Bakk 2 Trajectory Design in Terms of Stress Conditions in The Formation

Alexander Heger
Bakkalaurea Thesis
Trajectory design in terms of stress
conditions in the formation
Supervised by:
Approval date:
Date: 19/02/2009
Prof. Herbert Hofsttter

16th February 2009
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 7
Theory ............................................................................................................................................. 8
General terms, definitions, and models .......................................................................................................... 8
Stress ...................................................................................................................................................................................8
Normal stress and shear stress ..........................................................................................................................................8
Hydrostatic, deviatoric, and lithostatic stresses ...............................................................................................................12
Different types of faults and the according stress regimes .............................................................................................12
Determination of the four main stresses: .........................................................................................................................14
Strain ..................................................................................................................................................................................15
Modulus of elasticity ..........................................................................................................................................................16
Linear elasticity ..................................................................................................................................................................16
Viscous strain.....................................................................................................................................................................17
Elastoviscous, plastic, and viscoelastic rock behavior ....................................................................................................17
Homogeneous and inhomogeneous strain .....................................................................................................................19
Pure shear and simple shear............................................................................................................................................19
Rock failure ........................................................................................................................................................................20
The Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram .................................................................................................................................20
Rock mechanical properties .............................................................................................................................................22
Stress distribution around the borehole ...........................................................................................................................24
Rock failure due to excessive stresses ............................................................................................................................27
Applications of rock mechanics in drilling.............................................................................. 29

Wellbore-stability ........................................................................................................................................... 29
Improving Formation-Strength Tests................................................................................................................................29
Interpretation and analysis.....................................................................................................................................29
Test selection .........................................................................................................................................................31
Complications and considerations ........................................................................................................................32
Wellpath optimization .................................................................................................................................... 37

Use of data from offset wells.............................................................................................................................................37
Formation property analysis .............................................................................................................................................37
Pore pressure.........................................................................................................................................................37
In-situ stress magnitude and direction ..................................................................................................................37
Formation strength .................................................................................................................................................38
Wellbore stability analysis .................................................................................................................................................39
Wellbore stability model .........................................................................................................................................39
Wellpath optimization.............................................................................................................................................39
Applications of rock mechanics in production ...................................................................... 42

Fracture mechanics ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Strain energy......................................................................................................................................................................43
Hydraulic fracturing............................................................................................................................................................43
Sand control .................................................................................................................................................. 45

Causes for sand production ..............................................................................................................................................45
Sand control techniques ...................................................................................................................................................45
Sand production prediction ...............................................................................................................................................46
Subsidence.................................................................................................................................................... 47
Rock and reservoir compressibility...................................................................................................................................47
Subsidence ........................................................................................................................................................................49
Casing collapse and casing shear....................................................................................................................................50
Strategies to avoid loss of casing/tubular integrity...........................................................................................................53
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 54
References ................................................................................................................................... 55
List of Figures
Fig 1: Stress ellipse............................................................................................................................. 8
Fig 2: Normal stress and shear stress in 2D
Fig 3: Normal stress and shear stress in 3D ........ 8
Fig 4: Stress at a fault plane ............................................................................................................... 9

Fig 5: Stress at a bedding plane which is flexural slip folded .............................................................................. 9
Fig 6: Normal and shear stresses acting on a square....................................................................................... 9
Fig 7: System of forces acting on an infinitesimal cube .................................................................. 10
Fig 8: Stress tensor ........................................................................................................................... 10
Fig 10: Planes of maximum shear stress ........................................................................................ 11
Fig 9: Stress axial cross.................................................................................................................... 11
Fig 11: Hydrostatic and deviatoric stresses ..................................................................................... 12
Fig 12: Normal fault........................................................................................................................... 12
Fig 13: Reverse fault......................................................................................................................... 13
Fig 14: Strike-slip fault ...................................................................................................................... 13
Fig 15: Pressure gradient diagram2 ................................................................................................. 13
Fig 17: Dilation and distortion ........................................................................................................... 15
Fig 16: Strain ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Fig 18: Stress-strain curve................................................................................................................ 16
Fig 19: Elastoviscous rock behavior ................................................................................................ 17
Fig 20: Plastic rock behavior ............................................................................................................ 18
Fig 21: Viscoelastic rock behavior.................................................................................................... 18
Fig 22: Homogeneous and inhomogeneous strain......................................................................... 19
Fig 23: Pure shear ............................................................................................................................ 19
Fig 24: Simple shear ......................................................................................................................... 19
Fig 25: Planes of maximum shear stress ........................................................................................ 20
Fig 26: Mohr-Coulomb stress circle ................................................................................................. 21
Fig 27: Mohr failure envelope ........................................................................................................... 22
Fig 28:Uniaxial and triaxial test......................................................................................................... 22

Fig 29: Brazilian test.......................................................................................................................... 23
Fig 30: Stress-strain diagram ........................................................................................................... 23
Fig 31: Poissons ratio ...................................................................................................................... 23
Fig 32: Bulk modulus ........................................................................................................................ 24
Fig 33: Shear modulus ..................................................................................................................... 24
Fig 34: Primary and secondary stress flow3 .................................................................................... 24
Fig 35: Stream flow4.......................................................................................................................... 25
Fig 36: Stress distribution around a wellbore5 ................................................................................. 25
Fig 37: Circular hole in infinite plate ................................................................................................. 26
Fig 38: Hoop stresses ....................................................................................................................... 26
Fig 39: Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram ............................................................................................ 27
Fig 40: Fracture and breakout direction6 ......................................................................................... 27
Fig 41: Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram for failure5 .......................................................................... 28
Fig 42: Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram for surge and axial breakout............................................. 28
Fig 43: Borehole with stresses and pressures ................................................................................ 28
Fig 44: Pressure points of an FST ................................................................................................... 30
Fig 45: LOT tests...............................................................................................................................31
Fig 46: LOT tests...............................................................................................................................32
Fig 47: EMW vs. time diagram ......................................................................................................... 34
Fig 48: Internal external filter cake5 .................................................................................................. 35
Fig 49: Log data correlation of Poissons ratio and cohesion ......................................................... 38
Fig 50: Fault map of a Golf of Mexico prospect .............................................................................. 39
Fig 51: Drilling in direction of Hmax1 ................................................................................................ 40
Fig 52: Stress around the wellbore when drilling in direction of Hmax6 ......................................... 40
Fig 53: Stress around the wellbore when drilling in direction of hmin1 ........................................... 40
Fig 54: Drilling in direction of hmin6 .................................................................................................. 40
Fig 55: Contour plots of drilling margin ............................................................................................ 41
Fig 56: Trajectories of well A-1 and A-6........................................................................................... 41
Fig 57: Tensile and shear failure ...................................................................................................... 42

