ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE

ICSE - 9th and 10th Std

CONSOLIDATED NOTES
TSRS Aravali, July 2013

Consolidated Notes covering parts of the syllabus for Environment Science,9th and 10th ICSE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Class 1X
1) Understanding Our Environment

3-27

2) Living Things in Ecosystem

28-42

3) How Ecosystems Work

43-51

4) Kinds of Ecoystems

52-67

5) Water

68-87

6) Air

88-100

7) Atmosphere and Climate

101-118

8) Soil and Land

119-132

9) People

133-148

10)Urbanization

149-158

11)Agriculture

159-166

Class X
1) Controlling Air Pollution

168-195

2) Addressing Population

196-208

3) Managing The Urban Environment

209-218

4) Managing Soil and Land

219-234

5) Food

235-258

6) Biodiversity

259-277

7) Energy

278-290

8) Waste

291-303

9) Environment and Development

303-316

10) Towards a Sustainable Future

317-344
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CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING OUR ENVIRONMENT

Introduction to Environment: Notes

In general, environment refers to the surroundings of an object.

The natural environment, encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or
some region thereof. There is interaction of all living species.
Environment may refer to:

The natural environment, all living and non-living things that occur naturally on Earth
Built environment, constructed surroundings that provide the setting for human activity

Environment (biophysical), the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an
organism

Environment literally means surrounding and everything that affect an organism

during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment.

In another words Environment is sum total of water, air and land interrelationships
among themselves and also with the human being, other living organisms and property.
It includes all the physical and biological surrounding and their interactions.

IMPORTANT TO NOTE
Conservation focuses on the proper use of nature,
Preservation seeks the protection of nature from use
Conservation seeks to regulate human use while preservation seeks to eliminate human impact altogether.

This is a list of environmental issues that are due to human activities.

Climate change Global warming Global dimming Fossil fuels Sea level rise Greenhouse
gas Ocean acidification

Conservation Species extinction Poaching Endangered species

Energy Energy conservation Renewable energy Efficient energy use

Environmental degradation Eutrophication Habitat destruction Invasive species

Environmental health Air quality Asthma Electromagnetic fields Electromagnetic radiation and
health Indoor air quality Lead poisoning Sick Building Syndrome

Genetic engineering Genetically modified food controversies

Intensive farming Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture Environmental effects of meat production

Slash and burn Pesticide drift

Land degradation Land pollution Desertification

Soil Soil conservation Soil erosion Soil contamination

Land use Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitat destruction

Nuclear issues Nuclear fallout Nuclear meltdown Nuclear power Nuclear weapons Nuclear and
radiation accidents Nuclear safety High-level radioactive waste management.

Overpopulation Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in companion animals Tragedy of the commons

Ozone depletion CFC

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Pollution Light pollution Noise pollution Visual pollution

Water pollution Acid rain Eutrophication Marine pollution Ocean dumping Oil spills Thermal
pollution Urban runoff Water crisis Marine debris Ship pollution Wastewater Mercury in fish

Air pollution Smog Tropospheric ozone Indoor air quality Volatile organic compound Particulate
matter Sulphur oxide

Resource depletion Exploitation of natural resources

Consumerism Consumer capitalism Planned obsolescence Over-consumption

Fishing Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing Overfishing Whaling

Logging Deforestation Illegal logging

Mining

Toxins Chlorofluorocarbons DDT Endocrine disruptors Dioxin Toxic heavy metals Herbicides
Pesticides Toxic waste PCB Bioaccumulation Biomagnification

Waste E-waste Litter Marine debris Medical waste Landfill Recycling Incineration

EFP
Environmental Farm Plans are voluntary, confidential, self- assessment tools used by producers to raise
awareness about environmental risks and opportunities on their operations. As part of their EFP, producers
develop their own action plans to identify management practices that can reduce environmental risk on their
operations

Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a seazone over which a state has special rights over the exploration and use of
marine resources, including production of energy from water and wind. It stretches from the seaward edge of
the state's territorial sea out to 200 nautical miles from its coast
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Glossary

agroforestry

Planting trees and crops together.

alley cropping

Planting of crops in strips with rows of trees or shrubs on each side.

animal manure

Dung and urine of animals used as a form of organic fertilizer. Compare green
manure.

aquaculture

Growing and harvesting of fish and shellfish for human use in freshwater
ponds, irrigation ditches, and lakes, or in cages or fenced-in areas of coastal
lagoons and estuaries. See fish farming, fish ranching.

chronic
undernutrition

An ongoing condition suffered by people who cannot grow or buy enough food
to meet their basic energy need. Compare malnutrition, overnutrition.

Commercially prepared mixture of plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates,

commercial
inorganic fertilizer and potassium applied to the soil to restore fertility and increase crop yields.
Compare organic fertilizer.
compost

Partially decomposed organic plant and animal matter used as a soil conditioner
or fertilizer.

conservationtillage farming

Crop cultivation in which the soil is disturbed little (minimum-tillage farming)

or not at all (no-till farming) to reduce soil erosion, lower labor costs, and save
energy. Compare conventional-tillage farming.

contour farming

Plowing and planting across the changing slope of land, rather than in straight
lines, to help retain water and reduce soil erosion.

conventionaltillage farming

Crop cultivation method in which a planting surface is made by plowing land,

breaking up the exposed soil, and then smoothing the surface. Compare
conservation-tillage farming.

crop rotation

Planting a field, or an area of a field, with different crops from year to year to
reduce soil nutrient depletion. A plant such as corn, tobacco, or cotton, which
removes large amounts of nitrogen from the soil, is planted one year. The next
year a legume such as soybeans, which adds nitrogen to the soil, is planted.

desertification

Conversion of rangeland, rain-fed cropland, or irrigated cropland to desertlike

land, with a drop in agricultural productivity of 10% or more. It usually is
caused by a combination of overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought, and
climate change.

famine

Widespread malnutrition and starvation in a particular area because of a

shortage of food, usually caused by drought, war, flood, earthquake, or other
catastrophic events that disrupt food production and distribution.

feedlot

Confined outdoor or indoor space used to raise hundreds to thousands of

domesticated livestock. Compare rangeland.

fertilizer

Substance that adds inorganic or organic plant nutrients to soil and improves its
ability to grow crops, trees, or other vegetation. See commercial inorganic
fertilizer, organic fertilizer.

fish farming

Form of aquaculture in which fish are cultivated in a controlled pond or other

environment and harvested when they reach the desired size. See also fish
ranching.

fish ranching

Form of aquaculture in which members of a fish species such as salmon are

held in captivity for the first few years of their lives, released, and then
harvested as adults when they return from the ocean to their freshwater
birthplace to spawn. See also fish farming.

fishery

Concentrations of particular aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting

in a given ocean area or inland body of water.

food security

Every person in a given area has daily access to enough nutritious food to have
an active and healthy life.

fungicide

Chemical that kills fungi.

green manure

Freshly cut or still-growing green vegetation that is plowed into the soil to
increase the organic matter and humus available to support crop growth.
Compare animal manure.

green revolution

Popular term for introduction of scientifically bred or selected varieties of grain

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(rice, wheat, maize) that, with high enough inputs of fertilizer and water, can
greatly increase crop yields.

gully erosion

Occurs when rivulets of fast-flowing water join together to cut wider and
deeper ditches or gullies.

herbicide

Chemical that kills a plant or inhibits its growth.

high-input
agriculture

See industrialized agriculture.

hunger

Suffered when people cannot grow or buy enough food to meet their basic
energy needs.

industrialized
agriculture

Using large inputs of energy from fossil fuels (especially oil and natural gas),
water, fertilizer, and pesticides to produce large quantities of crops and
livestock for domestic and foreign sale. Compare subsistence farming.

Inorganic fertilizer See commercial inorganic fertilizer.

insecticide

Chemical that kills insects.

integrated pest
management
(IPM)

Combined use of biological, chemical, and cultivation methods in proper

sequence and timing to keep the size of a pest population below the size that
causes economically unacceptable loss of a crop or livestock animal.

intercropping

Growing two or more different crops at the same time on a plot. For example, a
carbohydrate-rich grain that depletes soil nitrogen and a protein-rich legume
that adds nitrogen to the soil may be intercropped. Compare monoculture,
polyculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

interplanting

Simultaneously growing a variety of crops on the same plot. See agroforestry,

intercropping, polyculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

land degradation

Occurs when natural or human-induced processes decrease the future ability of

land to support crops, livestock, or wild species.

low-input
agriculture

See sustainable agriculture.

malnutrition

Faulty nutrition, caused by a diet that does not supply an individual with
enough protein, essential fats, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients needed for
good health. Compare overnutrition, undernutrition.
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manure

See animal manure, green manure.

metabolism

Ability of a living cell or organism to capture and transform matter and energy
from its environment to supply its needs for survival, growth, and reproduction.

micronutrients

Chemical elements that organisms need in small or even trace amounts to live,
grow, or reproduce. Examples are sodium, zinc, copper, chlorine, and iodine.
Compare macronutrients.

minimum-tillage
farming

See conservation-tillage farming.

monoculture

Cultivation of a single crop, usually on a large area of land. Compare

polyculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

no-till farming

See conservation-tillage farming.

organic farming

Producing crops and livestock naturally by using organic fertilizer (manure,

legumes, compost) and natural pest control (bugs that eat harmful bugs, plants
that repel bugs, and environmental controls such as crop rotation) instead of
using commercial inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides and herbicides.
See sustainable agriculture.

organic fertilizer

Organic material such as animal manure, green manure, and compost, applied
to cropland as a source of plant nutrients. Compare commercial inorganic
fertilizer.

overnutrition

Diet so high in calories, saturated (animal) fats, salt, sugar, and processed foods
and so low in vegetables and fruits that the consumer runs high risks of
diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, and other health hazards. Compare
malnutrition, undernutrition.

pest

Unwanted organism that directly or indirectly interferes with human activities.

pesticide

Any chemical designed to kill or inhibit the growth of an organism that people
consider undesirable. See fungicide, herbicide, insecticide.

plantation
agriculture

Growing specialized crops such as bananas, coffee, and cacao in tropical

developing countries, primarily for sale to developed countries.

polyculture

Complex form of intercropping in which a large number of different plants

maturing at different times are planted together. See also intercropping.
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Compare monoculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

polyvarietal
cultivation

Planting a plot of land with several varieties of the same crop. Compare
intercropping, monoculture, polyculture.

salinization

Accumulation of salts in soil that can eventually make the soil unable to support
plant growth.

sheet erosion

Occurs when surface water or wind peel off fairly thin sheets or layers of soil.

shelterbelt

See windbreak.

shifting cultivation Clearing a plot of ground in a forest, especially in tropical areas, and planting
crops on it for a few years (typically 2[[endash]]5 years) until the soil is
depleted of nutrients or the plot has been invaded by a dense growth of
vegetation from the surrounding forest. Then a new plot is cleared and the
process is repeated. The abandoned plot cannot successfully grow crops for
10[[endash]]30 years. See also slash-and-burn cultivation.
slash-and-burn
cultivation

Cutting down trees and other vegetation in a patch of forest, leaving the cut
vegetation on the ground to dry, and then burning it. The ashes that are left add
nutrients to the nutrient-poor soils found in most tropical forest areas. Crops are
planted between tree stumps. Plots must be abandoned after a few years
(typically 2[[endash]]5 years) because of loss of soil fertility or invasion of
vegetation from the surrounding forest. See also shifting cultivation.

soil conservation

Methods used to reduce soil erosion, prevent depletion of soil nutrients, and
restore nutrients already lost by erosion, leaching, and excessive crop
harvesting.

soil erosion

Movement of soil components, especially topsoil, from one place to another,

usually by wind, flowing water, or both. This natural process can be greatly
accelerated by human activities that remove vegetation from soil.

strip cropping

Planting regular crops and close-growing plants, such as hay or nitrogen-fixing

legumes, in alternating rows or bands to help reduce depletion of soil nutrients.

subsistence
farming

Supplementing solar energy with energy from human labor and draft animals to
produce enough food to feed oneself and family members; in good years
enough food may be left over to sell or put aside for hard times. Compare
industrialized agriculture.

sustainable
agriculture

Method of growing crops and raising livestock based on organic fertilizers, soil
conservation, water conservation, biological pest control, and minimal use of
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nonrenewable fossil-fuel energy.

terracing

Planting crops on a long, steep slope that has been converted into a series of
broad, nearly level terraces with short vertical drops from one to another that
run along the contour of the land to retain water and reduce soil erosion.

traditional
intensive
agriculture

Producing enough food for a farm family's survival and perhaps a surplus that
can be sold. This type of agriculture uses higher inputs of labor, fertilizer, and
water than traditional subsistence agriculture. See traditional subsistence
agriculture. Compare industrialized agriculture.

traditional
subsistence
agriculture

Production of enough crops or livestock for a farm family's survival and, in

good years, a surplus to sell or put aside for hard times. Compare industrialized
agriculture, traditional intensive agriculture.

waterlogging

Saturation of soil with irrigation water or excessive precipitation so that the

water table rises close to the surface.

windbreak

Row of trees or hedges planted to partially block wind flow and reduce soil
erosion on cultivated land.

Polyvarietal
cultivation

Planting a plot of land with several varieties of the same crop.

Polyvarietal cultivation (where the soil is planted with several varieties of the same crop). As harvest times
vary for the different varieties of the crop, it results in protection from erosion because the entire field is not
exposed all at once.

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BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity can be defined as the total number of species and the genetic variability within each species.
Biodiversity involves species diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity.
Biodiversity makes the environment sustainable.
Organisms are dependent on the environment they live in. If one or more species in a habitat become extinct, the
stability of the system is disturbed. Many species are rapidly becoming extinct and the main cause is the impact of
the growing human population.
A diverse world of flora and fauna is beneficial to all of us. Food, medicines, rubber etc are alls sourced from the
living world.
USES
As food:
30 species of plants from the several thousand species provide about 90% of our food. .Cross breeding and genetic
technology are helping to grow new disease resistant plants
Drugs and Medicines
Aspro- from bark of the willow
Morphine-from Poppy
Digitalis for heart trouble- from foxglove plant
Over 70% of the promising anti cancer drugs come from the tropical rainforest
Turmeric
Neem
Tulsi(Basil)
Cloves, Cinnamon
Fennel
Fenugreek
Garlic, Ginger
Honey

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Drug trails are conducted on animals(a huge ongoing ethical debate )

Industrial Products

Oil, lubricants, fragrances, fibresetc are obtained from plants

Wool, silk, leather, fur are obtained from animals
Aesthetic, cultural, religious reasons
Botanical parks
Tourism
Endemic species
Peepal , tulsi, cow are worshipped
Ecological and scientific importance
o
o
o
o
o
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Biodiversity helps to maintain balance of nature

Organisms act as producers, consumers and decomposers , help to capture solar energy and cycle it
through the food chain.
They recycle nutrients.
They clean the earth with the help of microorganisms.
They fix atmospheric gases.
They help regulate the water cycle and climate
They stabilize soils and minimize erosion

Legumes help in Nitrogen fixing

Plants with complex root systems bind the soil and prevent erosion
Trees improve the forage quality of the grass and lead to better milk production
Mangrove swamps such as the Sunderbans provide habitat for many kinds of species of fish
Different species of flora and fauna serve as gene banks

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HOW MAN DESTROYS BIODIVERSITY

The rising human population is destroying biodiversity at an alarming level

1)Deforestation-Industrialization and the need for housing for a rapidly growing population is destroying green
cover at an alarming rate. The need for various consumer products and paper is leading to relentless deforestation.
2) Hunting and Poaching-for sport, for illegal trade of animal parts
3)Marine life-Oil spills, eutrophication, illegal fishing, exploitation of coral reefs
4)The entry of multinational into the agricultural sector has brought in rampant use of chemical fertilizers and
related dangers. The damage to the soil and the flora and fauna due to this is immense. The run off and the
leaching further damages microorganisms. causes toxicity and endangers aquatic life.
5)Biomagnifiaction(increasing toxicity as one goes up the food chain)
5) Endangered species- Ridley Turtle, the blue whale, the tiger
6) The tendency to experiment with genetic engineering brings with it its own dangers-causing imbalances in the
ecosystem. The long term effects of genetically engineered species is not yet known.
7) The balance of nature and the balance of the ecosystem-the disturbance eof one factor in the ecosystem affects
the whole system, causing disturbances to animal life, climate change
8) The ETHICAL debate-does man have a right to destroy biodiversity to meet his nee

HOW CAN THE DAMAGE BE CHECKED

Careful planning, strict implementation of laws and committed environmental programmes can arrest damage and
try and compensate some of what we have destroyed.
Organizations like WWF, Greenpeace , Tiger Project and Navdanya are working with commitment to save flora and
fauna and bring in environmental friendly organic farming.
Involving school students and neighborhood associations can help to bring in changes at the grassroots levels.
Ex Situ and In situ conservation projects such as biosphere reserves, sanctuaries(Gir Tiger sanctuary..etc) go a long
way in preserving biodiversity.
Sustainable development is the keyword
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o
o
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Aircel has launched a Save the Tiger campaign.

NDTVs Greenathon has done much to build awareness and take direct action
The Slow food movement all over the world is helping us go back to sustainable agriculture and food
procurement.

