umbrella in case it rains (because
it may rain)
I bought a bottle of
wine in case he comes. (because
he may/ will possibly come.)
He always slept by
the phone in case she rang during
the night.(because she might ring
during the night.)
I'll come tomorrow in
case he wants me (I will surely
come)
I'll come tomorrow (I
will surely come)
In case of accident,
phone 999 = if there is an
accident ...

NOTES: in case is normally

placed after the main clause. But
in case of + noun = (if there
is/are ) is used at the beginning of
the sentence
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Type 1: basic form, the tenses
He said, 'If I catch the
change in the usual way
4.30 train I'll be home by five' He
said that if he caught the 4.30
train he would be home by five
Type 2: basic form, the tenses
She said, 'If I had a
remain unchanged.
work permit I could get a job'
She said that if she had a work
permit she could get a job.
Type 3: basic form no changes:
He said, 'If she had
loved Tom, she wouldn't have
loved him' He said if she had
loved him she wouldn't have left
him.
PART EIGHT : THE REPORTED SPEECH
There are 3 types of sentences:
Statements, Questions, and
Commands in the reported speech
A. STATEMENTS IN INDIRECT SPEECH
I. Examples

The boss said: I shall leave Vietnam

tomorrow The boss said that he
-35-

would leave Vietnam the following

day.
Lan said, I am sick today. Lan
told me that she was sick that day.
II. Procedure
Remember to make the following
changes;
Repeat the verb say or use
tell + object
2. Change the comma or colon to
that ; omit the inverted
commas or the quotation
marks.
3. Change the personal pronouns
and possessive adjectives if
necessary, according to the
meaning of the sentence
4. Change the verb in the direct
speech one step into the past if
the introducing verb is in any
past tenses.
5. Change the expressions
showing place and time (if they
are different)
Adverbs and adverbial phrases of
time change as follows:
1.

Tenses change as follows:

-36-

today that day

yesterdaythe day before
the day before yesterday two
days earlier
tomorrowthe next day/ the
following day
the day after tomorrow in two
days' time/ two days later
next week/ year the following
week/ year
last week / year the previous
week/ year
a year ago a year before/ the
previous year
herethere
this that
this evening/tonightthat
evening
simple present simple past
present continuous past
continuous
present perfectpast perfect
present perfect continuouspast
perfect continuous
simple pastpast perfect
past continuouspast perfect
continuous
simple future future in the past

(present conditional)
future continuous conditional
continuous
conditional conditional

III. Notes
1. The past tense remains
unchanged.
In theory, the past tense changes
to the past perfect.
a. If it is quite clear and there
cannot be any confusion about
relative times of the action.
b. I/he/she/we/they + had better
remains unchanged
You had better can either remain
unchanged or become advise +
object + infinitive.

c. Conditional sentences types

and 3 remain unchanged.

2. The present tense remains

unchanged when it refers to a
general truth.
B. QUESTIONS IN THE REPORTED
I. Examples

The man said, ' We

signed the contract in 2000 The
man said that they signed the
contract 2000.

'The children had

better go to bed,' said the mother
The mother said that the
children had better go to bed
early.
'You'd better not drink
the water,' said the guide The
guide advised/warned us not to
drink the water.
2
Lan said: If he came,
I would tell him everything Lan
told me that if he came she would
tell him everything.
Lan said: If I had met
him yesterday, I would have
known about the change of plan
Lan said that if she had met
him the say before, she would
have known about the chance of
plan.
The teacher said, '
Water freezes at 0o C' The
teacher said that water freezes at
o 0c.
SPEECH

- He said, 'Where can I find her in

this town?'
- She asked: " Will it rain tonight?"

He asked (me) where he could

find her in that town.
She wanted to know if it would
rain that night
-

I. Procedure
Remember tthe following steps
1. Change the verb say to ask
or other verbs of inquiry (inquire,
wonder, want to know) These
verbs are used without objects;
ask can be used with or without
an object.
Omit the comma, the
-37-

