Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.

Module 2.2
What is Steam?

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.2.1
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

What is Steam?
A better understanding of the properties of steam may be achieved by understanding the general
molecular and atomic structure of matter, and applying this knowledge to ice, water and steam.
A molecule is the smallest amount of any element or compound substance still possessing all the
chemical properties of that substance which can exist. Molecules themselves are made up of even
smaller particles called atoms, which define the basic elements such as hydrogen and oxygen.
The specific combinations of these atomic elements provide compound substances. One such
compound is represented by the chemical formula H2O, having molecules made up of two atoms
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
The reason water is so plentiful on the earth is because hydrogen and oxygen are amongst the
most abundant elements in the universe. Carbon is another element of significant abundance,
and is a key component in all organic matter.
Most mineral substances can exist in the three physical states (solid, liquid and vapour) which are
referred to as phases. In the case of H2O, the terms ice, water and steam are used to denote the
three phases respectively.
The molecular structure of ice, water, and steam is still not fully understood, but it is convenient to
consider the molecules as bonded together by electrical charges (referred to as the hydrogen
bond). The degree of excitation of the molecules determines the physical state (or phase) of
the substance.

Triple point
All the three phases of a particular substance can only coexist in equilibrium at a certain temperature
and pressure, and this is known as its triple point.
The triple point of H2O, where the three phases of ice, water and steam are in equilibrium, occurs
at a temperature of 273.16 K and an absolute pressure of 0.006 112 bar. This pressure is very
close to a perfect vacuum. If the pressure is reduced further at this temperature, the ice, instead of
melting, sublimates directly into steam.

Ice
In ice, the molecules are locked together in an orderly lattice type structure and can only vibrate.
In the solid phase, the movement of molecules in the lattice is a vibration about a mean bonded
position where the molecules are less than one molecular diameter apart.
The continued addition of heat causes the vibration to increase to such an extent that some
molecules will eventually break away from their neighbours, and the solid starts to melt to a liquid
state (always at the same temperature of 0°C whatever the pressure).
Heat that breaks the lattice bonds to produce the phase change while not increasing the temperature
of the ice, is referred to as enthalpy of melting or heat of fusion. This phase change phenomenon
is reversible when freezing occurs with the same amount of heat being released back to the
surroundings.
For most substances, the density decreases as it changes from the solid to the liquid phase.
However, H2O is an exception to this rule as its density increases upon melting, which is why ice
floats on water.

2.2.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

Water
In the liquid phase, the molecules are free to move, but are still less than one molecular diameter
apart due to mutual attraction, and collisions occur frequently. More heat increases molecular
agitation and collision, raising the temperature of the liquid up to its boiling temperature.
Enthalpy of water, liquid enthalpy or sensible heat (hf) of water
This is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of water from a datum point of 0°C to
its current temperature.
At this reference state of 0°C, the enthalpy of water has been arbitrarily set to zero. The enthalpy
of all other states can then be identified, relative to this easily accessible reference state.
Sensible heat was the term once used, because the heat added to the water produced a change in
temperature. However, the accepted terms these days are liquid enthalpy or enthalpy of water.
At atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), water boils at 100°C, and 419 kJ of energy are required to
heat 1 kg of water from 0°C to its boiling temperature of 100°C. It is from these figures that the
value for the specific heat capacity of water (Cp) of 4.19 kJ /kg °C is derived for most calculations
between 0°C and 100°C.

Steam
As the temperature increases and the water approaches its boiling condition, some molecules
attain enough kinetic energy to reach velocities that allow them to momentarily escape from the
liquid into the space above the surface, before falling back into the liquid.
Further heating causes greater excitation and the number of molecules with enough energy to
leave the liquid increases. As the water is heated to its boiling point, bubbles of steam form within
it and rise to break through the surface.
Considering the molecular structure of liquids and vapours, it is logical that the density of steam is
much less than that of water, because the steam molecules are further apart from one another.
The space immediately above the water surface thus becomes filled with less dense steam molecules.
When the number of molecules leaving the liquid surface is more than those re-entering,
the water freely evaporates. At this point it has reached boiling point or its saturation temperature,
as it is saturated with heat energy.
If the pressure remains constant, adding more heat does not cause the temperature to rise any
further but causes the water to form saturated steam. The temperature of the boiling water and
saturated steam within the same system is the same, but the heat energy per unit mass is much
greater in the steam.
At atmospheric pressure the saturation temperature is 100°C. However, if the pressure is increased,
this will allow the addition of more heat and an increase in temperature without a change of phase.
Therefore, increasing the pressure effectively increases both the enthalpy of water, and the saturation
temperature. The relationship between the saturation temperature and the pressure is known as
the steam saturation curve (see Figure 2.2.1).