Important areas of learning

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Definitions, hwy we study EVS, what does EVS involve

What are the main environmental problems
Environmental problems in Developed countries Vs developing countries
Population crisis
Consumer crisis
Superconsumerism
A sustainable world-Sustainable development, Sustainable societies

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The Chipko movement

1970s, an organized resistance to the destruction of forests spread throughout India
Chipko movement- 'embrace', - villagers hugged the trees, and prevented the contractors' from felling them.
The original Chipko movement was started around 260 years back in the early part of the 18th century in
Rajasthan by BISHNOIcommunity. A large group of them from 84 villages led by a lady called Amrita
Devi laid down their lives in an effort to protect the trees from beingfelled on orders of the KING of
Jodhpur. After this incident, the maharaja gave a strong royal decree preventing the cutting of trees in all
Bishnoi villages.
20th century- it began in the hills where the forests are the main source of livelihood, since agricultural
activities cannot be carried out easily.
The Chipko movement of 1973 - most famous among these. The first Chipko action took place
spontaneously in April 1973 in the village of Mandal in the upper Alakananda valley and over the next five
years spread to many districts of the Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh.
Government's decided to allot a plot of forest area in the Alaknanda valley to a sports goods company. This
angered the villagers because their similar demand to use wood for making agricultural tools had been
earlier denied.
A local NGO DGSS (Dasoli Gram Swarajya Sangh),supported them- women of the area, under the
leadership of an activist, Chandi Prasad Bhatt-hugged the trees
The success of the Chipko movement in the hills saved thousands of trees from being felled.
. Mr Sunderlal Bahuguna, a Gandhian activist and philosopher, whose appeal to Mrs Indira Gandhi, the
then Prime Minister of India, resulted in the green-felling ban. Mr Bahuguna coined the Chipko slogan:
'ecology is permanent economy'.
Mr Chandi Prasad Bhatt, is another leader of the Chipko movement. He encouraged the development of
local industries based on the conservation and sustainable use of forest wealth for local benefit.
Mr Ghanasyam Raturi, the Chipko poet, whose songs echo throughout the Himalayas of Uttar Pradesh,
wrote a poem describing the method of embracing the trees to save them from felling:
' Embrace the trees and
Save them from being felled;
The property of our hills,
Save them from being looted.'
The Chipko protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year ban on green felling
in the Himalayan forests of that state by the order of Mrs Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India.
Since then, the movement has spread to many states in the country.
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http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/chipko.htm

Key learning areas

Global perspective of environmental problems

Developed nations caused the environmental damage. Now they are going green
Traditionally developing nations lived sustainable lifestyles. Now as industrialization and urbanization
increase environmental problems are also increasing
Root of environmental problems
Population increases
Super consumers

Sustainable world
What is sustainable development, what is a sustainable society

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CHAPTER 2
LIVING THINGS IN ECOSYSTMES

Ecosystems
1)An ecosystem is a living community of plant and animals sharing an environment with non-living elements such as
climate and soil
http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/ecosystem.html

2)An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving
components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These
components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and landscape,
work together to form a bubble of life.

Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include plants,
animals, and other organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity.
Every factor in an ecosystem depends on every other factor, either directly or indirectly. A change in the
temperature of an ecosystem will often affect what plants will grow there, for instance.
Ecosystems can be very large or very small. Tide pools, the ponds left by the ocean as the tide goes out, are
complete, tiny ecosystems. Tide pools contain seaweed, a kind of algae, which uses photosynthesis to create food.
Herbivores such as abalone eat the seaweed. Carnivores such as sea stars eat other animals in the tide pool, such as
clams or mussels. Tide pools depend on the changing level of ocean water. Some organisms, such as seaweed,
thrive in an aquatic environment, when the tide is in and the pool is full. Other organisms, such as hermit crabs,
cannot live underwater and depend on the shallow pools left by low tides. In this way, the biotic parts of the
ecosystem depend on abiotic factors.
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The whole surface of Earth is a series of connected ecosystems. Ecosystems are often connected in a larger biome.

Biomes are large sections of land, sea, or atmosphere. Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all types of biomes, for
example. They're organized very generally, based on the types of plants and animals that live in them. Within each
forest, each pond, each reef, or each section of tundra, you'll find many different ecosystems.
The biome of the Sahara Desert, for instance, includes a wide variety of ecosystems. The arid climate and hot
weather characterize the biome. Within the Sahara are oasis ecosystems, which have date palm trees, freshwater,
and animals such as crocodiles. The Sahara also has dune ecosystems, with the changing landscape determined by
the wind. Organisms in these ecosystems, such as snakes or scorpions, must be able to survive in sand dunes for
long periods of time. The Sahara even includes a marine environment, where the Atlantic Ocean creates cool fogs
on the Northwest African coast. Shrubs and animals that feed on small trees, such as goats, live in this Sahara
ecosystem.

http://education.nationalgeographic.co.in/education/encyclopedia/ecosystem/?ar_a=1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem
http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/ecosystem.html

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Biotic components are the living things that shape an ecosystem. A biotic factor is any living
component that affects another organism, including animals that consume the organism in question, and the
living food that the organism consumes. Each biotic factor needs energy to do work and food for proper
growth. Biotic factors include human influence.
o Producers-Autographs
o Consumers-Heterotrophs
o Decomposers-Fungi and bacteria
o

Abiotic components (also called abiotic factors) are non-living chemical and physical factors in
the environment, which affect ecosystems.
In biology, abiotic factors can be include light, radiation, temperature, water, atmospheric gases, and soil

In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system (such as animal, fungus, micro-organism,
or plant). In at least some form, all types of organisms are capable of responding to stimuli, reproduction,
growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis as a stable whole.
An organism may be either unicellular (a single cell) or, as in the case of humans, comprise many trillions
of cells grouped into specialized tissues andorgans. The term multicellular (many cells) describes any
organism made up of more than one cell.
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species
is often defined as a group of organismscapable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
In ecology, a community is an assemblage or associations of populations of two or more different
species occupying the same geographical area.
A population is a summation of all the organisms of the same group or species, who live in the
same geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding. In ecology the population of a certain
species in a certain area is estimated using the Lincoln Index.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species
worldwildlife.org/species

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HABITAT

The area or natural environment in which an organism or population normally lives.

A habitat is made up of physical factors such as soil, moisture, range of temperature, and availability of light as well
as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence of predators.
Habitat is not necessarily a geographic areafor a parasitic organism it is the body of its host or even a cell within
the host's body

ECOLOGICAL NICHE
In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of life of a species. Each species is thought to have a separate,
unique niche. The ecological niche describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of
resources and competitors (e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and
pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to resources by other
organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey)

The Law of Limiting factors states that too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or
prevent growth of a population of a species in an ecosystem

Justus von Liebig in 1840.It says that the success of organism determined by crucial ingredient that is in short suppy.
Examples of limiting factors of a population growth

A. Terrestrial Ecosystem
1. Temperature
2. Water
3. Moisture
4. Soil nutrients
B. Marine Ecosystem
1. Salinity
2. Temperature
3. Sunlight
4. Dissolved Oxygen

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o
SPECIES INTERACTIONS
Wildlife species interact with each other in numerous, complex ways. In many cases, two species will
interact differently under different conditions

A resource, in ecological terms, is something (such as food, water, habitat, sunlight, prey) that is required
by an organism to perform a vital function such as grow or reproduce.
A consumer is an organism that consumes a resource (such as predators, herbivores, or detritivores). Thus,
most interactions between animals involves one or more competitor species vying for a resource.
Species interactions can be categorized into one of four basic groups based on how the participating species
are affected by the interaction. These include:

competitive interactions
consumer-resource interactions
detritivore-detritis interactions
mutulalistic interactions

Competitive interactions are interactions involving two or more species that are competing for the same
resources and all species involved in the competitive interaction are negatively impacted. Competitive
interactions are in many cases indirect, two species consume the same resource but they do not directly
interact with each other, instead they impact each other by the effect they have on the resource.
Consumer-resource interactions are interactions in which individuals of one species consumes individuals
of another species. Examples of consumer-resource interactions include predator-prey interactions and
herbivore-plant interactions. These consumer-resource interactions affect the species involved in different
ways, the resource species is negatively impacted while the consumer species is positively impacted.
Detritivore-detritis interactions involves a species that consumes the detritis (dead or decomposing organic
matter) of another species. The detritivore-detritis interaction is a positive interaction for the consumer and
has no impact on the resource.
Finally, mutualistic interactions are interactions in which both species, resource and consumer, benefit from
the interaction.
http://animals.about.com/od/ecology/f/speciesinteract.htm

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In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator (an animal that is hunting)
feeds on its prey (the animal that is attacked)

Competition is an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by
the presence of another. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used by
both is required. Eg- Cheetahs and lions; since both species feed on similar prey,

Parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between organisms of different species where one organism,
the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Parasites are generally smaller than the host

Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individual
benefits
A well-known example of mutualism is the relationship between cows and the bacteria within
their intestines. The ungulates benefit from the cellulase produced by the bacteria, which
facilitates digestion; the bacteria benefit from having a stable supply of nutrients in the hostenvironment.
Commensalism is a class of relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits without
affecting the other. It compares with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit, amensalism, where one is
harmed while the other is unaffected, and parasitism, where one benefits while the other is harmed
Birds following army ant raids on a forest floor. As the army ant colony travels on the forest floor, they
stir up various flying insect species. As the insects flee from the army ants, the birds following the ants
catch the fleeing insects. In this way, the army ants and the birds are in a commensalistic relationship
because the birds benefit while the army ants are unaffected.
Neutralism
Neutralism describes the relationship between two species which interact but do not affect each other
Amensalism
Amensalism is a relationship in which a product of one organism has a negative effect on another organism

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Synergy is the interaction of multiple elements in a system to produce an effect different from or greater
than the sum of their individual effects
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(biology)

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Chapter 3
HOW ECOSYTEMS WORK

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

In the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a few generalizations can be made:
1. The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun
2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.
3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain as one organism
eats another.
4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5. Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not

http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/102/ecosystem.html

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Food chain

A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some animals eat plants and some animals eat other
animals.

For example, a simple food chain links the trees & shrubs, the giraffes (that eat trees & shrubs), and the lions (that
eat the giraffes). Each link in this chain is food for the next link. A food chain always starts with plant life and ends
with an animal.

1. Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to produce food
(sugar) from carbon dioxide and water.
2. Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They are called
consumers. There are three groups of consumers.
a. Animals that eat ONLY PLANTS are called herbivores (or primary consumers).
b. Animals that eat OTHER ANIMALS are called carnivores.

carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers

carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers

e.g., killer whales in an ocean food web ... phytoplankton small fishes seals
killer whales

3. Animals and people who eat BOTH animals and plants are called omnivores.

Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decaying matter.
These decomposers speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into the food chain for
absorption by plants as nutrients.
.

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Biomagnification

"Biomagnification is the sequence of processes in an ecosystem by which higher

concentrations of a particular chemical, such as the pesticide DDT, are reached in organisms
higher up the food chain, generally through a series of prey-predator relationships."

Biomagnification Factor (BMF) - "The term biomagnification factor (BMF) is used to refer
to the ratio of contaminant concentration in biota to that in the surrounding water when the
biota was exposed via contaminated food

The following is an example showing how biomagnification takes place in nature:

An anchovy eats zooplankton that have tiny amounts of mercury that the zooplankton has picked up from the
water throughout the anchovy's lifespan.
A tuna eats many of these anchovies over its life, accumulating the mercury in each of those anchovies into its
body.
If the mercury stunts the growth of the anchovies, that tuna is required to eat more little fish to stay alive. Because
there are more little fish being eaten, the mercury content is magnified

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnification

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http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/biomagnification.html

48

HOW ECOSYSTEMS CHANGE

Ecological succession is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological
community over time.

Colonization of an area that has not been previously occupied by an ecological community, such as newly
exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, newly exposed glacial tills, etc., are referred to as primary
succession. The stages of primary succession include pioneer plants (lichens and mosses), grassy stage,
smaller shrubs, and trees. Animals begin to return when there is food there for them to eat. When it is a
fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage.

Successional dynamics following severe disturbance or removal of a pre-existing community are called
secondary succession. Dynamics in secondary succession are strongly influenced by pre-disturbance
conditions, including soil development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and residual living
organisms. Because of residual fertility and pre-existing organisms, community change in early stages of
secondary succession can be relatively rapid

.
Particularly common types of secondary succession include responses to natural disturbances such as fire,
flood, and severe winds, and to human-caused disturbances such as logging and agriculture

49

The species living in a particular place gradually change over time as does the physical and chemical
environment within that area.

Succession takes place because through the processes of living, growing and reproducing, organisms interact
with and affect the environment within an area, gradually changing it.

Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other species under a very specific set of
environmental conditions. If these conditions change, then the existing species will be replaced by a different
set of species which are better adapted to the new conditions.

The most often quoted examples of succession deal with plant succession. It is worth remembering that as
plant communities change, so will the associated micro-organism, fungus and animal species. Succession
involves the whole community, not just the plants.
. This is because each plant species will have associated animal species which feed on it. The presence of
these herbivore species will then dictate which particular carnivores are present.

Succession is directional. Different stages in a particular habitat succession can usually be accurately
predicted.

Many thousands of different species might be involved in the community changes taking place over the
course of a succession. For example, in the succession from freshwater to climax woodland.

The actual species involved in a succession in a particular area are controlled by such factors as the geology
and history of the area, the climate, microclimate, weather, soil type and other environmental factors.
For example, the species involved in a succession from open freshwater to climax woodland in Central
Africa, would be quite different to those occurring in Britain. However, the processes involved would be the
same.

Succession occurs on many different timescales, ranging from a few days to hundreds of years. It may take hundreds of
years for a climax woodland to develop, while the succession of invertebrates and fungi within a single cow pat (cow
dung), may be over within as little as 3 months.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/successn/summary.htm

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CHAPTER4
KINDS OF ECOSYSTEMS
Forest ecosystem
A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (Biotic
components) in that area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the
environment.
Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and ecosystems in forests.
The management of forests is known as forestry, silviculture, and forest management.

Importance

Forests are important for their economic, environmental and enjoyment values

1. They provide wood and other products that are useful to people.
2. They remove carbon dioxide from air.
3. They protect our water sources.-are watersheds
4. They prevent erosion and floods-the root systems bind the soil
5. They protect wildlife.
6. They provide recreation.-eco friendly tourism should be practised

Threats to the forest ecosystem

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Slash and burn farming

Illegal logging
Poaching
Deforestation
Forests have long been threatened by a variety of destructive agents. Today, the frequency, intensity and
timing of fire events, hurricanes, droughts, ice storms and insect outbreaks are shifting as a result of human
activities and global climate change, making forest ecosystems even more prone to damage.
6) Natural threats such as fire, insects and diseases are integral to forest dynamics. However, they can disrupt
the flow of goods and services from forests by affecting tree growth and survival, water quality and yield,
and biodiversity.
7) Alien invasive species pests, microorganisms or trees that are non-native to a particular ecosystem and
whose introduction causes, or is likely to cause, economic or environmental harm.
8) Many introduced tree species have high socio-economic and environmental value, but they can give cause
for concern when insufficient consideration is given to the context of their use and management..
9) Wildfire is among the most dramatic threats to forests.
10) A new modern world threat-violent conflict. With their often rich natural resources and remoteness from
centres of government, forests have frequently been the hub of disputes. When violence occurs in forest
areas, the forest often, but not always, suffers negative consequence

Examples

Amazon

Nilgiris

Costa Rica rainforests

http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e01

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http://expertscolumn.com/content/importance-forest-ecosystem

Marine ecosystems
They include oceans, salt marshes, estuaries and lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs, the deep sea and the
sea floor. They can be contrasted with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine
waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth.
Such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice-versa.
Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial environments.
According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats alone account for approximately 1/3 of all marine
biological productivity, and estuarine ecosystems (i.e., salt marshes, seagrasses, mangrove forests) are
among the most productive regions on the planet. In addition, other marine ecosystems such as coral reefs,
provide food and shelter to the highest levels of marine diversity in the world.
Marine ecosystems have distinct organisms and characteristics that result from the unique combination of
physical factors that create them. Marine ecosystems include: areas like deep sea coral, brine pools, polar
regions such as the Antarctic and Arctic, coral reefs, the deep sea , kelp forests, mangroves, the open
ocean, rocky shores, salt marshes and mudflats, and sandy shores.

THREATS TO MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

The worlds coastal ocean waters continue to be degraded by unsustainable fishing
practices, habitat degradation, eutrophication, toxic pollution, aerosol contamination, and
emerging diseases. Against this background is a growing recognition among world leaders
that positive actions are required on the part of governments and civil society to redress
global environmental and resource degradation with actions to recover depleted fish
populations, restore degraded habitats and reduce coastal pollution
o
o
o

Overfishing
Lack of public awareness
Coral disease

Over exploitation - recreational and commercial

Pollution

Habitat destruction and fragmentation

Non-native species invasions

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Global climate change

Entanglement and drowning in fishing gear
Habitat degradation
Algal blooms
Sound pollution
Pollution, including oil spills
Competition for food sources, including changes in the balance of available prey due to commercial fishing
or habitat disturbance
Vessel traffic and impact
Disturbance and harassment

o
o

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Threats to marine biodiversity have widespread social, economic, and biological

consequences, the combination of which could threaten our own existence, including:
o

Economic losses through unemployment and reduced productivity

Dramatic reductions in the numbers of many popular edible fish and shellfish

Extinction of species that might be useful in developing new medicines

Reduced ability of ecosystems to respond to disaster, both natural (floods) and man-made (pollution)

Accelerated global climate change

Social and political instability

Examples of Marine Ecosystems

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Hawaiin Coral reefs

Indian Ocean
Bay OF Bengal
South China Sea
California Current
Gulf Of Alaska

http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/czm/initiative/wec/html/sea/marine/threats.htm
http://www.marbef.org/wiki/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity
http://www.lme.noaa.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=41
http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/marine-ecosystem-illustratio

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Freshwater ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include lakes and ponds, rivers, streams
and springs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content
Freshwater ecosystems are essential for human survival, providing the majority of people's drinking water. The
ecosystems are home to more than 40 percent of the world's fish species.
Despite their value and importance, many lakes, rivers, and wetlands around the world are being severely
damaged by human activities and are declining at a much faster rate than terrestrial ecosystems.
More than 20 percent of the 10,000 known freshwater fish species have become extinct or imperiled in recent
decades. Watersheds, which catch precipitation and channel it to streams and lakes, are highly vulnerable to
pollution.
Programs to protect freshwater habitats include planning, stewardship, education, and regulation.