quotation marks, the inverted

comma, and the question mark.
2. Repeat the questions word
(where, when, why, who ...)
in the direct speech. If there is no
question word, if or whether is
used. The interrogative form of the
verb changes to the affirmative
form (the question mark is
therefore omitted)
3. Change the personal pronouns
and possessive adjectives if
necessary, according to the
meaning of the sentences.
4. Change the verbs in the direct
to a corresponding past tense.
5. Change the adverbial phrases
showing places and time if the
places and time are different
II. Notes
1- ask can be followed by the
He said, ' What have
person addressed
you got in your bag? ' He asked
But want to know, wonder,
(me) what I had got in my bag.
inquire cannot take an indirect
object so if we wish to mention the
person addressed, we must use
ask
2- If direct question begins with a
question word, the question word
is repeated in the direct question.
3- If there is no question word, if "Is anyone here?"
or whether is used.
said the man The man
wanted to know if / whether
anyone was there.
If is more usual than
"Do you know Bill?"
said my friend My friend
whether.
asked my if I knew Bill.
whether is often used when a
"Do you want to
ensure
your
luggage
or not?" said
choice has to be made
( also ...whether or not.)
the travel agent. The travel
agent asked me whether I wanted
to ensure my luggage or not
"Do you want to go
by air or by train?" he said He
asked me whether I wanted to go
by air or by train
whether + infinitive is possible She said: "Shall I go
by air or by train?" He
after wonder , want to know.
(inquire is possible but not very
wondered whether to go by train
often)
He wondered whether he should
go by train
whether is better than if if
"If you get the job will
-38-

the direct question contains a

you move to New York?" said his
conditional clause with if
girlfriend. His girl friend asked
(otherwise there would be two
him whether he would move to
ifs)
New York if he got the job.
4- Questions with "Shall I/ Shall we
.....?"

Request for
"What shall I do with
it?" " Tell me what to do with it."
instructions or advice (We use
ask /inquire)
The customer asked what he was
to do with it .
"Shall I post it?" He
asked if he was to post it/ ... if he
should post it.

Offers.
"Shall I make you a
cup of coffee?" He offered to
make me a cup of coffee.
"I'll bring you a cup of
coffee." He offered to bring me
a cup of coffee.

Suggestions.
"Shall me meet at
eight?
He
suggested meeting
Note: "What/How about .......?";
Lets , Why dont we ? is
at eight.
reported the same
5- Questions with "Will you/ would "Will you sit down?"
you ......?" These may be ordinary
He asked me If I would sit down
questions, requests, offers
He told me to sit down
"Will/would you file
these letter, please? " He asked
me to file the letters
"Would you like to
come round/ could you come
round for a drink?" He invited
me to come round for a drink.
C. COMMANDS; REQUESTS; ADVICE IN INDIRECT SPEECH
I. Examples
The woman said, 'Please wait for
me here, Tom.'
She said: " Don't touch anything in
this room.'
II. Procedure

The woman asked Tom to wait for

her there
The woman told me not to touch
anything in that room

1- Change the verb say to tell,

order, ask according to the
attitude and relation of the
speaker and the listener.
Add an object to those verbs in
the reported speech
Omit the comma, the inverted
commas, the colon, the quotation
marks, the word please and the
exclamation mark
2- Change the verb in the direct
-39-

speech from affirmative

commands to to-infinitive, or
from the negative commands to
not + to-infinitive
3- Change the personal pronouns
and possessive, if necessary,
according to the meaning of the
sentence (the same as in
statements)
4- Change the words showing
place and time, if the place and
time are different.
III. Notes
a. The following verbs can be
used: advise, ask, beg,
command, encourage,
entreat , forbid, implore invite,
order, recommend, remind,
request, tell, urge, warn.
(Note that say is not included in
this list, forbid is only common
in the passive)
b. The verbs in a above require
object + infinitive. They must be
followed directly by the person
addressed without a preposition.
In direct commands, this person is
often not mentioned
ask is different. It can be
followed directly by the infinitive
without an object. It is quite
different from ask + object +
infinitive.
Both ask and beg can be
followed by the passive infinitive.

c. "Will you ..." is normally

reported as request by ask
But if it is spoken sharply or
irritably, and the word please in
omitted , it might be reported by
tell order.
d. say; tell + object + that +
be + infinitive

He said, '
Go away!'. When reporting such
command, we must add a noun or
pronoun: He told the boy to go
away

He said, '
Could I see Tom, please?' He
asked to see Tom

"Please
send me to Hanoi" She asked
to be sent to Hanoi She asked
us to sent her to Hanoi.
"Please
allow me to see my lawyer She
asked us to allow her to see her
lawyer She asked to be allowed
to see her lawyer.
"Will you
sit down, please?" He asked us
to sit down.
"Will you
be quiet!" " Be quiet, will you!"
He told/ ordered us to be quiet.
-

'Please
wait here' He told me that I
was to wait there He told me to
wait there.

