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Journal of Composite

Materials
http://jcm.sagepub.com/

An Initial and Progressive Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design
Jaehyung Ju, Brent D. Pickle, Roger J. Morgan and J.N. Reddy
Journal of Composite Materials 2007 41: 2545
DOI: 10.1177/0021998307076492
The online version of this article can be found at:
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An Initial and Progressive Failure Analysis


for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design
JAEHYUNG JU,* BRENT D. PICKLE, ROGER J. MORGAN AND J. N. REDDY
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3123, USA

ABSTRACT: Thermal residual stresses, internal pressure stresses, and acceleration


stresses during launch were evaluated and quantified for cryogenic composite fuel
tank design. Both failure initiation and progression of graphite/epoxy laminate
system (IM7/977-2) [0/90/90/0/0/90] s and graphite/BMI laminate system
(IM7/5250-4) [0/90/90/0/0/90]s were investigated using the non-isothermal classical
laminate and plate theory (CLPT) and the maximum stress failure criterion.
The thermal residual stresses in the transverse direction are the dominant stresses on
each ply in the launch stage. After initial ply cracking, through-the-thickness
temperature change of a laminate related to fuel leakage as well as a laminate
stiffness matrix change was applied to the progressive failure analysis. The fuel
leakage-based progressive analysis shows a higher number of initial ply cracking
does not necessarily mean a higher chance of matrix cracking in all plies. The
graphite/BMI laminate has such an advantage as transverse thermo-mechanical
resistance over the graphite/epoxy laminate at an initial exposure to 253 C and
1500 kPa. In terms of complete laminate matrix cracking, however, the graphite/
epoxy laminate is more resistant to transferring stresses to other plies than the
graphite/BMI laminate.
KEY WORDS: cryogenic composite fuel tank, progressive failure analysis,
fuel leakage, IM7/977-2 (graphite/epoxy laminate system), IM7/5250-4 (graphite/
BMI laminate system).

INTRODUCTION
OR MORE THAN two decades, design and manufacturing of cryogenic composite fuel
tanks has been one of the most challenging technologies for achieving drastic weight
reduction of reusable launch vehicles (RLV) [1]. However, the development of the fuel
tank has not easily progressed. In July 1996, NASA and Lockheed Martin Corporation
and its industry partners entered into a cooperative agreement for the design,
development, and flight-testing of the X-33 RLV. But, a failure occurred during testing
of the X-33 prototype. An investigation teams study on the failure of the fuel tank
revealed the causes of the failure to be (i) inner face-sheet cracking which leads to

*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: jaehyung@tamu.edu


Figures 18 appear in color online: http://jcm.sagepub.com

Journal of COMPOSITE MATERIALS, Vol. 41, No. 21/2007


0021-9983/07/21 254524 $10.00/0
DOI: 10.1177/0021998307076492
SAGE Publications 2007
Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore
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2545

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ET AL.

permeation of liquid and gaseous hydrogen, (ii) high core pressure resulting from liquid
and gaseous hydrogen, (iii) reduced bond-line strength and toughness, and (iv)
manufacturing flaws and defects [2]. The wall of the X-33 fuel tank consists of two
layers of IM7/977-2, graphite/epoxy composite around a honeycombed Kevlar core.
The major cause of failure has been thought to be extensive transverse cracking of the
inside IM7/977-2 face-sheet. The cracking occurred due to a combination of mechanical
and thermal residual stresses as the tank was filled with cryogenic liquid hydrogen.
Interconnection of the cracks allows the hydrogen to infiltrate the honeycombed Kevlar
core. When the tank was subsequently emptied and temperatures began to rise, the cracks
closed and trapped the hydrogen between the two layers of IM7/977-2 laminate.
The hydrogen expanded as the temperature continued to increase, building up pressure in
the honeycombed Kevlar core until the outside layer of graphite/epoxy composite
ruptured. While the rupture was not directly caused by cracking, cracking was
the underlying reason why the failure occurred. Extensive cracking does also weaken
the laminate and can lead to an ultimate failure as well.
The program ran for 56 months with an overall cost of approximately $1.3 billion.
The redesign of the fuel tank was proposed to cost about $100 million [3]. Therefore, it is
significant to develop more accurate analytical and numerical tools for cryogenic fuel tank
design to save time and cost. In order to detect the onset and extent of cracking in a
laminate, a stress analysis of each ply is required. While looking at the laminate from the
individual ply level, the onset of cracking will be determined by checking which ply
experiences cracking first. The extent of cracking will also be judged by counting failed
plies while applying loads.
Numerous studies on the design of composite pressure vessels subjected to internal and
external pressure have been conducted at room temperature [411]. Several stress analyses
for cryogenic fuel tank design have been performed [1220]. Glaessgen et al. presented the
initial ply level thermal and mechanical stress analyses to determine the causes of the X-33
liquid-hydrogen tank failure [14]. Abumeri et al. performed a finite element stress analysis
of IM7/977-2 laminate at 253 C. (423 F) temperature, 207 kPa (30 psi) internal fuel
pressure, and 2.53 g launch inertia force [15]. However, a detailed computational
algorithm was not given in either paper. Moreover, thermal gradients through the tank
skin were not considered in their studies. Instead, the same temperature assumption
through the thickness was made, which may give inaccurate stress results. Using
conventional damage mechanics, Mallick et al. showed damage evolution by deriving
modulus reduction as a function of crack density and applied stress in a filament wound
fuel tank laminate [/90/] [16]. But, they did not show ply level stress components. The
amount of the stresses applied on a composite by thermo-mechanical cycle, temperature,
acceleration induced force, and fuel pressure was addressed. However, detailed algorithms
and ply-by-ply stress analysis were not presented in their study.
In order to simulate damage propagation, a progressive failure analysis method is
required. Most progressive analyses check ply-cracking, update modulus reduction, and
use iterative decision making to cracking at applied load increments [2127]. The present
study suggests a new progressive failure analysis by changing through-the-thickness
temperatures associated with fuel leakage as well as equivalent laminate stiffness matrix,
whenever damaged plies are detected. Through-the-thickness temperatures are also
updated with an increasing number of failed plies and their connectivity at every step.
The equivalent laminate stiffness matrix is updated with an increasing number of damaged
plies and lay-ups.

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design

In this study, ply-by-ply failure analysis will be performed and used to determine the
state of cracking in IM7/977-2 (graphite/epoxy laminate system) and IM7/5250-4
(graphite/BMI laminate system) for [0/90/90/0/0/90]s lay-up. The scope of the study is
on the deterministic conceptual design approach for cryogenic composite tank
applications.