Threats

The creation of dams and water-diversion systems blocks migration routes for fish and disrupts habitats.
Water withdrawal for human use shrinks and degrades habitats.
Runoff from agricultural and urban areas hurts water quality.
Draining of wetlands for development depletes habitats.
Overexploitation and pollution threaten groundwater supplies.
Invasion of exotic species can harm native animals and plants.
Global warming may lead to devastating floods and droughts.

Solutions

Restrict the construction of dams.

Provide incentives for farming business to reduce the use of pesticides.
Establish protected wetlands areas.
Regulate water withdrawal for human use.

Examples
o
o

Lake Baikal-One of the largest- Known as Blue eye of Siberia

Lake Erie-North America

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/freshwater-threats/

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Temperate Grasslands Ecosystem

Temperate grasslands are also known as prairie, puszta, pampas, plains or steppes with warm, moist
summers (average 18C) and cool, dry winters (average 10C).
It can snow during the winter.
The most prominent temperate grasslands are found in the Great Plains of Canada and the United States,
Argentina, South Africa, Central Eurasia and Australia.
There are two distinctive types of temperate grasslands tall-grass (more than 2 meters) and short-grass
less than 60 cm).
Trees are generally not found in these regions due to the lack of moisture and their need for a relatively
longer life cycle.

Threats to temperate grasslands include

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

clearing,
inappropriate grazing,
altered burning practices,
neglect,
fragmentation,
the invasion of exotic weed species like Serrated Tussock, African Lovegrass, St John's Wort and
Phalaris

http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/temp-grass.html

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The Tundra Ecosystem

Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes.
Characteristics of tundra include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Extremely cold climate

Low biotic diversity
Simple vegetation structure
Limitation of drainage
Short season of growth and reproduction

Threats facing the Arctic Tundra comes from humans...

More people are moving to the Arctic Tundra to:

Work in the mines and oil rigs
Live (creating towns and roads)

This is affecting the biome:

I t affects the Tundra's organisms feeding patterns:

Some animal's movements to traditional feeding and denning grounds have been disrupted
by man-made obstacles such as towns and roads.
Humans shoot these animals for food or entertainment when the animals pass through the
towns.
Roads also block the routes which these animals take to get to their feeding grounds. For
example, the Alaskan oil pipeline was built across a caribou migration route.

Pesticides have been used to control the hordes of insects. Many birds migrate to the tundra
to feed on these insects, and they are losing food.

It pollutes the Tundra:

Human activities such as mining and drilling for oil has polluted the air, lakes and rivers.
This pollution kills plants in the surrounding area.
This pollution causes erosion: Footprints and tire tracks remain long periods of time after
they are made. These ruts cause the permafrost to melt more easily and erosion takes place,
forming gullies

https://sites.google.com/a/ncps-k12.org/artic-tundra/warnings/threats
http://www.mbgnet.net/sets/tundra/

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Biogeographic Region(Zones)
Biogeographic region, area of animal and plant distribution having similar or shared characteristics
throughout.
A biogeographic region is a large area where animals and plants have evolved together over thousands of
years separated from other regions by oceans, mountains or deserts.
This situation effectively separates the biosphere into biomesecological communities that have the same
climatic conditions and geologic features and that support species with similar life strategies and
adaptations
Biogeography- the study of animal and plant distributions that is as zoogeography and phytogeography,
respectively

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Arctic
Indomalay
Antarctic
Australasia
Afrotropic
Neotropic
Neararctic

8) Oceania

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/65890/biogeographic-regions

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CHAPTER 5
WATER

Point source pollution is pollution that comes from a single source, such as a factory or wastewater
treatment plant.

Non-point source pollution does not have one specific source, such as a factory.
o Non-point source pollution comes from the cumulative effect of a region's residents going about
their everyday activities, such as fertilizing a lawn or driving a car.
o One type of non-point source pollution is fertilizer. Fertilizer contains nitrogen compounds called
nitrates. When fertilizer is applied excessively or just prior to a rainstorm, it washes off the lawn
and into the gutter, where it makes its way through the storm sewer system and into a river or lake.
Once in the water, these nitrates have the same effect on algae as they do on lawns - they make it
grow! Overgrown algae can have devastating effects on a lake or stream, consuming all the oxygen
and suffocating fish and other aquatic wildlife. This is called eutrophication

o Other types of non-point source pollutants include pesticides, pet waste, motor oil, and household
hazardous wastes. Again, any of these pollutants which get either washed or dumped into the storm
sewer flow directly to a stream or lake without treatment

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Eutrophication
It is the process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially phosphates and
nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of algae. As the algae die and decompose, high levels of organic
matter and the decomposing organisms deplete the water of available oxygen, causing the death of other
organisms, such as fish. Eutrophication is a natural, slow-aging process for a water body, but human activity greatly
speeds up the process.
Eutrophicationthe over-enrichment of water by nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorusis a leading threat to
water quality around the world. Also known as nutrient pollution, eutrophication upsets the natural balance of
aquatic ecosystems, which can lead to algal blooms, red tides, hypoxic or dead zones, fish kills, and, eventually,
ecosystem collapse
The rise in eutrophic and hypoxic( reduced dissolved oxygen content of a body of water detrimental to
aerobic organisms.) events has been attributed to the rapid increase in intensive agricultural practices, industrial
activities, and population growth which together have increased nitrogen and phosphorus flows in the environment

http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication
http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about

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http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/eutrophication.html

Thermal Pollution
INTRODUCTION
Thermal Pollution- harmful increase in water temperature in streams, rivers, lakes, or occasionally, coastal
ocean waters.
Thermal pollution is caused by either dumping hot water from factories and power plants or removing trees
and vegetation that shade streams, permitting sunlight to raise the temperature of these waters.
Like other forms of water pollution, thermal pollution is widespread, affecting many lakes and vast
numbers of streams and rivers.
A temperature increase as small as 1 or 2 Celsius degrees (about 2 to 4 Fahrenheit degrees) can kill native
fish, shellfish, and plants, or drive them out in favor of other species, often with undesirable effects.
MAJOR SOURCES
1) The major sources of thermal pollution are electric power plants and industrial factories.
a) In most electric power plants, heat is produced when coal, oil, or natural gas is burned or nuclear
fuels undergo fission to release huge amounts of energy. The water used for cooling warms 5 to 10
Celsius degrees (9 to 18 Fahrenheit degrees), after which it may be dumped back into the lake,
river, or ocean from which it came.
b) Similarly, factories contribute to thermal pollution when they dump water used to cool their
machinery
2) The second type of thermal pollution is much more widespread.
a) Streams and small lakes are naturally kept cool by trees and other tall plants that block sunlight.
People often remove this shading vegetation in order to harvest the wood in the trees, to make room
for crops, or to construct buildings, roads, and other structures. Left unshaded, the water warms by
as much as 10 Celsius degrees (18 Fahrenheit degrees).
b) In a similar manner, grazing sheep and cattle can strip streamsides of low vegetation, including
young trees.
c) Even the removal of vegetation far away from a stream or lake can contribute to thermal pollution
by speeding up the erosion of soil into the water, making it muddy. Muddy water absorbs more
energy from the sun than clear water does, resulting in further heating.
d) Finally, water running off of artificial surfaces, such as streets, parking lots, and roofs, is warmer
than water running off vegetated land and, thus, contributes to thermal pollution
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IMPACT
1) All plant and animal species that live in water are adapted to temperatures within a certain range.
When water in an area warms more than they can tolerate, species that cannot move, such as rooted
plants and shellfish, will die.
2) Species that can move, such as fish, will leave the area in search of cooler conditions, and they will
die if they can not find them.
3) Typically, other species, often less desirable, will move into the area to fill the vacancy.
4) In general, cold waters are better habitat for plants and animals than warm ones because cold waters
contain more dissolved oxygen.
5) Many freshwater fish species that are valued for sport and food, especially trout and salmon, do
poorly in warm water. Some organisms do thrive in warm water, often with undesirable effects.
6) Algae and other plants grow more rapidly in warm water than in cold, but they also die more
rapidly; the bacteria that decompose their dead tissue use up oxygen, further reducing the amount
available for animals.
7) The dead and decaying algae make the water look, taste, and smell unpleasant

CONTROL
1) Thermal pollution from power plants and factories is relatively easy to control. Instead of
discharging heated water into lakes and streams, power plants and factories can pass the heated
water through cooling towers or cooling ponds, where evaporation cools the water before it is
discharged.
2) Alternatively, power plants can be designed or refitted to be more efficient and to produce less
waste heat in the first place.
3) In a process called cogeneration, the excess heat energy from generating electricity can be used in
another manufacturing process that needs such energy. Where homes or other buildings are located
near industrial plants, waste hot water can be used for heatingan arrangement often found in
Scandinavian towns and cities, and proposed for use in China.
4) To prevent thermal pollution due to devegetation, the prescription is simple: do not devegetate.
Landowners can leave strips of trees and vegetation along streams and shorelines. Grazing livestock
can be kept away from streamsides by fencing.
5) All efforts to control erosion also have the effect of keeping water clearer and, thus, cooler.

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http://www.ukm.my/ahmadukm/images/stories/data/kuliah/manusia/artikel/thermal.htm

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CHAPTER 5
WATER
OUR WATER RESOURCES
FROZEN POLAR ICE CAPS
RIVERS
India's plan to link more than 30 rivers and divert waters to parched areas to tackle flood and drought cycles
is worrying neighboring countries, officials say.
The multibillion-dollar project, announced by the Indian government in 2002, has remained just a proposal
on paper, but a supreme court ruling said the delay has resulted in cost increases and has appointed a
committee to plan and implement the project in a "time-bound manner,"
The proposed project's main goal is to take water from areas where authorities believe it is abundant and
divert it to areas where there is less water available for irrigation, power and human consumption.
Neighboring countries have condemned the plan, with Bangladesh saying it would be hardest-hit because it
is a downstream country to two major rivers that flow from India.
The Ganges and the Bramhaputra, which flow down through Bangladesh, are among the rivers India has
said it would divert to its western and southern regions.
South Asia is considered a likely flashpoint over water resources in the future
DAMS
a) Tehri Dam
b) Mullaperiyar Dam - Kerala Government has long been demanding construction of a new
dam in Mullaperiyar on the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border. Many believe that the existing 116year-old dam could pose safety hazard
c) Bhakra Dam
d) Hirakud
e) Sardar Sarovar Dam _The Sardar Sarovar Dam is a gravity dam on the Narmada River near
Navagam, Gujarat, India. It is the largest dam and part of the Narmada Valley Project on the
Narmada River. The project took form in 1979 as part of a development scheme to increase
irrigation and produce hydroelectricity. The dam is one of India's most controversial dam projects
and its environmental impact and net costs and benefits are widely debated. The World Bank was
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initially a funder, but withdrew in 1994. The Narmada Dam has been the centre of controversy and
protest since the late 1980

AQUIFERS
An aquifer is an underground layer of rock or soil that contains water. The water is held in the spaces
between the rock or soil particles
We use aquifers as a source of drinking water and of water to irrigate crops or to use in industry, pumping
water from the aquifer using a well. Pumping from the aquifer empties it--or at least decreases the amount
of water it holds. Aquifers are refilled, or recharged, in areas where they are exposed on the surface of the
earth. Water can re-enter the aquifer in these recharge areas.
Many of those aquifers are now being sucked dry by irrigation and other uses faster than they can be
replenished by rainwater . Once theyre gone, it would take thousands of years to refill them.

http://coastgis.marsci.uga.edu/summit/aquifers.htm
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/08/10/where-the-worlds-running-out-of-water-in-one-map/

http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2012/03/30/Rivers-plan-stirs-controversy-in-India/UPI-54461333150630/#ixzz2ZMqkOo6Z

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Water Harvesting
It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off. And taking measures to keep that water clean
by not allowing polluting activities to take place in the catchment.
Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways

Capturing runoff from rooftops

Capturing runoff from local catchments
Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams
Conserving water through watershed management

These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:

Provide drinking water

Provide irrigation water
Increase groundwater recharge
Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants
Reduce seawater ingress in coastal areas.

In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater collected can be
stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater.
Rain is a primary source of water for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of water.
In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary sources of water.Water harvesting means to
understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at the place where it falls.
How much water can be harvested?
Urban scenario
The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater
endowment of the area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water
harvesting potential.
The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an area cannot be
effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage
Rural scenario Community based rainwater harvesting continues in rural areas of India

From rooftops, they collected water and stored it in tanks built in their courtyards.
From open community lands, they collected the rain and stored it in artificial wells.
They harvested monsoon runoff by capturing water from swollen streams and rivers during the monsoon
season and stored it various forms of water bodies.
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GROUNDWATER POLLUTION
Saltwater encroachment associated with over drafting of aquifers or natural leaching from natural occurring
deposits are natural sources of groundwater pollution.
. Human groundwater contamination can be related to waste disposal (private sewage disposal systems, land
disposal of solid waste, municipal wastewater, wastewater ,spreading of sludge, brine disposal from the
petroleum industry, mine wastes, , animal feedlot wastes, radioactive wastes) or not directly related to waste
disposal (accidents, certain agricultural activities, mining, highway deicing, acid rain, improper well construction
and maintenance, road salt).

Natural: groundwater contains some impurities, even if it is unaffected by human activities. The types and
concentrations of natural impurities depend on the nature of the geological material through which the
groundwater moves and the quality of the recharge water. Groundwater moving through sedimentary rocks and
soils may pick up a wide range of compounds such as magnesium, calcium, and chlorides. Some aquifers have
high natural concentration of dissolved constituents such as arsenic, boron, and selenium.

Human Activities
Agricultural: Pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides and animal waste

Industrial: Toxic wastes. Storage tanks storing acids..etc develop leaks

Residential: Residential wastewater systems can be a source of many categories of contaminants, including
bacteria, viruses, nitrates from human waste, and organic compounds. Injection wells used for domestic
wastewater disposal (septic systems, cesspools, drainage wells for storm water runoff, groundwater recharge
wells) are of particular concern to groundwater quality if located close to drinking water wells. Improperly storing
or disposing of household chemicals such as paints, synthetic detergents, solvents, oils, medicines, disinfectants,
pool chemicals, pesticides, batteries, gasoline and diesel fuel can lead to groundwater contamination.

http://www.lenntech.com/groundwater/pollution-sources.htm

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Who Owns The Oceans

The control and ownership of the oceans has long been a controversial topic. Since ancient empires began
to sail and trade over the seas, command of coastal areas has been important to governments. However, it
wasn't until the twentieth century that countries began to come together to discuss a standardization of
maritime boundaries. Surprisingly, the situation still has yet to be resolved.
The first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I) met in 1958 to begin discussions
on these and other oceanic issues. In 1960 UNCLOS II was held and in 1973 UNCLOS III took place.
Following UNCLOS III, a treaty was developed that attempted to tackle the boundary issue. It specified
that all coastal countries would have a 12 nm territorial sea and a 200 nm Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
Each country would control the economic exploitation and environmental quality of their EEZ.

UN Convention of the Law of the Sea was signed in December 1982.

Now there are concerns about illegal fishing, whaling, piracy, oil spills, loss of marine biodiversity.

http://www.progress.org/ocean01.htm
http://geography.about.com/od/politicalgeography/a/politicaloceans.htm

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CHAPTER 6
AIR
Temperature (THERMAL) Inversions
Inversion layers, are areas where the normal decrease in air temperature with increasing altitude is reversed and air
above the ground is warmer than the air below it. Inversion layers can occur anywhere from close to ground level
up to thousands of feet into the atmosphere.
This can then result in various types of weather patterns. Areas with heavy pollution are prone to unhealthy air and
an increase in smog when an inversion is present because they trap pollutants at ground level instead of circulating
them away.
Causes of Temperature Inversions
Temperature inversions are a result of other weather conditions in an area. They occur most often when a warm,
less dense air mass moves over a dense, cold air mass. This can happen for example, when the air near the ground
rapidly loses its heat on a clear night. In this situation, the ground becomes cooled quickly while the air above it
retains the heat the ground was holding during the day. Additionally, temperature inversions occur in some coastal
areas because upwelling of cold water can decrease surface air temperature and the cold air mass stays under
warmer ones.
Topography can also play a role in creating a temperature inversion since it can sometimes cause cold air to flow
from mountain peaks down into valleys. This cold air then pushes under the warmer air rising from the valley,
creating the inversion.
In addition, inversions can also form in areas with significant snow cover because the snow at ground level is cold
and its white color reflects almost all heat coming in. Thus, the air above the snow is often warmer because it holds
the reflected energy.
Consequences of Temperature Inversions
Some of the most significant consequences of temperature inversions are the extreme weather conditions they can
sometimes create.
One example of these is freezing rain. This phenomenon develops with a temperature inversion in a cold area
because snow melts as it moves through the warm inversion layer. The precipitation then continues to fall and
passes through the cold layer of air near the ground. When it moves through this final cold air mass it becomes
"super-cooled" (cooled below freezing without becoming solid). The super-cooled drops then become ice when
they land on items like cars and trees and the result is freezing rain or an ice storm.

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Intense thunderstorms and tornadoes are also associated with inversions because of the intense energy that is
released after an inversion blocks an areas normal convection patterns.

Smog
Although freezing rain, thunderstorms, and tornadoes are significant weather events, one of the most important
things impacted by an inversion layer is smog. This is the brownish gray haze that covers many of the worlds
largest cities and is a result of dust, auto exhaust, and industrial manufacturing.
This happens because the warmer air layer sits over a city and prevents the normal mixing of cooler, denser air. The
air instead becomes still and over time the lack of mixing causes pollutants to become trapped under the inversion,
developing significant amounts of smog.
During severe inversions that last over long periods smog can cover entire metropolitan areas and cause respiratory
problems for the inhabitants of those areas. In December 1952, for example, such an inversion occurred in London.
Because of the cold December weather at the time, Londoners began to burn more coal, which increased air
pollution in the city. Since the inversion was present over the city at the same time, these pollutants became
trapped and increased Londons air pollution. The result was the Great Smog of 1952 that was blamed for
thousands of deaths.