-40-

Advice can be expressed by

advice, recommend and urge
+ should (esp. in the passive)
e. Let's; let us; let him; let them
Let's . (suggestion) is reported
by suggest

She said:
" I advise cancelling the meeting"
She advised that the meeting
should be cancelled

"Let's

leave the washing up till

tomorrow" He suggested
leaving the washing up till the
next dayShe suggested that
they should leave the washing up
till the next day She suggested
that the washing up should be left
till the next day
"Let's not
say anything about it till we hear
the facts" He suggested not
saying/ saying nothing about it till
they heard the facts
But Let's not in answer to
"Let's sell
affirmative suggestion is reported
the house" said Tom. "Let's not"
by such phrases as : She opposed
said Ann Tom suggested
the idea; She was against it;
selling the house but Ann was
she objected ...
against it.
PART NINE : THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
DEFINITION
A clause is a group of words which John
contain a subject and a finite verb.
succeeded because he worked
A clause is usually considered part
hard
of a sentence. A main clause (also
called Principal or Independent
clause) expresses a complete
thought in itself. It is equivalent to
a simple sentence when it can
stand alone. A subordinating
clause (also called Dependent
clause); It must have a Main
clause to make its meaning clear.
There are three types of clauses:

Noun clause :
Why the
plane exploded is a mystery

Adjective clause:
A man
who would do that would do
anything

Adverb clause
You may
sit where you like
Note: The same clause may be a
Where
noun clause in one sentence, an
she is living is still unknown. (noun
adverb clause in another sentence
clause)
and an adverb clause in another.
No one
-41-

This entirely depends on the

function in the sentence.

has found the place where she is

living (adjective clause)
They
stopped right where she is living
without knowing it. (adverb
clause)

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (OR THE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

They are introduced by Relative
Pronouns (who, which, whom,
that, whose, as, but) or by
relative adverbs (when, where ,
why, after). A relative pronoun
stands for the preceding noun or
pronoun (antecedent). A relative
clause modifies a noun or
pronoun, therefore it follows the
noun or pronoun in most cases.
Sometimes it is separated from its
noun/pronoun by a word or
phrase. (There is something in the
newspaper which would interest
you)

A man
who did it would do it again
Here lies
one whose name will never be
forgotten
Is that
the girl whom we met yesterday
This is
the place where we saw him last
The week
after he left, she went to live with
her mother.
I
attended the same school as he
did.
There is
no man but would give anything
for her love (who would not .....)

Restrictive relative clauses (defining clauses or identifying clauses)

describes the noun in such a way
The man
that it distinguishes from other
who told me this refused to give
nouns of the same class. It is
me his name
essential to the clear
I met
understanding of the sentence
someone who said he know you.
A worker
who is lazy deserves losing his job
Non-restrictive clauses (non-identifying clauses or non-defining clauses)
They are placed after the nouns
Mr. Baker, who
which are definite already. They do
teaches us maths, is an excellent
not, therefore, define the noun but
teacher
merely add something to it by
giving more information about it.
They are not essential in the
sentence and can be omitted
without causing confusion
Remember the following points
about defining and non-defining
clauses
Restrictive adjective clauses
identify the noun which they
modify
Non-restrictive clauses
describe, but do not identify the
noun which they modify
-42-

 The relative pronoun that

cannot be used in non-restrictive
clause
Commas are used to set off
non-restrictive clauses.
A. DEFINING CLAUSE
PERSONS
1 - Subject: who; that

That is common after all;

everyone; everybody; no-one;
nobody; those

2 - Object of a verb: whom;

who; that
whom is considered very formal.
In everyday English, we use who;
that (that is more usual) We can
omit the relative pronoun
altogether (zero relative)

3 - Object of a preposition
In formal English the preposition is
placed before the relative
pronoun, which must be whom
In informal speech, it is more
usual to move the preposition to
the end of the clause, whom can
be replaced by who that but we
still omit the relative altogether

4 - Possessive : whose is the

only possible relative pronoun
THINGS
1 - Subject: which or that;
which is more formal

2 - Object of a verb: which or

that or no relative at all. which
is rare used after all, everything
little, much none no and the
superlatives.