400
300
Temperature °C

200
Steam saturation curve
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Pressure bar g
Fig. 2.2.1 Steam saturation curve

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.2.3
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

Water and steam can coexist at any pressure on this curve, both being at the saturation temperature.
Steam at a condition above the saturation curve is known as superheated steam:
o Temperature above saturation temperature is called the degree of superheat of the steam.
o Water at a condition below the curve is called sub-saturated water.
If the steam is able to flow from the boiler at the same rate that it is produced, the addition of
further heat simply increases the rate of production. If the steam is restrained from leaving the
boiler, and the heat input rate is maintained, the energy flowing into the boiler will be greater than
the energy flowing out. This excess energy raises the pressure, in turn allowing the saturation
temperature to rise, as the temperature of saturated steam correlates to its pressure.
Enthalpy of evaporation or latent heat (hfg)
This is the amount of heat required to change the state of water at its boiling temperature, into
steam. It involves no change in the temperature of the steam /water mixture, and all the energy is
used to change the state from liquid (water) to vapour (saturated steam).
The old term latent heat is based on the fact that although heat was added, there was no change
in temperature. However, the accepted term is now enthalpy of evaporation.
Like the phase change from ice to water, the process of evaporation is also reversible. The same
amount of heat that produced the steam is released back to its surroundings during condensation,
when steam meets any surface at a lower temperature.
This may be considered as the useful portion of heat in the steam for heating purposes, as it is that
portion of the total heat in the steam that is extracted when the steam condenses back to water.
Enthalpy of saturated steam, or total heat of saturated steam
This is the total energy in saturated steam, and is simply the sum of the enthalpy of water and
the enthalpy of evaporation.

KJ = KI KIJ Equation 2.2.1

Where:
hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg)
hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ /kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ /kg)
The enthalpy (and other properties) of saturated steam can easily be referenced using the tabulated
results of previous experiments, known as steam tables.

The saturated steam tables

The steam tables list the properties of steam at varying pressures. They are the results of actual
tests carried out on steam. Table 2.2.1 shows the properties of dry saturated steam at atmospheric
pressure - 0 bar g.
Table 2.2.1 Properties of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure
Saturation Enthalpy (energy) in kJ /kg Volume of dry
Pressure temperature Water Evaporation Steam saturated steam
bar g °C hf hfg hg m³ /kg
0 100 419 2 257 2 676 1.673

Example 2.2.1
At atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), water boils at 100°C, and 419 kJ of energy are required to heat
1 kg of water from 0°C to its saturation temperature of 100°C. Therefore the specific enthalpy of
water at 0 bar g and 100°C is 419 kJ /kg, as shown in the steam tables (see Table 2.2.2).
Another 2 257 kJ of energy are required to evaporate 1 kg of water at 100°C into 1 kg of steam at
100°C. Therefore at 0 bar g the specific enthalpy of evaporation is 2 257 kJ /kg, as shown in the
steam tables (see Table 2.2.2).

2.2.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

7KHUHIRUH 6SHFLILFHQWKDOS\RIVWHDPKJ 

KJ N-NJDWEDUJ
However, steam at atmospheric pressure is of a limited practical use. This is because it cannot be
conveyed under its own pressure along a steam pipe to the point of use.
Note: Because of the pressure /volume relationship of steam, (volume is reduced as pressure is
increased) it is usually generated in the boiler at a pressure of at least 7 bar g. The generation of
steam at higher pressures enables the steam distribution pipes to be kept to a reasonable size.
As the steam pressure increases, the density of the steam will also increase. As the specific volume
is inversely related to the density, the specific volume will decrease with increasing pressure.
Figure 2.2.2 shows the relationship of specific volume to pressure. This highlights that the greatest
change in specific volume occurs at lower pressures, whereas at the higher end of the pressure
scale there is much less change in specific volume.
1.8
1.6
1.4
Specific volume m³/kg