Photochemical smog
However, the burning of fossil fuels like gasoline can create another atmospheric pollution problem known
as photochemical smog.
Photochemical smog is a condition that develops when primary pollutants(oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic
compounds created from fossil fuel combustion) interact under the influence of sunlight to produce a mixture of
hundreds of different and hazardous chemicals known as secondary pollutants

Weather, topography, the times of the day and the presence of industries and vehicles all affect the formation of
photochemical smog.

COMPOSITION
1) Nitrogen OXIdes(NO
2)
3)
4)

and NO2)
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
Ozone (O3)
PAN Peroxyacetyl Nitrates

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http://dwb4.unl.edu/Chem/CHEM869J/CHEM869JLinks/royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mpidwirn/atmosphereandclimate/smog.html
http://geography.about.com/od/climate/a/inversionlayer.htm

Acid rain is rain that has been made acidic by certain pollutants in the air

Sources of Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air. These substances can rise very high
into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to
form more acidic pollutants, known as acid rain.
Human activities are the main cause of acid rain.
Power plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when they
burn fossil fuels, such as coal, to produce electricity. In addition, theexhaust from cars, trucks,
and buses releases nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air. These pollutants cause acid
rain.

Acid Rain Can Cause Health Problems in People

Air pollution like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause respiratory diseases, or can make these
diseases worse.
Respiratory diseases like asthma or chronic bronchitis make it hard for people to breathe.
Acid Rain Harms Forests
Acid rain can be extremely harmful to forests.
Acid rain that seeps into the ground can dissolve nutrients, such as magnesium and calcium, that trees
need to be healthy.
Acid rain also causes aluminum to be released into the soil, which makes it difficult for trees to take up
water.
Acid Rain Damages Lakes and Streams
Without pollution or acid rain, most lakes and streams would have a pH level near 6.5. Acid rain,
however, has caused many lakes and streams in the northeast United States and certain other places to

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have much lower pH levels.

Acid Rain Damages Buildings and Objects
Acid rain can also have a damaging effect on many objects, including buildings, statues, monuments, and
cars. The chemicals found in acid rain can cause paint to peel

REDUCING ACID RAIN

Power plants generate the electricity we use every day. There are laws to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide that power plants
can release into the air and also the amount of nitrogen oxides that power plants can release.
1)

2)

Reducing Pollution
Scientists have found different ways to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide released from coal-burning power plants. One
option is to use coal that contains less sulfur. Another option is to wash the coal to remove some of the sulfur. The
power plant can also install equipment called scrubbers, which remove the sulfur dioxide from gases leaving the
smokestack.
Because nitrogen oxides are created in the process of burning coal and other fossil fuels, some power plants are
changing the way they burn coal.

Other Sources of Energy

A great way to reduce acid rain is to produce energy without using fossil fuels.
Instead, people can use renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power. Renewable energy sources help reduce acid
rain because they produce much less pollution. These energy sources can be used to power machinery and produce electricity.
Cleaner Cars
Cars and trucks are major sources of the pollutants that cause acid rain. While one car alone does not produce much pollution, all
the cars on the road added together create lots of pollution. Therefore, car manufacturers are required to reduce the amount of
nitrogen oxides and other pollutants released by new cars. One type of technology used in cars is called a catalytic

converter. This piece of equipment has been used for over 20 years to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxides
released by cars.
Some new cars can also use cleaner fuels, such as natural gas

What can each one of us do

Conserve Energy
Since energy production creates large amounts of the pollutants that cause acid rain, one important step you can take is to
conserve energy. You can do this in a number of ways:

Turn off lights, computers, televisions, video games, and other electrical equipment when you're not using them.
Try to limit the use of air conditioning.
Buy ENERGY STAR appliances

Car pool, use public transport, walk or cycle

http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/education/site_students/whatisacid.html

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CHAPTER 7
ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE
GREENHOUSE EARTH
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by
atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the
surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would
be in the absence of the gases
The mechanism is named after the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse, but the
way it retains heat is fundamentally different as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow, isolating the warm air inside
the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.

Earths natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible. However, human activities, primarily the
burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have intensified the natural greenhouse effect, causing global warming
By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are:

water vapor, 3670%

carbon dioxide, 926%

methane, 49%

ozone, 37%

Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the enhanced
(or anthropogenic) greenhouse effect. This increase due to human activity is attributable mainly to increased
atmospheric carbon dioxide level

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect

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A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation
within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect
The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are:
water vapor
carbon dioxide
methane
nitrous oxide
ozone.
In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, and Titan also contain gases that cause greenhouse effects.
Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, Earth's surface would average about
33C colder than the present average of 14 C (57 F).
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has contributed to a 40% increase in the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (i.e., emissions
produced by human activities) come from combustion of carbon based fuels, principally wood, coal, oil, and natural
gas

Non greenhouse gases

Nitrogen (N)
Oxygen (O)
Argon (Ar), are not greenhouse gases.
They do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect, -hence they are usually omitted when discussing
greenhouse gases.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas

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Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th
century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased
by about 0.8 C (1.4 F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. Scientists are more than 90%
certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities
such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. These findings are recognized by the national science
academies of all major industrialized nations

The effects of an increase in global temperature

o
o
o
o

Rise in sea levels and a change in the amount and pattern of precipitation,
Maybe expansion ofsubtropical deserts.
Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the continuing retreat of
glaciers, permafrost and sea ice.
Other likely effects of the warming include a more frequent occurrence of extreme weather events
including heat waves, droughts and heavy rainfall, ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting
temperature regimes.
Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the loss of
habitat from inundation.

What can we do right now to slow climate change and make a real difference?
o turning off lights and computers when they are not in use,
o using public transportation or carpooling,
o recycling, purchasing energy efficient appliances (for the Energy Star label) or a more fuel-efficient
car, buying food grown locally,
o insulating your water heater and home, and
o choosing green electricity-generated from renewable sources such as the wind or sun, which is
now possible in many areas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming

GANGOTRI GLACIER MELTING

o increased melt rate/descent is largely due to warming up, thanks to the emission of green house
gases.
o black carbon soot from diesel engines and other industrial processes falling on Himalayan glaciers
is responsible for up to 90% of the melting in the region.
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o increased human interference is also not a good sign for the glacier's health. Earlier, there were nine
tributaries to the Gangotri glacier. Now we are left with five.

Questions and Answers about Global Warming and Abrupt Climate Change

What are some of the impacts we can expect from climate change?
A.
more severe and frequent storms (such as hurricanes and ice storms),
heat waves, floods, droughts and wildfires.
Warmer temperatures will increase the range of disease-bearing mosquitoes, while also
increasing the range and numbers of insects and other agricultural pests, such as weeds.
Melting glaciers and expanding sea water (water expands as it warms) will further raise sea
level, inundating low-lying islands and flooding coastal areas
while warmer ocean temperatures will kill many if not most of the worlds coral reefs.
Such events, in turn, will influence our food supply, our access to clean water, our health,
and the economic and social conditions of families and communities around the world.
As ecosystems become further stressed by climate change, species extinction will
accelerate. Many of the species lost will be seemingly insignificant plants and insects, but
we will also lose plants that could cure diseases, and large animals such as polar bears,
which rely on winter ice as a platform to hunt for food.
. The regional or national economic impacts of such changes could be significant.
Many such changes are already being seen around the world. For example, the number of
weather-related disasters experienced worldwide every year has been increasing over the
past few decades.
.

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What is the scientific consensus on the causes and consequences of climate change?
CONSENSUS
o Global warming is real. The global average temperature in 2003 was the third hottest
since record keeping began in the late 1800s
o 1990s was the warmest decade in the Northern Hemisphere in the past 1,000 years.
o Humans are the main force behind the sharp global warming trend of the past
century.
Effects- More extreme temperatures (hot and cold), greater storm intensity and frequency,
more frequent droughts and floods, and rising sea levels

What role does human activity play in the current global warming trend?
o A variety of heat trappingor greenhousegases collect in Earths atmosphere
and keep the planet warm enough to sustain life. This occurs through natural
processes. For example, humans and animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon
dioxide (CO2). Plants absorb CO2 while growing, but release it as they decompose.
The decomposition of cattle manure and peat releases methane, an even stronger, but
shorter-lived heat-trapping gas.
o Human activities also produce greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is released when we
burn fossil fuels to produce electricity; heat our homes with oil, coal or gas; drive our
cars; or switch on our natural gas stoves for cooking.
o Landfills release methane into the air as our garbage decomposes.

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Which countries contribute the most to global warming?

Wealthier industrial countries contribute the most to global warming since they
use most of the worlds fossil fuels. Europe, Japan, and North Americawith
roughly 15 percent of the worlds current populationare estimated to account
for two-thirds of the carbon dioxide now in the atmosphere.
With less than five percent of world population, the United States is the singlelargest source of carbon from fossil fuelsemitting 24 percent of the worlds
total. The average person in China produces less than one-eighth as much carbon
dioxide as the average American.
What is the Kyoto Protocol and what can it do to curb climate change?
A The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement, initially negotiated by government
representatives meeting in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, that sets targets to reduce the greenhouse
gas emissions causing climate change.
It requires a variety of actions by governments, including specific emission reduction
requirements for industrial countries, as well as provisions to assist developing countries in
limiting their emissions.

According to many studies, enforcing the Kyoto Protocol would protect the environment,
reduce air pollution, and create new jobs in industries such as energy conservation, solar
energy, wind power, and hydrogen technology, all of which could become powerful growth
sectors in the decades ahead.

http://www.worldwatch.org/node/3949#top

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OZONE DEPLETION
OZONE DEPLETION - Destruction of the protective ozone layer around the atmosphere,
caused by ozone depleting substances(GHGs ) and other environmental pollutants
CAUSE
The ozone in the ozone layer is being broken down by environmental pollutants .CFCs and halons are used
in many appliances such as refrigerants, aerosols, fire-fighting equipment and the manufacture of
materials such as stryrofoam.

IMPACT OF OZONE DEPLETIONTHE ozone layer filters out most of the sun's potentially harmful shortwave ultraviolet (UV) radiation. If
this ozone becomes depleted, then more UV rays will reach the earth.
Harm to human health:

More skin cancers, sunburns and premature aging of the skin.

More cataracts, blindness and other eye diseases: UV radiation can damage several parts of
the eye, including the lens, cornea, retina and conjunctiva.
Weakening of the human immune system (immunosuppression).

Adverse impacts on agriculture, forestry and natural ecosystems:

Several of the world's major crop species are particularly vulnerable to increased UV

Damage to marine life:

In particular, plankton (tiny organisms in the surface layer of oceans) are threatened by increased UV radiation.
Plankton are the first vital step in aquatic food chains.

Loss of biodiversity in our oceans, rivers and lakes could reduce fish yields for commercial and sport fisheries.
Damage to animals:

In domestic animals, UV overexposure may cause eye and skin cancers. Species of marine animals in their
developmental stage (e.g. young fish, shrimp larvae and crab larvae) have been threatened in recent years by the
increased UV radiation under the Antarctic ozone hole.

Damage to materials:

Wood, plastic, rubber, fabrics and many construction materials are degraded by UV radiation.

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Ways to Protect the Ozone Layer

1.
2.

Encourage growth of plants that produce oxygen; and discourage deforestation

Reduce ozone depleting chemicals (such as CFCs and HCFCs)
Actions an Individual Can Take

Vehicle air conditioning units should regularly be checked for leaks.

Replace halon fire extinguishers with alternatives (e.g. carbon dioxide or foam).
Increase awareness of the problem

Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to reduce the use of CFCs and eventually ban them
completely. CFCs have now been banned in more economically developed countries. However, in some
less economically developed countries CFCs are still being used due to the high cost of replacing it with a
more ozone friendly substance.

http://science.yourdictionary.com/ozone-layer
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/ozone-depletion.html#ixzz2MUoj8O9K
http://www.uow.edu.au/~sharonb/HoleStory/intro/intro3.html
http://www.bcairquality.ca/101/ozone-depletion-impacts.html
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_can_we_do_to_protect_the_ozone_layer&alreadyAsked=1&rtitle=What_can_be_done_to_prev

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Chapter 8
SOIL AND LAND
DEFORESTATION
Forests cover roughly 30% of the world's land area and offer major environmental benefits: they are
amongst the most important habitats for biodiversity and provide crucial services by contributing to erosion
prevention, water purification and the storage of Carbon Dioxide (CO2). The livelihoods of 1.6 billion people
in the world depend on forest resources.
Forests are under threat from deforestation. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO), 13 million hectares of forests are lost every year.

CAUSES
1) Changes in land use
2) Urbanisation, industrialisation
3) Use of paper
4) Use of wood for homes, furnitureetc
5) Lack of implementation of laws

SOLUTIONS

by strengthening forest governance implementation of all laws

Recognizes the imp of biodivesirty and forests-medicines, tourismetc

citizens movements, NGOS initiatives, Chipko..etc

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (EN) and international climate negotiations;

by improving means for forest monitoring and assessment

What citizens and Govts can also do-change consumption patterns

1) Reduce use of paper and wood products
2) Planned land use management

3)

Use alternatives to timber

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How deforestation affects the water cycle

When forests are destroyed, the atmosphere, water bodies and the water table are all affected. Trees absorb
and retain water in their roots. A large part of the water that circulates in the ecosystem of rainforests
remains inside the plants. Some of this moisture is transpired into the atmosphere. When this process is
broken, the atmosphere and water bodies begin to dry out. The watershed potential is compromised and less
water will runs through the rivers. Smaller lakes and streams that take water from these larger water bodies
dry up

How deforestation affects atmosphere and climate

Rainforests play the important role of locking up atmospheric carbon in their vegetation via photosynthesis.
When forests are burned, degraded, or cleared, the opposite effect occurs: large amounts of carbon are
released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide along with other greenhouse gases (nitrous oxide, methane,
and other nitrogen oxides).
The clearing and burning of tropical forests and peatlands releases more than a billion metric tons of carbon
(3.7 billion tons of carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere each year, or about more than ten percent of
anthropogenic carbon emissions.
The buildup of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere is known as the "greenhouse effect."
The accumulation of these gases is believed to have altered the earth's radiative balance, meaning more of
the sun's heat is absorbed and trapped inside the earth's atmosphere, producing global warming.
Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide are transparent to incoming shortwave solar radiation. This radiation
reaches the earth's surface, heats it, and re-radiates it as long-wave radiation. Greenhouse gases are opaque
to long-wave radiation and therefore, heat is trapped in the atmosphere. As greenhouse gases build up, this
opacity is increased and more heat is trapped in the atmosphere.

http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0907.htm

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LAND POLLUTION
SALINISATION is the accumulation of soluble salts of sodium, magnesium and calcium in soil to the
extent that soil fertility is severely reduced.

Salinisation is the process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble salts in the soil. The
accumulated salts include sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium, chloride, sulphate, carbonate and
bicarbonate (mainly sodium chloride and sodium sulphate).
Primary salinisation involves salt accumulation through natural processes due to a high salt content of the
parent material or in groundwater.
Secondary salinisation is caused by human interventions such as inappropriate irrigation practices, e.g.
with salt-rich irrigation water and/or insufficient drainage.

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CHAPTER 9

PEOPLE
POVERTY
The state of being poor; lack of the means of providing material needs or comforts
The WHO- Poverty undermines key human attributes, including health. The poor are exposed to greater personal
and environmental health risks, are less well nourished, have less information and are less able to access health
care; they thus have a higher risk of illness and disability.
New innovative indices to measure poverty go beyond income and include factors such as: The deprivations that a
poor person faces with respect to education, health and living standard.

VITAL STATISTICS
More than 2.8 billion people, close to half the world's population, live on less than the equivalent of $2/day.
More than 1.2 billion people, or about 20 per cent of the world population, live on less than the equivalent of $1/day.
South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa have the largest number of poor
Nearly 1 billion people are illiterate; more than 1 billion people do not have access to safe water;
840 million people go hungry or face food insecurity; about one-third of all children under five suffer from malnutrition.
The estimated cost of providing universal access to basic social services and transfers to alleviate income poverty is
$80 billion, which is less than 0.5 per cent of global income.
The top fifth (20 per cent) of the worlds people who live in the highest income countries have access to 86 per cent
of world gross domestic product (GDP).
The bottom fifth, in the poorest countries, has access to about one per cent.
DEBT TRAP_ In 1998, for every $1 that the developing world received in grants, it spent $13 on debt repayment.

The poverty trap

Until recently, poverty was understood largely in terms of incomeor a lack of one. To be poor meant that
one could not afford the cost of providing a proper diet or home. But poverty not just a shortfall in income
or calorie intake. It is about the denial of opportunities and choices that are widely regarded as essential to
lead a long, healthy, creative life and to enjoy a decent standard of living, freedom, dignity, self esteem and
the respect of others.
People don't live in the squalor of the slums, squatter communities, low-rent districts or beside garbage
dumps because they want to. They have no other choice.
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Possessing little money, little education, few skills for the marketplace and a multitude of health problems,
nearly half of all the people in the world live in poverty, without much opportunity to improve their lives.

