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PROJECT REPORT
ON
COMPUTER HARDWARE
AND
NETWORKING
ACCOMPLISHED AT
UNDERTAKEN BY:-
SUBMITTED TO:-
PANKAJ ACHARYA
COMPUTER ENGG.
HEAD
TRAINING & PLACEMENT CELL
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
" MASS INFOTECH "
ELECTRONICS
INDIA(CEDTI).
DESIGN
is affillited by
AND
CENTER
TECHNOLOGY
FOR
OF
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PREFACE
Today is the world of technology. There will be 5 crore computers
and 10 crore mobile phones in the country by the end of the year 2008,
bringing plethora of related job opportunities in manufacturing, services
and maintenance in this arena of technology.
As an engineering graduate, innumerable career options are
available for you in varied fields but you will definitely agree that technical
careers offers not only good remuneration and growth prospects but social
status and job satisfaction too. Therefore apart from the engineering
degree, which is more or less theoretical in nature you are required to
undertake practical training, which can give you an edge over others when
you apply for the vacancies in the organizations.
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CONTENTS
1) HARDWARE
a) Introduction of hardware.
2) INSIDE THE SYSTEM BOX.
a) Center processing unit.
b) Memory.
c) Mother board/Electronic circuit
board.
d) Secondary storage devices.
e) Different types of connector.
f) Different types of cards
.
3)POWER
a) SMPS.
b) UPS
4)NETWORKING
a) Introduction to networking.
b) Types of networking.
c) Topologies.
5)NETWORK DEVICES
a) Hub, switch, router.
b) Ccommunication channel.
c) Cbles and connector.
6)RULES OF NETWORK
a) Layers architecture.
b) Protocol.
c) Ip addressing.
d) Network model.
7) CONNECTIVITY
a) Workgroup network using WINDOWS XP
b) Domain networking using WINDOWS 2000 SERVER & WINDOWS XP
8) FUTURE OF NETWORKING.
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COMPUTER HARDWARE:The Indian hardware industry is expected to reach a size of USD 62 BILLION by
2010, 12 times its existing size, with the domestic market accounting for USD 37 billion
and exports for another USD 25 billion. The factors that would bring such mega growth
are:
1. The government has taken aggressive steps in providing quality infrastructure
with Hardware Parks flexible labor policies, availability of skilled workers, congenial
business environment, level playing field, right policies and incentives, concessional
import duty, reduction in excise duty, customs, SAD, CVD and sales tax. All these
factors will make the market respond positively, economics of scale will come into play
and big hardware companies will be attracted to set up local manufacturing units. That
would result in high demand of computer hardware and subsequently prices would
come down and make it affordable for a general customer.
2. Another major segment is SCHOOLS & COLLEGES. According to cll, if 20
PCs are installed in each of the countrys 9, 00,000 schools, the immediate demand
would be 18 million, 10 times the current market figure.
3. Increase in the use of IT technologies in the governments interface with the public
has also stimulated the demand for computer hardware.
Migration from the old manual system to computing is taking place in large
portion of government public interaction, especially in providing statutory services
such as land records, property transactions, authentication services, dealings of
publicly owned utilities, collections of variety of taxes and transportation (Railways,
Roadways and Airways etc). it will lead to a phenomenal demand for increase in
hardware and would provide a big boost to the sagging national economy.
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Intel corporation manufactured various kind of CPUs but in market the most
selling CPU we are concerning. P-3 , Celeron and P-4
Celeron processor is a substitution of P-3 having same performance so Celeron is
taking place of P-3.
When P-4 came the total architecture is different from P-3.
P-3 has 0.18 micron technology and the P-4 has 0.13 micron technology.
P-4 if focused on multimedia, multitasking, multithreading. This gives batter
performance in gaming, internet computing speed.
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L2 CACHE SIZE
256-512KB
0-128KB
512KB
CPU VOLTAGE
+Vcc supply to CPU is +5v and V core = 1.7 v.