MATERIALS
The [0/90/90/0/0/90]s lay-up of IM7/5250-4, provided by NASA Glenn Research Center
for our previous project for both experimental and theoretical analyses, was used in the
present analytical study. The lay-up is different from that of the liquid hydrogen composite
tank used in the X-33. In this study, the feasibility of IM7/5250-4 laminates for cryogenic
fuel tank design will be investigated by comparing damage analysis of IM7/5250-4
laminates to the analysis of IM7/977-2 laminates which were already used in the X-33 fuel
tank. The laminate thickness is 40 mm, which is approximately same as that of the X-33
sandwich structure including inner face-sheet, core, and outer face-sheet. The thermal
and mechanical properties of IM7/977-2 and IM7/52504 lamina are shown in Tables 13
[2830].

STRESS ANALYSIS
The stress analysis of the cryogenic fuel tank at a launch stage will be divided into three
separate calculations: thermal residual stresses, stresses due to internal fuel pressure,
Table 1. Thermal properties for IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 laminas (Vf 0.65)
obtained from Reference [28].
Properties


Specific heat, Cp (J/kg C)


Transverse thermal conductivity, k (W/m C)
Density,  (kg/m3)
Thermal diffusivity,  (m2/s)

IM7/977-2

IM7/5250-4

942.0
0.464
1594.15
3.10E-07

812.5
0.540
1571.60
4.10E-07

Table 2. Material property coefficients for IM7/977-2 carbon fiber/epoxy lamina (Vf 0.65)
obtained from References [29,30]. Property (T) C0 C1T C2T2, T in  C.
Properties
Longitudinal tensile modulus, E11 (GPa)
Transverse tensile modulus, E22, E33 (GPa)
In-plane shear modulus, G12 (GPa)
Poissons ratio v12, v13
Longitudinal thermal expansion coefficient, 11 (E-6/C)
Transverse thermal expansion coefficient, 22 (E-6/C)
Transverse tensile strength, S22T (MPa)
In-plane shear strength, S12 (MPa)
Longitudinal tensile strength, S11T (MPa)
Longitudinal compressive strength, S11C (MPa)

C0

C1

C2

180.63
9.9424
6.1311
0.33
0.1839
23.055
72.84
127.26
2953.03
1447.67

0.0189
0.01

0.0001
0.0411
0.0365
0.0548

2.00E-05

1.00E-06

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Table 3. Material property coefficients for IM7/5250-4 carbon fiber/BMI lamina (Vf 0.65)
obtained from References [29,30]. Property (T) C0 C1T C2T2, T in  C.
Properties
Longitudinal tensile modulus, E11 (GPa)
Transverse tensile modulus, E22, E33 (GPa)
In-plane shear modulus, G12 (GPa)
Poissons ratio v12, v13
Longitudinal thermal expansion coefficient, 11 (E-6/ C)
Transverse thermal expansion coefficient, 22 (E-6/ C)
Transverse tensile strength, S22T (MPa)
In-plane shear strength, S12 (MPa)
Longitudinal tensile strength, S11T (MPa)
Longitudinal compressive strength, S11C (MPa)

C0

C1

C2

181.01
11.158
6.368
0.36
0.25
21.902
85.984
100.42
2959.2
1450.70

0.0066
0.0129

0.0307
0.0815
0.105

1.00E05

0.0002

Z
z
1 2 3
40 mm

2(T): Transverse direction


r

8.687 m

6m

1(F): Fiber direction

Figure 1. Schematic of a cylindrical cryogenic composite fuel tank.

and stresses caused by accelerated forces. A section of the tank wall will be approximated
by flat rectangular plates of 12 layer [0/90/90/0/0/90]s of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4. The
flat plate approximation can be used because the radius of the cylindrical tank is large
enough, and a slight curvature in a small section of the tank wall can be neglected. The
plate will be oriented in a coordinate system as can be seen in Figure 1. As shown in
Figure 1, in the local laminate coordinate, the xy plane is the mid-plane of the laminate
and the positive z-direction is toward the outside of the tank along with the r-direction.
Total stresses applied on each lamina, k, are expressed as a summation of thermal,
pressure, and launch induced stresses, as shown in Equation (1). The three stress
components are assumed to be decoupled; therefore, the total stresses are expressed as a
linear combination of the three stresses.
ijTotal k ijT k ijP k ijL k :

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design

The following sections will describe methods used to calculate the stresses from each
loading source. Using the maximum stress failure criterion, stress states of each ply of a
laminate will be evaluated to determine whether or not cracking will occur.
Thermal Residual Stresses
Thermal residual stresses on each ply, due to thermal expansion mismatch between
adjacent plies from high cure temperatures, are derived from the lamina constitutive
equation associated with extension, bending, and thermal strains based on the laminated
composite plate theory as shown in Equation (2) [31]:

fijT gk

Q26

9 9
8 1 9 8
3k 88 0 9
>
>
=
<>
=
= >
= >
< "xx >
< "xx >
< xx >
7
0
1
"
"
z yy  yy
T
Q26 5
yy
>
>
>
;
:>
;
; >
; >
: 0 >
: 1 >
:
2xy
xy
xy
Q66

A11

A12

A16

B16

B26

B66

8 T 9k 2
>
Q11
=
< xx >
6
T


4 Q21
yy
>
;
: T >
xy
Q16

Q12
Q22

Q16

where:
9T
8
>
>
"0
xx
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
>
>
>
"
>
>
yy >
>
>
>
>
>
=
<  0 >
xy
>
>
"1
>
xx >
>
>
>
>
>
1
>
> "yy >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
:  1 >
xy

22

7
66
64 A12 A22 A26 5
6
6 A16 A26 A66
3
6
62 B
B12 B16
11
6
66
44 B12 B22 B26 7
5

Aij

N
X

B11

B12

D16

D26

6
4 B12 B22
B16 B26
2
D11 D12
6
4 D12 D22

3 31 8 T 9
N
>
>
> xx >
>
>
77 >
>
NTyy >
>
>
B26 5 7 >
>
>
>
> T >
7 >
<
Nxy =
B66 7
37
D16 7
MTxx >
>
>
7 >
>
>
>
>
7
7
>
> MTyy >
D26 5 5 >
>
>
>
>
>
;
: T >
D66
Mxy
B16