Causes of Poverty Trap

A poverty trap is "any self-reinforcing mechanism which causes poverty to persist.. If it persists from generation to
generation, the trap begins to reinforce itself if steps are not taken to break the cycle
In the developing world, many factors can contribute to a poverty trap, including:

a) limited access to credit and capital markets,

b) extreme environmental degradation (which depletes agricultural production potential-so faremer
go into debt-farmer suicides ),
c) corrupt governance,
d) poor education systems,
e) lack of public health care,
f)war
g)
h) poor infrastructure-less access to work, transport..e.tc

Per capita income,

Income per person, is the mean income of the people in an economic unit such as a country or city. It is calculated by
taking a measure of all sources of income in the aggregate (such as GDP or Gross national income) and dividing it by
the total population.
Per capita income is often used as average income, a measure of the wealth of the population of a nation,
particularly in comparison to other nations.
Per capita income is often used to measure a country's standard of living. It is usually expressed in terms of a
commonly used international currency such as the Euro or United States dollar,
Criticism

Computation may not be accurate

Does not take into account economic activity through barter

Malnutrition
Condition that results from eating a diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, in excess (too high an intake), or

in

the wrong proportions

Malnutrition is a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet.
Malnutrition is technically a category of diseases that includes undernutrition, obesity and overweight,
and micronutrient deficiency among others.
However, it is frequently used to mean undernutrition from either inadequate calories or inadequate specific
dietary components for whatever reason
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Poverty in the developing world

May not even be able to afford food, shelter, clothing and basic medical facilities, ;let alone be
able to access education or employment .
Deaths dues to hunger, malnutrition, diseases; poor medical facilities
Corruption at all levels further worsens their situation.

Poverty in the developed world

The poor are often able to afford the basics. The Social Security system and other government schemes
help them. The poor are able to access these services.
Sweden..e.tc have very strong Social Security schemes.
May not be able to access higher education or varied employment opportunities.

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http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/briefing/poverty/poverty.pdf

RURAL POVERTY
800 million poor women, children and men live in rural environments - subsistence farmers and herders,
the fishers and migrant workers, the artisans and indigenous peoples who face daily struggles
Empowering rural people is an essential first step to eradicating poverty. It respects the willingness and
capability that each of us has to take charge of our own life and to seek out opportunities to make it better.
Integrated Rural Development Programmes are important

URBAN POVERTY
Urban slums are settlements, neighborhoods, or city regions that cannot provide the basic living conditions
necessary for its inhabitants, or slum dwellers, to live in a safe and healthy environment.
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-HABITAT) defines a slum settlement as a
household that cannot provide one of the following basic living characteristics:

Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions.
Sufficient living space, which means not more than three people sharing the same room.
Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price.
Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number
of people.
Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.

Poor housing units are vulnerable to natural disaster and destruction because affordable building materials
cannot withstand earthquakes, landslides, excessive wind, or heavy rainstorms.
Slum dwellers are at greater risk to disaster because of their vulnerability to Nature. Slums compounded the
severity of the Haiti Earthquake of 2010.
Dense and overcrowded living quarters creates a breeding ground for transmittable diseases, which can lead
to the rise of an epidemic.
Slum dwellers that do not have access to clean and affordable drinking water are at risk of waterborne
diseases and malnutrition, especially amongst children.
The same is to be said for slums with no access to adequate sanitation, such as plumbing and garbage
disposal.
Poor slum dwellers commonly suffer from unemployment, illiteracy, drug-addiction, and low mortality
rates of both adults and children as a result of not supporting one, or all, of UN-HABITAT's basic living
conditions.
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SOCIAL MOBILISATION
Mobilisation of the poor to enable them to participate directly and effectively in decisions that affect them
Identify communities of the poor
Empower the women education, awareness, financial help, micro credit
Poverty alleviation-ENTRY POINTSo
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Food security
Literacy
Primary education
Health
Shelter
Credit
Basic Infrastructure for skill development etc
Employment

Facilitator or catalyst- Can be internal or external-will help them to form organizations and work towards
social mobilization
Support Mechanisms will work as bridge between the decision makers and the poor
Eg- Govt, , NGOS, RWASsetc

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Dharavi Slum - Mumbai, India

Unlike many urban slums, residents are typically employed and work for extremely small wages in the
recycling industry that Dharavi is known for.
Worst of slum living-no sanitation- cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis each day due to the consumption of
local contaminated water sources.
Disaster prone - impacts of monsoon rains, tropical cyclones, and subsequent flooding.
Kibera Slum - Nairobi, Kenya
Nearly 200,000 residents live in the slum of Kibera in Nairobi - one of the largest slums in Africa.
Mud walls, dirt or concrete floors, and recycled tin rooftops.
It is estimated that 20% of these homes have electricity, however municipal work is underway to provide
electricity to more homes and to city streets.
These "slum upgrades" have become a model for redevelopment efforts in slums throughout the world.
Unfortunately, the redevelopment efforts of Kibera's housing stock have been slowed due to the density of
the settlements and to the land's steep topography.
Water shortages remain to be Kibera's most crucial issue today
The Kenyan government does not regulate such actions in Kibera because they do not recognize the slum
as a formal settlement
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/topic
http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/Urban-Slums.htm

http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/OPHI-MPI-Brief.pdf

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Vicious cycle between poverty and the natural environment

The poor engage in deforestation, illegal poaching, hunting, wildlife tradeetc because they are
willing to do this for a low cost(due to their poverty)and are less likely to be caught(due to lack of
proper implementation of laws) when these activities are not legally authorized
They also have a greater incentive to engage in these activities because their very subsistence and survival
may depend upon them.
As a result, according to this logic, the poor rely particularly heavily on the natural environment. Moreover,
as the natural environment on which they depend deteriorates, the poor become poorer. And as the poor
become poorer and more numerous, their dependence on and exploitation of the environment rise and
environmental degradation hastens.

SOLUTIONS
Proper education and access to a better standard of living the government and NGOs have to
Proper rehabilitation if villagers and tribals have to be relocated
Programmes such as Navdanya, Dastkaaretc which help them to earn -using their traditional
crafts, and without having to travel long distances or be cheated by middle men
Proper implementation of IRDP policies-helping them to earn from agriculture, roadside and
canal plantations..etc
Eco tourism projects-which will help them gain employment and ensure the environment is
looked after
http://www.pnas.org/content/108/34/13907.full
http://www.uce3.berkeley.edu/WP_026.pdf

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CHAPTER 10
URBANISATION
Urbanisation- Proportion of people living in built areas such as towns and cities
Urbanisation levels can be due to Migration or Natural causes
Migration is the movement of population from one area to another. Some migrations are
forced, voluntary, permanent and temporary, international and regional.
Rural to urban migration, - movement of people from countryside to city areas.
However, many cities are experiencing massive rural to urban migration, mainly of young males, into the
major cities.
The major reasons for this movement can be classified into push and pull factors.
A Push factor is something that can force or encourage people to move away from an area. Push factors
can include famine (as in Ethiopia in the 1980s), drought, flooding, a lack of employment opportunities,
population growth and over population, and civil war (as in Darfur at the moment).
A Pull factor is one in which encourages people to move to an area. Pull factors include the chance of a
better job, better access to education and services, a higher standard of living.
These factors have contributed to millions of people in moving to cities in, creating mass
URBANISATION.
RURAL PUSH FACTORS

Poverty
Population growth
Less jobs
Limited or no education
Less Medical facilities
Forced migrations
Rising rural debt

URBAN PULL FACTOS

Jobs, better income, better standard of living

Education
Better facilities and standard of life
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http://globalgeography012.tripod.com/id4.html
http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/AQA/Changing%20Urban/Urbanisation/Urbanisation.htm

URBAN POVERTY
Urban slums are settlements, neighborhoods, or city regions that cannot provide the basic living conditions
necessary for its inhabitants, or slum dwellers, to live in a safe and healthy environment.
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-HABITAT) defines a slum settlement as a
household that cannot provide one of the following basic living characteristics:

Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions.
Sufficient living space, which means not more than three people sharing the same room.
Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price.
Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number
of people.
Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.

Slum dwellers are at greater risk to disaster because of their vulnerability to Nature. Slums compounded the
severity of the Haiti Earthquake of 2010.
Transmittable diseases
Malnourisment
No access to adequate sanitation, such as plumbing and garbage disposal.
Poor slum dwellers commonly suffer from unemployment, illiteracy, drug-addiction, and low mortality
rates of both adults and children as a result of not supporting one, or all, of UN-HABITAT's basic living
conditions.

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Dharavi Slum - Mumbai, India

Unlike many urban slums, residents are typically employed and work for extremely small wages in the
recycling industry that Dharavi is known for.
Worst of slum living-no sanitation- cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis each day due to the consumption of
local contaminated water sources.
Disaster prone - impacts of monsoon rains, tropical cyclones, and subsequent flooding.
Kibera Slum - Nairobi, Kenya
Nearly 200,000 residents live in the slum of Kibera in Nairobi - one of the largest slums in Africa.
Mud walls, dirt or concrete floors, and recycled tin rooftops.
It is estimated that 20% of these homes have electricity, however municipal work is underway to provide
electricity to more homes and to city streets.
These "slum upgrades" have become a model for redevelopment efforts in slums throughout the world.
Unfortunately, the redevelopment efforts of Kibera's housing stock have been slowed due to the density of
the settlements and to the land's steep topography.
Water shortages remain to be Kibera's most crucial issue today
The Kenyan government does not regulate such actions in Kibera because they do not recognize the slum
as a formal settlement

http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/topic
http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/Urban-Slums.htm

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CHAPTER 11
AGRICULTURE
MANAGING AGRICULTURE
Green Revolution
Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring
between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world,.
Due to the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico, its technologies spread worldwide in the 1950s and 1960s

The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving over
a billion people from starvation, involved

the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains,

expansion of irrigation infrastructure,
modernization of management techniques,
distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.

The introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds and the increased use of fertilizers and irrigation
are known collectively as the Green Revolution, which provided the increase in production needed to
make India self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_seed

High-yielding wheat was first introduced to India in 1963 by Dr. Borlaug.

M. S. Swaminathan and his team had contributed towards the success of green revolution. Due to the rise in
use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers there were many negative effects on the soil and the land such as
land degradation

Features of Green Revolution

Use of high yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds

Better methods
Use of insecticides and pesticides
Consolidation of holdings
Land reforms
Improved rural infrastructure
Supply of agricultural credit
Use of (chemical) fertilizers
Opening of agriculture colleges
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Impacts of the Green Revolution

Since fertilizers are largely what made the Green Revolution possible, they forever changed
agricultural practices because the high yield varieties developed during this time cannot grow
successfully without the help of fertilizers.
Irrigation also played a large role in the Green Revolution and this forever changed the areas where
various crops can be grown.
To improve quantity- the development of high yield varieties meant that only a few species of say,
rice started being grown.
The use of Green Revolution technologies exponentially increased the amount of food production
worldwide. Places like India and China that once feared famine have not experienced it since
implementing the use of IR8 rice and other food varieties.

Criticism of the Green Revolution

The increased amount of food production has led to overpopulation worldwide.

Places like Africa have not significantly benefited from the Green Revolution. The major problems
surrounding the use of these technologies here though are a lack of infrastructure, governmental
corruption, and insecurity in nations.

Despite these criticisms though, the Green Revolution has forever changed the way agriculture is
conducted worldwide, benefiting the people of many nations in need of increased food production.

edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/bio/green.htm
greenrevolution.org.in

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Irrigation
The artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops,
maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of
inadequate rainfall
Trickle Drip
Surface
Sprinkler
Irrigation can affect soil and the water-the downstream water users can be affected
Water gets contaminated due to fertilizers and pesticides

If groundwater is drawn for irrigation

water table lowering

aquifer depletion
Surface irrigation
Less efficient
Labour intensive
Hard to measure and regulate the flow

Environmental damage due to large farm units

o
o
o
o

Reduces habitat available for wild species

Often machine based agricultural practices degrade the sol
Monocultures tend to be practiced-depletes the soil
If pesticides and fertilizers are used-degrades the soil and water

Drip irrigation
Also sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20
litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers.
Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted unlike surface
and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile.
With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods
and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish.
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall. Water
is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through
sprinkler.

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Class X

1) Controlling Air Pollution

168-195

2) Addressing Population

196-208

3) Managing The Urban Environment

209-218

4) Managing Soil and Land

219-234

5) Food

235-258

6) Biodiversity

259-277

7) Energy

278-290

8) Waste

291-303

9) Environment and Development

303-316

10)Towards a Sustainable Future

317-344

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CHAPTER 1
CONTROLLING AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution
Air pollution occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odour in harmful amounts. That is,
amounts which could be harmful to the health or comfort of humans and animals or which could cause
damage to plants and materials.

An air pollutant is a contaminant that affects human life, plant life, animal life and property or a contaminant
that interferes with the enjoyment of life.
Air pollutant or air contaminant is particulate matter, dust, fumes, gas, smoke, mist, vapor or odorous substances,
or any combination of the above

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There are two basic physical forms of air pollutants.

1) The first is gaseous form. For example, sulfur dioxide, ozone and hydro-carbon vapors exist in the
form of a gas. The gases lack definite volume and shape and the molecules are widely separated.
2) The second form of air pollution is particulate matter such as smoke, dust, fly ash and mists.

The pollutants are also classified as primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.
1) The primary pollutants remain in the same chemical form as they are released from a source
directly into the atmosphere. For example: sulfur dioxide and hydrocarbons.
2) The secondary pollutants are a result of chemical reaction among two or more pollutants. The
production of PAN (Peroxyacetyl Nitrate) during photochemical reactions is an example of
secondary pollutant.

UNITS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF CONCENTRATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

There are two units of measurement. They are as follows:

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g/m3
ppm (parts per million)

One ppm is 1 part in 1,000,000

COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS

Sulfur Dioxide
1) The sources of SO2 are natural sources such as volcanoes and manmade sources such as power
plants and industrial sources that burn coal or fuel.
2) It can harm human, and animal lungs, as well as plants and trees.
3) Sulfur dioxide is the main contributor to acid rain. It reacts with the oxygen in the air to become
sulfur trioxide, which then reacts with water in the air to form sulfuric acid.
4) Acid rain can slowly kill both animal populations in lakes and rivers and trees and other plants by
damaging leaves and root systems. It can deteriorate metal and stone on buildings and statues. The
effects of acid rain are not only local, but they can occur hundreds of miles from the sources of
sulfur dioxide.

Ozone
1) Ozone is a gaseous, secondary pollutant and is formed during photochemical smog in the
atmosphere. The interaction of NO2 with VOCs produces ozone in the presence of sunlight. If the
air over the city does not move, pollutants become trapped close to the earth's surface forming smog
and increasing ozone problems which can lead to breathing problems.
2) High ozone levels at the ground level harm plants, including trees and crop plants, and causes the
accelerated deterioration of materials such as rubber and fabrics.
3) There is another type of ozone problem which came to attention in late sixties. Concerns were
expressed on the destruction of ozone layer due to the use of supersonic transports.
4) At present the destruction of ozone layer in the stratosphere due to the use of certain chemical
compounds ( chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, methane etc. ) is an environmental issue.
Total Suspended Particulate Matter
1) TSP is mostly a primary pollutant, but some of it is formed as secondary pollutant. It consists of
soot, dust, tiny objects of liquid, and other material.
2) An increase in the incidence of respiratory diseases and gastric cancer has been linked with the
increase in particulate level.
3) The natural sources include volcanoes, forest fires, and desert land.
4) Some manmade sources are steel industry, power plants, and flour mills.
5) Agricultural activities also contribute to TSP
6) Particulate gradually settle back to earth and can cause people to cough, get sore throats, or develop
other more serious breathing problems.
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7) Particulate matter also causes discoloration of buildings and other structures.

Nitrogen Oxides
1) Nitrogen Oxides are formed naturally by bacteria in soil and play an important role in plant growth.
2) However, nitrogen oxides that enter the air through exhaust from vehicles and some power plants
can be harmful.
3) They can combine with water to make acid rain, react in the air to produce ozone and other
pollutants, or be harmful by themselves as a gas in the air.

1)
2)
3)
4)

Carbon Monoxide
It is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas and affects the central nervous system of humans.
The gas is emitted when vehicles burn gasoline and when kerosene and wood stoves are used to
heat homes.
The gas reduces the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen to body tissue.
The effects of carbon monoxide include headaches, reduced mental alertness, heart damage; it may
even cause death, and it contributes to smog.