Fig 58: Fracture orientation .............................................................................................................. 42
Fig 59: Fracture toughness .............................................................................................................. 43
Fig 60: Gravel pack ........................................................................................................................... 45
Fig 61: Slotted liner ........................................................................................................................... 46
Fig 62: Formation compressibility diagram...................................................................................... 47
Fig 63: Hysteresis effect ................................................................................................................... 48
Fig 64: Pore volume compressibility diagram ................................................................................. 49
Fig 65: Influence of subsidence on pressure gradients .................................................................. 50
Fig 66: Deviated casing subjected to stress regime ....................................................................... 51
Fig 67: Casing bent due to compaction ........................................................................................... 51
Fig 68: Reactivation of faults ............................................................................................................ 52
Fig 69: Casing shear......................................................................................................................... 52
Fig 70: Radial deformation and axial load change .......................................................................... 53
Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation
Abstract
This bakkalaurea thesis is meant to give an overview about general terms, definitions, and
models in rock mechanics and the different applications in terms of optimum trajectory design
and problems encountered during a drilling operation with respect to the stress conditions in the
formation as well as the use of rock mechanics for production purposes. It should be mentioned
at this point that basic knowledge of mechanics and strength of materials is a prerequisite for
this thesis and assumed to be known from a person with technical background.
This thesis deals with stress in general, the different types of stress, the common way to
describe the stress state for a cube as a representative of soil, the stress distribution for the
most typical faults and the determination of the four main stresses in the formation.
Also contained are models for description of rock behavior and the different types of strain and
shear.
The Mohr-Coulomb modulus is introduced to describe rock failure and will be used in the
continuing chapters.
Rock properties and typical values are presented as well as the stress distribution around a
wellbore and typical types of failure.
With respect to drilling operations the different pressures of formation strength tests are
explained and a list of critical issues and recommendations that should be reminded to carry out
FSTs in an appropriate way is given.
The workflow and according advices to gather and generate the required data for an optimum
well path design are presented. There are also two examples contained which demonstrate the
need and success of appropriate well path design.
There is given a short overview about the stimulation process of fracturing, the principal
direction of fractures governed by the stress condition in the formation and evaluation of the
required pressures to carry out a fracturing job.
The problem of sand production is introduced and the main solutions for sand control are
presented. Three tensile failure models are mentioned but not discussed in any detail because
of the limited extent of this thesis.
The last chapter discusses the reasons for subsidence, casing collapse and casing shear, and
strategies to avoid loss of casing/tubular integrity.
Author: Alexander Heger
Page: 6
Introduction
Formation is the medium every petroleum engineer has to deal with and rock mechanics is the
discipline to describe its behavior. From my point of view at least a basic understanding of the
processes in terms of stress in the formation is an undeniable prerequisite for every petroleum
engineer if she/he takes her/his job serious. The whole exploration and production process is
governed by the stress conditions in the surrounding formation and tremendous amounts of
money have been spent due to disregard of rock-mechanical issues. As requirements for drilling
and production become higher and higher it is essential to have a good understanding of rock
behavior to push the limit and explore new frontiers.
This thesis should give an overview about general terms, definitions and models which are
essential for the use of rock mechanics for drilling and production purposes. It is structured in a
theory, drilling, and production part whereas it is recommended to read through the first part in
total to get the necessary background for the following chapters. Many pictures and diagrams
are used to visualize conditions and the main formulas are added. It was also an objective to
sensibilize the reader for the numerous variety of encountered problems according to stress in
the formation and applications of rock mechanics which provide solutions and predictions.
Unfortunately the extent of this thesis is limited thus a more detailed discussion of the single
parts is not possible. It should transport some basic understanding of the subject and the
mentioned terms and models should help for further research if more information is required.
Page: 7
Theory
General terms, definitions, and models
Stress
Stress () = Force/Area [pounds/square inch = psi, N/m = Pa]
The amount of stress is related to the quantity of applied force and the area it is subjected to.
F=m*a=m*dv/dt
Force (F) is the result of mass and its acceleration. Force has two main characteristics, its
magnitude and direction thus it can be represented by a vector1. In general a force subjected to
a body produces a change in its motion. If the body is hindered in its motion it becomes
stressed which means that force causes particle displacement and hence deformation. Applied
forces act on a body externally whereas body forces act on every point within the body.
The motion of a body subjected to a force can just be avoided by an opposite compensating
force. Thus in the case of non-isotropy the representative geometrical figure is elliptic shaped.
1 = maximum compression
2 = compression, zero or tension
3 = minimum compression or tension
Fig 1: Stress ellipse
Normal stress and shear stress
A force acting perpendicular on a plain is called a normal force whereas a force acting parallel to
a surface is called a shear stress. In general the symbol for normal stress is (sigma) and for
shear stress it is (tau). Shear stress is also named tangential stress. In three dimensions can
be separated into two components which are perpendicular to each other. A force F is
subdivided into two mutually perpendicular stresses in the case of two dimensions and three
mutually perpendicular stresses when three dimensions are used.
Page: 8
To compare stresses it is useful to convert them into forces by multiplying them by the area they
are subjected to. Normal and shear stresses can also be illustrated easily in simple geological
structures.
Fig 4: Stress at a fault plane
Fig 5: Stress at a bedding plane which is flexural slip folded
The force F can be divided into normal and shear stresses by simple use of sinus and cosinus.
Normal and shear stress in two dimensions
The stresses acting on a two dimensional x-y square plain with no translational or rotational
force acting on it are:
Fig 6: Normal and shear stresses acting on a square

Page: 9
When no translational or rotational force is acting on the square, all shear stresses are equal.
xy = yx
The applied terminology uses for ij the first subscript (i) as the axis normal to the actual surface
and the second subscript (j) as the direction of the force. The subscripts can also be 1, 2 and 3
which stand for the x, y and z axis.
May the best way to represent stress about a point is the use of a tensor. In three dimensions
we must imagine a system of forces acting on an infinitesimal cube. All forces can be reduced
to one force acting at the center of the cube. Six planes of a cube with three forces each plane
ends up with 18 stresses for such a volume element.
Fig 7: System of forces acting on an infinitesimal cube
The illustration shows a cube with parallel edges to the orthogonal axes x, y, and c, and the
according stresses acting on the cube. In sum there are nine stress components (the opposite
forces has to be equal, accounting also for them there would give 18 as mentioned before),
three on each face.
Fig 8: Stress tensor
Because per definition stress does not include any rotation of the cube, the opposing shear
stresses about the three axes must balance. Thus:
xy = yx, xz = zx and yz = zy
This prerequisite causes that six independent stresses (x, y, z, xy, yz, zx) are needed to
quantify completely the stress system at a point.
Page: 10
Principal stresses
Normal stresses on planes where shear stresses are zero are called principal stresses. The
principal stress planes are the three planes which are perpendicular to each other and on which
shear stresses are zero. The normal axes according to them are the principal stress aces and
given by convention the notation 1, 2, and 3 with sigma one larger than sigma two and sigma
two larger than sigma three, also named greatest, intermediate, and least principal stress. To
specify a stress condition in total it is sufficient to quantify the direction and magnitude of the
three principal stresses.
1 = max, often = v (vertical stress)

2 = int, often = H (maximum horizontal stress)
3 = min often = h (minimum horizontal stress)
Fig 9: Stress axial cross
Maximum shear stress

For logical reasons the maximum shear stresses will appear at an angle of 45 to a pair of
principal stresses and intersect the third principal stress. Thus there are three possibilities to
arrange this circumstance for three principal stresses.
Fig 10: Planes of maximum shear stress
Effective stresses
Reservoir rock has pores which are filled with one or more fluids. The force acting on a volume
of rock is opposed by the pore fluid as well as by the rock matrix. The pore pressure is
hydrostatic and acts in all directions whereas the sum of the pore pressure and the matrix stress
must be equal to the total stress acting on the rock. The stress carried by the rock matrix is
called effective stress (introduces by Terzaghi 1923), which is the total stress minus the pore
pressure. To distinguish between total and effective stress, latter is noted with a prime ()
symbol.
'OB = OB pore
Page: 11
Hydrostatic, deviatoric, and lithostatic stresses

The definition of hydrostatic stress state is used for a stress condition where the principal
stresses are equal as for a fluid. Shear stresses are zero and there will be no change of shape
but of volume. If the stress state is not hydrostatic, a mean stress P (P = (1 + 2 + 3 ) / 3 )can
be calculated as a representative for the hydrostatic stress. The remaining part of the stress
system is called the deviatoric stress component and can be evaluated as 1 P, 2 P, and 3
P. Deviatoric stresses count for the variation from symmetry and are responsible for the
amount of shape change in a body. In comparison the hydrostatic stress component is the
factor for change in volume. If the stresses for a rock in depth are hydrostatic they are called
lithostatic. The effects of hydrostatic and deviatoric stresses are explained in the two following
examples. In case A. hydrostatic forces reason a change in volume and in case B. deviatoric
stresses cause a change in shape.
Fig 11: Hydrostatic and deviatoric stresses
Different types of faults and the according stress regimes

Normal fault
Fig 12: Normal fault
Gravity is the main driving force for normal faulting. The hanging wall moves downward relative
to the footwall.
Page: 12
Reverse fault
Fig 13: Reverse fault
Due to reverse faults the maximum principal stress (1) is a horizontal one and the minimum
principal stress (3) is vertical. The main mechanism behind reverse faulting is compression.
Strike-slip fault
Fig 14: Strike-slip fault
In strike-slip faults 1 and 3 are horizontal and 2 is orientated vertically. Blocks tend to slide
laterally in strike-slip faulting.
Pore pressure and tectonics
Pore pressure in porous rocks can normally be calculated with p=r*g*h, so hydrostatic pressure
with a value around 0.433 to 0.465 psi/ft. Subnormal pore pressures can be the result of a trap
which is gas or/and oil-filled due to a density difference of oil and gas compared to water.
Fig 15: Pressure gradient diagram2
Page: 13
Pore pressure as well as formation pressure can also be increased due to directed dynamic
tectonic pressure as long as the system stays closed and does not rupture. Tectonic pressure
can be increased by gravity sliding, thrusting, and salt, mud, and shale tectonics, causing 2
unequal 3 and so deviatoric stress. This is especially the case in compressional environments.
Over-pressured reservoirs can be the result of artesian or structural effects, differential
compaction, rapid deposition and burial of sediments, and diagenesis which could be clay
dehydration.
Determination of the four main stresses:

1. vertical (overburden) maximum stress (1)
2. reservoir (pore) pressure (Pi)
3. intermediate horizontal stress (2=H)
4. fracture pressure minimum stress (3=h)
Vertical stress
The vertical (overburden) stress (1) can be determined by bulk density wire line log, gravity
meters, seismic velocity analysis or rules of thumb.
Vertical stress calculation
vertical = (z)*g*dz acerage*g*z

Water depth consideration
vertical = w*g*zw + (z)*g*dz acerage, w*g*zw + *g*z

Reservoir (pore) pressure
The reservoir pressure can be obtained by pressure transient techniques like wire line formation
testers or measurement/logging while drilling (MWD/LWD).
Intermediate horizontal stress
The evaluation of the maximum horizontal stress is difficult and can just be done with some
degree of accuracy if the other stresses are known and if information of the direction and extend
of break-outs and/or fractures on offset wells is available. This information is further on used for
stress-inversion techniques.
Rough approximation for effective horizontal compressive stress
h =[ / (1 ) ]*(v p)
= Poissons Ratio
The minimum horizontal stress is of great importance because it is the FIP (fracture initiation
pressure) as well as the stress that propping agents have to withstand to keep the fracture
open. It can also be evaluated by a formation strength test like a leakoff test.
Page: 14
Strain
Strain is the geometrical expression of the quantity of deformation caused by a stress regime on
a body. This change can be present in terms of a change in shape (distortion), volume (dilation)
or both.
= L/L0
= (l2 l1)/l1
Fig 16: Strain
Rocks are defined (from Bates and Jackson) as brittle if they fracture at less than 3-5%
deformation, whereas rocks are defined as ductile if they are able to withstand, under a given
set of conditions, 5-10% deformation without fracturing or faulting.
Dilation and distortion

Strain can be dilation, distortion, and rotation. It is useful to describe the distortion in terms of a
non-rotational shape change and a rotational part.
Fig 17: Dilation and distortion
Page: 15
Modulus of elasticity
If a material behaves elastic it returns to its initial shape if stress is removed. When stress
exceeds the so called yield point, the material is required too much and departs from linearity. In
this non-linear zone of the stress-strain curve deformation is plastic and the material will not
return to its original shape when stress is released. An important property of material is its
modulus (stretch ability) which is defined as stress divided by strain.
Fig 18: Stress-strain curve
These assumptions are just valid for isotropic materials whereas for non-isotropic materials
modulus tensor analysis is required.
Linear elasticity
If the elasticity of a material behaves in a linear way, Hookes law can be applied which means
that the magnitude of distortion is directly linear proportional to the magnitude of the distorting
force, and their directions are the same.
= E*
= axial stress
= axial strain
E = Youngs Modulus (modulus of elasticity)
Page: 16
Viscous strain
Ideal viscous strain means no recovery after removal of the deforming stress so all the
movement is remaining. Ideal viscous or also called Newtonian behavior is explained by the
flow of fluids. The according formula is
= *
(eta) = a viscous constant
= strain rate (rate of change in shape with time)
In the case of linear viscous strain the relationship between stress and strain rate is linear. The
higher the stress the faster the deformation will appear. The total strain depends on the
magnitude of the stress and the duration of time it is acting. Stress=viscosity * strain rate. For a
constant stress situation, the strain is increasing in a linear manner with time (t).
e=*t/
Elastoviscous, plastic, and viscoelastic rock behavior

In rocks ideal and viscous behavior are combined. A simple approximation to the total strain at
constant stress is:
e = /E (elastic component) + *t/ (viscous component)

Elastoviscous material behaves mainly like viscous but elastically if stress is applied for a short
duration (e.g. tar).
Fig 19: Elastoviscous rock behavior
Page: 17
Plastic materials show at low stress values an elastic behavior but act perfectly viscous beyond
a certain critical stress level called yield point. The inelastic strain above the yield point is called
plasticity. Plastic deformation is permanent but excludes failure or rapture of the material.
Fig 20: Plastic rock behavior
A material is defined as viscoelastic if its strain behaves elastic for a given stress but which
takes a certain time to reach its limiting value. If stress is removed the material does not return
to its unstrained state but has a delay in its recovery of elastic strain. Most of the rocks exhibit
viscoelastic behavior at low stress values.
Fig 21: Viscoelastic rock behavior
Page: 18
Homogeneous and inhomogeneous strain

If strain is equal in all directions it is called homogeneous and straight lines must remain straight
and parallel ones parallel. In the case of inhomogeneous (heterogeneous) strain, the strain is
unequal in different parts of the body and so parallel lines become non-parallel and straight lines
become curved.
Fig 22: Homogeneous and inhomogeneous strain
Pure shear and simple shear

Pure share is defined as deformation with no change in orientation of the principal strains, x, y,
and z (non-rotational).
Fig 23: Pure shear
When change in orientation appears the deformation is known as simple shear (rotational).
Fig 24: Simple shear
It is favorable to describe strain with a distortional component measuring the elliptic shape and a
rotational component determining the rotation of the principle strain axes from their initial
unstrained position.
Page: 19
Rock failure
Brittle failure stress conditions
The case when rock fails under brittle deformation is called brittle failure. The stress conditions
at the point of failure involve hydrostatic pressure and shear stress. If failure appears under
triaxial compression two sets of planar shear fractures are formed that intersect in a line parallel
to the intermediate principle stress axis (2). The acute angle between the shear fractures is
bisected by the maximum principle stress (1). The fracture planes are not related to the
maximum shear planes which have an angle of 45 with 1. The angle between the two fracture
planes is assumed to be 2 (=) so the difference between this acute angle and the angle
between the maximum shear stresses (2*45) can be calculated with
(Beta) or (phi) = 90 - 2
The angle phi is the angle of internal friction which is an inherent material property.
Fig 25: Planes of maximum shear stress
Categories of peak strength criterion are Drucker Prager (van Mises) which is a function of 1,
2, and 3 and a linear criterion, Mohr-Coulomb which is a function of 1 and 3 and also a linear
criterion, Pariseau which is a function of 1, 2, and 3 and a non-linear criterion, and HoekBrown which is a function of 1 and 3 and also a non-linear criterion. Other categories would be
Griffith, Lade, and Tresca to name some.
The Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram

Yielding or fracturing is assumed to appear when the cohesive strength of the material and the
frictional resistance is outreached by the acting shear stresses. The Mohr stress diagram offers
a simply way to represent the relationship of shear stress, hydrostatic pressure (normal stress),
and the angle of failure at the point of failure in a two dimensional manner. States of stresses
are illustrated by circles which centers and radii can be easily determined by simple geometrical
calculations. The center can be evaluated with
(1 + 3)/2
which is also the mean stress or hydrostatic component and the radius can be determined with
(1 - 3)/2
1 > 2 = 3
The normal and shear stress on a plain with failure angle () to the plain of the major principal
stress and perpendicular to the plain of the intermediate principal stress can be calculated by
the following equations.
Page: 20
n = * (1 + 3) * (1 - 3) * cos (2) or sin ()

R = * (1 - 3) * sin (2) or cos ()
additional equations for the Mohr stress diagram
Cohesion:
0 = n * tan ()
Navier-Coulomb equation:
= 0 + n * tan ()
max shear stress at failure condition:
max = (1 - 3)/2
~ 45 - /2, = 90 - 2
shear stress at failure:
coefficient of internal friction:
R = * (1 - 3) * sin (2) or cos ()

tan () = /
for rocks: 10 <= <= 50, most common ~ 30
Fig 26: Mohr-Coulomb stress circle
Page: 21
When the shear stress is increased to reach failure, the hydrostatic pressure has to be
increased as well. In general it can be stated that the shear stress acting along the fracture plain
to induce failure is counteracted by the compressive stress acting across the fracture with the
tendency to close the crack and to avoid failure of the rock. On the left side of the shear stress
axis tensile stress is represented. It can be seen that a rock without any cohesion cant take any
tensile stress without failure and that for rocks with cohesion the amount of tensile stress which
can be withstood is much smaller compared to the strength against compression. The overall
shearing resistance of an isotropic material is governed by the cohesive strength and the
product of the effective normal stress across the failure plain and a coefficient of internal friction.
total shearing resistance = 0 + n * tan ()