Qij zk1  zk

k1

Bij

N
1X
k
Q z2  z2k
2 k1 ij k1

Dij

N
1X
k
Q z3  z3k
3 k1 ij k1

9k
8 T 9
2
3k 8
>
>
= Z zk1 Q11 Q12 Q16
=
< Nxx >
< xx >
6
7
NTyy
yy
T  dz
4 Q12 Q22 Q26 5
>
>
>
zk
;
;
: T >
:
2xy
Nxy
Q16 Q26 Q66
9k
8 T 9
2
3k 8
>
>
= Z zk1 Q11 Q12 Q16
=
< Mxx >
< xx >
6
7
MTyy
yy
T  z  dz:
4 Q12 Q22 Q26 5
>
>
>
zk
;
;
: T >
:
2
Mxy
Q16 Q26 Q66
xy
When a composite tank is filled with cryogenic fuel, the temperature of a tank surface in
direct contact with the fuel is assumed to be the fuel temperature. However, different
temperatures exist in a laminate through the thickness and cause thermal gradients,

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50.00

Time (h)

Temperature (C)

0.00
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

11.0

12.0

Thickness = 0mm Thickness = 40mm

50.00
IM7/977-2 at 40mm

IM7/5250-4 at 40mm
100.00

IM7/977-2 at 20mm
IM7/5250-4 at 20mm

150.00
at 40mm
200.00

250.00

at 20mm

Figure 2. Temperature profiles through thickness as a function of time when the inner surface is exposed
to LH2.

resulting in thermal bending stresses. The temperature profiles in the laminate can be
described by the thermal diffusion equation:
@T
@ 2T
 2
@t
@r

where thermal diffusivity,  k/Cp. A solution of Equation (3) is given in


Reference [32] as
2
Tr, t Ti  T1  p


et dt T1

p
where c r=2 t [32]. Ti is the initial temperature, which is the laminate temperature
before fuel is filled. T1 is the fuel temperature. Thermal properties of IM7/977-2 and
IM7/5250-4 laminas are shown in Table 1 [28]. Based on the thermal properties and
Equation (4), temperature profiles as a function of time of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 at
20 and 40 mm, which are mid-and outer-surfaces, are shown in Figure 2. It takes more
than 600 h for mid-surface and the outer one to reach the LH2 fuel temperature. According
to the final report of the X-33 liquid hydrogen tank, it took about 3 h for the composite
fuel tank to be filled with LH2 and tested before the tank vent was initiated [2]. Therefore,
the 3-h period after the fuel filling is an interesting time frame in this study. Figure 3
shows temperature profiles through the thickness after the 3-h exposure to cryogenic fuel
on the inside laminate surface, r RI (z 0:5  N  tply ). Different thermal gradients
exist depending on laminates thermal diffusivities. Thermal gradients for IM7/977-2 and
IM7/5250-4, after the 3-h LH2 exposure on the inner surface, are 2.58 and 2.27 C/mm,
respectively (Figure 3). Through-the-thickness temperature profiles are applied to

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design


110.00

Thickness (mm)
0

5
10
15
20
After 3 hours
Thickness = 0mm Thickness = 40mm

25

30

35

40

Temperature (C)

r
160.00

210.00
IM7/977-2

IM7/5250-4

260.00
Figure 3. Through-thickness temperatures after 3-h cryogenic exposure at the inner surface.

determine T for each lamina in Equation (2), and accurate thermal residual stresses on
each lamina are obtained.

Internal Stresses Induced by Fuel Pressure


The internal pressure required to store the cryogenic fuel in the tank also causes
stresses in the wall of the fuel tank; stresses in the longitudinal and hoop directions.
According to the ASME boiler and pressure vessel code, the applied longitudinal and
hoop stresses of isotropic materials by pressure, corresponding to Z and  directions in
the global cylindrical coordinate (Figure 1), respectively, are defined as Equation (5)
and (6) [33].
P
ZZ

P
R0 =R1 2 1

and:
Pk





P 1 R0 =rk 2
R0 =R1 2 1

The axial stresses are all the same through the layers of a laminate wall; however, the
hoop stresses are shown as a distributed function of r(k). Therefore, there exists a pressure
gradient through the hoop direction but the gradient is low enough to neglect.
For accurate computation in this study, the average hoop stress is calculated as:
P


1
RO  RI

RO

RI

Pk

dr:

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r(k) appears as the radius at the point in which the stress is being calculated. The r-direction
in the global cylindrical coordinate is along the z-direction in the local laminate
coordinate. In this study, the points at which the hoop stress will be calculated are centers
p
of each lamina in the z-direction. From the flat rectangular plate approximation, ZZ
and
p
p
p
 are rewritten as xx
and yy
, respectively.
Internal stresses of each lamina are different depending on their orientation. In order to
derive the individual lamina stresses, we need to start from the global stresses by pressures
applied on a laminate. Under the assumption that the pressure loading does not cause
bending, in-plane stresses on individual plies of a laminate by pressure can be expressed as:

fijP gk

8 P 9k 2
< xx =
Q11
P
yy
4 Q21
: P ;
xy
Q16

3k 88 0 9P 8 1 9P 9
>
=
<< "xx =
< "xx = >
Q16
1
"0
"
z
Q26 5
yy
>
: yy
1 ; >
;
::  0 ;
xy
Q66
xy

Q12
Q22
Q26

where:
8 0 9P
" >
>
>
>
> "xx
0 >
>
>
>
yy >
>
>
>
=
<  0 >
xy

>
"1
>
>
xx >
>
>
>
>
>
"1
>
>
yy >
>
;
: 1 >
xy

2
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

3
A11 A12 A16
4 A12 A22 A26 5
2 A16 A26 A66 3
B11 B12 B16
4 B12 B22 B26 5
B16 B26 B66

Aij

N
X

3 31 8 P 9
N >
>
B11 B12 B16
>
>
>
> xx
4 B12 B22 B26 5 7 >
>
>
NPyy >
>
>
>
7 >
<
P =
7
N
B
B
B
16
26
66
xy
2
37
P
D11 D12 D16 7
>
> Mxx >
7 >
>
>
4 D12 D22 D26 5 5 >
>
>
MPxx >
>
>
>
;
: MP >
D16 D26 D66
xy
2

Qij zk1  zk

k1
N
1X
k
Q z2  z2k
Bij
2 k1 ij k1
N
1X
k
Q z3  z3k
3 k1 ij k1
9
8
P
xx
>
>
=
<
 P
P
N tply  N  yy
>
>
;
:
0
8 9
>0>
 P < =
M 0
>
;
: >
0

Dij

It should be noted that temperature gradients and temperature-dependent material


properties result in a [0/90/90/0/0/90]s laminate that is no longer symmetrical when faced
to the cryogenic fuel at one surface. Therefore, the extension-bending coupling stiffness,
Bij should be considered in the computation of the fuel pressure induced strains in
Equation (8). Therefore, f"1
ij g is induced by the internal pressures even though moment
resultants do not exist under the pressure loading.