3 - Object of a preposition

The man who

manages our company is very
competent
The person who has
all the qualifications will be chosen
Everybody who/that
knows him likes him
Nobody who/ that
saw the accident would ever
forget it
The man whom/ who/
that you met yesterday is the
Managing Director The man
you saw yesterday is the
Managing Director
The girl who/whom/
that he employs always complains
about her pay The girl he
employs always complains about
her pay
The man to whom I
spoke was the Managing Director
The girl at whom you
are looking is my younger sister
The man who/ whom/
that I spoke to ... The man I
spoke to
The man with whom I
travelled spoke English .. The
man who/ that I travelled with
The man I travelled with ...
The film is about a
spy whose wife betrays him
This is the car which/that
is sold by installments
The price that we offer is
competitive
The car which/that I hired
broke down on the way.
All the books which /that
he bought are valuable
This is the best hotel
(that) I know
The ladder on which I

-43-

In formal English, we use the

was standing began to slip The
preposition + which. But it is
ladder which/that I was standing on
more usual to move the
began to slip The ladder I was
preposition to the end of the
standing on began to slip
sentence, using which or that or
omitting the relative altogether.
4 - Possessive: whose, the +
That is a big building
noun + of which, of which +
whose walls /of which the walls / the
the + noun
walls of which/ with glass walls were
made of glass
RELATIVE ADVERBS
1. when = at/on/ in which
That was the day on which
he was born
That was the day when I
was born
That was the time at
which he got up That was the
time when he got up
That was the year in
which he was born That was the
year when he was born
2. where = at / in /on which
The hotel at which we
stayed The hotel where we
stayed ...
The address at which
we have our office The address
where we have...
3. why = for which
The reason for which
he refused my invitation was ...
The reason why he refused my
invitation ...
B. NON-DEFINING CLAUSE
Non-defining clause is put after
nouns which are already definite.
They do not define the nouns, but
merely add some information to
the nouns. They are not essential
in a sentence and can be omitted
without causing confusion. We
should remember the following
points about this kind of clauses
1 - It is rather heavy , formal and
unusual in conversational English.
In written English , it is quite
common.
2 - In non-defining clause, that
cannot be used and the pronouns
can never be omitted even when
they are objects.
3 - Prepositions can come at the
end

This is Mr. Garbin,

who is in charge of the project
His master piece was
"War and Peace", which was
written in his sixties
- I passed him my glass of whisky,
which he drank hastily
-

His talked about his

book, which none of us had heard

-44-

4 whom is quite usual

5 - We can use when where
why whose
6 - We can use all some none
most few several the
youngest the majority ... of
which of whom

7 - Commas is used to separate

non-identifying clause from the
main clause

of ....of which none of us had

heard
He pointed to the
warehouse, which we were looking
for .... for which we were
looking (formal)
- He was Peter, whom you talked to
on the phone yesterday
Martin, whose mother
is Spanish, speaks both English
and Spanish fluently
It a family of eight ,
all of whom are studying music
He has so many
books, most of which he hasn't
read
We have tested 100
watches, none of which are
completely water-proof
Mr. Smith, who manages
this company, is a millionaire.
-

RELATIVE CLAUSE: ADVANCED POINTS

I. that (relative pronoun) & which (connective relative)
what = the thing(s) that

The thing that we saw

astonished us = What we saw
astonished us
I'll give her what she
needs= I'll give her the watch that
she need
When she sees what you
have done she will be furious = When
she sees the damage that you have
done she will be furious
He said he had no
money, which was not true
Some of the road were
flooded, which made our journey more
difficult
What he said was not
true.

Be careful not to confuse the

relative what with which
(connective relative). which must refer to a word or group of words
in the preceding sentences, while
what does not refer back to any
thing. what is usually the object
of a verb, which is usually the
subject.
II. Relative clauses replaced by infinitives or participles
1 - Relative clauses after the first The last man who leaves/ left the
; the last ; the second the
ship is/was the captain = The last
only ... and sometimes the
man to leave the ship
superlatives
The only one who
understands/understood = The only
one to understand
2 - When there is idea of purpose
He has an exercise to do= He
or duty or permission
has an exercise that he must do
-45-

They need a garden to play in=

They need a garden a garden in
which they can/ may play in
I need a knife to cut the bread
with= I need a knife with which I can
cut the bread
-

III. that
that (non - defining)
1. that = who, whom, which
2. never preceded by a
preposition
3. only used in defining clause.
that is used
1. After superlative including
first and last
2. After a mixed antecedent
3. After interrogative pronouns
who and what
4. After same (but as is more
usual)
5. After all only, very, every,
no any, much