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Pressure bar g
Fig. 2.2.2 Steam pressure /specific volume relationship

The extract from the steam tables shown in Table 2.2.2 shows specific volume, and other data
related to saturated steam.
At 7 bar g, the saturation temperature of water is 170°C. More heat energy is required to raise its
temperature to saturation point at 7 bar g than would be needed if the water were at atmospheric
pressure. The table gives a value of 721 kJ to raise 1 kg of water from 0°C to its saturation temperature
of 170°C.
The heat energy (enthalpy of evaporation) needed by the water at 7 bar g to change it into steam
is actually less than the heat energy required at atmospheric pressure. This is because the specific
enthalpy of evaporation decreases as the steam pressure increases.
However, as the specific volume also decreases with increasing pressure, the amount of heat
energy transferred in the same volume actually increases with steam pressure.
Table 2.2.2 Extract from the saturated steam tables
Saturation Enthalpy kJ /kg Volume of dry
Pressure temperature Water Evaporation Steam saturated steam
bar g °C hf hfg hg m³ /kg
0 100 419 2 257 2 676 1.673
1 120 506 2 201 2 707 0.881
2 134 562 2 163 2 725 0.603
3 144 605 2 133 2 738 0.461
4 152 641 2 108 2 749 0.374
5 159 671 2 086 2 757 0.315
6 165 697 2 066 2 763 0.272
7 170 721 2 048 2 769 0.240

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.2.5
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

Dryness fraction
Steam with a temperature equal to the boiling point at that pressure is known as dry saturated
steam. However, to produce 100% dry steam in an industrial boiler designed to produce saturated
steam is rarely possible, and the steam will usually contain droplets of water.
In practice, because of turbulence and splashing, as bubbles of steam break through the water
surface, the steam space contains a mixture of water droplets and steam.
Steam produced in any shell-type boiler (see Block 3), where the heat is supplied only to the
water and where the steam remains in contact with the water surface, may typically contain
around 5% water by mass.
If the water content of the steam is 5% by mass, then the steam is said to be 95% dry and has a
dryness fraction of 0.95.
The actual enthalpy of evaporation of wet steam is the product of the dryness fraction (c) and the
specific enthalpy (hfg) from the steam tables. Wet steam will have lower usable heat energy than
dry saturated steam.

$FWXDOHQWKDOS\RIHYDSRUDWLRQ = KIJ χ Equation 2.2.2

Therefore:

$FWXDOWRWDOHQWKDOS\ = KI KIJ χ Equation 2.2.3

Because the specfic volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower than that of steam, the
droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible space. Therefore the specific volume of wet
steam will be less than dry steam:

$FWXDOVSHFLILFYROXPH = Y J χ Equation 2.2.4

Where vg is the specific volume of dry saturated steam.

Example 2.2.2
Steam at a pressure of 6 bar g having a dryness fraction of 0.94 will only contain 94% of the
enthalpy of evaporation of dry saturated steam at 6 bar g. The following calculations use figures
from steam tables:
$FWXDOWRWDOHQWKDOS\  N- NJ  N- NJ [
 N- NJ
$FWXDOVSHFLILFYROXPH  Pó NJ [
 Pó NJ

2.2.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

The steam phase diagram

The data provided in the steam tables can also be expressed in a graphical form. Figure 2.2.3
illustrates the relationship between the enthalpy and the temperature at various different pressures,
and is known as a phase diagram.
Critical Lines of
point constant
pressure
Liquid D
region

Saturated Saturated
Temperature

liquid line Two phase region vapour line

B c C
Superheat
region
A
hf hfg
Enthalpy
Fig. 2.2.3 Temperature enthalpy phase diagram