Lead
1) Lead is fairly abundant and is derived from ore bearing minerals.
2) Automobiles and leaded gasoline are major sources of atmospheric lead.
3) Lead was more of a problem a few years ago when all vehicles used gasoline with lead additives.
When lead gasoline is burned, lead is released into the air.
4) When people or animals breathe lead over a period of time, it accumulates in their bodies and can
cause brain or kidney damage.
5) Today most cars use unleaded gasoline, but there is still much leaded gasoline being sold, and lead
continues to be a major pollutant, especially in cities.
Carbon Dioxide
1) Carbon dioxide emissions have increased significantly during 19th century because of the use of
coal, oil and natural gas.
2) It finds uses as a refrigerant, in fire extinguishers and in beverage carbonation.
3) Higher concentrations can affect respiratory function
4) Workers briefly exposed to very high concentrations have effects like damage to the retina,
sensitivity to light (photophobia)
Hydrocarbons
1) Hydrocarbons are composed of only hydrogen and carbon.
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2) The volatile organic compounds (VOC) are the compounds which take part in atmospheric
photochemical process. VOCs are composed of hydrogen and carbon, and may also contain
elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, chlorine, and fluorine.
3) VOC emissions are produced during combustion and their rate of production is affected by various
factors.
4) The manmade sources of hydrocarbons include dry cleaning operations, auto paint shop, chemical
plants, auto emissions, service stations and waste facilities.
5) The VOCs are used in the manufacture of glue and paints as solvents

AGENCIES CONCERNED WITH CONTROLLING AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA

Central Pollution Control Board

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is an autonomous body of the Ministry set up in September,
1974
The CPCB, SPCBs and PCCs are responsible for implementing the legislation relating to prevention and
control of pollution;
They also develop rules and regulations which prescribe the standards for emissions and effluents of air and
water pollutants and noise levels.
The CPCB also provides technical services to the Government

National Environment Appellate Authority

The National Environment Appellate Authority (NEAA) to hear appeals related to environmental accidents

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Environmental Surveillance Squad (ESS)

Environmental Surveillance Squad in an important project undertaken by CPCB as per
the direction of Supreme Court.
They undertake surprise visits
Suitable action is also being taken against the defaulters either directly by CPCB or through State Pollution
Control Board under various Environmental Acts.

http://envfor.nic.in/report/0203/chap-05.pdf

3 LEGAL PROVISIONS (IN INDIA) TO CONTOL AIR POLLUTION

Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
(1) It applies to the whole of India
(2) No person shall drive a motor vehicle in any public place unless he holds an effective driving
licence issued to him authorising him to drive the vehicle
++
(3) No person under the age of eighteen years shall drive a motor vehicle in any public place
(4) The licensing authorities can revoke the license of a person is he is proved to be a a habitual
criminal or a habitual drunkard or is a habitual addict to any narcotic drug or psychotropic
substance within the meaning of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

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1) "Air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance [(including noise)] present in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other
living creatures or plants or property or environment
2) This authorities lays down standards for the quality of air
3) According to this act no person shall, without the previous consent of the State Board,
establish or operate any industrial plant in an air pollution control area
4)No person operating any industrial plant, in any air pollution control area shall discharge any
air pollutant in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board

http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/air/air1.html
http://hartrans.gov.in/docs/mva1988.p

POLLUTION UNDER CONTROL CERTIFICATE

1) It is mandatory for every vehicle owner to carry a valid Pollution Under Control Certificate and
maintain in such a condition and shall be so driven so as to comply with the prescribed emission
norms
2) A vehicle, not carrying a valid PUC Certificate is liable to be prosecuted under Section 190(2) of
the Motor Vehicles Act. A penalty of Rs.1000/- for first offence and Rs.2000/- for every subsequent
offence of violation has been provided.
3) Following fees for pollution checking including minor rectifications, if required have been fixed by
the Government: Petrol / CNG / LPG vehicle
Two &Three Wheeler Rs. 35
Four Wheeler Rs.45

Diesel vehicle Rs. 60

Q What happens if my vehicle is found visibly polluting although I am carrying a valid PUC
certificate?
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Ans. The PUC Certificate of your vehicle shall be cancelled and you will be directed (under Rule 116 of
CMV Rules) to produce a fresh PUC Certificate within seven days. The failure to comply with this
direction would result in prosecution under section 190(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act.
Q When does a vehicle require a PUC Certificate?
Ans. After the expiry of period of one year from the date of first registration, every motor vehicle is
required to carry a valid PUC Certificate & subsequently after every three months
Q6. My vehicle is Euro-I/ Euro-II/Euro-III. Whether I need to obtain a PUC Certificate?
Ans. As per Central Motor Rules, 1989, every motor vehicle (including those conforming to Euro-I/ EuroII/ Euro-III as well as vehicles plying on CNG/LPG) is required to carry a valid PUC Certificate after the
expiry of period of one year from the date of its first registration

http://www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/doit_transport/Transport/Home/Pollution+Control/P.U.C.+Certifica

AIR POLLUTION and ZONING STRATGIES

Environmentally sensitive zones are identified
Also there are programmes and plans to identify environmentally suitable sites for industrial estates.
Also suggestions for waste disposal systems and measures for controlling the surrounding land uses
.
Zoning Can also refer to traffic zoning-special traffic zones at different times of the day-staggered

traffic managementetc

Preparation of Environmental Management Plans

The activities for preparation of Environmental Management Plans (EMPs) have been
undertaken by urban areas, mining blocks, tourism sites and Environmentally fragile areas.

Eco-cities
Eco city is a city which is economically vibrant, socially equitable and environmentally
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supportive.
Such cities ensure environmentally compatible and energy efficient development
providing clean, pollution free surroundings and conservation of natural resources for higher
quality living.
o Kottayam Kumarakom region
o Taj Eco city. around Taj Mahal

http://envfor.nic.in/report/0203/chap-05.pdf

Air Pollution and Meteorology

The science of meteorology has great bearing on air pollution.
1) Wind
Wind is simply air in motion.
The wind direction and speed data may be collected every hour in a month and
classified according to speed and direction. It is then summarized in the form of a diagram called
wind rose.

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2) Cold weather in colder climates, particularly with snow cover, there can be frequent
temperature inversions that can trap pollutants close to the ground, resulting in unexpectedly
high exposures.
3) Similarly, if a plant is located in a valley, the plumes may move up and down the valley,
or be blocked by surrounding hills so that they do not spread out and disperse as expected

http://www.ilo.org/oshenc/part-vii/environmental-pollution-control/item/510-air-pollution-control

Equipment Used To Reduce Air Pollution In Industries

o

Electrostatic
precipitator An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate
collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an
induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that
minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate
matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream. Very energy efficient

Catalytic
converter A catalytic converter (colloquially, "cat" or "catcon") is a vehicle emissions control
device which converts toxic byproducts of combustion in the exhaust of an internal combustion
engine to less toxic substances by way of catalysed chemical reactions
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o Cyclone Separators -that uses centrifugal forces along with small amounts of pressure via a
turning movement to divide dust particles into categories.

1)

Fabric
Filters collectors use filtration to separate dust particulates from dusty gases. They are one of the
most efficient and cost effective types of dust collectors available and can achieve a collection
efficiency of more than 99% for very fine particulates.

Catalytic

Converter

A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions control device which converts toxic byproducts of combustion
in the exhaust of an internal combustion engine to less toxic substances by way of catalysed chemical
reactions. The specific reactions vary with the type of catalyst installed. Most present-day vehicles that run
on gasoline are fitted with a "three way" converter, so named because it converts the three main pollutants
in automobile exhaust. The 3 main pollutants are carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of
nitrogen
Environmental impact

Catalytic converters are effective in reducing toxic tailpipe emissions.

Although catalytic converters are effective at removing hydrocarbons and other harmful emissions, they do
not reduce the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced when fossil fuels are burnt

2) Four-stroke engine
A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion engine in which the piston
completes four separate strokesintake, compression, power, and exhaustduring two separate
revolutions of the engine's crankshaft, and one single thermodynamic cycle. Fuel efficient and less
polluting
4 stroke engines are heavier and cost more to manufacture
http://www.deepscience.com/articles/engines.html

Pollutants Vehicles Emit

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
These are created during combustion. Diesel engines generally produce much larger amounts of
NOx than gasoline engines due to the higher combustion temperatures.
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)

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Some of these tiny particles are formed during combustion (primary PM). Others are formed in
the atmosphere through chemical reactions between the various pollutants found in exhaust
(secondary PM). Diesel engines emit far greater amounts of PM than do gasoline engines.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
VOCs are a large class of carbon-containing compounds. In vehicle exhaust, VOCs come from
unburned or partially-burned fuel. Additional VOC emissions come from evaporation of fuel
(particularly during refuelling). Gasoline engines emit a higher proportion of VOCs than diesel
engines, due to the greater volatility of the fuel.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
CO results from the incomplete combustion of vehicle fuels. Gasoline engines emit a higher
proportion of CO than diesel engines, due to the lower combustion temperature
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
SO2 is emitted from the combustion of sulphur contained in the fuel. Most SO2 is from diesel
engines as diesel has much more sulphur than gasoline.
Air Toxins
Vehicles emit toxic air pollutants such as benzene, formaldehyde ..
Coolants
Older vehicles may have air conditioning systems using Freon, an ozone depleting substance, as a
refrigerant. This Freon could be emitted through leaks, or during repairs. Newer vehicles use nonozone-depleting coolant. The coolants in newer vehicles are still pollutants as they act as
greenhouse gases.
Other emissions
The production, distribution, storage and marketing of transport fuels also cause air pollution
emissions. An example is the emission of hydrocarbon vapours during refuelling of vehicles

Clean Fuels: An Overview

What are Clean Fuels?
Some vehicle fuels, because of physical or chemical properties, create less pollution
than do todays gasolines. These are called clean fuels.
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Why Switch to Clean Fuels?

Cars operating on todays gasolines emit complex mixtures of compounds that
lead to the formation of ground-level ozone; many of these compounds are also
toxic.
.
Clean fuels have a number of inherent properties that make them cleaner than
conventional gasoline.
(1) In general, these fuels emit less hydrocarbons, and the hydrocarbons
they do emit are less reactive (slower to form ozone) and less toxic.
(2) Emissions from electricity, natural gas, or alcohol-powered vehicles can be as
much as 90 percent lower in toxics and ozone-forming hydrocarbons
(3) Use of clean fuels could also help slow atmospheric buildup of carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas that contributes to the potential for global warming
(4) In general, fuels produced from biomass (crops, trees, etc.) and from natural gas result in
less carbon dioxide accumulation than fuels made from petroleum or coal.
6) Clean fuels have benefits that reach beyond their air quality advantages. New fuels in the marketplace
give consumers new choices and could decrease our dependence on imported oil.

1)ELECTRICITY
Battery-powered vehicles give off virtually no pollution and offer one of the best
options for reducing motor vehicle emissions in polluted cities.
Power plants that produce electricity do pollute.
The driving range of todays electric cars is limited by the amount of power the battery can provide.
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Current batteries take hours to recharge and the cost of electric vehicles is high.
Recent developments in electric vehicle technology show much promise for the future.
2) ETHANOL
Ethanol (grain alcohol) is the primary automotive fuel in Brazil, and ethanol/
gasoline blends (known as gasohol) have been used in the United States for
many years.
Pure ethanol fuel offers excellent performance, plus low hydrocarbon and toxic emissions.
It can be produced domestically from corn or other crops
3) METHANOL
Methanol (wood alcohol), like ethanol, is a high-performance liquid fuel that emits low levels of toxic
and ozone-forming compounds
It can be produced at prices comparable to gasoline from natural gas and can also be produced from
coal and wood.
All major auto maufacturers have produced cars that run onM85, a blend of 85 percent methanol and 15
percent gasoline.
Methanol has long been the fuel of choice for race cars because of its superior performance
and fire safety characteristics.

4) NATURAL GAS (METHANE)

Natural gas is abundant and is widely used for home heating and industrial processes.
It is easily transported through pipelines and costs about the same or slightly less than gasoline.

4) Compressed natural gas (CNG)

CNG vehicles emit low levels of toxics and ozone-forming hydrocarbons.
But CNG fuel must be stored under pressure in heavy tanks, and the cost of accommodating these
tanks must be considered.
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5) PROPANE
Propane, or liquefied petroleum gas, is a by-product of petroleum refining and natural gas production.
It burns more cleanly than gasoline but is limited in supply.
Propane-fueled vehicles are already common in many parts of the world.

Are Clean Fuels Feasible?

Clean-fueled vehicles are here today and widespread use in the near future is
feasible.
To enable the transition, technologies must be refined so vehicles can achieve optimum performance
and emissions characteristics.
Consumers must accept the new vehicles and fuels, and government and industry must cooperate
to ensure their availability.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

1) CNG is ordorless, colorless and tasteless and consist mostly of methane (CH4).
2) CNG, although a fossil fuel, is different from gasoline, diesel and coal because it does
not contain the same harmful compounds found in other fossil fuels.
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3) CNG has a negligible sulfur dioxide content, does not contain lead, has a low
nitrogen dioxide content, a low particulate content, and a low carbon monoxide
content.
4) As well, CNG does not require carcinogenic (cancer-causing) additives to boost
octane levels because natural gas is naturally high in octane.
5) CNG is not toxic or corrosive and will not contaminate ground water.

Is CNG Safe?
CNG is one of the safest transport fuels available.
CNG is actually safer than petroleum. In its natural state, natural gas is odourless. As a safety measure, the
gas is odorised with Mercaptan to provide a ready means of leak detection.
Natural gas has no known toxic or chronic physiological effects (it is not poisonous).
CNG is lighter than air. Unlike other fuels such as diesel, petrol or LPG, which are heavier than air, and
pools on the ground creating a fire hazard and potential pollution to waterways. Should a CNG leak occur,
the gas will disperse rapidly upwards into the atmosphere and dissipate

Benefits from using CNG:

1) Reduces urban smog reduction, burns cleaner and produces lower levels of harmful pollutants.
2) Its safe and lighter-than-air, CNG is nontoxic and disperses quickly.
3) Contains no particulates like diesel fuel and reduces emissions of carbon dioxide - the principal

"greenhouse" gas.

4) The particulate materials that are produced during the combustion cycle cause engine oil to get dirty are

not present in the CNG

CNG What are the Emissions Benefits

Reduction of Benzene
Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides
Reduction of Carbon Dioxide and CO
Reduction of Lead and Sulfur

The disadvantages of CNG

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This is being scientifically researched a the moment

Disadvantages
1) The CNG stations are few and often not accessible to many users
2) Among its disadvantages is the loss of luggage space. CNG cylinders take up a lot of storage space
and generally have to be placed in the boot of the car.
3) It must also be noted that vehicles operating on CNG cost more than vehicles running on gasoline.
This is because natural gas vehicles have to be installed with additional components for the storage
of fuel, which is more costly than gasoline tanks
4) The conversions of gasoline powered vehicles to use CNG are expensive and time consuming.

Fuel Characteristics

CNG
Toxic to skin

No

Toxic to lungs

No

PETROL

Moderate
Moderate

DIESEL
Moderate
Moderate

www.cngstations.com/disadvantages-of-cng/ http://www.cngexperts.in/disadvantages.htm
http://www.altecheco.com/pages/About_CNG.htm

ALTERNATIVE FUELS

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Gasohol
Gasohol is an alternative fuel consisting of a mixture of typically 90 percent gasoline with 10 percent
anhydrous ethanol. Gasohol can be used in most modern and light duty vehicles with an internal
combustion.
The Gasohol blend of 90 percent gasoline and 10 percent anhydrous ethanol has been approved for
use in several countries and can be used with no modification to the vehicle's engine.
Gasohol is useful in decreasing the population's dependence on foreign oil, and reduces the carbon monoxide
emissions by up to 30 percent

Gasohol Advantages
1. Emissions from using Gasohol are less than that of vehicles using gasoline..So using Gasohol ensures
a greener environment; less, asthma and heart disease, caused by vehicle emissions.
2. Using Gasohol assists in the reduction of oil imported from other countries. - lessens our carbon
footprint
3. Gasohol is typically cheaper than petroleum as it is cheaper to manufacture

Use of waste methane gas

Methane gas can be used as a fuel in everyday living, allowing us to conserve firewood, coal, and
other fuels

http://www.carsdirect.com/green-cars/gasohol-facts-figures-and-common-blends

Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ)

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Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ) is a defined area of 10,400 sq km around the Taj Mahal to protect the
monument from pollution. TTZ is so named since it is located around the Taj Mahal and is shaped like a
trapezoid
The TTZ comprises over 40 protected monuments including three World Heritage Sites the Taj Mahal,
Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri.
The Supreme Court of India delivered a ruling on December 30, 1996 regarding industries covered under
the TTZ, in response to a PIL seeking to protect the Taj Mahal from environmental pollution.
It banned the use of coal/ coke in industries located in the TTZ with a mandate for switching over from
coal/ coke to natural gas, and relocating them outside the TTZ or shutting down.
Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an
electric bus.
The problem
The Taj suffers from what is termed as Marble Cancer and has lost its sheen due to the air borne particles
that are being deposited on it giving a yellow tinge to its pure white marble.
The pollutants that are emitted by the industries such as the Mathura Refinery, iron foundries, glass
factories & brick kilns situated in and around Agra react with the marble forming of a fine layer of dust
over it. There is fungus in its interiors and exteriors. Pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide
combine with moisture and settle on the walls of the monument.

1)A petition was filed by the famous Environmental lawyer M.C Mehta regarding the threat to the
deteriorating beauty of Taj Mahal - (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981 and Water (prevention
and control of pollution) Act 1974 and Environment Protection Act 1986

relocation of industries to prevent emissions generated by coke or coal consuming industries having
a damaging effect on Taj and people living in the TTZ,
Direct them to change over to natural gas as industrial fuel.

2) According to the petitioner, the foundries, chemical/hazardous industries and the refinery at Mathura
were the major sources of damage to the Taj.
3)The sulphur dioxide emitted by the Mathura Refinery and the industries when combined with Oxygenwith the aid of moisture in the atmosphere formed sulphuric acid called Acid rain which had a corroding
effect on the gleaming white marble.
4) Industrial/Refinery emissions, brick-kilns, vehicular traffic and generator-sets were primarily
responsible for polluting the ambient air around Taj Trapezium (TTZ).
http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/01/taj-mahal-environment-pollution/#E04x8GUT7Cou8J3U.99

Reducing pollution from domestic cooking

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a) Replacing the traditional biofuel stoves by improved cookstoves.

b) Replacement of a traditional cookstove using dungcakes with a biogas stove also leads to a
statistically significant reduction in the indoor concentration of pollutants.
c) Similarly, a transition from traditional biofuels to kerosene/LPG for domestic cooking is found to
lead to a significant reduction in the concentrations of indoor pollutants.
d) Smokeless choolahs

Kerosene
Cleaner alternative than biomass, solid fuels or coal
Fires, explosions of kerosene stoves
Some appliances using kerosene emit CO

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Chapter 2
ADDRESSING POPULATION
Worlds population-2050
The worlds current population of 6.83 billion people is projected to grow by more than a third
and reach 9.15 billion in 2050.
Gross disparities exist between population growth in the worlds most and least developed countries.
This disparate distribution of population growth will present complex challenges as populations rapidly
grow in the areas that can least support
them and decline in the richest and most developed countries.
Water Scarcity
By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries with water scarcity, and two-thirds of those will be
living in conditions of severe water stress. People are using groundwater faster than it can be naturally
replenished.
Food Shortages
Population growth has forced more than 20 countries with scarce water and/or too little agricultural land to
import grain, making them vulnerable to volatile food prices in the international market. To meet the future
demands of a growing population, we must double world food supplies by 2050, possibly sooner, while
reducing our impact on the environment.
Dwindling Forests
The growing demand for energy has led to deforestation worldwide. More than two billion people depend
on wood for cooking and heating, particularly in developing countries. Projects in countries such as
Indonesia, Nepal, and Uganda are fighting deforestation by providing alternative energy and incomes that
dont depend on clearing forest land for subsistence agriculture, along with health and family planning
services to control population growth.
Decreasing Biodiversity
Population density is connected to the loss of biodiversity in many regions.
Climate Change
Slowing population growth by 2050 would meet 16 percent to 29 percent of the reductions in carbon emissions
necessary to avoid dangerous climate change- National Center for Atmospheric Research.