He was the cleverest boy that

I have ever met
The man and the manners
that he described were unfamiliar
to most of us
Who that saw her did not pity
her
This is the same story that the
teacher told us ( ... as the teacher
told us)
You may keep any book that
you find

THE NOUN CLAUSES USES AND FUNCTIONS

1 - Subject of a verb
Why the plane exploded is
still a mystery
That he can do it is quite
certain
It is true that time is
valuable
2 - Object of a verb.
Nobody knows how
language was started.
Give whoever answers the
phone this message
3 - Complement of a verb
His great fear is that he may
fail
He became what I had
expected him to become.
He has made the company
what it is today
4 - In apposition to a noun
The rumour that he was
killed is untrue
She express the hope that
he may recover shortly
5 - After a number of
Are you sure that he did
adjectives
this?
subject + be + adjective +
I'm afraid that I must ask
noun - clause
you for help again.
THE ADVERB CLAUSES TYPES
-46-

Adverb clauses are introduced by

subordinating conjunctions
(when , where, as, though,
because, if ..) Adverb clauses
modify a verb, an adjective, or an
adverb in some other clauses
There are nine types of adverb
clauses.
1 - Adverbial clause of time
is introduced by when,
whenever, while, as, as soon
as, until, since, before, after,
by the time
N.B. The future tense is not used
in this kind of clause to express a
future action.
2 - Adverbial clause of place
They are introduced by where,
wherever, as far as, as near
as, whence

They fought as heroes did.

(modifying the verb fight)
The train is later than you think
(modifying the adjective late)
He works so hard that he falls ill
-

I shall do it when I have time

All things are difficult before they
are easy.
I shall wait until Mike calls.
Before I lock the door, I will make
certain that all the lights have been
turned off
-

3 - Adverbial clause of manner

They are introduced by as, as if,
as though
4 - Adverbial clause of reason
or cause
They are introduced by because,
since, as, for, now that,
seeing that

5 - Adverbial clause of result

They are introduced by so
.....that, such ...... that

6 - Adverbial clause of
purpose.
They are introduced by so that,
in order that, lest, for fear that

7 - Adverbial clause of
concession (or contrast)
They are introduced by although,
though, even if, even though,
however + adjective/adverb, no
matter + how; what; where;
when ... whatever, whether

No one know whence he came

from
I'll follow you as far as you go.
Wherever she walks, people stare
at her in amazement.
Please leave the keys where they
belong to.
Everything was carried out as he
had planned.
He behaves as if he was a king.
Let's go to bed, as it is now late.
Because he is inefficient, he has
been laid off.
The match was called off because
the whether was bad
Since most students go out on
Saturday night, the dormitories are
usually quiet then.
He worked so hard that he felt ill
Nothing more was heard of him, so
that people thought he was dead
The coffee was so strong that the
guests had trouble drinking it
It was such an informative lecture
that many students wanted to tape it.
Speak clearly, so that they can
understand you
He works with great care, lest he
should make a mistake.
I usually carry some extra money
with me so that I wouldn't be short of
cash.
Even if it rains, I shall come.
He is honest, although he is poor.
Although he had studied diligently
for several months, he was unable to
pass the examination.
He dress plainly and drives an old
car despite the fact that he had
-47-

or not.
8 - Adverbial clause of
comparison.
They are introduced by as ... as,
not ... so , such ... as, ___ er ...
than, more ... than,
less ...than
Note: the verb or both the subject
and the verb may be omitted from
these clauses.
9 - Adverbial clause of
condition
They are introduced by if, if
only, in case, so long as, as
long as, unless, providing that,
provided that, on condition that
NB: The same clause may be a
noun clause in one sentence, an
adjective clause in another, or an
adverbial clause in another,

recently inherited three million dollars

She sang less beautifully than I
expected
He likes you more than he likes
me/ more than me
The food is better in the cafeteria
today than it was yesterday.
-

We shall come to the match unless

it rains.
If he were here, he would help me.
-

Where the hero lies is unknown.