As water is heated from 0°C to its saturation temperature, its condition follows the saturated liquid
line until it has received all of its liquid enthalpy, hf, (A - B).
If further heat continues to be added, it then changes phase to saturated steam and continues to
increase in enthalpy while remaining at saturation temperature ,hfg, (B - C).
As the steam /water mixture increases in dryness, its condition moves from the saturated liquid
line to the saturated vapour line. Therefore at a point exactly halfway between these two states,
the dryness fraction (c) is 0.5. Similarly, on the saturated vapour line the steam is 100% dry.
Once it has received all of its enthalpy of evaporation, it reaches the saturated vapour line. If it
continues to be heated after this point, the temperature of the steam will begin to rise as superheat
is imparted (C - D).
The saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines enclose a region in which a steam /water mixture
exists - wet steam. In the region to the left of the saturated liquid line only water exists, and in the
region to the right of the saturated vapour line only superheated steam exists.
The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines meet is known as the critical
point. As the pressure increases towards the critical point the enthalpy of evaporation decreases,
until it becomes zero at the critical point. This suggests that water changes directly into saturated
steam at the critical point.
Above the critical point only gas may exist. The gaseous state is the most diffuse state in which the
molecules have an almost unrestricted motion, and the volume increases without limit as the
pressure is reduced.
The critical point is the highest temperature at which liquid can exist. Any compression at constant
temperature above the critical point will not produce a phase change.
Compression at constant temperature below the critical point however, will result in liquefaction
of the vapour as it passes from the superheated region into the wet steam region.
The critical point occurs at 374.15°C and 221.2 bar a for steam. Above this pressure the steam is
termed supercritical and no well-defined boiling point applies.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.2.7
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

Flash steam
The term ‘flash steam’ is traditionally used to describe steam issuing from condensate receiver
vents and open-ended condensate discharge lines from steam traps. How can steam be formed
from water without adding heat?
Flash steam occurs whenever water at high pressure (and a temperature higher than the saturation
temperature of the low-pressure liquid) is allowed to drop to a lower pressure. Conversely, if
the temperature of the high-pressure water is lower than the saturation temperature at the
lower pressure, flash steam cannot be formed. In the case of condensate passing through a
steam trap, it is usually the case that the upstream temperature is high enough to form flash
steam. See Figure 2.2.4.

Steam trap
Condensate at Condensate and
5 bar g flash steam at 0 bar g

Saturation temperature Saturation temperature

T1 of 159°C T2 is 100°C
Fig. 2.2.4 Flash steam formed because T1 > T2

Consider a kilogram of condensate at 5 bar g and a saturation temperature of 159°C passing

through a steam trap to a lower pressure of 0 bar g. The amount of energy in one kilogram
of condensate at saturation temperature at 5 bar g is 671 kJ. In accordance with the first law of
thermodynamics, the amount of energy contained in the fluid on the low-pressure side of the
steam trap must equal that on the high-pressure side, and constitutes the principle of
conservation of energy.
Consequently, the heat contained in one kilogram of low-pressure fluid is also 671 kJ.
However, water at 0 bar g is only able to contain 419 kJ of heat, subsequently there appears to be
an imbalance of heat on the low-pressure side of 671 – 419 = 252 kJ, which, in terms of the
water, could be considered as excess heat.
This excess heat boils some of the condensate into what is known as flash steam and the boiling
process is called flashing. Therefore, the one kilogram of condensate which existed as one kilogram
of liquid water on the high pressure side of the steam trap now partly exists as both water and
steam on the low-pressure side.
The amount of flash steam produced at the final pressure (P2) can be determined using
Equation 2.2.5:

KI DW3KI DW3 

3URSRUWLRQRIIODVKVWHDP = Equation 2.2.5
KIJ DW3

Where:
P1 = Initial pressure
P2 = Final pressure
hf = Liquid enthalpy (kJ /kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (kJ /kg)

2.2.8 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

Example 2.2.3 The case where the high pressure condensate temperature is higher than the
low pressure saturation temperature.
Consider a quantity of water at a pressure of 5 bar g, containing 671 kJ/kg of heat energy at its
saturation temperature of 159°C. If the pressure was then reduced down to atmospheric pressure
(0 bar g), the water could only exist at 100°C and contain 419 kJ/ kg of heat energy.
This difference of 671 - 419 = 252 kJ/kg of heat energy, would then produce flash steam at
atmospheric pressure.

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7RWDOIODVKVWHDP NJVWHDP NJZDWHURU

The proportion of flash steam produced can be thought of as the ratio of the excess energy to
the enthalpy of evaporation at the final pressure.