The use of the Navier-Coulomb equation is a simplification for easier handling of the Mohr stress
diagram. In reality the straight line is an envelope which is named Mohr failure envelope. It
connects the points of failure for different stress conditions and divides the stable stress state
from the area of failure.
Fig 27: Mohr failure envelope
Another more realistic approach is the Griffith Failure Criterion, which is based on the concept of
failure due to propagation and linking of very small defects in a material known as Griffith
Cracks, but this concept is not widely used in the petroleum industry.
Rock mechanical properties

Compressive Strength (C)
Compressive strength is the ability to withstand stresses.
Uniaxial (unconfined) compressive strength (C0)

C0 = amax (psi)
Triaxial (biaxial) compressive strength (C)

C(3) = amax (3) (psi)
Typical values (psi)

Igneous/metamorphic rocks
>80,000
Sedimentary rocks
10,000 - 80,000
Soft sediments
<10,000
Fig 28:Uniaxial and triaxial test
Page: 22
Tensile Strength (T0)

Maximum tensile stress a material can handle before failure. There are direct tension tests (Dog
Bone Test, Burst (expandable packer) Test) and indirect tension tests (Brazilian Test) applied.
Brazilian (indirect) tension
T0 = 2P/td (psi)
t = thickness
d = diameter
Typical values (psi)

>30,000
Sedimentary rocks
500 - 3,500
Soft sediments
<500
Fig 29: Brazilian test
Youngs Modulus (E)

The Youngs Modulus is the slope of the straight-line on stress-strain curve and exhibits the
resistance of rock to elastic deformation so the rocks stiffness. If the body behaves elastic there
is a proportional relationship of stress to strain
(Hookes Law).
The Youngs Modulus is defined as the required
stress to achieve a given amount of length parallel
elastic shortening:
E = / (psi)
(F/A)/(L/L0)
Typical values (psi * 10^6)

8 15
Sedimentary rocks
2-8
Soft sediments
<2
Fig 30: Stress-strain diagram
Poissons Ratio ()
The Poissons Ratio is the degree to which rock
bulges as it shortens in other words it is the ratio
of lateral to longitudinal strain.
= lat/long
Typical values
0.01-0.11
Sedimentary rocks
0.11-0.35
Soft sediments
0.30-0.40
Rubber
0.50
Fig 31: Poissons ratio
Page: 23
Bulk Modulus (K)

The inverse of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility (k) of the material.
K = / (3*(1 - 2)
(F/A)/ (/0)
Fig 32: Bulk modulus
Shear Modulus (S) or (G)

The shear modulus is related to the rigidity.
S = / (2*(1+)
(F/A)/(L/L0)
Fig 33: Shear modulus
Stress distribution around the borehole

If a well is drilled the stress conditions in the formation near the wellbore are changed drastically.
The initial stress flow has to bend around the borehole which induces high hoop/tangential
stresses.
Fig 34: Primary and secondary stress flow3
Page: 24
Fig 35: Stream flow4
For a vertical well the stress distribution will look like this:
Fig 36: Stress distribution around a wellbore5
Page: 25
The radial and hoop stresses as well as the shear stress at failure at any point of investigation
can be calculated with the following formulas4 (assumed no wellbore-fluid present):
r = * (x + y)*(1 ) + * (x y)*(1 + 34 - 42) * cos (2)

= * (x + y )*(1 + ) - * (x y)*(1 + 34) * cos (2)
R = - * (x y)*( 1 - 34 + 22) * sin (2)
where = a/r
If there is no wellbore-fluid present as assumed the radial stress at the borehole-wall is zero ( =
1 r = 0)
.
Fig 37: Circular hole in infinite plate
The maximum and minimum hoop/tangential stresses at the borehole-wall5 can be calculated
with:
tmax = * [z + + ((z - ) + 4R )0.5]

tmin = * [z + - ((z - ) + 4R )0.5]
Fig 38: Hoop stresses
Page: 26
The Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram can be utilized to represent the stress conditions of a
wellbore.
Fig 39: Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram
Rock failure due to excessive stresses

Insufficient mud weight can cause a failure of the rock with the result of breakouts4. Classical
breakouts are in direction of the minimum horizontal stress.
Classical breakout:
1 = - Pp
3 = Pb Pp
Fig 40: Fracture and breakout direction6
Page: 27
Fig 41: Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram for failure5
Two other types of breakout are possible which are surge and axial breakouts4. These are
oriented in the direction of the maximum horizontal stress.
Surge breakout:
1 = Pb Pp
3 = Pp
Fig 43: Borehole with stresses and pressures
Fig 42: Mohr-Coulomb stress diagram for surge and axial breakout
Axial breakout:
1 = v - Pp
3 = Pp
Another type of failure is due to excessive borehole-pressure which reasons fracturing of the
formation. This effect is used in fracturing operations for the purpose of stimulation.
Tensile hydraulic fracture:
3 = Pp
3 <= tensile strength of the rock
Page: 28
Applications of rock mechanics in drilling

Wellbore-stability
Improving Formation-Strength Tests
In terms of wellbore-stability the verification of pressure integrity of casing and nearby formation7
is one main objective during a drilling operation, moreover because in general there are
regulations of the government to have a minimum integrity proven before a well is drilled. This
process including the decisions on mud weight, kick tolerance, and setting depth of the next
casing is based on formation-strength tests (FSTs) like leakoff tests (LOTs) or formationintegrity tests (FITs).
The FSTs carried out at the moment are of poor quality and accuracy because of reasons like
use of high compressible synthetic or oil based mud, poorly understood formation-stress and
strength behavior or just because of poor data capturing e.g. due to use of hand-generated
plots. This inadequate working leads to sever wellbore-stability problems especially when tight
drilling margins are present.
FITs are applied after the casing is set and cemented and before a new hole-section is drilled.
First of all there is the need to drill through the casing shoe and a sufficient length of formation
(10-20 ft) to get access to the environment which is going to be tested. Continuing the BOP
closes the annulus and the well is pressured up slowly by injecting mud. The purposes of the
test are to prove the strength of the cement shoe and so to ensure that neither a flow path to
upper formations nor a connection to the previous annulus is present, test the capability of the
formation to withstand additional pressure like encountered during a well control operation (e.g.
circulating out a kick) which is necessary to drill the next hole section safely, and to collect data
on formation strength and in-situ stresses that can be used for wellbore-stability and lost
circulation predictions for the present as well as for future wells.
Interpretation and analysis

There is still much erroneous information on FST around so the following will be a section on
test interpretation and analysis.
Fig.44 can be used as a guideline presenting the different pressure responses during various
FIT types. The pressure-points are:
LP=limit pressure (jug pressure). This is the highest pressure reached during a limit test (jug
test). It will not reach the fracture-initiation pressure (FIP) on the linear part of the pressure-vs.volume (or vs. Time when the volume is pumped at a constant rate) curve that characterizes
elastic compression of mud, drill string, casing, and openhole.
FIP=fracture-initiation pressure, also named leakoff pressure (LOP). It indicates the point at
which the pressure-build up curve starts to deviate from straight line behavior. The FIP
produces a near-wellbore fracture that causes a change in stiffness of the pressure system.
PSP=pump-stop pressure. LOTs would in general be stopped at this pressure. This pressure
point is still in the range of stable fracture propagation which means that it would need additional
pressure to continue the growth of the near-wellbore fracture. It has to be stated that the growth
of the near wellbore fracture would mainly appear in width. An eye should be kept on the
pressure for the purpose of not reaching the uncontrolled fracture pressure (UFP) or fracturepropagation pressure (FPP), which would result in uncontrolled fracture growth. PSP is normally
the highest pressure encountered during an LOT and the according equivalent mud weight is
usually reported to the regulatory authorities as the strength of the casing shoe. It is important to
note that the characterization of formation strength at the casing shoe during an LOT is not a
proper definition; the test characterizes near-wellbore stress as well as formation tensile
Page: 29
strength whereas the formation tensile strength normally makes just a small contribution. A
more accurate term would may be formation stress at the casing shoe-test.
Fig 44: Pressure points of an FST
Page: 30
UFP=uncontrolled fracture pressure. When this pressure is reached enough energy is stored in
the fracture that it grows uncontrollable predominant in length (tens to thousands of feet). At this
point the casing shoe will have suffered severe damage as well as the damage to the nearwellbore stress state, loss of formation strength, and created fractures may cause the disability
to continue the well as long as the casing shoe is not repaired by cement squeeze or similar
treatments. For logical reasons it is highly recommended not to exceed the UFP.
FPP=fracture-propagation pressure. At this point uncontrolled fracture propagation takes place.
It can be equal to UFP, but also significantly lower. Again it is not recommended to reach this
pressure during an FIT cause fracture damage to the formation will grow exponentially.
ISIP=instantaneous shut-in pressure. The pressure reached immediately after shut-in.
FCP=fracture-closure pressure. It is of high importance to know this certain pressure, although it
is sometimes hard to discover. FCP can be equalized with the minimum horizontal stress
(MHS), an important parameter. To determine the FCP the pressure has to be plotted vs. time
during shut-in or pressure vs. volume during backflow sequence, where the last procedure is
the more accurate but also more demanding one. The objective is to identify the point of
inflection on the pressure vs. time or the pressure vs. volume curve. It indicates a change in
stiffness of the pressure system. Fig.45 shows examples of MHS evaluation in backflow and
shut-in applications.
Fig 45: LOT tests
FRP=fracture-reopening pressure. When repeating a LOT due to the produced formation

