ARTICLE IN PRESS

Control Engineering Practice 12 (2004) 13431351

Automotive mechatronics$
.
Hans-Peter Schoner*
DaimlerChrysler Research and Technology, Goldsteinstr. 235, D-60528 Frankfurt Main, Germany
Received 12 February 2003; accepted 9 October 2003

Abstract
A large share of automotive innovations consists of signicant improvements in formerly pure mechanical systems which are
made possible using integrated electronics together with complex information processing. Such mechatronic systems require a
concurrent design of mechanical, electronical, and information processing sub-systems in order to reach the cost requirements of the
automotive industry. The motivation for the use of mechatronics is discussed, as well as the most important technological challenges
of the mechatronical approach. Mechatronical solutions for different automotive applications are presented. The driving factors for
future development of mechatronics in the automotive sector are discussed.
r 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Automotive industry; Automotive control; Control system design; Chassis control; Engine control; Man/machine interaction

1. Innovations in the automotive industry

In the recent past and in the forseeable future, most
innovations in automotive systems rely on electronics.
Those innovations (see Fig. 1) are rarely pure electronic
systems for information processing and communicationlike the mobile phones or navigation systembut
most of them are closely tied to mechanical parts of the
system. The three major mechanical subsystems in a car,
the chassis system, the propulsion system and the
interior system, all are undergoing a massive change
from mainly mechanical systems with some electronic
control towards highly integrated mechatronical systems
which would not function without electronic control.
Driving factor for such innovations areof course
functional improvements which only, or much more
efciently, can be reached using electronic technologies.
In vehicles the increase of comfort, safety, and reliability
is the main goal together with the improvement in
driving performance, fuel consumption, emissions, but
also production processes.
$
This paper is an extended version of a presentation at the IFAC
Conference on Mechatronic Systems, December 2002.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-696-679-578; fax: +49-711-305211-7023.
E-mail address: peter.schoener@daimlerchrysler.com
.
(H.-P. Schoner).

0967-0661/$ - see front matter r 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.conengprac.2003.10.004

As Runge (2001) points out, the increasing number of

functions over time would need more and more space
using conventional technologies (see Fig. 2); this is in
harsh contrast to the decreasing amount of space at
disposal for the implementation of those functions. Only
using mechatronical integration as a means for compact
realization, such systems can be t into vehicles.
In addition to space, cost is the other essential
boundary condition for functional improvements in
.
cars. As seen from Fig. 3 (Schoner
& Hille, 2000), which
shows the typical cost shares of an electronically
controlled actuator before the efforts of mechatronical
integration, the electronics stand for 50% of the total
cost. Within this share, 50% of the cost of electronics is
related to mainly mechanical parts, like cooling,
housing, circuit board, connectors and cables. One goal
of mechatronics is to reduce some of the cost related to
the mechanical parts of the electronics by combining it
suitably with other parts of the mechanical construction.
Consequently Tomizuka (2000) points out, that
mechatronics is not only the use of electronics and
mechanics side by side; it consists, however, of the
synergetic use of several engineering disciplines
implementing electronics, actuators, sensors, and
communication systems. Wallaschek (2001) points out
that the term Mechanics was used in old Greece for
the art of designing helpful machinery; in this sense

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Mechatronics can be seen as the modern way to

design helpful machinery including electronic technologies. The synergetic aspect means that each of the
different subtasks of the machinery should be realized in
the most efcient way, be it mechanically, electronically,
or by software. Thus, the functions required by the
customers can be implemented into the available space
at a reasonable price.

2. Key features of automotive mechatronics

This synergy is very important for the implementation
of complex functions in a cost sensitive product such as
automobiles. For this end it is useful to look at different
steps of automation and control in an automotive
.
system (Schoner,
2002).
2.1. Functional and local integration

Electronics share in total

production costs of a vehicle

40%
30%

The rst step of automation in a mechanical system

(see Fig. 4) is often the addition of actuators (A) in order
to increase actuation forces or actuation speed. With
this step external power is introduced into the system. In
automobiles, this is the actual status of many seat
positioning or window actuation systems.
With the goal of an automatic or more reproducible
process, often comes a next step of adding an embedded
control system, based on electronics and software (E);
this means handling of information, i.e. gathering,
processing and/or storing of information, in the system.
Seat memory systems with open-loop control of the seat
position are examples of this status.