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design

2553

Stresses by Launch
The maximum applied load will occur at take off when the fuel tank is completely
full and the acceleration is the greatest. During take off, the fuel tank will experience
acceleration in both the axial and hoop directions, az and a. The in-plane stresses due to
the launch acceleration are:
8
9
8
9
L
< ZZ
=
< azz =Azz =
ms a =A
L
: 
:
;
L ;
0
Z

Acceleration induced internal stress components applied on each lamina are derived
similarly as the pressure induced internal stresses. Considering that Z and  in the global
L
L
tank coordinate are parallel to x and y in the local laminate coordinate, ZZ
and 
L
L
are substituted for xx and yy , respectively, and ply level in-plane stresses by launch can be
expressed as:

fijL gk

8 L 9k 2
< xx =
Q11
L
yy
4 Q21
: L ;
xy
Q16

3k 88 0 9L 8 1 9L 9
>
=
<< "xx =
< "xx = >
Q16
0
5
"
z "1
Q26
yy
yy
>
: 1 ; >
;
::  0 ;
xy
Q66
xy

Q12
Q22
Q26

where:
9L
8
2
"0
>
>
xx
>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
"yy >
>
>
6
>
>
>
>
6
>
=
<  0 >
6
xy
6
6
1
>
>
6
"
>
xx >
>
>
6
>
>
1
>
>
4
>
> "yy >
>
>
>
>
>
:  1 ;
xy

3
A11 A12 A16
4 A12 A22 A26 5
A16 A26 A66
2
3
B11 B12 B16
4 B12 B22 B26 5
B16 B26 B66
Aij

N
X

3 31 8 NL 9
>
B11 B12 B16
xx >
>
>
> L >
>
>
Nyy >
4 B12 B22 B26 5 7 >
>
>
>
7 >
>
<
7
L >
Nxy =
B16 B26 B66 7
2
37
L >
D11 D12 D16 7 >
>
> Mxx >
7 >
>
>
4 D12 D22 D26 5 5 >
>
>
MLxx >
>
>
>
;
: L >
D16 D26 D66
Mxy
2

Qij zk1  zk

k1

Bij

N
1X
k
Qij z2k1  z2k
2 k1

N
1X
k
Q z3  z3k
3 k1 ij k1
9
8
L
xx
>
>
=
<
 L
L
N tply  N  yy
>
>
;
:
0
8 9
>0>
 L < =
M 0
>
;
: >
0

Dij

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10

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ET AL.

While computing launch acceleration induced stresses, Bij are also considered because
the [0/90/90/0/0/90]s lay-up is not symmetric any more due to thermal gradients and
temperature dependent ply properties.

Failure Analysis Using Maximum Stress Criterion


The maximum stress failure criterion is applied to investigate ply level damage related
to transverse matrix cracking and longitudinal tensile and compressive failure:

Rk

ij
Sij

k
11

where  ij is the lamina stress applied and Sij the lamina strength. If R(k) is equal to or
higher than 1, damage on ply k occurs.

Initial and Progressive Failure Model Depending on Failure Mechanism


For two decades, a number of progressive failure models of composite laminates
have been developed. The main concept of the progressive failure model is that nonhomogenous stresses within a composite structure give rise to a complicated failure
scenario. For example, when one ply experiences damage, subsequent plies may also
experience damage at the same load conditions due to redistribution of stresses, thus
leading to overall reduction in laminate stiffness.
Conventional progressive models deal with the stiffness reduction caused by matrix
cracking as a function of microcrack densities, resulting in strength reduction of a
laminate [2127]. If transverse matrix cracking is encountered in layers, Q12, Q22, and Q66
components that are in the layers stiffness matrix are reduced to be near zero, and
iterative computations are performed for updating Aij, Bij, and Dij. In this study, each
laminas thermal, pressure, and launch stresses are updated based on the updated Aij, Bij,
and Dij.
In addition to considering the updated laminas stiffness reduction, the fuel leakage
effect through the thickness direction is considered in modeling a progressive failure
model. Microscopic interface defects at an overlapping region of two matrix cracks in
adjacent layers have been assumed to provide the connecting path of fluid between
transverse matrix cracks [34,35]. The overlapping regions are thought to be attacked by
cryogenic fuel, resulting in complicated laminate modulus update and lamina stress
redistribution associated with local temperature changes. Inner surface plies, if cracked,
experience a through-the-thickness temperature change by cryogenic fuel leakage.
The crack induced temperature change also affects the thermal gradient over the rest of
plies. If cracking does not occur on inner surface plies, temperature and thermal gradient
changes are not expected (Figure 4).
Fuel leakage, due to the transverse matrix cracks in conjunction with inter-ply
delaminations resulting in an intersecting network of passages, has been an important issue
for designing cryogenic fuel tank. Some researchers have studied the leakage

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2555

Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design


(a) Pressure, launch and thermal stresses as a function of failed plies
(k)

(syP )(k) = [Q ](k)(k)eyP


(syL ) = [Q ] eyL
(syT )(k) = [Q ](k)eyT

(k)

(sxP )(k)(k) = [Q ](k)exP


(sxL ) = [Q ] exL
(sxT )(k) = [Q ](k)exT

z
q
Tout, Exterior Temperature

Tin, Interior Temperature,


= (Fuel Temperature)

Tout

Tin
(b) Ply temperature change as a function of number of failed plies and their connectivity

Tout

Tout

Tin
Tin

Ti

Cracking and interconnection: Thermal gradient


update

Inside ply cracking: No thermal gradient update

Figure 4. Schematic of progressive failure analysis using temperature gradient change by crack
interconnection.

or permeation of cryogenic fuel through composite laminates by experiment or


modeling [3440].
The overall computational algorithm is shown in a flowchart (Figure 5). Thermal,
pressure, launch and total stresses are obtained in ply level based on temperature dependent
material properties and temperature distribution through the laminate thickness. Ply level
damage is checked based on the failure criterion. The progressive failure analysis is

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2556

J. JU

ET AL.

Temperature distribution through laminate thickness, T = Ti


Temperature dependent material properties: E11(T ), E22(T ), G12(T ), v11(T ), a11(T ), a22(T )
Number of piles, N, Strength properties: S11T(T ), S11C(T ), S22T(T ), S22C(T ), and S12(T )
Update P = Pi + dP

Pressure, P = Pi

For ply k
Compute lamina thermal, pressure, launch stresses in the material coordinate.
(k)

P (k)
ij

(k)

[s ] , [s ] , [s ]
T
ij

L
ij

Compute total lamina stresses in the material coordinate.