As the CPU speed increases it becomes desirable to reduce the CPU voltage. In
order to reduce the heat buildup inside the chips. For cooling a heat sink fan is
mounted on the CPU.
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MEMORY.
PARTS OF BIOS
There are three main part of the ROM-bios program.
First part:This part is used only when the computer is first turned ON;
these are Test and Initialization program that check to see that the computer is
working. The delay between powering on the computer and The moment when it
start working for you is due to running of these test and initialization program
which sometimes are Called the POWER ON SELF TEST (POST).
Second part:Important parts of the bios are its routimes.These
programs provides the detailed and intimate control of The various part of the
computer, particularly for the input/output Peripherals, such as the disk drives.
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Booting:The time duration between the appearance of the dos prompt or any
window and the switch on the power supply the whole process is known
as the booting process.
TYPE OF BOOTING
A) COLD BOOTING
B) WARM BOOTING
COLD BOOTING:When we switch off the computer completely and properly after some
time we start Computer again is known as the cold booting.
WARM BOOTING:When we restart the computer from the restart button or using the key by
simply pressing them i.e. ctrl+alt+del key is known as warm Booting.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR BOOTING:
For booting we required minimum three files1) ms_dos.sys
2) io.sys
3) Command.com
In these files first two files are hidden files and the third one is normal file.
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MOTHERBOARD
If the CPU is the heart of the system the motherboard is its circulatory
system. The CPU has to be fitted on the socket on the Board. The board has input
output ports, ram, PCI slots, IDE port, chipset, Power connector, AGP slot, other
expansion slots, floppy port.
The key features of the motherboard.
1. Socket
2. memory support
3. expansion slots
4. onboard IDE channels
5. Power supply and Power management
6. chipset
7. BIOS
8. Battery
9. Input/output ports.
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A head crash happens when the surface of the read write head or
particles on its surface come into contact within the surface of the hard disk
platter, causing the loss of some or all of the data on the disk.
Both EIDE(enhanced integrated device electronics) and SCSI(small
computer System interface) disks suffer from the limit of 1024 cylinder. The
difficulty is that the old CHS (cylinder/head/sector) addressing mode uses a 10 bit
number can hold a value of between 0 and 1023 , So the number of cylinders
accessible by the BIOS is limited to 1024 hard disk performance measurements
are(1)
(2)
(3)
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the average time move the head from one location to a randomly selected other
location.
Another measurement closely related to seek time involves a second
component beyond the head movement latency Latency is the time it takes the
desired sector to come up under the read/write head after a seek operation and
average out to half the time it takes for a rotation of the disk platter. The
combination of seek time and latency is known as access time. Seek time, latency
, and access lime are all measured in milliseconds. Seek time of 5ms-10ms and
spin at 5400 and 10000 Rpm( lower latencies being associated with higher spin
rates.)
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CONNECTORS:
(1)keyboard connector
(2) mouse connector
(3) usb connector
(4)serial port connector
(5)power supply connector
(6)ATX connector
(7)AT and baby AT connector
(8)fan connector
(9)vcore connector
(10)cd audio jack connector
USB Connector
Universal serial bus is the latest craze in external device connector
It is faster than Rs-232 serial Most importantly, all the USB devices attached to a
computer(up to 127) consume a single interrupt(IRQ). If we have other USB
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When computer Boot up IRQ is reserved for all the peripherals connected
to board but in case of the mouse or some other device is connected to the port
than its driver will not be loaded and after starting operating system the
connecting of mouse will not work but for the USB port whether the drive is
connected or not the IRQ is reserved so that whenever we want to attach USB
Camera it does not bother.
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(d)Yellow
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+12v DC
ATX Connector
At is the newer version of AT/Baby AT. ATX motherboard use a
single keyed power connector in contrast to the dual connectors of AT and Baby
AT boards. The keyed ATX power connector makes it nearly impossible to
destroy a motherboard by connecting power supply incorrectly. In addition ,ATX
boards run on 3.3v eliminating the need of voltage regulator.
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DIN connector.