Integrated x-By
Wire systems
X-By Wire

35% already achieved

in luxury cars

Collision Warning

25% already
achieved

Electrohydraulic Brakes

20%

Electronic Throttle
Electromechanical Steering
ESP

10%

Transmission Control
ABS, Engine Control

0%
1995

2000

2005

2010

Fig. 1. Mechatronical innovations in automobiles.

Space

Limit of available
space
Missing
space

Space needed
with convention
altechnologies
Space needed with
mechatronical technologies
Number of functions / time

Fig. 4. Aspects of mechatronics: mechanical systems with integrated

electronics in interaction with information and power.

Fig. 2. Limited space for vehicle functions (Runge, 2001).

Invest,
profit
10%

7%

Mechanics
in total
15%

Electronics only
(50% of total cost)

Microcontroller
4%
Control
5%

Production

Motor

Connectors, cables
11%

18%

Sensors
3%
Mechanics
(Cooling, PCB,
etc.)
40%

EMCmeasures
14%

Total system

Power-FET's
23%

Fig. 3. Cost share of an automotive actuator before mechatronical integration.

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In order to increase the control quality in critical

situations, sensors (S) are added furthermore. They
provide detailed information about the status of the
mechanical system, allowing corrective response to
different environmental conditions or unpredictable
changes in the process. As an example for this status,
take window actuators with a quenching protection
function.
If a system becomes large or distributed, a communication network (C) has to be included into the system;
this can be used to transmit distributed sensor signals or
to steer the system from a remote controller. As an
example for such a status of a controlled system, think
of a centralized car locking system with automatic
window shutting.
A controlled system as in Fig. 4 allows to realize a lot
of functions compared to a pure mechanical system:
with a suitable control and withif neededcomplex
information processing algorithms, but especially because of the storage function of electronics, system
properties with non-linear, state-dependant, and timevarying characteristics can be achieved. In more
complex implementations, adaptive and learning systems can be realized. But all this could still be just called
an automated system; mechatronics means more than
this.
A very essential part of mechatronics is the local and
functional integration of the above-mentioned components. Without integration controlled systems normally
become too bulky and too expensive for automotive
conditions. This implies rst of all the optimized
partitioning of the different functions into mechanical,
electrical or software modules within the system, i.e. the
usage of the most suitable technology for every function.
The local integration of electronics and mechanics is
the second aspect: its goal is to benet from smaller size,
lesser hardware, reduced part count and fewer interfaces
and thus yield cheaper production cost and higher
reliability in service. The technical challenge here is the
increased requirements on environmental conditions
(temperature, vibration, emi, etc.) especially for the
electronic components.
Here are some examples for integrated mechatronical
components:

2.1.1. Engine cooling fan with electronically commutated

motor
Most electric cooling fans are driven by DC-motors.
One of the most expensive parts in DC motors is the
commutator, which is used for switching the current
from one coil to the next depending on the motor turn
angle. At high power, however, the commutator
becomes quite bulky and makes the motor relatively
long. Besides this, the losses caused by the resistance of
the commutator are hard to dissipate.

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For large engine cooling fans, a mechatronic solution

using an electronically commutated motor inside of the
fan hub with integrated electronics has shown system
advantages: the total fan system can be built several
centimetres shorter, allowing for larger crash zones in
the front of the car; and some fan control and diagnostic
functions can reside within the fan electronics software,
taking away some complexity from the engine controller. The integration of the electronics onto the fan
motor is necessary to reduce the number of cable
connections for coils and sensors but also requires a
careful selection of the location of the different
electronic components (Kaiser, Staiger, Orthmann,
George, & Huebner, 2000). A trade-off between software complexity and electronic hardware has to be
found for ange shaping of the voltage and current
pulses in order to fulll the electromagnetic interference
requirements of the motor fan.
2.1.2. Automatic transmission control
Automatic transmissions require a complex control of
many hydraulic valves (for the activation of the different
gears) and the need for several integrated sensors (for
measuring the actual position of the clutches, and for oil
temperature and oil pressure sensing). If the control
electronics is mounted in a separate control unit, many
signals have to be routed between the mechanical/
hydraulical unit and the control unit. Since the electrical
connections are among the weakest elements in the
whole system with respect to reliability, it turns out that
the total integration of the electronics into the mechanical part of the transmission is the best solution. The
electronics for this application has to run at extreme
temperatures of up to 150 C, which requires new
designs and concepts.
A rst approach to make the electronics box replaceable yielded in a lot of quality problems during the
development phase. By giving up the detachable concept
(which caused those problems at the interfaces) and
using mounting methods for permanently integrating
the electronics into the mechanics, nally no more
replacement of the electronics was necessary at all, in
addition to lower production cost.
2.1.3. Flaps for climate control
A third example is the use of integrated actuators for
climate control. In high end vehicles, the number of
climate control aps is in the range of a dozen. New
concepts use small electric stepper motors and a three
wire bus to provide power and communication to all
actuators over one at cable connection. The power
drivers for the electric motors together with the bus
interface are implemented in one single integrated
circuit. This concept allows much more exibility in
placing the aps compared to mechanically actuated
aps, but only the complete integration of the