(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(s ) = [Q ]
(s ) = [Q ]
(s ) = [Q ]
T

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

[s ] = [s ] + [s ] + [s ]

Update laminate stiffness matrix

Total
ij

eT

T
ij

P
ij

L
ij

Maximum stress failure criterion

eP

sij
R (k) =

Sij

eL

(k)

Repeat for all plies

where

(eT , eP, eL ) = AB BD N T N P N L
T

M M M
First ply failure?

R (k)

Update through-the-thickness
temperature distribution and
temperature gradient

No
No ply failure

Yes

T, P, s Total
Check failed plies and crack
connectivity.

ij

(k)

,k

Yes
Laminate failure?

R (k) 1; for every k

No

Yes

T, P, s Total
ij

(k)

, for every k, (k=1,2,3,...N )

Figure 5. Flowchart of a progressive failure model for cryogenic composite fuel tanks.

performed by updating through-the-thickness temperature after checking a possibility of


fuel leakage and resulting redistribution of stress components after ply failure.

CASE STUDY: IM7/977-2 AND IM7/5250-4 FOR [0/90/90/0/0/90]S LAY-UPS


Temperature dependent material properties of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 lamina for
stress evaluation are listed in Tables 2 and 3, respectively [29,30]. Thermal residual stress
free temperatures are assumed to be the highest cure temperatures, which are 177 and
233 C for IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4, respectively. Liquid hydrogen fuel temperature

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2557

Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design


230

230
Thermal Pressure Launch T

Thermal Pressure Launch T


F

130
80
30

80
30
20

70

70
Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

(a) at 253 C and 65 KPa (IM7/977-2)

(b) at 253 C and 132 KPa (IM7/977-2)

230

230
Thermal Pressure Launch T

30

80
30
20

70

70
Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

(c) at 253 C and 290KPa (IM7/977-2)

(d) at 253 C and 600 KPa (IM7/977-2)

230

230
Thermal Pressure Launch T

Thermal Pressure Launch

180
F

130
80

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

30

70

Stress (MPa)

180
Stress (MPa)

130

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

80

Stress (MPa)

130

20

Thermal Pressure Launch T

180

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

Stress (MPa)

180

20

130

130
80
30
20

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

20

Stress (MPa)

180

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

Stress (MPa)

180

70
Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

(e) at 253 C and 1000 KPa (IM7/977-2)

(f) at 253 C and 1500 KPa (IM7/977-2)

Figure 6. Thermal, pressure, and launch induced stresses of IM7/977-2 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s in the fiber and
transverse directions at 253 C under various pressures.

is assumed to be 253 C and fuel mass 95,250 kg. Space vehicle mass (launch mass), ms, is
assumed to be 129,250 kg. Internal fuel pressure is assumed to be under various conditions
from 65 to 1500 kPa. Diameter of the cylindrical fuel tank is set to be 6 m. A laminate
thickness of 40 mm and 12-layer oriented [0/90/90/0/0/90]s of the two different composites
were used for the stress analysis.
Figures 6 and 7 show thermal, pressure, and launch acceleration induced stresses of
IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4, respectively, in the principal material coordinate at 253 C
and 65, 132, 290, 600, 1000, and 1500 kPa (10, 20, 44, 91, 152, and 227 psi). Thermal
residual stresses in the fiber direction are compressive and those in the transverse direction
are tensile. Thermal residual stresses are dominant compared to pressure and launch
induced stress components at 65, 132 and 290 kPa in both the fiber and the transverse
directions. Thermal residual stresses in the transverse direction seem to be a leading source
causing ply damage due to the lower transverse ply strength than the longitudinal one.
Thermal residual stresses of IM7/977-2 plies are 6064 MPa in the transverse direction and
62 to 65 MPa in the fiber direction. The absolute value of thermal residual stresses of

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2558

J. JU

230
Thermal

Pressure

Launch

230

Thermal

30

80
30

Ply and direction(F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

(a) at 253 C and 65 KPa (IM7/5250-4)


230
Thermal

Pressure

Launch

(b) at 253 C and 132 KPa (IM7/5250-4)


230

Thermal

Launch

30

130
80
30
20

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

80

Stress (MPa)

130

70
Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

(c) at 253 C and 290 KPa (IM7/5250-4)

(d) at 253 C and 600 KPa (IM7/5250-4)

230
Thermal

Pressure

Launch

230

Thermal

Pressure

T T
Launch

180

80

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

30

F F

130
80
30
20

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

F
F

130

Stress (MPa)

180
Stress (MPa)

Pressure

180

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

Stress (MPa)

180

20

70

Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

70

130

20

70

20

Launch

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

80

Stress (MPa)

130

20

Pressure

180

1(F)
2(F)
3(F)
4(F)
5(F)
6(F)
7(F)
8(F)
9(F)
10(F)
11(F)
12(F)
1(T)
2(T)
3(T)
4(T)
5(T)
6(T)
7(T)
8(T)
9(T)
10(T)
11(T)
12(T)

Stress (MPa)

180

ET AL.

70

70
Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

Ply and direction (F-Fiber direction, T-Transverse direction)

(e) at 253 C and 1000 KPa (IM7/5250-4)

(f) at 253 C and 1500 KPa (IM7/5250-4)

Figure 7. Thermal, pressure, and launch induced stresses of IM7/5250-4 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s in the fiber and
transverse directions at 253 C under various pressures.

IM7/5250-4 are about 10 MPa higher in both fiber and transverse directions than those of
IM7/977-2, which are 7276 MPa in the transverse direction and 73 to 77 MPa in the
fiber direction. The ply 1 shows the highest thermal residual stress values in both the fiber
and the transverse directions, due to the direct cryogenic fuel contact. Thermal residual
stresses on plies gradually decrease when the location of the plies moves away from the
inside surface. In Bechel and Kims paper, after submerging both IM7/5250-4 [0/90]2s and
IM7/977-2 [0/90]2s of 5 cm  5 cm  0.112 cm flat plates into LN2 and 1000 cryogenic
cycles, interior plies of both plates have a less matrix crack density than ply 1 and 8, which
are exterior plies, indicating that there exists thermal gradients though the thickness of
the plates [30].
The thermal residual stress gradients of IM7/977-2 in the fiber and the transverse
directions are 0.08 and 0.09 MPa/mm, respectively. The magnitudes of IM7/5250-4
thermal residual stress gradients are a little higher than those of IM7/977-2, which are 0.10
and 0.11 MPa/mm in the fiber and the transverse directions, respectively.