damage of the previous LOT (loss of tensile strength, breakdown of near-wellbore hoop stress)
the fracture will reopen usually at a lower pressure than the original FIP and close or equal to
the FCP.
Test selection
With the knowledge and understanding of the different pressure points in an FST it becomes
possible to make the right choice of test for different applications.
For most of the cases it is recommended to use a continuous pump- in LOT. If there is the case
of an exploratory or appraisal well in unknown pressure/stress regimes it is a must to define the
fracture gradient, available drilling margins, and kick tolerance for the next section to drill. One
should try to get as much information as possible also for the use in geomechanical and
borehole-stability modeling for following wells.
In the case of a permeable formation at the shoe it makes more sense to apply a pump-andhold, or stepped LOT. The reason for this is, that the pressure build-up curve would not be
linear from the start due to mud loss through the filter cake into the permeable formation. This
Page: 31
unfavorable behavior makes it very difficult or even impossible to indicate the FIP. Thus a
pump-and-hold test could help to be successful with this task.
The main principle is to measure the fluid loss to the formation which is more or less constant
under FIP. For gather the lost volume the pressure drop during the hold phases is used. As
soon as the FIP is reached a larger pressure drop will appear on the basis of larger fluid volume
lost. By comparing the maximum pumping pressure and the minimum holding pressure it could
be able to detect the FIP. Fig.46 expresses the statement in an example.
Fig 46: LOT tests
For production wells in mature fields with very precise known fracture gradients and for wells
where a number of cement squeezes have not been successful to rise the FIP (low formation
strength or cement channel which is plugged and easily broken again) a limit test or jug test
should may be preferred, cause a LOT always induces a formation damage (although damage
can heal over time, particularly when in use of a dispersive water-based mud). Compared to a
LOT a properly done limit test will not produce any formation damage.
In general it can be stated that the reduction in formation strength does not automatically result
in operational problems. The experience proves that as long as the applied pressure during
drilling is kept in the range of stable fracture growth (i.e., the range in which the PSP is
identified) the well can be deepened without sever difficulties. Minor mud losses and fracture
breathing can occur due to the opening and closing of small near-wellbore fractures when
equivalent circulating density (ECD) is used in the stable fracture growth range. It is still of
importance to realize that for low-margin wells it is inevitable to exploit the stable fracturepropagation range if it is the case that FIPs and FRPs are too low to drill a section. Fig.45 shows
the results of a LOT test for a deepwater-well in the Gulf of Mexico which could not have been
drilled without fully exploiting the stable fracture-propagation range.
Complications and considerations

The impact of Mud Compressibility, Thermal Expansion, and Sag
The usual way to record data from an FST is to use the mud weight and the pressures
measured at the surface. If the used mud density is not corrected due to mud compressibility,
thermal expansion, and sagging of weighting material the fracture gradient will be incorrect and
so can cause trouble in low-margin drilling applications. The three mentioned effects are a
Page: 32
depending on the mud type in use whereas oil-based and synthetic based mud are more
critical than water-based mud.
In deepwater wells with low temperatures downhole the predominant effect is the mud
compressibility which induces normally a higher density on bottom in comparison with surface
conditions. Unfortunately the increase in density follows a non-linear behavior and is a function
of pressure and temperature.
Still the hydraulic-simulation packages of the major drilling fluid suppliers are accurate also
including the compressibility-effect.
In high-pressure/high-temperature wells the expansion of the drilling mud as a result of
increasing temperature is the dominating effect, which compensates the compression due to
pressure downhole and leads to a mud density effectively lower than on surface. As well as
compressibility the thermal expansion is a function of pressure and temperature too.
Sagging appears when the weighting material can no longer be suspended. This can happen
due to contamination when mud which is not conditioned for it gets in contact with cement or
spacers. Normally the weighting material settles out of the mud column and produces a loss of
bottomhole pressure. If weighting material is originally placed in an upper lager diameter hole
section and travels downwards into a smaller deviated hole section it can cause an increase in
bottomhole pressure. For logical reasons the mud should be conditioned and circulated before
an FST is executed so that sagging cannot appear.
To summarize the points mentioned above, it is of great importance to include the three effects
on mud density downhole which are compressibility, thermal expansion, and sag if surface mud
weight (surface) and surface pressures (PFST) are used.
C,TE,S can either be positive or negative. Another chance to get downhole is to directly measure it
from a pumps off static-mud pressure reading when using a PWD tool.
The impact of Gel Strength
By the use of downhole data recording during FSTs it was realized , that the assumed pressure
downhole was not present but lower. For example in Fig.47 it can be seen, that for the given
circumstances the downhole-pressure is 241 psi lower than the surface pressure. The pressure
applied at surface does not fully act at the casing shoe. It is obvious that this effect will cause an
overestimation of the drilling margin and leads to sever problems while drilling the next section.
Page: 33
Fig 47: EMW vs. time diagram
The reason for this pressure difference is the thixotropic behavior of the mud so its gel strength.
Fortunately the pressure loss related to this effect can be calculated by
Pgel is the pressure loss (psi), Lmud is the length of the mud column (ft), G10 min is the 10-minute
gel strength of the mud (lbf/100 ft), and Do and Di are outer and inner diameter (in.) of the drill
pipe or annulus holding the mud column.
To account for this effect the PFST should be calculated with
This new corrected value should be used instead of P

previously mentioned.
FST
in the calculation of shoe strength
Another effect which was found out according to the gel strength is a difference or delay
between the readings of the standpipe gauge and the annular gauge (see Fig. 46). To
overcome this problem pumping should be done through DP and annulus so that readings on
the surface gauges are equal.
The influence of Mud Type
It was established that if FIP is used to detect fracture gradient and casing-shoe strength it is not
dependent on mud type, but if one uses PSP (or UFP/FPP), as usual in the field, it can be
highly dependent on mud type.
The difference between WBM and OBM or SBM relates to their build up of external and internal
filter cakes (Fig. 48). WBM have a high spurt loss in increasing fractures and build up an
external filter cake which isolates the tip of the fracture from the full hydraulic force. In
comparison OBM and SBM create an internal filter cake which provides no barrier for the tip of
the fracture to the acting hydraulic force. Thus smooth fracture propagation appears at lower
Page: 34
pressures in comparison to WBM. This also results in a larger drilling margin for WBM taking
the mud window from pore pressure to UFP as discussed before and may offers the opportunity
to deepen a well where OBM/SBM would not be applicable anymore.
Fig 48: Internal external filter cake5
It should always be kept an eye on the type of mud used for an FST cause the shoe strength7
and fracture gradient for a WBM will be different from an OBM/SBM. If there is a change in mud
type it is recommended to retest the shoe strength and fracture gradient to identify an increase
or decrease for these values due to different mud type in use.
It has already been achieved to increase the drilling margin by adding certain particles at
specific concentrations and sizes in the mud, but it was not possible to raise the FIP. This effect
leads to the assumption that the reasoning mechanism is an improvement of fracture tipscreen-out behavior rather than a modification of the near-wellbore stress state.
The influence of Temperature
Temperature has two main effects on FST. If the used mud temperature downhole is higher
than the undisturbed formation temperature it will heat the formation and so increase thermal
stress around the wellbore. This will result an increase in FIP and UFP/FPP because the
additional stress will act against the fracturing of the formation. The change in thermal stress is
calculated with
Where E is Youngs modulus, is Poissons ratio, thermal is the formations thermal expansion
coefficient, and Tmud and Tformation are downhole temperature of the mud and the formation.
The effect of temperature on formation stress is often underestimated so it is advisable to record
and document the actual downhole temperature at which the FST was performed and to make
the rig crew more attentive to the fact that shoe strength and fracture gradient will increase or
decrease with change in mud temperature.
The second but minor influence is the heating or cooling effect during the FST which is of
importance in deepwater wells where the water column has the tendency to cool the riser and
workstring. The change in temperature will also change the compressibility, thermal expansion
and gel-strength behavior as mentioned before.
Page: 35
The influence of Variation in Time