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Solutions to mitigate the problem

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Education and Family Planning

Alternate energy
Reduce consumption
Afforestation
Regenrative agriculture
Sustainable Development
Wildlife Conservation
IRDP to counter urbanization

Elaborate each point and give examples

For a Qs on Population in 2050 and its effect on climate

Aging populations in industrialized nations could reduce carbon emissions long-term, while the growth of
cities in developing countries could increase emissions
Elaborate and explain this
o Industrialization and urbanization increases GHGs and global warming
o Ageing population-tend to use less appliances and private vehicles..etc-so this reduces emissions a
bit
Slowing population growth by 2050 would meet 16 percent to 29 percent of the reductions in carbon
emissions necessary to avoid dangerous climate change- National Center for Atmospheric Research.

http://environment.about.com/od/biodiversityconservation/a/Global-Population-Hits-7-Billion.htm

202

Demographic transition (DT)

Developed by American demographer Warren Thompson

The demographic transition (DT) is a model used to represent the transition from high birth and death rates to low
birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

The demographic transition model seeks to explain the transformation of countries from having high birth
and death rates to low birth and death rates.
The transition involves four stages, or possibly five
Census is used to work on this model
The model has limitations

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Role of women and Family Planning

All these must be looked into
o
o
o
o

Secondary Education
Womens literacy programmes
Maternal and infant care
Womens rights-equal pay, property rightsetc

1. Women centered policies are important

2. They are effective because women being primary caregivers are able to implement them properly
3. Girls and women must be educated-this always has a direct impact on family health and family size
4.

National Policies
Five Year plans

The National Family Planning Programme (1951) was the first policy.

Population programme must work with the social environment

National Socio-Demographic Goals for 2010

1. Improve pre-natal, infant and maternal health
2. Free primary education
3. Reduce infant and maternal mortality rate
4.

Universal immunization

5. Achieve 100 per cent registration of births, deaths, marriage and

pregnancy.
6.

Family welfare should becomes a people centered programme.

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Primary Education

Free and compulsory education to all children up to the age fourteen is constitutional commitment in India.
The Parliament of India has recently passed Right to Education Act through which education has become
fundamental right of all children of age group 6-14 year.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), launched in 2001is the most recent initiatives of the Government of India,
Though there are many laws often these are not implemented well
Government Primary education facilities are very poor in many parts of the country.
Primary Education is important because
Educated children are able to spread awareness in families
They grow up healthier- they learn about hygiene and sanitation often mid day meal schemes are offered in
schools.
They often seek out higher education=better employability
Lot of private companies and NGOs work in this sector. Eg:
Premji Foundation
Shiv Nadar Foundation

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Poverty Alleviation Programmes

The poor in India often have more children in each family because there are a large number of deaths due
to malnutrition and illness.
Also they fell that more children means that these children can begin to earn when they are about 12-and
this means more income for the family
If poverty alleviation programmes are successful-the adults will be able to earn and this improve health and
nutrition.
Many government policies are there to help the poor -NREGA, MNREGAetc
Social Mobilisation is the best way to enable the poor to help themselves
SOCIAL MOBILISATION
Mobilisation of the poor to enable them to participate directly and effectively in decisions that affect them
Identify communities of the poor
Empower the women education, awareness, financial help, micro credit
Poverty alleviation-ENTRY POINTSo
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Food security
Literacy
Primary education
Health
Shelter
Credit
Basic Infrastructure for skill development etc
Employment

Facilitator or catalyst- Can be internal or external-will help them to form organizations and work towards
social mobilization
Support Mechanisms will work as bridge between the decision makers and the poor
Eg- Govt, , NGOS, RWASsetc

ALMA ATA-Conference-1978
Health for all by 2000
This will help families move out of poverty
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This will lead to savings, investments, nation building, higher per capita income

Population and Climate Link

As the population increases- housing needs increase. Green cover gets destroyed to make homes.
Industrialization increases.
Urbanization increases
All this causes more pollution, global warmingetc
Integrated rural development programmes will help to counter urbanization

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Poverty Alleviation Programmes

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
To improve the livelihood security of people in rural areas by guaranteeing hundred days of wageemployment in a financial year to a rural household who volunteer to do unskilled manual work
If they fail to do so the govt. has to pay the salary at their homes.
This act was introduced with an aim of improving the purchasing power of the rural people, primarily semi
or un-skilled work to people living in rural India, whether or not they are below the poverty line. Around
one-third of the stipulated work force is women. The law was initially called the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) but was renamed on 2 October 2009.
Criticism -Corruption, poor planning and implementation, quality of work done is poor

The act directs state governments to implement MGNREGA "schemes

. Equal wages will be provided to both men and women.Wages are now fixed at about 130 Rs a day

Grievance redressal mechanisms have to be put in place for ensuring a responsive implementation
process

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_National_Rural_Employment_Guarantee_Act
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_National_Rural_Employment_Guarantee_Act
nrega.ap.gov.in

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GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR SHELTER

Recognizes that human settlement problems can be identified and remedied at local level, rather than at the national
level
Towns and cities should be able to decide and raise revenues and develop without constraints from centre

HABITAT II Conference CITY SUMMIT Istanbul-1996

Focused on the future of cities
Goal to provide cities and towns and villages safe, equitable and sustainable
A Global plan of Action was adopted

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CHAPTER 3
MANAGING THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Water supply and water resources
Responsibility for water supply and sanitation
Water supply and sanitation is a State responsibility under the Indian Constitution.
Highly centralised decision-making and approvals at the state level, which are characteristic of the Indian
civil service, affect the management of water supply and sanitation services.

Innovative approaches
A number of innovative approaches to improve water supply
Swajaldhara,
Micro-credit for water connections in Tamil Nadu
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ind

WORLD BANK
The World Bank seeks to expand access to safe drinking water in rural areas and maintain the sustainability
of rural water systems, from hand pumps to more elaborate systems. To accomplish these goals, it works
closely with governments to strengthen their capacities to deliver services and encourages public-private
partnerships to serve areas where appropriate

http://water.worldbank.org/topics/water-supply/rural-water

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Wastewater Management
Raw domestic wastewaters normally carry the full spectrum of pathogenic microorganisms
While recycling and reuse of wastewater is important-this has to be done carefully
Waste water is usedfor irrigation in India-so it is important to remove pathogens
In developing countries, many landless farmers depend on wastewater for irrigation

Wastewater Treatment Technologies

The principal objective of wastewater treatment is generally to allow human and industrial effluents to be
disposed off without danger to human health or unacceptable damage to the natural environment.

Preliminary Treatment
The objective of preliminary treatment is the removal of coarse solids and other large materials often found
in raw wastewater. Removal of these materials is necessary to enhance the O&M of subsequent treatment
units.

Secondary Treatment
Th e objective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to
remove the residual organics and suspended solids.
In most cases, secondary treatment follows primary treatment and involves the removal of biodegradable
dissolved and colloidal organic matter using aerobic
biological treatment processes.
o Trickling Filters
o Activated Sludge Process
o Rotating Biological Contactors
o Maturation Ponds
o Waste Stabilisation Ponds
o Anaerobic Pond

Greywater, or sullage, is wastewater generated from domestic activities such as laundry,

dishwashing, and bathing, which can be recycled on-site for uses such as landscape
irrigation and constructed wetlands.
Sewage or blackwater Greywater differs from water from the toilets which is designated
sewage or blackwater to indicate it contains human waste
Treatment of wastewater involves a variety of technologies:
Septic Tank, disinfecting...etc
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Sewage treatment
Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage,
both runoff (effluents), domestic, commercial and institutional. It includes physical, chemical, and
biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants.
Using advanced technology it is now possible to re-use sewage effluent for drinking water, although
Singapore is the only country to implement such technology on a production scale in its production of
NEWater.
Sewage is generated by residential, institutional, commercial and industrial establishments.
It includes household waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks and so forth that is disposed
of via sewers.

Sewage treatment generally involves three stages, called primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment.

Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a quiescent basin

where heavy solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float
to the surface. The settled and floating materials are removed and the remaining
liquid may be discharged or subjected to secondary treatment.
Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended biological matter.
Secondary treatment is typically performed by indigenous, water-borne microorganisms in a managed habitat. Secondary treatment may require a separation
process to remove the micro-organisms from the treated water prior to discharge or
tertiary treatment.
Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and
secondary treatment in order to allow rejection into a highly sensitive or fragile
ecosystem (estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs,...). Treated water is sometimes
disinfected chemically or physically prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay,
lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course, green way or
park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or
agricultural purposes.
Pretreatment removes materials that can be easily collected from the raw sewage
before they damage or clog the pumps and sewage lines of primary treatment
clarifiers (trash, tree limbs, leaves, branches etc.).

In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged
without any treatment or after primary treatment only.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatmen

Rural Development To Counter Migration

The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) is a rural development program of the Government
of India launched in financial year 1978 and extended throughout India by 1980. It is a self-employment program
intended to raise the income-generation capacity of target groups among the poor. The target group consists largely
of small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and rural artisans living below the poverty line

Vision
IRDP envisions a socially empowered and economically strong society, which ensures equal rights for every human
being.

Mission
IRDP continue to work as mobilization force to empower the poor enabling them to develop and recognize
themselves at every level by alleviating poverty at the gross roots level.

Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)

Scheme for Rural Artisans

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)

Jawahar Rozgar Yojna

National Food for Work Programme (NFWP)

Rural Sanitation Programme

www.irdp.org

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Secondary Cities
Helps to counter overcrowding of bigger primary city.
Cities that develop near primary big metro cities
Urban hubs near primary cities
Have their own socio cultural ethos

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CHAPTER 4
MANAGING SOIL AND LAND
Land reforms in India
Landlessness is a huge problem all over the world. More equal distribution of land is a valuable goal it
is efficient in both fighting poverty and producing food.
The Land Reforms Policy adopted since Independence aims at this.
The Planning Commission, in 1955, advised all the state Government to
o place a ceiling on agricultural land holding ,
o to acquire land and
o distribute surplus land among the landless and other marginalized .
o However legislation were full of loopholes and favored big landholders
o Globalization and the establishment of industries and agro-industries (promoted by governments) is
increasing the problems of landlessness and the exodus of rural populations. Poor people deprived
of their livelihood resources, have no other choice than join ranks of landless workers in the city
slums areas. The land of tribals is taken away for setting up development projects, industrial
concerns, and national parks and for other purposesThis causes agricultural output to be affected, small landless farmers to be in debt; agricultural
biodiversity to be destroyed(because monoculture takes over); too much fertilizer and pesticide to
be used( this destroys the soil and land)
2012- India's ministers have proposed a law- Under the Land Acquisition Bill, a buyer would have to
obtain consent of two-thirds of the land's owners to buy it for public and private projects.
Land has become a huge political issue. State governments need land for industry or infrastructure projects,
but farmers and rural people say that cannot happen at their expense.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-19973983
http://js2012.wordpress.com/why-jansatyagraha-2012/land-reforms-in-india/

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DEFORESTATION
Forests cover roughly 30% of the world's land area and offer major environmental benefits: they are
amongst the most important habitats for biodiversity and provide crucial services by contributing to erosion
prevention, water purification and the storage of Carbon Dioxide (CO2). The livelihoods of 1.6 billion people
in the world depend on forest resources.
Forests are under threat from deforestation. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO), 13 million hectares of forests are lost every year.

CAUSES
6) Changes in land use
7) Urbanisation, industrialisation
8) Use of paper
9) Use of wood for homes, furnitureetc
10) Lack of implementation of laws

SOLUTIONS

by strengthening forest governance implementation of all laws

Recognizes the imp of biodivesirty and forests-medicines, tourismetc

citizens movements, NGOS initiatives, Chipko..etc

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (EN) and international climate negotiations;

by improving means for forest monitoring and assessment

What citizens and Govts can also do-change consumption patterns

4) Reduce use of paper and wood products
5) Planned land use management

6) Use alternatives to timber

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Energy Plantations
Technically speaking, energy plantation means growing select species of trees and shrubs which are
harvestable in a comparably shorter time and are specifically meant for fuel.
These plantations help provide wood either for cooking in homes or for industrial use
Annual plants should be grown to meet the demand of energy. Plantation of deciduous trees should be
encouraged, as their growth is faster than the coniferous ones.
The species to be planted should have the following characters:
(i) fast growth,
(ii) stress resistance
(iii) less palatable to cattle and other animals,
(vii) high yield of biomass
(viii) disease/pest resistant.

www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/paper/alternative/plantation.html

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ALTERNATIVES TO TIMBER

If Timber has to be used

1.
2.

Reuse old timber

Reclaimed, recycled, salvaged, second hand & waste timber.

Avoid: Imported timber, exotic timber, tropical timber, hardwood timber and softwood timber
from non certified and non sustainably managed forests

Alternatives To TImber
1) Palmwood
Harvested from Coconut palms

2) Lyptus Wood
A hardwood alternative that is fast growing, renewable and sustainable.

3) Bamboo
Rapidly becoming the eco alternative material to replace traditional non sustainable timber products
with a fast growing alternative

4) Cork
Rapidly becoming the eco choice of interior materials to replace traditional timber products with a
sustainable alternative.

Timber Board Substitutes

1) Wheat/straw board
The eco alternative to timber particleboard
2) Kirei board
A plywood alternative found as a waste product of grain harvesting

http://www.holistic-interior-designs.com/eco-building-materials.html

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National Grazing Policy

National Grazing Policy
Despite the fact that India has one of the largest livestock populations in the world, with
an estimated 520 million heads, we do not have a grazing or grassland policy on ground.
Government of India has formulated Draft Grazing and Livestock
Management Policy (1994), and Draft National Policy for Common Property Resource
Lands (CPRLs),these policies have not been implemented effectively in the field.
In the Draft Grazing and Livestock Management Policy, emphasis has been given to develop
large blocks of grass reserves away from human habitation for higher production (in arid
and semi-arid regions) and as fodder banks for drought years.
Thefamous Sewan grasslands of Jaisalmer and Bikaner, and the Banni grassland of Kutch
have been neglected, resulting in over-grazing, spread of invasive species such as
Prosopis chilensis and conversion to agricultural crops with dubious results.
In order to reduce grazing pressure, the concept of hortipasture, utilizing land in the
orchards by developing pasture stands, should be encouraged.
The prevailing view of looking at grasslands as a single use (forage for domestic
animals or wildlife habitat) should be replaced by looking them for multiple uses,
incorporating sustainable use, ecosystem functions and biodiversity conservation.
For example, in Maharashtra, in the late 1970s, a large number of plantation and
grassland plots were developed under the Drought-Prone-Areas-Programme (DPAP). The
main aim of DPAP was to take conservation measures for the protection of over-used
land which was suffering from severe overgrazing and soil erosion. The DPAP not only
helped in achieving its aim in certain areas but it also resulted in restoration of wildlife,
especially the Great Indian Bustard, Blackbuck and Grey Wolf

Overgrazing
Overgrazing can occur under continuous or rotational grazing
It can be caused by having too many animals on the farm or by not properly controlling their grazing
activity.
One indicator of overgrazing is that the animals run short of pasture

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Effects of Overgrazing
Land gets barren and desertified
Eventually the farmers and the smaller landowners are not able to sustain themselves economically.
1. The ground cover (grass) would be depleted causing soil erosion.
2. The native plants would be replaced by less favorable plants.
3. The food web in the area would be disrupted.
4. The land would not hold the rain as well and you would get major run off.
5. Dust storms.
6. Droughts might occur due to the over heating of the land due to no ground cover.
7. Animals would starve and die.
8. The land may be permanently changed

http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forglvst/overgraz.htm
http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/tf11_grass.pdf

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Dry farming refers to non-irrigated agriculture in a climate with 20 inches of rain or less annually. These
farmers raise drought-resistant crops, or crops that mature in late spring or fall, so are not as affected by the
dry weather of summer. They also maintain drought-resistant surface conditions to make best use of the
limited water supply.
Dry lands =42% of the total food grain production of the country. = 75% of pulses and more than 90% of
sorghum, millet, groundnut and pulses

Dry lands, besides being water deficient, are characterized by high evaporation rates, exceptionally high
day temperature during summer, low humidity and high run off and soil erosion. The soil of such areas are
often found to be saline and low in fertility. As water is the most important factor of crop production,
inadequacy and uncertainty of rainfall often cause partial or complete failure of the crops which leads to
period of scarcities and famines. Thus the life of both human being and cattle in such areas becomes
difficult and insecure.
Despite all these improvements in agriculture, we have yet not been able evolve an appropriate package of
practices for our dry land areas. The income of farmers of dry land regions is still very low land areas. The
income of farmers of dry land regions is still very low..

Dry land areas may be characterized by the following features:

1.uncertainannual rainfall;

2. occurrence of drought etc;

3.practice of extensive agriculture i.e. prevalence of monocropping etc;
4. relatively large size of fields;
5. very low crop yield;
Different cropping techniques, irrigation systems and land use managementetc are being used to help
improve the method of DRY FARMING in India

ww.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010102/01010201.html
www.echocommunity.org/resource/collection/.../DrylandFarming.pd

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Social forestry
Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands
with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development.
It is people oriented, value based, satisfies the needs and wants and aspirations of people and governments.
Improves rural welfare by increasing productivity of uncultivated land.
It has been described as forestry of the people by the people and for the people. The main thrust of
social forestry is to reduce pressure on the traditional forest areas by developing plantation of fuel
wood, fodder and grasses. The practice of social forestry has become very popular during the last
three decades. The social forestry system has various components such as - Agroforestry, urban
forestry.