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design

2559

As internal fuel pressure increases, pressure stresses become dominant in the fiber
directions. Pressure induced stresses are higher in the fiber direction than those in the
transverse direction due to the higher lamina stiffness in the fiber direction. IM7/977-2 and
IM7/5250-4 have almost the same pressure stresses in the fiber direction due to the fiber
dominant modulus. Transverse pressure stresses of both laminates are low and similar in
both laminates. As the internal fuel pressure increases, the longitudinal directions loading
mode is changed from compression to tension. Pressure stresses begin to exceed thermal
residual stresses at 600 kPa in the fiber direction of 90 plies. At 600 kPa, tensile and
compressive stresses coexist in the fiber direction at IM7/977-2 laminate. Total stresses of
IM7/977-2 in the fiber direction experience tensile stresses at 1000 and 1500 kPa. In the
case of IM7/5250-4, all total stresses in the fiber direction start to be tensile at 1500 kPa
due to the relatively higher compressive thermal residual stresses than those of IM7/977-2.
Pressure stresses in the fiber direction of 90 plies are higher than those of 0 plies, because
hoop stresses in the global coordinate are applied in the fiber direction of 90 plies. On the
contrary, pressure stresses in the transverse direction of 0 plies are higher than those of
90 plies because hoop stresses in the global coordinate are also applied in the transverse
direction of 0 plies.
Launch stresses are also higher in the fiber direction than in the transverse direction due
to the higher modulus in the fiber direction. But, the launch stresses are not high compared
to the thermal and pressure stresses. Launch stresses of 5.66.8 MPa are applied on both
laminate plies in the fiber direction, which are 63160% and 2.76.9% of pressure stresses
in the fiber direction at 65 and 1500 kPa internal pressures, respectively. Launch stresses
applied in the transverse direction are negligible, which are about 0.6 MPa.
Thermal residual stresses in the transverse direction contribute to about 80 to 98% of
the total stresses in both laminates, which means the thermal residual stress is the
dominant factor that should be critically considered for cryogenic composite fuel tank
design.
Grenoble and Gates showed, in their experiment with IM7/977-2 [45/903/45/03]s
laminates, higher leak rates at cryogenic temperature with increasing levels of uni-axial
tensile strain than at room temperature with the same levels of strains [36]. Their results
show that the thermal residual stresses at cryogenic temperature made an additional
contribution to matrix cracking compared with the mechanical loading at room
temperature.
Yokozeki et al. also showed that the thermal residual stress is a major reason causing
ply damage of a IM600/#133 carbon fiber/toughened epoxy system with [45/45/90]s,
[45/45/902]s, [902/45/45]s, and [902/0/902]s lay-ups by investigating gas leakage data at
two conditions; room temperature and LN2 temperature, under static mechanical loading
[40]. Their results exhibit higher leak rates under LN2 conditions than under room
temperature for all cases, indicating that gas leakage increases under cryogenic conditions
because of the increase of the leak path size due to the thermal residual strains, which is
exactly explained in the present study.

Cracking Conditions of Each Lamina under Different Loading Modes


Ply-by-ply total stress to strength ratio, ( ij/Sij)(k), was computed and plotted in
Figure 8. Figure 8 shows transverse tensile stress to strength ratio, ( 22T/S22T)(k),
longitudinal compressive stress to strength ratio, ( 11C/S11C)(k), and longitudinal tensile

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2560

J. JU
1.05

s22T

(k)

0.95

0.95

(k)

0.9

S22T

0.85

0.85

0.8

0.8

0.75
1

0.06

0.75

10 11 12

10 11 12

(b) IM7/5250-4 (Transverse tensile


failure mode)

0.06

65 KPa
132KPa
290KPa
600KPa

65 KPa
132KPa
290KPa
600KPa

0.05
0.04
(k)

0.03

s11C

0.02

S11C

0.01

0.03
0.02
0.01
0

0
1

7
Ply

10 11 12

0.06

7
Ply

0.06

600KPa
1000KPa
1500KPa

0.05

10 11 12

(d) IM7/5250-4 (Longitudinal compression


failure mode)

(c) IM7/977-2 (Longitudinal compression


failure mode)

600KPa
1000KPa
1500KPa

0.05

0.04

S11T

(a) IM7/977-2 (Transverse tensile


failure mode)

0.04

s11T

Ply

(k)

S11C

Ply

0.05

s11C

65KPa
132 KPa
290 KPa
600 KPa
1000 KPa
1500 KPa

s22T

0.9

S22T

1.05

65KPa
132KPa
290KPa
600KPa
1000KPa
1500KPa

ET AL.

0.04

(k)

s11T

0.03

S11T

0.02
0.01

(k)

0.03
0.02
0.01
0

0
1

6 7
Ply

10 11 12

(e) IM7/977-2 (Longitudinal tensile


failure mode)

6 7
Ply

10 11 12

(f) IM7/5250-4 (Longitudinal tensile


failure mode)

Figure 8. ( ij/Sij)(k) values for each ply of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 under transverse tensile failure mode,
longitudinal compressive failure mode, and longitudinal tensile failure mode based on the integrated thermal,
pressure, and launch stresses at 253 C.

stress to strength ratio, ( 11T/S11T)(k), for each ply at 253 C and under 65, 132, 290, 600,
1000, and 1500 kPa. Transverse tensile stresses seem to be the most likely damage source of
the cryogenic composites fuel tank. Each ( 22T/S22T)(k) ranges from about 0.8 to 1 as
shown in (a) and (b) of Figure 8. However, ( 11C/S11C)(k) and ( 11T/S11T)(k) are below 0.04
and 0.05, respectively, which means a longitudinal failure in both compression and tension
is not expected as can be seen in (c), (d), (e), and (f) of Figure 8.
The thermal residual stress without pressure and launch effects doesnt appear to
cause transverse matrix cracking assuming that the matrix failure occurs when
( 22T/S22T)(k) is equal to or higher than 1. ( 22T/S22T)(k) of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4
at 253 C and 65 kPa is about 0.8 as can be seen in (a) and (b) of Figure 8. As the internal