The fracture gradient and the formation strength do not stay constant over time. After an LOT
the formation strength is lower and if testing is repeated there is additional damage produced
each time. But there is still the chance of fracture healing due to clay swelling in WBMs with a
dispersive tendency. This effect does hardly appear when OBMs or SBMs are in use. Another
healing process can be enforced due to circulation of warmer mud from deeper well sections
which causes an increase in near wellbore thermal stresses and thus a rising of shoe strength
and fracture gradient.
The influence of Location of Cementing Unit
What seems to be trivial but is of relevance is the location of the cement unit. In many cases the
cement unit is located on a deck below the point of reference of the well. For the purpose of
accuracy the initial gauge pressure should be subtracted from the final FST pressure. This
procedure does not account for downhole measurements.
Recommendations
To execute an accurate FST all these points should be considered. If possible it is always
advised to use downhole recorded PWD data, which will eliminate any test artifacts according to
mud gellation, temperature effects appearing during the FST test, and the location of the
cementing-unit pressure gauge.
Page: 36
Wellpath optimization
In general it can be recommended to involve all relevant disciplines8 like well engineering,
petrophysics, geology, geomechanics and rock mechanics in the well planning process to
gather more information and knowledge about the formation and its behavior. Although this is a
considerable investment before a well is drilled, it is worth the time and money spent in
presence of the enormous values of money spent for wellbore stability problems.
Use of data from offset wells

Is seems quite trivial to use data of nearby wells, but workload, time-pressure and lack of
resources often avoid to use this source of information. The gathered data can be very useful to
predict the problems which will most likely be encountered during the drilling operation. For
instance if borehole stability problems seem to be mainly based on mechanical issues then
more attention can be paid to rock mechanical analysis. Offset well reviews also play an
important role for calibration of models used in borehole stability, hole cleaning/ECD and torque
and drag modeling.
Formation property analysis

The objective of this process is to characterize the underground according to pore pressure, insitu stress and formation strength to provide input data for borehole stability modeling. The
analysis should especially concentrate on the hot spots of the formation like zones that have a
tendency to compact and subside, low-strength formations, formations with high pore pressures
and so on.
Pore pressure
Data from offset wells can be a good indicator of pore pressure when RFT/MDT pressures have
been taken from permeable zones as well as mud weights used to avoid entrance of formation
fluids. There are also numerous correlation methods to get pore pressures from seismic and
well log data. It can be stated that one single method does not work for every drilling
environment.
In-situ stress magnitude and direction

Stress regime
The first step of stress analysis is to let geologists and geomechanical engineers establish the
stress regime. For borehole stability and so for the well path it makes a great difference if the
well will be drilled in a normal fault, thrust fault or reverse fault area.
Vertical stress
The development of the vertical stress with depth can be evaluated from an integration of the
density logs of similar offset wells. A possible mistake can appear if the logged formation of the
offset well has its density due to interaction with drilling fluid (e.g. shale reacting with WBM).
Minimum horizontal stress/fracture gradient
How this information is obtained was already presented in the previous chapter Applications of
rock mechanics in drilling/Wellbore Stability.
Page: 37
Maximum horizontal stress

The evaluation of the maximum horizontal stress is difficult and can just be done with some
degree of accuracy if the other stresses are known and if information of the direction and extend
of break-outs and/or fractures on offset wells is available. This information is further on used for
stress-inversion techniques. If the horizontal stresses are unequal (normal faulting region) and
the information about the shape of the offset wells is not on-hand it is a good first approach to
take the average of the minimum horizontal stress and the vertical stress as the maximum
horizontal stress. Even the direction of the maximum horizontal stress can be set to be parallel
to the strike direction of faults in this area.
Formation strength
For borehole stability analysis elastic formation parameters like Youngs modulus and
Poissons ratio are required as well as failure parameters like cohesion and the internal friction
angle. These are mainly derived from core tests in the laboratory of representative formation.
When cores are not available or of poor quality it is possible to correlate the rock parameters
from log data.
Fig 49: Log data correlation of Poissons ratio and cohesion
Some formations have anisotropic strength behavior resulting in different effective strengths and
failure parameters depending on the orientation the rock is intersected. It is obvious that such a
feature has great influence on the optimum well path, cause there will be an optimum way to
drill through such a formation according to borehole stability. Such anisotropies can so far just
be measured in the laboratory.
Page: 38
Wellbore stability analysis

Wellbore stability model
For a proper wellbore stability analysis an accurate and calibrated simulator is needed. One
problem of the most simulators is their use of an analytical linear elastic model. It enables fast
results but the mud weight they calculate are higher than the wellbore would actually need to
remain stable. The reason is that rock mainly behaves elasto-plastic and not linear elastic. So
for a quick estimation for well path optimization the linear elastic model is useful but a numerical
finite-element elasto-plastic model will generate more realistic mud weight predictions.
Wellpath optimization
Wellbore stability modeling requires formation parameters (in-situ pore pressure and stress,
strength and failure parameters) and well trajectory information (depth, well deviation, and
azimuth) as input data. the overall objective is to find the trajectory with the optimum mud
window (difference between fracture gradient and mud weight required to stabilize the
wellbore).
Fig. 50 shows a fault map of a Gulf of Mexico prospect including the trajectories of several
deviated development wells. The yellow numbers are the trouble costs for these wells which
were drilled in different azimuths relative to the maximum horizontal stress direction. There was
an obvious increase in trouble cost from the wells drilled perpendicular to the direction of the
maximum horizontal stress (e.g. A-2ST, 0% trouble cost) to the wells drilled parallel to the
direction of the maximum horizontal stress (e.g. A-4, 32% trouble cost due to stuck pipe and lost
circulation. In general it can be stated that deviated wells drilled in the direction of the maximum
horizontal stress are the most difficult ones in tectonically relaxed environments.
Fig 50: Fault map of a Golf of Mexico prospect
Page: 39
An explanation why it is easier to drill a horizontal well perpendicular to the direction of the
maximum horizontal stress is the stress regimes around the wellbore.
If the well is drilled in direction of Hmax the stress condition around the wellbore will look like this:
Fig 51: Drilling in direction of Hmax1
It can be seen that hmin is the stress that acts against

the inducing of a fracture. Thus it influences the FIP
(fracture-initiation pressure).
Fig 52: Stress around the wellbore when drilling in

direction of Hmax6
If the well is drilled perpendicular to Hmax the

stress condition around the wellbore will look like this:
Fig 53: Stress around the wellbore when drilling

in direction of hmin1
Now Hmax is opposing against the induction of a fracture

and influences the FIP.
In each case the mud weight has to be sufficient to
Fig 54: Drilling in direction of hmin6
stabilize the wellbore and the requirements are equal.
But in the case of drilling perpendicular to the direction
of the maximum horizontal stress the FIP will be higher because Hmax has a higher value
compared to hmin. This effect will cause a larger mud window and make the trajectory
perpendicular to Hmax the optimum well path in terms of wellbore stability.
Page: 40
Another example for well path optimization8 is Fig. 56 which shows a Gulf of Mexico sub-salt
prospect.
The A-1 appraisal well was drilled into weak-salt formations at high angle. Due to borehole
stability problems and lost circulation problems it was necessary to drill multiple sidetracks. After
well A-1 was drilled a well path optimization study was carried out. The result was to build angle
high up the hole, drop angle in salt, and intersect the sub-salt zones nearly vertically.
Above salt the mud weight windows of well A-1 and well A-6 are quite the same (1.5-2.0 ppg).
This is sufficient to accommodate the pressure difference between static and dynamic condition
(static density, circulating density). Below salt the mud window for A-1 had sunk to less than 0.5
ppg whereas the mud window for A-6 was still at 2.0 ppg. In this case below salt 1.0 ppg were
added to the mud density downhole due to mud circulation Thus well A-1 was either in the
situation to keep the mud weight high enough to prevent stability problems but fracturing the
formation and risk lost circulation or to keep the mud weight low enough to prevent fracturing
but deal with wellbore stability problems. Well A-6 had a sufficient mud weight for ECD and was
drilled to target without sever problems and well-ahead of budget.
Fig 55: Contour plots of drilling margin
Fig 56: Trajectories of well A-1 and A-6
Page: 41
Applications of rock mechanics in production