AT and Baby AT motherboards used a pair of power connector, which had
to be attached to the cases power supply via cables permanently attached to the
power supply in such case M/B voltage is 5v.
FAN Connector
CPU cooling FAN, system FAN has required power supply to move
fan .these have 3 pin connector inserted at motherboard at particular place.
V-core Connector
In some m/B there is no provision for internally give voltage to CPU like
new boards. They have this connector which is key locked to m/B and give
required voltage to CPU.
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(b) VGA->
video graphical adaptor
15 pin cards.
m/b 80486,PI
16bit/32bit/64bit.
(c) Dual CGA card->
9pin+25pin
9pin->monitor
25pin->printer
4 MB in size
F.D.C/H.D.C/MOUSE/PRINTER/GAME CONTROLLER
16bit/32bit
Com1->mouse
Com2->external modem[10 pin]
(4)SOUND CARD
(a) non-pci->
16bit/32bit
(b) pci->
64bit
in this card there is a 15 pin game controller and au out
,mic,Line in
4 MB in size
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Boot rom->it is an IC used to boot all the other pcs which has no hard
disk but they can be boot with the help of network boot this process is done by the
help of Boot rom.
(6)MODEM.
Convert analog signal into digital signal and vice
versa.
There are two types of modem.
a) External Modem.
Speed
of
the
modem
card
24/28/33/40/50/56.6Kbps
b) Internal Modem.
Having same speed as external card .it is also PCI
Card (64bit).its speed which is now a day used is
56.6Kbps.
(7)TV-TUNNER CARD
It is also a PCI card of 64 bit.
it is two types
(a) Internal
(b)External
POWER SUPPLY
Most of the cases come with power supplies. Each variety of case -ATX,
AT tower. It is possible to overload a power supply but power splitter. Since we
know
WATTS=VOLTS*AMPS
Capacity of power supply measures in wattage. eg. if a 5v device draws 10
amps, it consumes 50 watts. As an example a computer with one 15a card, two PC
cards, a 3.5 inch floppy disk ,two HDD, a cd-rom and two extra cooling fan.
Adding up these values, this computer requires 50.16w from 3.3v, 77.5w
from 5v and 70.5w from 12v for a total of 198.16w. The motherboard consumes a
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few more watts, as well perhaps 25w or so depending on the board and cpu. Not
all devices require their max. amounts of power at the same time. Typically for
instance, harddisk require a great deal of power when they start up to over come
the inertia inherent in stopped disk platters.
The black and white wires connect to the angled tabs on (toggle)
the power switch.
The brown and blue wires connect to the tabs that are parallel to
one another on the switch. The brown and blue wires always carry current when
the power supply is plugged in. Therefore, we should only try to connect or
disconnect these wires ofter unplugging.
ATX cabinate has ATX SMPS have 20 pin with lock system.
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AT cabinate has AT SMPS have 12 pin with center wire black color.
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store the power supply. It take 220v as the input and gave 220v as the output. It
also contain the transformer used to step up the electricity.
NETWORKING
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INTRODUCTION
A computer network is group of computers that are connected together to
share resources, such as hardware, data, and/or Software. It is a data
communication system that interconnects computer Systems at different sites.
Networking is a collection of individual networks, connected by Intermediate
Working devices that function as a single large network. Industries, colleges &
many business organizations use internetworking. For many purpose such as fast
communications internally, sharing a device for many computers and for many
other purposes also.
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systems together having various Technologies. Making standards was again a big
challenge. Challenges were face in mostly these areas such as connectivity,
reliability, network management & flexibility. The final concern was related to
network expansion & new technologies.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
1.
2.
3.
LOCAL AREA
NETWORK
Come and Join us for more
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Layer
Application
User
Interface
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1.
Application Layer
2.
Presentation Layer
3.
Session Layer
4.
Transport Layer
5.
Network Layer
6.
Data-link Layer
7.
Physical Layer
Protocol N/W
Device
Presentation
Translation
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Gateway
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compression.