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electronics into the actuators makes the concept

economically feasible.
2.2. System complexity
Besides integration there is a second very important
aspect of automotive mechatronics: the aspect of
complexity (see Fig. 5). In recent developments the
increased number of degrees of freedom for controlling
the mechanical system requires the implementation of
more and more actuators (A). Multi-dimensional and
adpative control requires more and more sensors (S) to
measure the different states of the system itself and the
environment of the system. The computing power
required for embedded control (E) in intelligent and
learning systems seems to be unbounded, due to the
implementation of complex information processing like
high bandwidth disturbance control or pattern recognition algorithms. And besides this, rst driven by the
common use of sensors for temperature and crash
detectionbut nally by the need for higher interaction
and coordination of all vehicle systemshigh speed,
deterministic, hierarchical communication systems (C)
are serving as information backbones in the vehicles.
One major challenge for the realization of such
complex systems lies in the mastering of the entire
development process: from the functional denition of
the system, over specication of its components, the
realization and implementation of the components and
modules, the test and validation of the functions down
to diagnosis and system health monitoring during
operation. Automotive companies need to dene a
suitable system architecture in order to work on the
basis of standard interfaces with reusable components
and modules or at least with scaleable concepts.
On the information handling side the challenge lies in
robust multi-dimensional control of distributed and
more and more safety critical systems. The system must
be tolerant to any single failure without risking a fatal
malfunctioning. Preventive diagnosis must be able to
detect degradation before a system fails, and in case of a

Fig. 5. Aspects of mechatronics: complex coordinated and interacting

intelligent systems.

fault the system itself has to support a fast and low cost
repair. Last, but not least, such complex systems must
be designed in a way that users can still operate them
without special training and without an irritating or
misleading ood of superuous information.

3. Examples for mechatronic systems in vehicles

In vehicles, a large number of systems are undergoing
a change from pure mechanical systems to mechatronical systems (Daniels, 2003). In the following, some
examples of typical automotive mechatronic systems are
discussed.
3.1. Chassis systems
The most evident development is seen in chassis
systems. Since many years systems like anti-blocking
system (ABS) and electronic stability program (ESP) are
standard in Mercedes and many other vehicles and have
proven to reduce the number of driving accidents
signicantly (Lingnau, 2003). In the Mercedes SL and
also in the E-class a new electrohydraulic brake,
sensotronic brake control (SBC), has been introduced
recently. In normal operation, the power for the brake
comes completely out of an electrohydraulic system and
is controlled completely electronically (Stoll, 2001). The
system performs a lot of functions which a normal brake
cannot do, such as drying of wet brake disks,
preconditioning for emergency braking, and thus reducing the distance to come to a stand still by several
meters (Fig. 6). For faulty conditions a hydraulic fallback function is built into the system.
Besides the brakes, the suspension is turning active in
high-end vehicles. ARS (active roll stabilization) for the
compensation of roll movements during fast cornering is
especially useful for relatively tall vehicles. The far end
of active suspension systems is the active body control

Fig. 6. Example for mechatronics in chassis systems: SBC.