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design

2561

fuel pressure increases, pressure stresses on 0 plies in the transverse direction contribute to
raise the total stress levels, resulting in transverse ply damage. IM7/977-2 experiences a
transverse matrix ply damage at 1500 kPa assuming that the matrix cracking occurs when
( 22T/S22T)(k)  1. IM7/5250-4 seems to be more resistant to transverse matrix cracking due
to the higher transverse strength than that of IM7/977-2.
At low internal fuel pressure conditions, e.g., 65, 132, and 290 kPa, the compressive
loading mode in the fiber direction is dominant due to the fact that the compressive
thermal residual stresses are still higher than the rest of pressure and launch stresses in the
fiber direction ((a), (b), and (c) of Figures 6 and 7). At higher internal fuel pressure level,
e.g., 1000 and 1500 kPa, tensile pressure stresses exceed the compressive thermal residual
stresses in the fiber direction, resulting in a loading mode change from compression to
tension in the fiber direction ((e) and (f) of Figures 6 and 7). However, longitudinal
stresses, whenever they are compressive or tensile, do not make a significant effect on the
failure in the fiber direction due to the higher compressive and tensile lamina strengths
in the fiber direction as can be confirmed in (c), (d), (e), and (f) of Figure 8.
In the literature, there are several cryogenic thermal test results pertaining to IM7/977-2
and IM7/5250-4 coupons. Bechel et al. showed both IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 coupons of
[0/90]2s and [0/45/45/90]s lay-ups experience no transverse cracking after single
submersion in LH2 [30,41]. Pagano et al. observed no internal cracks in [0/904/0] of
IM7/5250-4 by submerging into LN2 for 10 min [42]. Moreover, studies on the X-33 fuel
tank reported that there was no failure after a single filling of LH2 under 172, 241, 310, 351
and 393 kPa (25, 35, 45, 51, and 57 psi) pressure conditions, giving rise to a conclusion that
thermal stresses at LH2 does not cause transverse cracking on the plies of IM7/977-2 under
about 400 kPa [2]. Morimoto et al. tested and evaluated a cryogenic composite tank made of
IM600/#133, and showed that LN2 temperature does not harm the composite tanks under
internal pressurization up to 1100 kPa [43]. Kessler et al. also showed no matrix cracks from
their permeability test after 10 thermal cycles of IM7/977-2 from 253 to 127 C [44]. Those
test results are in good agreement with the present analytical study at lower pressure
conditions in that the thermal residual stress of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 does not
contribute ply damage at 253 C and the pressure conditions lower than 400 kPa.

A Leakage-Based Progressive Analysis at 253 C and 1500 kPa


Assuming that transverse matrix cracking will occur when ( 22T/S22T)(k)  1, transverse
matrix cracking of IM7/977-2 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s occurs in five plies at 253 C and
1500 kPa. However, only the inner surface ply experiences transverse matrix cracking in
IM7/5250-4 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s at the same condition ((a) and (b) of Figure 8).
Normally, according to X-ray or C-scan images, carbon-fiber/toughened epoxy and
carbon-fiber/BMI composites have been reported to develop matrix cracks though the
whole lamina width when a transverse ply strain is higher than about 0.4% [36,39,45].
Kumazawa et al. showed fully developed transverse matrix cracks though the width
direction and vigorous gas leakage through the matrix cracks of [0/90/0/90]s laminates
under 0.45 to 0.7% of uni-axial or bi-axial mechanical strains [34,39]. Note that, in
our study, ply transverse strains of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 are 0.550.6% and
0.670.73%, respectively, at 253 C and 1500 kPa, which means the damaged plies
undergo severe fuel leakage. Therefore, the maximum stress criterion used in this study
implies that when ( 22T/S22T)(k)  1, the ply damages are fully developed matrix cracking

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Table 4. (r22T/S22T)(k) values of each layer of IM7/977-2 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s for progressive


failure analysis considering lamina stiffness reduction at 253 C and 1500 kPa.
Number of iteration
Ply
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

0
1.001
0.940
0.944
1.011
1.012
0.947
0.945
1.007
1.003
0.934
0.928
0.984

(Failure)

0.986
0.989

0.991
0.990

0.977
0.971

0.995
0.995
(Failure)
(Failure)

0.989
0.985

(Failure)
(Failure)

0.964
0.955
1.028 (Failure)

Table 5. (r22T/S22T)(k) values of each layer of IM7/977-2 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s for progressive


failure analysis considering lamina stiffness reduction and fuel leakage
at 253 C and 1500 kPa.
Number of iteration
Ply
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

0
1.001
0.940
0.944
1.011
1.012
0.947
0.945
1.007
1.003
0.934
0.928
0.984

(Failure)

0.981
0.986

0.992
0.991

0.982
0.977

0.990
0.992
(Failure)
(Failure)

0.990
0.986

(Failure)
(Failure)

0.969
0.961
1.034 (Failure)

through the width direction and indicates a strong possibility of fuel leakage associated
with networking of the fully developed matrix cracks through the width direction.
At 253 C and 1500 kPa, for IM7/977-2, after two updates of equivalent laminate
stiffness related to individual ply damage, six plies are left non-cracked. Combining
laminate temperature redistribution by fuel leakage with the updated laminate stiffness
matrix also did not show a distinctive change compared to the conventional progressive
failure model, leaving six plies undamaged (Tables 4 and 5).
IM7/5250-4 laminate originally has one ply transverse matrix cracking at 253 C and
1500 kPa. Six updates of laminate stiffness matrix and iteration left three plies undamaged
using the conventional progressive failure model (Table 6). However, if the updated
laminate stiffness matrix is combined with thermal redistribution associated with the inner
surface matrix cracking-induced fuel leakage, all plies are transversely damaged as shown
in Table 7.

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design


Table 6. (r22T/S22T)(k) values of each layer of IM7/5250-4 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s
for progressive failure analysis considering lamina stiffness
reduction at 253 C and 1500 kPa.
Number of iteration
Ply
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

1.003 (Failure)

0.947
0.971
1.000 (Failure)
0.943
0.964
0.990
1.024
0.990
1.020 (Failure)

0.985
1.011 (Failure)

0.929
0.941
0.960
0.983
0.923
0.933
0.950
0.970
0.969
0.979
1.004 (Failure)
0.963
0.969
0.989
1.006
0.907
0.907
0.917
0.929
0.901
0.898
0.907
0.915
0.945
0.937
0.945
0.958

(Failure)

1.006 (Failure)
0.991

(Failure)

0.943
0.928
0.978

1.003 (Failure)

0.954
0.968
0.938
0.951
0.983
0.992

Table 7. (r22T/S22T)(k) values of each layer of IM7/5250-4 [0/90/90/0/0/90]s for


progressive failure analysis considering fuel leakage and lamina stiffness
reduction at 253 C and 1500 kPa.
Number of iteration
Ply

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

1.003 (Failure)
0.947
0.943
0.990
0.985
0.929
0.923
0.969
0.963
0.907
0.901
0.945

0.976
0.969
1.026 (Failure)
1.016 (Failure)
0.946
0.938
0.985
0.975
0.913
0.904
0.943

1.005 (Failure)
0.995

0.965
0.955
1.010 (Failure)
0.995
0.923
0.912
0.951

1.034 (Failure)

0.994
0.980

1.017 (Failure)
0.940
0.926
0.970

1.033 (Failure)
1.017 (Failure)

0.971
0.955
1.007 (Failure)

1.016 (Failure)
1.001 (Failure)

Note that IM7/977-2 had a greater number of plies damaged in the matrix than
IM7/5250-4 at the initial damage stage, but IM7/977-2 had three plies un-cracked when
IM7/5250-4 plies were all cracked at the final stage at 253 C and 1500 kPa. Plies 2 and 3
seem to be crucial plies to determine whether the laminate will undergo complete laminate
damage or not. IM7/977-2 shows no transverse cracking on plies 2 and 3, resulting in no
direct thermal attack by fuel and no severe further damage transfer to other plies. On the
other hand, IM7/5250-4 experiences the transverse cracking on plies 2 and 3, after two and
three updates of laminate stiffness matrix and temperature redistribution, respectively.
A lower ply temperature of IM7/5250-4 than IM7/977-2 by a higher thermal conductivity
of IM7/5250-4 might contribute the higher thermal stress, resulting in matrix cracking in
all plies.