(noun clause)
No one has found the place where
the hero lies. (adjective clause)
The search party stops right where
the hero lies without knowing it.
(adverb clause)
-

PART TEN: THE NOUNS

Types:
There are four types of nouns in
English

Functions
A noun can function as:

Subject of a verb

Complement of be,
become, seem

Object of a verb:

Object of a preposition

In the possessive case

I. GENDER

Common nouns: desk,

newspaper, computer
Proper nouns: Italy, Madrid, Mr.
Watson
Abstract nouns: beauty, charity,
pollution
Collective nouns: crowd, team,
government.
-

Brazil exports a lot of coffee

He became an actor at the
age of 20
He bought a cub yesterday
He is interested in arts
Tom's books
-

Masculine: men, boy, male

animals (pronoun he, they)
Feminine: girls , women, female
animals (pronoun she, they)
Neuter inanimate things, animal
whose sex we don't know and
sometimes babies: desk,
butterfly
Exceptions: Ships, cars other

Britain has a lot of things

that she can be proud of
The ship Atlantic is now on
her voyage to Australia
-

-48-

vehicles, countries are sometimes

referred to as feminine (esp. when
regarded with love and affection)
1 - Masculine/ feminine noun
denoting people - Different forms
1. People
Masculine
adulterer
boy
bachelor
bridegroom
dad(y)
fiance
father
grand father
(grand) uncle
grandson
gentleman
husband
man
nephew
son
widower
2. Titles
duke
marquis/ marquess
earl/count
viscount
baron
friar/monk
king
lord
prince
3. Occupations
most of the nouns referring to
profession have the same form:
artist; cook; driver; guide ;
assistant; dancer; doctor etc. but
there are exceptions
actor
conductor
executor
heir
hero
poet
instructor
giant
host
head-master
manager
monk/friar
policeman
sorcerer
steward

Feminine
adulteress
girl
spinster
bride
mom(y)
fiancee'
mother
grandmother
(grand)
aunt
granddaughter
lady
wife
woman
niece
daughter
widow
duchess
marchioness/ marquise
countess
viscountess
baroness
nun
queen
lady/dame
princess

actress
conductress
executrix
heiress
heroine
poetess
instructress
giantess
hostess
head - mistress
manageress
nun
policewoman
sorceress
stewardess
-49-

procurer
schoolmaster
tutor
salesman
usher
waiter
warder
wizard
Notes: We often use police
officer instead of policeman/woman and sales person instead
of salesman/- woman to avoid
sex discrimination. We can use:
man nurse; woman nurse or
male doctor; female doctor

procuress
schoolmistress
governess
sales woman
usherette
waitress
wardress
witch

3. Animals
Domestic animals and large wild animals have different forms:
he- goat /dog she- goat/ dog; cock- sparrow hen-sparrow
billy-goat
nanny-goat
boar
sow
buck; stag
doe
bullock
heifer/ cow
bull
cow
bull-whale/elephant
cow-whale/elephant
cock
hen
cock-sparrow /pheasant/ robin
hen-sparrow
pheasant/robin
colt
filly
dog
bitch
drake
duck
fox
vixen
gander
goose
lion
lioness
ram
ewe
stag/hart (fully-gown)
doe = hind
stallion
mare, filly
tiger
tigress
hog
sow
II/ PLURALS:
The plural of nouns is usually
made by adding s to the singulars.
Some special cases:
1 - Nouns ending in o, ch, ss,
tomato tomatoes ; brush
x : add es
brushes; church churches kiss
kisses; box boxes
But words of foreign origin or
radio radios; dynamo dynamos;
abbreviated words ending in o,
magneto magnetos; dynamo
add s only. Also: vowel +o + s;
dynamos ; kimono kimonos; radio
scientific words
radios; kilo kilos; piano pianos;
photo photos
Two ways:
Mangomangoes / mangos;
mosquito mosquitoes/ mosquitos
-50-

When es is placed after ch, sh,

ss or x an extra syllable /iz / is
added to the spoken word
2 - Words ending in y following a
consonant , we drop y and add
ies
But nouns ending in y following a
vowel , we add s only
3 - Twelve nouns ending in f or
fe, we drop them and add ves

hoof, scarf and wharf take

either s or ves
Others ending in f or fe add s
in the ordinary way
4 - A few nouns form their plurals
by a vowel change.

baby babies; fly flies ; country

countries; lady ladies

boy boys; monkey monkeys;

key keys; day days; guy guys
calf calves; leaf leaves;
selfselves; thiefthieves; half
halves; lifelives; sheaf sheaves;
wife wives; knife knives; loaf
loaves; shelf shelves; wolf wolves;
scarf scarves / scarfs ;
hoofhooves / hoofs.
cliffcliffs; handkerchief
handkerchiefs
foot feet; manmen; goose
geese; tooth teeth; mouse
mice; louse lice; women women