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(ABC) system in series production in the Mercedes CL

and S class, which compensates for pitch and roll forces
and which also controls the body vibrations caused by
road roughness. For the steering function, systems
which change the steering transmission ratio as a
function of driving speed are being introduced into the
market (Rieger, 2003). More sophisticated steering
systems, which automatically compensate for lateral
wind and which help in stabilizing the vehicle during
extreme driving manoeuvers by compensating for underor oversteer are under investigation.
3.2. Drive train systems
Also in drive train systems mechatronics has taken
over. The throttle is no longer operated by a pulley in
many cars, but an electric actuator controls the air input
to the engine. Injection systems rely not only on complex
software in the engine controllers, but also the injectors
themselves become more and more sophisticated: Ultrafast acting piezo-electric injector actuators allow up to
ve independent injections per combustion cycle for
optimized engine efciency (Dohle, 2003; Egger, Warga,
& Klugl,
.
2002). Exhaust gas recirculation from the
exhaust side to the air intake side in certain operating
conditions will further reduce emissions (Klotzbach,
Sari, & Dismon, 2003). The angular position of the cam
shaft and thus the opening and closing timing of the
valves with respect to the cylinder position is another
degree of freedom in engine control (Duckworth &
Barker, 1996).
For the future, even more complex systems, like
electromagnetic valve controlonly possible with sophisticated speed and position control of the valves
.
(Straky, Isermann, Schoner,
Orthmann, & Wagner,
2001)are under consideration for further improvements in fuel consumption and emissions. Using electric
motors, which softly can complement the engines
torque to give the required total torque, the engine will
be stopped at vehicle stand-still and reactivated instantaneously upon restart. Complex power management,
including battery state-of-charge monitoring, is a key
feature for the control of such systems if they should not
be oversized to inhibitive cost.
Fans, pumps, and compressors will no longer be
directly driven by the engine, because they will consume
too much energy under normal conditions, but the best
mechatronical solution for these systems is still under
investigation. Variable and even electrically supported
turbo chargers is another approach to enhance engine
behaviour at the borders of the operation conditions
(Fig. 7). Automatic transmissions, which up to recently
relied on complex hydraulic control systems, are being
transformed into mechatronical units. Manual transmissions are being automated with complex actuator and
sensor systems in order to give a similar shifting comfort

1347

compared to their hydraulic counterparts, but with a

higher efciency.

3.3. Interior and comfort systems

In the interior systems the climate comfort is one
primary eld for mechatronics. Fans, heaters, compressor and air duct aps are controlled based on many
sensors for temperature, sun position and intensity. The
folding hard top roof systemsin the Mercedes SL 11
actuators are coordinated for its precise and fast motion
(Fig. 8)is another example of a mechatronic solution
for the markets requirements. Headlamps are turned on
and off according to light conditions; their lateral
lighting angle is controlled depending on steering angle
and in future even using the information of the
navigation system.
Developments for active vibration damping in the
vehicle are made (Kalinke & Gnauert, 2002), and
systems with optimized adaptive seat damping using
rheological uids are offered (Lord Corp., 1999) already
for commercial vehicles. The wide eld of restraint
systems becomes also more and more complex with
adaptive airbag deployment, use of resetable safety
systems like belt tensioners, and out-of-position sensors.

Fig. 7. Examples for mechatronics in engine systems: electrically

supported turbo charger and electromagnetic engine valve.

Fig. 8. Example for mechatronics in comfort systems: Mercedes SL

folding roof.

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The Pre-Safe feature of Mercedes S-class even adjusts

seat actuators if sensors indicate an accident is imminent
and the passengers position is not optimal.

4. Base technologies for mechatronics

As pointed out in Chapter 2, the mechatronic systems
consist of actuators, sensors, electronics, and communication systems, which are integrated into the mechanical system. In the following, the main technological
trends for these system components are shortly discussed.
4.1. Actuators
Actuators are used to control position, speed or forces
in a mechanical system. Electromagnetic actuators, like
magnets, valves, or electric motors together with
adequate mechanical transmissions are the most commonly used actuators. In high end series vehicles, more
than 120 electric motors can be found. For high forces
hydraulic actuators are also used widely; pneumatic
actuators are more common for smaller forces with
restricted requirements in precision.
In general, there is a trend to use actuators for
functions which require more dynamic, more powerful
and more precise motion. For this reason, electronically
commutated motors are becoming more important,
because they can produce a signicantly higher shortterm power per weight than DC motors in certain
operating conditions and their motion speed is precisely
controlled by the electric frequency in their coils.
Piezoelectric actuators become important for injectors
(Egger et al., 2002) and other small, fast and precise
.
motion actuators (Schoner,
2001). Rheologic uids
these are uids which change their viscosity extremely
when a strong magnetic or electric eld is appliednd
their application for functions where a fast variable
damping is of advantage, i.e. vibration and motion
control (Lord Corp, 1999).