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For R(k) values, ( 22T/S22T)(k) at 253 C and 1500 kPa of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4
are between 0.9 and 1 (Tables 47), which means it is hard to say that plies are safe to
avoid the transverse matrix cracking against the thermal stresses applied on each ply.
Preventing the cryogenic temperature contact with the inside wall of the fuel tank could be
accomplished by insulating the laminate in order to minimize thermal residual stresses
on each ply. If the inner surface temperature of IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 laminates can
be maintained to LN2 temperature which is 196 C, ( 22T/S22T)(k) at 1500 kPa of both
laminates can be reduced to 0.750.8. Reducing thermal residual stresses using an electronbeam curing is another way to alleviate the thermal stresses in the transverse direction of
the laminates. Assuming composites cured at room temperature using the electron-beam
curing, ( 22T/S22T)(k) of the IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 laminates can be reduced to
0.430.51 and 0.380.47, respectively, which might be a potential benefit to the cryogenic
composite fuel tank design.
The initial stage of ply failure may cause an entire laminate failure by the fuel leakage
effect associated with crack connectivity. That was clearly shown in the case of IM7/5250-4
at 253 C and 1500 kPa. The fuel leakage problem could be resolved by using a liner,
but there is still a trade-off between structural weight increase and protection of fuel
leakage.
It has been known that the transverse ply thickness plays a role in damage initiation and
progression. Generally, as the ply thickness decreases, the strain necessary to initiate
transverse matrix cracks increases and saturated transverse crack density decrease.
Bechel et al. showed about 1228% decrease of exterior plies crack density of IM7/5250-4
[0/90]2s after 1000 LN2 cryogenic cycles when the ply thickness decreased from 0.21 to
0.14 mm [30]. The present model, based on the classical laminate and plate theory, has the
limitation in predicting accurate ply matrix damage as a function of ply thickness.

CONCLUSIONS
An appropriate stress analysis was developed for cryogenic fuel tank design based on the
classical plate laminate theory using three key environmental conditions: (i) thermal
residual stress, (ii) internal fuel pressure, and (iii) acceleration during launch. Thermal
residual stresses applied on IM7/977-2 and IM7/5250-4 laminates are the most significant
source to determine initial ply transverse matrix cracking and complete laminate matrix
cracking. The thermal residual stresses are 8098% of the total stresses in the transverse
direction while internal pressure varies from 65 to 1500 kPa. Therefore, lowering the stress
free temperature, e.g., by using E-beam cured laminates, or protecting composite from
directly contacting cryogenic fuel by placing thermal protection layers will be the efficient
ways to reduce the total stresses. For accurate design, an exact measurement of CTE is
required as a function of temperature. Thermal residual stresses are very sensitive to CTE,
which might lead to imperfect designs if used with imprecise CTE.
Of the remaining stress sources, the stress by internal fuel pressure at 1500 kPa ranges
from 21 to 46% of the total stresses in the fiber direction depending on ply angles.
Lowering the internal pressure would reduce the total stress, but the pressure should be
determined based on the requirements for the design of fuel storages. The fuel pressure
itself does not seem to be a devastating factor for the cryogenic fuel tank design, compared
to the thermal residual stress. However, once cracks initiate, causing stiffness decreases in
these plies, the fuel pressure plays an important role in the progressive failure by raising

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Failure Analysis for Cryogenic Composite Fuel Tank Design

2565

pressure stresses on undamaged plies. The acceleration induced launch stress ranges from 2
to 8% of the total stresses in the fiber direction. The launch stresses applied in the
transverse direction are negligible, which are about 0.6 MPa. This could be reduced by
lightening the whole weight of the launch vehicle structure.
A fuel leakage-based progressive failure analysis was suggested in this study.
An instantaneous temperature and temperature gradient updates caused by the fuel
leakage as well as laminate stiffness matrix updates affect significantly the progressive
failure behavior of laminates. For IM7/5250-4 at 253 C and 1500 kPa, the fuel leakage
based progressive analysis shows that an initial stage of the ply failure may cause a
complete laminate cracking, which cannot be shown using the conventional laminate
stiffness matrix update method.

NOMENCLATURE
k

Qij plane stress reduced stiffness components of kth lamina; i, j 1, 2, 6


xx , yy , xy coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of a lamina in the global
coordinate consisting of x and y directions
ijTotal k total stress applied on kth lamina
ijT k thermal residual stress applied on kth lamina
ijP k pressure induced stress applied on kth lamina
ijL k launch induced stress applied on kth lamina
NTxx , NTyy , NTxy in-plane thermal force resultants
NPxx , NPyy , NPxy in-plane pressure force resultants
NLxx , NLyy , NLxy in-plane launch force resultants
MTxx , MTyy , MTxy moment resultants by thermal forces
MPxx , MPyy , MPxy moment resultants by pressure forces
MLxx , MLyy , MLxy moment resultants by launch forces
N number of plies
0
0
"0
,
"
,

xx yy
xy the membrane strains
1
1
"1
,
"
,

xx yy
xy the flexural (bending) strains, known as the curvatures
T temperature of materials
T the difference between the operated temperature and the stress free
temperature of a laminate
P internal fuel pressure
RO outside radius of the fuel tank
RI inside radius of the fuel tank
aZZ, a launch acceleration to Z and  directions in the global cylindrical
coordinate
AZZ, A cross-sectional area to Z and  directions in the global cylindrical
coordinate
ms mass of the space vehicle
t time
tply lamina thickness
k thermal conductivity (W/m C)
Cp specific heat (kJ/kg C)
 density (kg/m3)
 thermal diffusivity (m2/s)

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Subscript T, C tensile, compressive


Superscript T, P, L thermal, pressure, launch

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was kindly funded by Dr Charles Lee of the Air Force Scientific Office
of Research (AFSOR) and the Advanced Technology Program sponsored by the State
of Texas.
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