Session "syncs
establishes, maintains and ends sessions NetBIOS
and sessions" across the network provides synchronization services RPC
Gateway
provides flow control & errorchecking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with
on losses or duplications
provides
acknowledgment
of
successful transmissions; requests retransmission if
some packets dont arrive error-free
Network
Router
ATM
Switch
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flow control
NIC
Physical
hardware;
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Repeater
Multiplexer
Hubs
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COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM -1
SYSTEM -2
Components of LAN
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(d) Protocols
The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and
other related topics.
Coaxial Cable
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the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin
inside the connector
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield .The
metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights,
motors, and other computers
Fiberoptics
Fiber optics is a system which transmits signals from one location to
another through a thin strand of glass which carries light pulses to carry data. This
transmission system works on the same principle that copper wires do, but is done
in a different way. Data is encoded from electrical signals into optical light pulses,
sent through a glass medium and converted back and decoded at the other end.
Both copper and optics use electricity at the end of their lines, but optics uses light
in between to carry the data.
NETWORK DEVICES
INTRODUCTION
Network Devices is a machine or component that is attached to a
computer. Examples of devices include disk drives, printers, mice, and DSL
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modems. These particular devices fall into the category of peripheral devices
because they are separate from the main computer.
Most devices, whether peripheral or not, require a program called a device
driver that acts as a translator, converting general commands from an application
into specific commands that the device understands.
Hub
2.
Switch
3.
Router
4.
Repeater
5.
Network card
6.
Bridge
7.
Gateways
HUB
As its name implies, a hub is a center of activity. In more specific network
terms, a hub, or concentrator, is a common wiring point for networks that are
based around a star topology. Arcnet, 10base-T, and 10base-F, as well as many
other proprietary network topologies, all rely on the use of hubs to connect
different cable runs and to distribute data across the various segments of a
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network. Hubs basically act as a signal splitter. They take all of the signals they
receive in through one port and redistribute it out through all ports.
Hub works on Physical Layer of OSI model.
SWITCH
A Switch is a devicethat provides a central connection point for cables
from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire
is run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active,
that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another.
Switches no longer broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they
memorize addressing of computers and send the information to the correct
location directly. Switches are:
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receive. Switches differ in some ways. They can be of the store-and-forward type,
storing each incoming packet in an internal buffer before forwarding it, or cutthrough, beginning to forward packets already after their header is in and before
the rest of the packet has been received. Hubs repeat everything they receive and
can be used to extend the network. However, this can result in a lot of
unnecessary traffic being sent to all devices on the network. Hubs pass on traffic
to the network regardless of the intended destination.
In a small network (less than 30 users), a hub (or collection of hubs) can
easily cope with the network traffic generated and is the ideal piece of equipment
to use for connecting the users.
When the network gets larger (about 50 users), you may need to use a
switch to divide the groups of hubs, to cut down the amount of unnecessary traffic
being generated.
TOPOLOGY
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with
logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations.
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Linear Bus
Star
Star-Wired Ring
Tree
Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at
each end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to
the linear cable. Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a linear bus topology
Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub on a star network passes
through the hub before continuing to its destination. The hub manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.
This configuration is common with twisted pair cable & also used with coaxial
cable or fiber optic cable.
Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies.
It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
PROTOCOLS
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between
computers on a network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the
following characteristics of a network: access method, allowed topologies, types
of cabling, and speed of data transfer.
The most common protocols are:
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Ethernet
Token ring
FDDI
ATM
IP protocol
TCP protocol
Ethernet
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an
access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision
Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before
sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will
transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer
will wait and try again when the line is clear.
Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When
this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random
amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is
normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and
retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect the speed of
transmission on the network.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data
can be transmitted over twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10
Mbps up to 1000 Mbps.
Fast Ethernet
To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has
developed a new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast
Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive network hubs
and network interface cards.
Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The
access method used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are
connected so that the signal travels around the network from one computer to
another in a logical ring. A single electronic token moves around the ring from
one computer to the next. If a computer does not have information to transmit, it
simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a computer wishes to
transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then
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proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is
meant. At this point, the data is captured by the receiving computer.