Note: childchildren; ox oxen

5 - Name of certain animals do not carp ; cod ; mackerel ; pike ; plaice ;
change in the plural
salmon; squid; trout; turbot; fish;
(fishes/ fish)
Some of them can also take the
crabs; eels; herrings; lobsters;
usual form
sardines; sharks
deer and sheep do not change
6 - A few words do not change:
aircraft ; hovercraft; spacecraft; quid
(slang for 1 pound ; buck for one
dollar); sheep; offspring ;counsel;
chassis; deer; reindeer; buck; stag; hind;
doe; fish;... etc
Some words of measurements
Five hundred students, six pound(s)
of sugar, a ten -ton lorry.
do not change when used as
There are hundreds of students
adjectives but when they are used as nouns, we usually add s
Uncountable nouns do not have
plural forms: pollution, love,
water...
7 - Certain nouns are always
The police are looking for a man
plural and take plural verbs
who stole the car.
(clothes, police)
Garments consisting of two parts:
breeches, pants, pyjamas, trousers,
jeans, shorts
Tools consisting of two parts:
binoculars; pliers; scissors;
spectacles ; glasses; spectacles; scales;
shears tc.
8 - A number of words ending
Mathematics is compulsory.
in ... ics
Ethics deals with behavior
(acoustics, athletics, economics,
His mathematics are weak
ethics, hysterics, informatics,
linguistics, mathematics, physics,
politics, statistics..) When referring
to sciences or subjects of study
-51-

can sometimes be considered as

singular. Sometimes they are
considered plural
9 - Words plural in form, but
singular in meaning (news,
mumps, rickets, billiards, darts,
draughts : dominoes measles)
10 - Some words of foreign origins

Egyptian and Latin

IS ES
US I
UM A
O S; I

Mumps is a childrens disease.

analysis analyses; basisbases;

bacteria bacterium crisis crises ;
criterion criteria ; calculus
calculuses curriculum curricula ;
diagnosis diagnoses; hypothesis
hypotheses ; larva larvae ; formula
formulas/ formulae; medium media ;
memorandummemoranda ; oasis
oases ; parenthesis parentheses ;
phenomenon phenomena ; appendix
appendices ; index indexes or
indices ; stimulus stimuli ; stratum
strata; stadium; stadia / stadiums;
thesis theses ; vertebra vertebrae
crisis crises; basisbases; oasisoases pubis pubes
bacillus bacilli; fungus fungi ;
nucleus nuclei
datum data ; erratum errata ;
stadium stadiums/ stadia ;
memorandum
memorandums/memoranda
momentum
momentums/momenta
timpano timpanos/ timpani (bo
ken ong trong dan nhac)

11 - Compound nouns
Normally the last word is made
plural
When man or woman is
prefixed, both parts are made
plural.
but
With compounds formed by
verb + er + adverb, the first is
made plural
but past participle + preposition
and with noun- + preposition +
noun:
12 - Initials can be made plural

Boyfriend boyfriends ; schoolgirl

schoolgirls
man-driver men-drivers womanteacher women-teachers
boy-student boy-students; girlstudent girl students
hanger-on hangers-on ; looker-on
lookers- on; runner-up runners-up
grown-up grown-ups
lady-in-waiting ladies-in-waiting;
sister-in-law sisters-in-law.
MP MPs; VIP VIPs

PART ELEVEN : AGREEMENT BETWEEN SUBJECT & VERB

A verb must agree in number with
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its subject. The following rules

should be observed
1. A prepositional phrase that
comes between a subject and a
verb doesn't affect the verb form.
2. Indefinite pronouns are singular
and therefore require singular
verbs
everybody = everyone :
somebody = someone :
anybody = anyone
:
each, each of
:
every
: + singular
verb
either
:
one
:
one of + plural nouns :
many a + singular nouns:

A high pile of dirty clothes is

waiting for you at home
A flock of birds is flying South
-

him
the door
questions
-

each/every ... and ... singular verb

Fixed expressions like bread and
butter, cheese and wine , lemon
and oil, fish and chips ...
We use them as a whole with
singular verb. However, when we
think of them separately, plural
verbs are necessary.
each take singular verb
-

4. When a compound subject

whose elements are connected
by neither ... nor , either ... or,

Each of us/ Everyone of us is

responsible
Either of these boys has to
leave
Neither candidates deserves to
be give the job.
One of his friends writes the
novel
Many a swimmer has been
drowned in this river
Tea and coffee are our main exports.
Hydrogen and oxygen are
chemical elements
Each teacher and each student has
agreed to follow this process
Every man and woman in this
village attends the jumble sale
Bread and butter is an important
question for everyone of us
Fish and chips is a popular meal in
England