Fracture mechanics
A fracture is defined as a crack, joint, fault or other break1 in the rock. It is induced due to loss of
cohesion or resistance to differential stress. When a fracture is formed the stored energy is
released. A joint is a fracture or parting without displacement and a fault is fracture or fracture
zone where relative displacement of the sides has appeared.
The fracture evaluation and propagation for artificially induced fractures is mainly governed by
mechanical properties and stresses like in-situ stress field, tensile and compressive strength,
permeability (leak off), elastic module contrast, fracture toughness, and fluid properties.
Fig. 57 shows the two brittle criteria and Mohr circles for tensile (a) and shear (b) failure.
Fig 57: Tensile and shear failure
In general a fracture will be extended in the direction of the maximum horizontal stress, because
the compressive strength of the minimum horizontal stress is easier to overcome (Fig. 58). But
due to more tectonic events in reality the direction will look more chaotic (Fig. 58).
Fig 58: Fracture orientation
Page: 42
Strain energy
The value of the strain energy predicts failure at some point in the material when the strain or
potential energy per unit volume reaches a critical level.
W = (11 + 22 + 33)/2
The strain energy per unit volume is the fracture toughness and is calculated by the area under
the stress-strain curve from origin till fracture.
Fig 59: Fracture toughness
Hydraulic fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is the most applied stimulation process in oil and gas wells. A special
blended fracturing fluid is pumped with sufficient rates and pressure into the pay zone to
produce fractures and extend them. The purpose of these fractures is to increase production by
their high conductivity compared to the reservoir permeability at some distance away from the
borehole. To keep the fractures open after the pressure is released proppants (sand) are
pumped into the openings of the formation. The strength of the propping material has to be
sufficient to withstand the compressional stress which they are subjected to. Another possibility
is to apply acid fracturing but this will not be discussed here in any more detail.
Rock mechanics
Rock mechanics is a major effect according to fracture propagation. Factors governing the
propagation are the variation of in-situ stresses in different rock layers, the relative bed
thickness closer area of the fracture, the connection between formation and permeability which
defines the fracture efficiency, changes in the mechanical properties like Youngs modulus, and
Poissons ratio, fluid pressure gradients and variation in pore pressures between zones.
Candidate selection
It is advised to select reservoirs where problems with undesired communication due to the
produced fractures can be avoided. Long zones need special consideration (geology, stresses,
reservoir drive, fluid properties, and rock properties).
Page: 43
Facture initiation
The fracture is induced by pumping a suitable volume of fluid into the formation at a higher rate
than it can leak off into the rock. The fluid pressure has to be sufficient to overcome the
compressive strength of the rock. As already presented in previous chapters the fracture will
propagate in the direction of the maximum horizontal stress.
Vertical fractures
If vertical fracturing appears depends on the relative strength of the two principal horizontal
stresses. To create a vertical fracture the tensile strength of the rock has to be exceeded.
(Pi)v = 3h2 h1 + Sh + Pr
for the effective stresses pore pressure has to be subtracted
(Pi)v = borehole pressure required to initiate vertical fracture
h1 = maximum principal horizontal matrix stress
h2 = minimum principal horizontal matrix stress
Sh = horizontal tensile strength of rock
Pr = formation pore pressure
Horizontal fracture
To induce a horizontal fracture the pressure in the wellbore must exceed the vertical stress and
in addition the tensile strength of the rock.
(Pi)h = v + Sv + Pr
for the effective stresses pore pressure has to be subtracted
(Pi)h = borehole pressure required to initiate horizontal fracture
v = total vertical stress
Sv = vertical tensile strength of rock
Pr = formation pore pressure
Fracture extension
The growth of the fracture will stop as the leak off to the formation is equal to the volume of
injected fluid. The different pressures (e.g. FIP (fracture initiation pressure), FPP (fracture
propagation pressure), FCP (fracture closure pressure which is nearly equal to the minimum
horizontal stress)) which are encountered during an FST (formation strength test) like an leak off
test and which play also an important role in hydraulic fracturing can be reviewed in the chapter
Applications for rock mechanics in drilling/Wellbore Stability. There are still a lot more
important things to mention about hydraulic fracturing, but due to the limited extent it is not
possible to discuss the issue in more detail.
Page: 44
Sand control
Sand production appears related to shallow formations1 with little or no cementation. When the
well is produced the wellbore pressure is lower than the reservoir pressure and drag forces are
applied to the sand grains due to fluid production. Sand can plug the pores and/or be produced.
One big problem with sand production is its erosional effect on equipment and settlement in
surface vessels. Controlling Sand production is costly and mainly done with slowing the
production rate or by the use of gravel packing or sand consolidation techniques.
Causes for sand production

The main reason for sand production is the pore pressure depletion and drawdown which
results in higher hoop/tangential stresses at the borehole wall. When the stress value reaches
the shear strength of the rock failure of the material and fragmentation of sand grains will
appear.
There is a proportional relationship between the pressure drop from the wellbore to the reservoir
and the amount of sand production. Another logical conclusion is the relation of the drag force
due to fluid flow and the velocity and viscosity of the fluid. Also the wettability of the grains
effects its production as well as the production rate and the degree of natural consolidation.
Intergranular bonds, intergranular friction, gravity forces, and capillary forces are the opposing
forces against fluid drag. Multi phase flow will have a negative impact and increase sand
production. For instance water production can lead to solution of natural cementing material.
Thermal effects and high temperature can make the sand production more severe (e.g. steam
injection).
Sand control techniques

To avoid the production of the sand screens (2.5 *san grain diameter), slotted liners (2.5*sand
grain diameter) and gravel packs are in use. Spherical particles will not flow continuously
through rectangular slots twice as wide as the diameter of the particle or circular hole three
times their size.
Fig 60: Gravel pack
Page: 45
Fig 61: Slotted liner
In terms of gravel packs it is important to stay below a certain critical flow velocity or the packs
bridging mechanism will not work properly. It is also of interest to determine the critical
production rate at which sand production becomes intolerable. It is recommended to increase
the flow step-wise because surge can break weak bridges and once this has appeared they
wont reform again. Thus the sand production will continue at a higher level.
Sand production prediction

Prediction can be done by offset or analog well data, correlations, sand stability modeling with
in-situ stress, rock, and fluid data, and log analysis.
Tensile failure models
This model is based on a tensile radial stress (r) which exceeds the tensile failure envelope
and is controlled by the drawdown pressure (Veeken SPE 22792, 1991). It was developed for
unconsolidated sands and does not include in situ stresses and changes in the in-situ stresses
due to depletion. It is generally overly conservative.
Another model is after Weingarten and Perkins which produces especially in oil reservoirs too
high values and the Mohr Coulomb model which is intermediate to Veeken and Weingarten
and Perkins.
There is even more to say about sand control but this would go beyond the scope of this thesis.
Page: 46
Subsidence
Rock and reservoir compressibility
Compressibility is a major effect in terms of production1 in many reservoirs. Bulk compressibility
is the fractional change of the bulk volume of the rock with a unit change in pressure. Grain
compressibility is the fractional change in volume of the solid rock grain with a unit change in
pressure. Pore volume compressibility is the fractional change in pore volume of the rock with
unit change in pressure and formation compressibility is the relative change in pore volume
divided by the change in reservoir pressure that caused the change in pore volume, usually
measured under hydrostatic conditions.
The measurement of pore volume compressibility is affected by things like coring conditions,
core handling and preservation, compressibility of the pore fluid, micro-crack development and
rock fabric, pore space connectivity and cementation, morphology, distribution and aspect ratio
of pore system, experimental methods/apparatus, loading path sensitivity, hysteresis and
pressure cycling, prior knowledge of in-situ stresses, rock mechanical properties, poroelastic
considerations, linear elasticity and laboratory stress redistribution.
Compressibility type curves for clastic reservoirs
Fig 62: Formation compressibility diagram
Page: 47
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is a lag in return of an elastically deformed material to its initial shape after the load
has been removed. The state of the material depends on its previous history and the value of
the force actually applied.
Fig 63: Hysteresis effect
Pore volume compressibility, Cpp
Cpp = 1/Vpi * (Vp/Pp) * Pc

Cpp = [Cbc (1 + ) Cr ]/i
Cbp = 1/Vbi * (Vb/Pp) * Pc
>>
Cm Cpp = Cm/
Vpi = initial pore volume