The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or
fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps.
Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school
environments has decreased.
IP Addressing
The IP addressing scheme is integral to the process of routing IP data
gram through an internet work. Each IP address has specific components and
follows a basic format. These can be sub divided and used to create addresses for
sub networks. Each host on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique 32-bit logical
address that is divided into two main parts: the network number and the host
number. The network number identifies a network and must be assigned by the
Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of the
Internet
IP Address Format
The 32-bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by dots,
and represented in decimal format (known as dotted decimal notation). Each bit in
the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1). The minimum value for
an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255.
IP Subnet Addressing
IP networks can be divided into smaller networks called subnetworks (or
subnets). Subnetting provides the network administrator with several benefits,
including extra flexibility, more efficient use of network addresses, and the
capability to contain broadcast traffic (a broadcast will not cross a router).
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IP Subnet Mask
A subnet address is created by "borrowing" bits from the host field and
designating them as the subnet field. The number of borrowed bits varies and is
specified by the subnet mask
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The default subnet mask for a Class B address that has no subnetting is
255.255.0.0, while the subnet mask for a Class B address 171.16.0.0 that specifies
eight bits of subnetting is 255.255.255.0. The reason for this is that eight bits of
subnetting or 28 - 2 (1 for the network address and 1 for the broadcast address) =
254 subnets possible, with 28 - 2 = 254 hosts per subnet.
The subnet mask for a Class C address 192.168.2.0 that specifies five bits
of subnetting is 255.255.255.248.With five bits available for subnetting
25 - 2 = 30 subnets possible, with 23 - 2 = 6 hosts per subnet. The reference
charts shown in table 30-2 and table 30-3 can be used when planning Class B and
C networks to determine the required number of subnets and hosts, and the
appropriate subnet mask.
How Subnet Masks are Used to Determine the Network Number
The router performs a set process to determine the network (or more
specifically, the subnetwork) address. First, the router extracts the IP destination
address from the incoming packet and retrieves the internal subnet mask.
It then performs a logical AND operation to obtain the network number.
This causes the host portion of the IP destination address to be removed, while the
destination network number remains.
The router then looks up the destination network number and matches it
with an outgoing interface. Finally, it forwards the frame to the destination IP
address. Specifics regarding the logical AND operation are discussed in the
following section
CASE STUDY
Our aim was to establish a LAB of e-learning for the students of MASS
INFOTECH through wire networking.
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We were given :
Ten computer
Ten 3com LAN card
Twenty two RJ 45 connectors
UTP cable
One 12 port switch
One multimeter
Screwdriver
Windows 98cd
Crimping tool
We check the voltage between earth and neutral with the help of
multimeter which must be less than two Volts .
We check the voltage between phase and neutral with the help of
multimeter which should be 220 Volts.
As we use only four wires for communication in patch chords thus
we connect
One ,Two, Three, Six
Cables in wall mounting accordingly
making of patch chords
We cut the UTP cable as required. We made the patch chords as per
the lucent standards followed by MASS TNFOTACH.
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Then we restart the system and check whether each of the system
is in network or not (by PING command )
c:/>ping 127.0.0.1 (in DOS prompt)
we ping the with server
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RESULT:
Each of the system are in network and PINGING with our
network with no loss
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Network administrator
Network administrator is responsible for analysis, installation and
configuration of company networks. Daily activities include monitoring network
performance, troubleshooting problems and maintaining network security.
Network(system) Engineer
Network engineers focus primarily on system upgrade, evaluating
vendor products, security testing, and so on.
Network(service) Technician
Network technician tends to focus more on the setup,
troubleshooting and repair of specific hardware and software products. Service
technicians in particular often travel to remote customer sites to perform field
upgrades and support.
Network Programmer/Analyst
They generally write scripts that aid in network analysis, such as
diagnostics or monitoring utilities. They also specialize in evaluating third party
products and integrating new software/hardware technologies into an existing
network environment or to build a new environment.
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repairer
line installers
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