reliability. Integrating electronics together with the pure

sensing unit leads to sensotronic solutions meaning
smart sensors, which perform signal preconditioning
with integrated communication interfaces. Besides this,
such sensors monitor their own operation and either
report a malfunction or are fail-silentan important
property for safety relevant features using redundant
signals. Another trend is to integrate the sensors into
mechanical structures, also with the goal to reduce cost
and weight.
4.3. Electronics and embedded software
The large number of electronic control units (ECUs)
in the vehiclemore than 30 in luxury vehiclesis
caused by the fact, that for almost every new function a
separate control unit has been created. This is a result of
the commonly used development processes whichin
order to handle responsibilities, testability, and supplier
diversityredraws hardware segmentation according to
the different functions. The increasing cost share of
electronics is a limiting factor for this style of hardware
segmentation. New ways of implementing the functions
into bigger chunks of electronics hardware is a necessity
to keep the cost within bounds at ever increasing need
for computing power. A very important key is the use of
structured multi-source software development tools and
provisions for safe memory sharing of code from
different suppliers (Schrey, 2003).
In order to implement electronicsfor cost reasons
on one single circuit board together with sensors and
actuators, the electronics has to move from a wellprotected location to places with increased requirements
on temperature range, shock & vibration levels and
other environmental impacts. This pushed the development of high temperature electronics within the last
years. Another approach to save cost and space in ECUs
is the distributed implementation of electronic components on exible substrates, such as at cables.
4.4. Communication

4.2. Sensors
A large amount of sensors is already built into
vehicles (Daniels, 2002). Physical properties to be
measured are temperature, position, speed, acceleration,
force, pressure, oxygen content, oil quality, light
transmission factor, just to name some examples. In
the past most sensors were used to measure quantities
within the vehicle; now more and more focus comes to
the sensing of the vehicle environment using radar
sensors and image processing.
Since sensors do not have such strict physical size
restrictions as actuators, there is a trend to miniaturize
them in order to reduce cost and weight, and to increase

The need for communication between sensors, actuators and control units has massively increased. Quite
often the communication time now is the bottle-neck for
a function. Faster and faster communication systems
have been created. Since the weakest link with respect to
reliability in a communication cable is the mechanical
connection at both ends, a lot of money has to be spent
for the connectors. For this reason, a bus communication becomes economical already at a relatively small
number of signals, if the cost for the hardware of the bus
is low enough. To serve the requirements for different
communication needs several bus systems are available
(see Fig. 9):

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25,6M

Transfer speed [bits/s]

D2B,
D2B, MOST
MOST
2M

1349

transition between both drives is a mechatronical

control task.

FlexRay
FlexRay

5.2. Regulations for exhaust emissions

1M
CAN-C
CAN-C
125K
CAN-B
20K
LIN
LIN

2
4,5
Relative Cost per Node

10

Fig. 9. Vehicular communication systems.

Besides the (in European upper class vehicles) most

commonly used CAN-Bus, which is available in
different speed categories according to communication
need, the low-cost LIN-bus has been introduced for
communication with low data throughput; FleX-ray is
the protocol of choice for fast safety relevant communication with deterministic data transfer; for communication with large amount of data (audio and video
streams) D2B and MOST are available. Wireless
communications (for example, infrared, bluetooth) are
also taking an increasing share.

5. Driving forces and limitations for future development

The development of more and more complex systems
as in the examples given above is costly and one might
ask, whether this development will go on. Several factors
are driving these developments; the most important
should be mentioned here.
5.1. Fuel consumption: ACEA self-commitment and
hybrid vehicles
Some years ago, the European Automotive Industry
(ACEA) has issued a self-commitment for the reduction
of fuel consumption, which sets a goal of reducing the
CO2-emission by 2008 down to a level of 140 g/km,
which is equivalent to a consumption of 5.8l/100 km or
40 mpg. All European manufacturers are striving to
reach this average emission level of all newly sold
European vehicles by the year 2008. This only will be
possible by using new injection methods, variable valve
timing, stand-still shut-off of the engine and use of
auxiliaries only according to the real needs.
While in Europe the focus is on improving combustion engines using mechatronic solutions, automotive
companies in America, Japan and Korea spend large
efforts in realizing hybrid vehicles. Electric motors,
often combined with sophisticated mechanical transmission solutions, give torque support to the engine for
certain driving situations. Control for the smooth