Each (of the) student was given a

laptop.
They each have their own share

Different persons or things, we

use plural verb

Each student was asked four

each is used with verbs, the verb

agrees with the subject, not each
If there is one person, we use
singular verb

Somebody is standing behind

3. When two subjects are joined

by and , we use plural verbs

Everyone has his hobby

No one is absent today
Anybody who knows him likes

My friend and my benefactor , John,

has come (one person
The founder and editor of this
magazine is Mr. White
The artist and the editor of this
magazine are discussing modern arts.
Fire and water do not agree.
You and she have the same idea.
The Director or his P/A attends the
conference
Neither my manager nor my vice-53-

not only ... but also, not only ...

director has any idea
but ... as well , the verb agrees in Neither the teacher nor the students
number with the nearest noun (or
know the answer
in informal style, plural verb)
Neither James nor I am interested in
the proposal.
Either my secretary or I attend the
meeting
Not only you but I am responsible for
this accident
But neither of ... can be used
with both singular or plural verb.
5. When the normal word order
At the door are standing four large
policemen
(verb subject) is inverted (verb
There comes the bus.
subject), the verb agrees with
At the top of the hill stands a tiny
the subject after it.
chapel.
here , there verb subject
Here comes the bus.
There go the lecturers.
6.
This novel, like many others,
singular subject like singular
analyses love and hate.
Nobody but Ted and Jones was eager
verb
to work on night shift
but
All the members, including the
except
chairman, have signed the petition
plural subject including
The Marshal together with his
plural verb
attendants is entering the hall
besides
The pilot, as well as all the
along with
passengers, was rescued from the crash
instead of
together with
His loud clothes, no less than his
as well as
loud
voice, bother me a lot
in addition to
Robert, and not you, has won the
no less than
first prize
(but ) not
7.
Half of the stationery has been used
all
:
Half of the cookies have been eaten
most :
Some sugar has been spilled on the
more :
singular noun
floor
The greatest part of his life has been
sing. verb
spent in laboratories
some : of
Eighty percent of the students have
part :
plural noun
voted
plural verb
Three-fourth of his fortune was
half :
devoted to scientific research
percent
:
Two-third of the books are novels
fraction
:
8. Nouns ending in _ics usually
Mathematics is my weak subject
take singular verb (referring to
Pediatrics is a branch of medicine.
academic subjects or sciences)
Statistics is very confusing.
These include: acoustics, athletics, Aesthetics tries to make clear the
aesthetics, civics, hydraulics,
laws and principles of beauty
gymnastics, linguistics ,
mathematics, optics, physics,
economics, ethics, pediatrics,
politics, phonetics, statistics
9. Nouns plural in form, singular in
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idea + singular verb

Periods of time

Money

Distance

Quantity

Diseases

Games

Countries, territories
(The United States, The
Netherlands, Wales, and some
other nouns such as: news,
molasses, tactics)

Three weeks is a long time

to wait.
Two hundred dollars is not too much
to pay for that book.
Forty miles is a long way to walk in a
day.
Three pints doesn't make me drunk
Mumps is dangerous ( measles,
shingles: benh l da, rickets : benh
nho xng)
Billiards is time consuming (draughts,
tenpins)
The Philippines is small
The disabled are calling for help
The old are taken care of by the
society.
The injured are taken to hospital.

10. The + adjective to represent

the group as a whole. These
include: the rich, the poor, the
young, the old, the blind, the deaf, the sick, the dead, the disabled,
the unemployed, the injured
11. the number refers to the
A number of mistakes were found in
total takes singular verb; a
your composition.
number, a group used with
A group of us have decided to set up
plural nouns and takes plural verb.
a consultation office
They refers to individual units.
The number of students doing parttime jobs is increasing.
12. Some nouns have the same
A sheep is bred for its meat and
singular form for both singular and
wool.
plural ( eg: sheep, carp, deer,
Sheep are bred for their meat and
boar, swine, cod, bream, herring,
wool.
mackerel, salmon, trout, grouse,
snipe, hake, craft, ship, fruit
...etc.)
Some nouns have the same plural There is a brick-works in the
form for both singular and plural.
neighborhood.
(means, crossroads, brick-works,
There are four brick-works in the
corps, chamois, chassis , mews,
neighborhood.
series, species, shambles,
This means of transportation is
superficies...etc.)
cheap.
These means of transportation are
cheap

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