Vbi=initial bulk volume
Pc = constant confining pressure [psi]
Pp = pore pressure [psi]
Cbp = bulk compressibility determined by a change in pore pressure
Cbc = bulk compressibility determined by application of hydrostatic
Cr = grain and solid compressibility
Cm = compaction coefficient
i = porosity
Compressibility is derived from the derivative of the slope generated from stress-strain curves.
This can be done by test like uniaxial test and triaxial test which procedures wont be discussed
here in any more detail.
Page: 48
Pore volume compressibility versus net overburden

Instantaneous pore volume compressibility
Fig 64: Pore volume compressibility diagram
Microsip
This term is applied for material compressibility because values can become very small.
Pore volume compressibility derived from dividing the bulk compressibility by the in-situ porosity,
e.g.:
(16.3 sip)/0.328 pore volume compressibility 50 sip
one microsip = 1*10-6
Compaction coefficient, Cm
Cm = (h/h) * (1/Pp)
h/h = axial strain
Pp = drawdown
During uniaxial strain there is zero radial strain and volumetric strain = axial strain.
Subsidence
An important issue in terms of subsidence is to quantify the process. Helpful tools are seismic
velocity and anisotropy, tiltmeters, well logs, production logs, geological stress history
(quantification of the present-day in-situ stresses), numerical modeling (Finite Element Method),
rock-based measurements on undisturbed samples as well as remote sensing. A possible way
to control subsidence is to maintain the reservoir pressure by fluid injection or to deal with the
consequences and design surface facilities to cope with the subsidence effect. Attention should
always be paid on the deformation of the casing.
Page: 49
Fig 65: Influence of subsidence on pressure gradients
An example where subsidence was underestimated is the case of Ekofisk. The reservoir
subsided from 1980 till now close to 18 ft in total. This caused that for the platform wave heights
became a serious concern and more than 70% of the wells lost casing integrity. The reaction
was gas injection from 1985 to 1987 and water injection from 1988 on. The platform was
jacked-up for a cost of $500MM. Wells were drilled with lower angles and larger diameter casing
were used as well as monitoring, testing and modeling is applied since this problems.
Casing collapse and casing shear

Casing failure can be realized when tubular, casing, or screen damage is investigated by loss of
sand control, inability to reach downhole locations or tool sticking. Actions against failure are
avoidance of high pressure drawdown especially in the early production stage of a reservoir
(pressure maintenance), use of expansion joints (the casing connectors are the weak points),
appliance of geomechanical modeling and corrosion control.
The critical zone of slippage and fault activation/reactivation is more the area above the
reservoir interval than failure in the production zone. Casing failure in this critical zone leads to
loss of access to the reservoir and well repair at shallower depths may not be possible whereas
a deformation in the reservoir itself may have no or just little impact to production. When large
surface subsidence appears it is highly recommended to disconnect the rock from tubular and
casing to maintain a long-term wellbore integrity. The analysis of casing problems can be
carried out with numerical and analytical evaluations of casing integrity. The effective stresscriteria is used to determine the danger of subsidence of a reservoir and its connection in terms
of deformation to the casing. The most critical parameters are the values for wellbore inclination
and a proper model of the geological structure.
Page: 50
Fig 66: Deviated casing subjected to stress regime
The reactivation of old faults or the buildup of new ones can have a great impact on the stress
condition of a casing.
Fig 67: Casing bent due to compaction
Page: 51
Fig 68: Reactivation of faults
Casing shear
Movement along new or reactivated faults takes place can lead to casing shear. Stresses are at
high values at these surfaces.
Fig 69: Casing shear
Although a good cement job is usually desired in the case of subsidence and casing loads it
makes the problem even more severe.
Page: 52
Fig 70: Radial deformation and axial load change
Strategies to avoid loss of casing/tubular integrity

A trivial and basic issue is the understanding of local tectonic behavior. It is useful to optimize
well trajectories to steer away from trouble zones and to avoid areas of steep pressure and
temperature gradients as well as to monitor microseismic events, and evaluate the subsidence
potential of a region. As mentioned above it is recommended to control the pressure and/or
temperature to minimize compaction. Critical zones should not be cemented, holes underreamed, and casing size increased which may limit casing shear. It should be recognized that
the greatest displacement due to subsidence occurs in vertical direction and that the maximum
shear and bending deformation happens in the overburden to the reservoir because shale and
sand-shale interfaces fail more likely in shear than pure sands do.
Page: 53
Conclusions
This thesis should give a wide spread overview about the topic of rock mechanics and its
applications in drilling and production engineering. On the one hand it is kept quite general to
introduce all the main issues but on the other hand it is very related to practice and up to date
with the chapter about formation strength tests which can actually be used as a guideline in the
field.
The oil industry is very old-fashioned resulting in difficulty to involve new ideas and procedures
to reach higher efficiencies. I think it is a mission especially for young petroleum engineers to
keep open-minded and to challenge everything in terms of a better solution. Innovation and
progress always start with an idea so in my opinion it is always worth it to think in different ways.
From my point of view rock mechanics will be one of the major keys in future operations when
exploration of hydrocarbon reservoirs in very demanding geological structures is required. The
chapter Wellpath optimization demonstrates the potential of rock-mechanical analysis and
improvements of simulators and models will make the predictions even more precise in the
decades to come.
I have no doubt that drilling and production engineers with proper qualities in rock mechanics
will be one of the most wanted engineers in the whole oil business in the future.
Page: 54
References
1. Petro Skills, Robert A. Skopec: Applied Rock Mechanics
2. lecture Reservoir Engineering, Prof. Leonhard Ganzer
3. lecture Grundlagen der Boden und Felsmechanik, Prof. Robert Galler
4. seminar carried out by Geosience about rock mechanics
5. presentation Introduction to Real Time Stabor by Shell
6. www.NaturalFractures.com
7. SPE paper 105193, Eric van Oort, Richard Vargo: Improving Formation-Strength Test and their Interpretation
(2008)
8. SPE/IADC paper 67763, E. van Oort, J. Nicholson, J. DAgostino: Integrated Borehole Stability Studies: Key to
Drilling the Technical Limit and Trouble Cost Reductio (2001)
The cover shows a visualization of reservoir simulation, geocellular property model, structural framework, seismic
data, well bore locations, and tops picksstratigraphic markers. Reverence: www.dgi.com
Page: 55

Bakk 2 Trajectory Design in Terms of Stress Conditions in The Formation

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Bakk 2 Trajectory Design in Terms of Stress Conditions in The Formation

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Alexander Heger

Prof. Herbert Hofsttter

Applications of rock mechanics in drilling.............................................................................. 29

Wellpath optimization .................................................................................................................................... 37

Applications of rock mechanics in production ...................................................................... 42

Sand control .................................................................................................................................................. 45

Fig 3: Normal stress and shear stress in 3D ........ 8

Fig 4: Stress at a fault plane ............................................................................................................... 9

Fig 28:Uniaxial and triaxial test......................................................................................................... 22

Fig 57: Tensile and shear failure ...................................................................................................... 42

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Fig 1: Stress ellipse

Normal stress and shear stress

Fig 2: Normal stress and shear stress in 2D

Fig 3: Normal stress and shear stress in 3D

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Fig 4: Stress at a fault plane

Fig 5: Stress at a bedding plane which is flexural slip folded

Fig 6: Normal and shear stresses acting on a square

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Fig 7: System of forces acting on an infinitesimal cube

Fig 8: Stress tensor

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

1 = max, often = v (vertical stress)

Fig 9: Stress axial cross

Maximum shear stress

Fig 10: Planes of maximum shear stress

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Hydrostatic, deviatoric, and lithostatic stresses

Fig 11: Hydrostatic and deviatoric stresses

Different types of faults and the according stress regimes

Fig 12: Normal fault

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Fig 13: Reverse fault

Fig 14: Strike-slip fault

Fig 15: Pressure gradient diagram2

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Determination of the four main stresses:

vertical = (z)*g*dz acerage*g*z

vertical = w*g*zw + (z)*g*dz acerage, w*g*zw + *g*z

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Fig 16: Strain

Dilation and distortion

Fig 17: Dilation and distortion

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Fig 18: Stress-strain curve

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Elastoviscous, plastic, and viscoelastic rock behavior

e = /E (elastic component) + *t/ (viscous component)

Fig 19: Elastoviscous rock behavior

Author: Alexander Heger

Trajectory design in terms of stress conditions in the formation

Fig 20: Plastic rock behavior

vertical = (z)gdz aceragegz

vertical = wgzw + (z)gdz acerage, wgzw + gz

r = * (x + y)(1 ) + (x y)(1 + 34 - 42) cos (2)