In the year 2005 the next level of European exhaust

regulations (EURO IV) will take effect. In other parts of
the world, similar regulations, but with focus on
different types of emissions, are issued. The precise
control of engines according to working and environmental conditions is the challenge to reach these
different goals. Only complex and exible algorithms,
which are slightly different for different regions of the
world but which can be operated on the same engine
hardware, are the solution to this challenge. Fuel cell
vehicles are the long term perspective for lowest
emission vehicles with sufcient mobility for market
acceptance; this type of power converter from chemical
energy to electrical energy will also need many
mechatronical solutions for its operation, even more
than combustion engines.
5.3. Accident-free driving
Systems for the increase of safety will further be a
driving force for future automotive developments. The
vision of Drive by Wire is mainly pushed by the goal
of making driving safer: Assistant systems will in a rst
step help to alert the driver at critical situations and help
him to keep control of the vehicle. But more and more
these systems might also offer automatic driving.
Systems to control the longitudinal speed with automatic control of throttle and brakes are in series
production by now (adaptive cruise control, automatic
stop-and-go). The next step is the support of the lateral
position (automatic lane guidance), and a further step is
the automatic convoy driving (see Fig. 10). But it is still
a long way to go.

Fig. 10. Driving assistance systems: on the way to accident-free

driving.

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5.4. Limitations and enabling factors for future

development
The main challenge for those coming years for the
automotive companies is to nd the right trade-off
between cost and performance in all these functions. The
market is only willing and able to afford a certain cost
for such developments. The complexity of the systems
requires a long and thorough development in order to
reach the goals with respect to reliability, to the safe
design for all failure modes, and to ensure the testability
of the system.

6. Development process
An important enabling factor to meet the challenges
for future mechatronic system design is to work along a
suitable design methodology. In Germany, a work
group at VDI has formulated general guidelines
(Gausemeier et al., 2003) to help in the design of
complex mechatronic systems.
The design methodology follows the concept of a Vshaped process (Fig. 11); it covers the steps from
requirements, specication, implementation, tests and
operation. Within this process several feedback loops
are implemented for the step-wise verication of the
validity of the specications and implementation plans
in the design phase and the accordance to all specications in the realization and operation phase.
Simulation of components and processes as well as
their cross-checking with reality plays an important role
in this methodology (Fig. 12). In the specication phase
a simulation model of a component is checked for
precise function together with a simulation model of the
process (1; SIL=Software in the Loop); test procedures
and test data are generated in this step. In a next step the
functioning simulation model of the component can be
adapted to the real process in the real world for
optimization (2) and the validity of the simulated tests
can be checked. Now the mechatronic component can
be realized in hardware. After this step the component
hard- and software including its interfaces is cross
checked with the model of the process using the test
procedures and test data (3; HIL=Hardware in the

Fig. 12. Systematic cross-checking of specication and implementation (Gausemeier et al., 2002).

Loop). Only after this step the real component is veried

in the real process (4). This procedure can be done on
several system levels.
A critical step in this methodology is the exchange of
component models between vehicle manufacturer and
component suppliers in order to well enough predict the
behaviour of the real components. As mentioned before,
also the partitioning and coordination of hardware and
software functionalities is essential under the prevailing
cost restrictions.
Besides the formal methods, a key success factor is the
way, how engineers of the different disciplines are
working together. Since mechatronic systems integrate
different technologies, only good team work between
experts of the different disciplines can nally ensure
good results.

7. Summary
In summary, mechatronics can be said to be one of
the core competencies of the automotive industry. With
mechatronics a better functionality, better use of space,
lower number of interfaces and smaller cost for a given
performance can be reached. Mechatronics is more than
just technology: it requires a function-oriented design
approach to solve a problem with the best suited
technologies available. For good mechatronic systems,
teamwork and use of tools with well-dened interfaces
to link the technologies together are the key success
factors.

References

Fig. 11. V-shaped development process.

Daniels, J. (2002). Sensational systems. European Automotive Design,

March 2002.
Daniels, J. (2003). Hidden wires. European Automotive Design, April
2003.

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Dohle, U. (2003). 75 Years Diesel Injection Made by Bosch.
Motortech. Z. 64, Stuttgart.
Duckworth, R. F., & Barker, L. (1996). A comparative study of
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