Example 2.2.4 The case where the high pressure condensate temperature is lower than the
low pressure saturation temperature.
Consider the same conditions as in Example 2.2.3, with the exception that the high-pressure
condensate temperature is at 90°C, that is, sub-cooled below the atmospheric saturation
temperature of 100°C. Note: It is not usually practical for such a large drop in condensate
temperature from its saturation temperature (in this case 159°C to 90°C); it is simply being used
to illustrate the point about flash steam not being produced under such circumstances.
In this case, the sub-saturated water table will show that the liquid enthalpy of one kilogram of
condensate at 5 bar g and 90°C is 377 kJ. As this enthalpy is less than the enthalpy of one
kilogram of saturated water at atmospheric pressure (419 kJ), there is no excess heat available to
produce flash steam. The condensate simply passes through the trap and remains in a liquid state
at the same temperature but lower pressure, atmospheric pressure in this case. See Figure 2.2.5.

Steam trap
Condensate at
5 bar g Condensate at 0 bar g

Sub-cooled Saturation temperature

temperature T2 is 100°C
T1 of 90°C
Fig. 2.2.5 No flash steam formed because T1 < T2

The vapour pressure of water at 90°C is 0.7 bar absolute. Should the lower condensate pressure
have been less than this, flash steam would have been produced.

The principles of conservation of energy and mass between two process states
The principles of the conservation of energy and mass allow the flash steam phenomenon to
be thought of from a different direction.
Consider the conditions in Example 2.2.3.
1 kg of condensate at 5 bar g and 159°C produces 0.112 kg of flash steam at atmospheric pressure.
This can be illustrated schematically in Figure 2.2.5. The total mass of flash and condensate
remains at 1 kg.

5 bar g 0 bar g
1 kg condensate 0.112 kg flash steam
159°C
0.888 kg condensate
Enthalpy 671 kJ

Fig. 2.2.6 The principle of energy conservation between two process states

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.2.9
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

The principle of energy conservation states that the total energy in the lower-pressure state must
equal the total energy in the higher-pressure state. Therefore, the amount of heat in the flash
steam and condensate must equal that in the initial condensate of 671 kJ.
Steam tables give the following information:
Total enthalpy of saturated water at atmospheric pressure (hf) = 419 kJ/kg
Total enthalpy in saturated steam at atmospheric pressure (hg) = 2 675 kJ/kg
Therefore, at the lower pressure state of 0 bar g,
Total enthalpy in the water = 0.888 kg x 419 kJ / kg = 372 kJ (A)
Total enthalpy in the steam = 0.112 kg x 2 675 kJ / kg = 299 kJ (B)
Total enthalpy in condensate and steam at the lower pressure = A + B = 671 kJ
Therefore, according to the steam tables, the enthalpy expected in the lower-pressure state is the
same as that in the higher-pressure state, thus proving the principle of conservation of energy.

2.2.10 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

Questions

1. If steam at 5 bar absolute has a dryness fraction of 0.96 what will be its specific enthalpy
of evaporation?
a| 2 002 kJ /kg ¨
b| 2 108 kJ /kg ¨
c| 2 195 kJ /kg ¨
d| 2 023 kJ /kg ¨

2. What is the volume of steam at 7 bar g having a dryness fraction of 0.95?

a| 0.252 m³ /kg ¨
b| 0.228 m³ /kg ¨
c| 0.240 m³ /kg ¨
d| 0.272 m³ /kg ¨

3. 500 kg /h of condensate at 7 bar g passes through a steam trap to atmospheric pressure.

How much flash steam will be released?
a| 252.54 kg /h ¨
b| 56.42 kg /h ¨
c| 73.73 kg /h ¨
d| 66.9 kg /h ¨

4. Referring to Question 3, how much condensate will be available to return to the boiler
feedtank?
a| 433 kg /h ¨
b| 500 kg /h ¨
c| 426.27 kg /h ¨
d| 443.58 kg /h ¨

5. Referring to Question 3 what will be the temperature of the condensate and flash
steam?
a| 170°C ¨
b| 165°C ¨
c| 100°C ¨
d| 175°C ¨

6. As steam pressure increases the enthalpy/m³:-

a| Remains the same ¨
b| Increases ¨
c| Reduces ¨

Answers
1: d, 2: b, 3: d, 4: a, 5: c, 6: b

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.2.11
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer What is Steam? Module 2.2

2.2.12 The Steam and Condensate Loop