Need for social forestry

This need for a social forestry scheme was felt as India has a dominant rural population that still depends
largely on fuelwood and other biomass for their cooking and heating. This demand for fuel wood will not
come down but the area under forest will reduce further due to the growing population and increasing
human activities.

Objectives of social forestry

1. Improve the environment for protecting agriculture from adverse climatic factors,
2. Increase the supply of wood fuel for domestic use, small timber for rural housing, fodder for
livestock, and minor forest produce for local industries,
3. Increase the natural beauty of the landscape; create recreational forests for the benefit of rural and
urban population,
4. Provide jobs for unskilled workers and
5. Land rehabilitation
6. Finally, its object is to raise the standard of living and quality of life of the rural and the urban
people.

Mission

Afforestation; green belts in urban areas,; parks

Elicit peoples participation involving women and young people in conservation of forests, wildlife
and environment.
Environmental awareness generation and celebration of vanamahotsava, environment day, wildlife
week etc.
.
Remarkable success has been achieved in community forestry in some states like Gujarat,
T.N., Rajasthan, Kerala, Karnataka, and H.P. etc.

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Urban forestry pertains to raising and management of trees on public and privately owned lands in and
around urban centers which includes green-belts, roadside avenues, recreational parks, wildlife parks etc.
Its main objectives reduction of environmental pollution, recreation and improving aesthetic values

Agroforestry
integrated and intensive agricultural production system that includes trees and shrubs as an essential
component to achieve environmental, economic and social goals. This means that trees are not incidental to
the farm operation but rather contribute to improved productivity, yield, profitability and sustainability.
It combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy
sustainable systems.
Agroforestry systems can be advantageous over conventional agricultural, and forest production methods.
They can offer increased productivity, economic benefits, and more diversity in the ecological goods and
services provided.
Biodiversity in agroforestry systems is typically higher than in conventional agricultural systems. With two
or more interacting plant species in a given land area, it creates a more complex habitat that can support a
wider variety of birds, insects, and other animals.
Depending upon the application, potential impacts of agroforestry can include:

Reducing poverty through increased production of wood and other tree products for home
consumption and sale
Contributing to food security by restoring the soil fertility for food crops
Countering global warming and the risk of hunger by increasing the number of drought-resistant
trees and the subsequent production of fruits, nuts and edible oils
Reducing deforestation and pressure on woodlands by providing farm-grown fuelwood
Reducing or eliminating the need for toxic chemicals (insecticides, herbicides, etc.)
Through more diverse farm outputs- improved human nutrition
In situations where people have limited access to mainstream medicines, providing growing space
for medicinal plants

Agroforestry practices may also realize a number of other associated environmental

goals, such as:

Carbon sequestration(-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate
or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change)
Odour, dust, and noise reduction
Green space and visual aesthetics
Enhancement or maintenance of wildlife habitat
Sustainable land-use systems

Reduces soil losses, conserves soil moisture, recycles nutrients; and increases profits

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Roadside Plantations
o
o
o
o
o

Aesthetics and shelter

Prevent shifting of sand to the road from adjoin sandy areas
Improve ecology
Carbon sequestration
Provide economic benefits to local villages

Canal Plantations
o
o
o
o
o

Stabilize canal banks against erosion

Prevent shifting sand from getting into the canal(in desert areas)
Checking water logging in strips along canals and in adjoining areas
Aesthetics
Provide economic benefits to local villages

Problems faced (in India)

o Lack of planning and proper implementation
o Not being sensitive to local needs and culture
o Resistance from the community to change-this can also be because the change has been forces on
them without giving them time to adapt-or the methods are not culturally suitable
o The technology and the methods may not be suitable for that culture and community
o Corruption-both at the govt level and it the community level
o Power struggles-esp at the community level
o Multinationals entering the field of food and agriculture may coerce farmers (by offering them
immediate profits-as against long term sustainable agricultural profits)
Factors beyond human control-climate change, drought, unseasonal rainsetc

Solutions
o Careful planning by involving those at the grassroots also and understanding the needs of the
community
o Help the community to prepare for the change
o Ensuring that implementation is corruption free and avoiding power struggles
o Back up plans to handle losses

Eg: Navdanya
Beej Bachao Andolan
Bhuira-in HP

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The Beej Bachao Andolan, or Save the Seeds movement began in the late 1980s as a group of activists
from the Henwal River Valley in Tehri district (Uttarakhand, India), led by Vijay Jardhari, -were worried
about the erosion of agricultural biodiversity and rural livelihoods, and sought to preserve the peoples
cultural and scientific patrimony, as well as fight back against agrarian policies that favour corporate
agribusiness at the expense of small farmers.
Beej Bachao Andolan activists have resolved to undertake the following:

Practice Principles of Traditional Agriculture

Conserve Forests and Biodiversity
Demand Legal Farmer Status for Women, the true keepers of holistic, sustainable agriculture.
Seek Recognition for small farmers in their capacity as providers to the nation.
Seek Scientist Status for Farmers who have tried, tested, improved upon and sustained the various
facets of a healthy, sustainable agriculture through the history.
Seek Direct Representation of Farmers in policy decision making.

Navdanya is a network of seed keepers and organic producers spread across 17 states in India.
Navdanya has helped set up 111 community seed banks across the country, trained over 5,00,000 farmers
in seed sovereignty, food sovereignty and sustainable agriculture over the past two decades, and helped
setup the largest direct marketing, fair trade organic network in the country.
Navdanya is actively involved in the rejuvenation of indigenous knowledge and culture. It has created
awareness on the hazards of genetic engineering, defended people's knowledge from biopiracy and food
rights in the face of globalisation and climate change.
Navdanya is a women centred movement for the protection of biological and cultural diversity.

ACRONYMNS
o

Joint Forest Management often abbreviated as JFM is the official and popular term in
India for partnerships in forest management involving both the state forest departments and local
communities.-Community Forestry

o EFP
Environmental Farm Plans are voluntary, confidential, self- assessment tools used by producers to raise
awareness about environmental risks and opportunities on their operations. As part of their EFP, producers
develop their own action plans to identify management practices that can reduce environmental risk on their
operations
http://beejbachaoandolan.org/about/
http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?id=1177431400694&lang=eng
http://www.preservearticles.com/2012032028093/short-essay-on-the-social-forestry-in-india.html

235

Silviculture
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to
meet diverse needs and values. The name comes from the Latin silvi- (forest) + culture (as in growing). Silviculture
also has to do with sustained yield and keeping the forest productive recreation, tree plantations, forest
products.

The study of forests and woods is termed silvology.

Forest regeneration is the act of renewing tree cover by establishing young trees naturally or artificially, generally
promptly after the previous stand or forest has been removed.

Objectives

To derive environmental benefits

Raising species of more economic value
Production of plants of high quality timber species
Introduction of exotic species
Employment potentials
To increase raw materials for forest based industries.

http://sfri.nic.in/silviculture.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silviculture
http://www.daviesand.com/Choices/Silvicultural_Systems/index.html

236

Soil Erosion
Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by processes such as wind or
water flow, and then transported and deposited in other location

Effects of Soil Erosion

On Site
o
o
o

Loss of soil fertility-land degradation

Loss of agricultural productivity
Airborne dust pollution

Off-site
The eroded soil may be transported considerable distances. This gives rise to
problems'.

'off-site

Water erosions main off-site effect is the movement of sediment and agricultural pollutants
into watercourses. This can lead to the silting-up of dams, disruption of the ecosystems of
lakes, and contamination of drinking water.

Agricultural chemicals often move with eroded sediment. These chemicals move into, and
pollute, downstream watercourses and water bodies

Factors affecting SOIL EROSION

Natural
Soil structure and composition
Precipitation and Wind Speed
Vegetative Cover
Man made
Climate Change
Roads and urbanization
Deforestation
Agricultural practices

How to reduce soil erosion

Terracing
Windbreaks
Mixed cropping
Crop rotation
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CONSERVATION
Protection of soil against erosion or deterioration
Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the Earths
surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil
contamination.
Landuse management
Vegetative and mechanical practices
Conserving water and soil together-Conservation agriculture: Organic farming helps to conserve water also.
Appropriate cropping patterns

CROPPING
Row cropping
Mixed Cropping
Crop rotation
Strip cropping
Tree crops
Foliage crops

Land Use
Land use laws and policies are important to conserve soil; reduce soil erosion and help to conserve the
biodiversity and the environment. There are strict laws governing land use-protected land; protected
heritage sites; forest land; urban town plansetc

When land use laws are not followed

Unsustainable development
Disasters-eg: Uttarakhand, Mumbra building collapse
Deforestation, soil erosionetc
Pollution increases if green belts are not maintained

238

239

240

CHAPTER 5
FOOD
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is the production of food, fiber, or other plant or animal products using farming
techniques that protect the environment, public health, human communities, and animal welfare.
Environmental Preservation
Sustainable farms produce crops and raise animals without relying on toxic chemical pesticides, synthetic
fertilizers, genetically modified seeds, or practices that degrade soil, water, or other natural resources. By
growing a variety of plants and using techniques such as crop rotation, conservation tillage, and pasturebased livestock husbandry, sustainable farms protect biodiversity and foster the development and
maintenance of healthy ecosystems
Sustaining Vibrant Communities
A critical component of sustainable agriculture is its ability to remain economically viable, providing
farmers, others employed in the food system with a livable wage and safe, fair working conditions.
Sustainable farms also bolster local and regional economies, creating good jobs and building strong
communities.
Upholding Animal Welfare
Sustainable farmers and ranchers treat animals with care and respect, implementing livestock husbandry
practices that protect animals' health and wellbeing. By raising livestock on pasture, these farmers enable
their animals to move freely, engage in instinctive behaviors, consume a natural diet, and avoid the stress
and illness associated with confinement.
It involves

Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions on the farm
Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the biological and
economic stability of the farm
Management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality
Efficient and humane use of inputs
Consideration of farmers' goals and lifestyle choices

Critics of sustainable agriculture

Lower crop yields and higher land use.
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A wholesale commitment to its practices will mean inevitable food shortages for the world population
sustainableagriculture.net

Regenerative Farming(Similar to organic farming )

Regenerative agriculture is any kind of farming that enables the restorative capacity of the earth.
Regenerative agriculture preserves or improves the fertility of the soil, creates an abundance of food and
other agricultural products, contributes to vibrant communities and equitable economies, and respects the
ecology of the natural world. Fertile soil helps create nourishing food and, in turn, healthy people and
robust communities.
The focus of Regenerative Agriculture is on building soils, restoring watercourses, and encouraging
biodiversity, while reducing dependency on outside inputs, improving livestock health and increasing farm
yields and profitability
Regenerative farming can sequester carbon and help reverse global warming

The Widening Circle of Regenerative Agriculture

You and Your FarmBy farming organically, we are regenerating the soil and returning it to it's natural,
healthy state. By farming without chemicals, we are also regenerating your health and your family's health.
The Local EnvironmentThe wildlands, wetlands and the environment surrounding the farm are
regenerated by organic practices. Dangerous chemicals no longer wash out of the fields and beneficial birds
and wildlife return to help keep down insect pests.
The Communitythe local community and the world beyond are also regenerated by the farm as we
recycle natural waste products into the fields, reducing local pollution points. As people eat organic food,
they are being regenerated and made healthier. The farm is helping to clean up the planet!
Features of Regenerative Agriculture
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

Conservation Tillage
No Kill cropping
No pesticides
Polyculture
Agroforestry
Biopesticides
Minimal energy consumption
Humane and dignified human labour along with machines

http://www.gracelinks.org/246/sustainable-agriculture-the-basics
http://www.regenerativeagriculture.co.uk/

242

http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/sarep/about/def
http://environment.nationalgeographic.co.in/environment

BIO TECHNOLOGY AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD+

Genetic Modification is a special set of technologies that alter the genetic makeup of such living
organisms as animals, plants, or bacteria.
Biotechnology, a more general term, refers to using living organisms or their components, such as
enzymes, to make products that include wine, cheese, beer, and yogurt.
Combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA technology, and the resulting
organism is said to be "genetically modified," "genetically engineered," or "transgenic."
GM products (current or in the pipeline) include medicines and vaccines, foods and food ingredients, feeds,
and fibers.
Points of discussion
o
o
o
o
o
o

human and environmental safety

labeling and
consumer choice
ethics
food security
poverty reduction

GM Products: Benefits and Controversies

Benefits
Genetically modified foods (GM foods or GMF) offer a way to quickly improve yield, pest resistance, or
herbicide tolerance

Crops

Enhanced taste and quality

Reduced maturation time
Increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance
Improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides
Animals
o Increased resistance, productivity, hardiness
o Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk
o Improved animal health and diagnostic methods
Environment
o "Friendly" bio-herbicides and bio-insecticides
o Conservation of soil, water, and energy
o Better natural waste management
o
o
o
o

243

Society
o

More efficient processing

Increased food security for growing populations

Controversies
The power of genetic modification techniques raises the possibility of human health, environmental, and
economic problems,
o
o
o

unanticipated allergic responses to novel substances in foods,

inadvertent toxicity to benign wildlife
increasing control of agriculture by biotechnology corporations.

Access and Intellectual Property

o Domination of world food production by a few companies
o Increasing dependence on Industrialized nations by developing countries
o Biopiracyforeign exploitation of natural resources
Ethics
o Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species
o Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa
o Stress for animal
Labeling
o Not mandatory in some countries
o Mixing GM crops with non-GM -makes labeling attempts diffiuclt
Society
o New advances may be skewed to interests of rich countries

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Food security is a necessity for every individual, home, community and nation. In developing countries, food
security could be substantially improved by increased investment and policy reforms.
Biotechnology can help to eliminate malnutrition and hunger through :
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

production of crops resistant to pests and diseases,

having longer shelf-lives,
refined textures and flavours,
higher yields per units of land and time,
tolerant to adverse weather and soil conditions,
generate employment,

. This technology can be applied to improve agriculture in order to improve food production for the human
population in an environmentally sustainable manner.
Government and public-private collaborations need to invest in agricultural biotechnology-based companies,
researches, or initiatives, in order to make the gene revolution beneficial to developing countries.
Some arguments against Food security through Biotechnology
1) Most innovations in agricultural biotechnology have been profit-driven rather than need-driven. The real
thrust of the genetic engineering industry is not to make third world agriculture more productive, but rather
to generate profits
2) Some Recent experimental trials have shown that genetically engineered seeds do not increase the yield of
crops
3) Biotechnology can lead to the creation of superweeds
4) Agricultural biodiversity is being changed through monoculture and the landscape is being changed-this can
have long term ecological impact

http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n34/v2n34a03-altieri.htm
http://biotechbenefits.croplife.org/paper/biotechnology-and-food-security-in-developing-countries/

245

Genetic Modification

What is Genetic Engineering?

It is a technique involving transfer of a selected piece of genetic material capable of performing new
functions from one organism to another.
Genetic Modification (GM), Genetic Manipulation and Genetic Engineering (GE) all refer to the same
thing.
It is also known as recombinant DNA technology.

What are Genetically Modified (GM) crops?

A genetically modified (GM) crop is a plant that has been altered by an external process which alters the
genetic make-up of the cells.
The final plant variety or breed of plant will have the desired traits inherited from its ancestors along with
the associated genes for those traits.
GM technology is used because it can change the genes of an organism in a way not possible through
traditional breeding technology. Consequently only GM can engineer totally new plant varieties with traits
that range from the ability to survive adverse environmental conditions and pest attacks to a longer shelf
life and enhanced nutritional value.

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What is Bt Brinjal?
Bt Brinjal is a transgenic brinjal created by inserting a gene into Brinjal.
This is said to give the brinjal plant resistance against insects
The controversy
Advantages- Bt Brinjal will be beneficial to small farmers because it is insect resistant, increases yields, is
more cost-effective andwill have minimal environmental impact.
Concerns- about Bt Brinjal relate to its possible adverse impact on human health and bio-safety, livelihoods
and biodiversity
Arguments For
a) Bt Brinjal has been found to be safe for human consumption and safe for the environment.
b) Bt Brinjal increases marketable yields thus resulting in higher incomes for farmers
Arguments against
a) Inadequacy of tests: how will it impact human health.
b) Carcinogenicity studies have not been done
c) There is no guarantee that the prices will actually go down. On the contrary the price of Bt brinjal
may be higher. The Bt cotton example shows that the seed cost increases substantially

www.sciencebeing.com/2013/02/bt-brinjal-and-its-controversy-in-india

247

Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the soil by mechanical agitation of various types, such as digging, stirring,
and overturning
Ploughing, raking, shovelingetc

Primary tillage loosens the soil and mixes in fertilizer and/or plant material, resulting in soil with a rough
texture.
Secondary tillage produces finer soil and sometimes shapes the rows, preparing the seed bed
Advantages

Loosens and aerates the top layer of soil which can facilitate the planting of the crop.

It helps in the mixing of residue from the harvest, organic matter (humus) and nutrients evenly throughout
the soil.
It is a mechanical way to destroy weeds.

Concerns

Dries the soil before seeding.

The soil loses a lot of its nutrients like nitrogen and its ability to store water.
Might increase erosion
Increased costs
Soil compaction

Conservation tillage is any method of soil cultivation that leaves the previous year's crop residue (such
as corn stalks or wheat stubble) on fields before and after planting the next crop, to reduce soil erosion and
runoff.
To provide these conservation benefits, at least 30% of the soil surface must be covered with residue after
planting the next crop. Some conservation tillage methods forego traditional tillage entirely and leave 70%
residue or more.
Conservation tillage is especially suitable for erosion-prone cropland. In some agricultural regions it has
become more common than traditional moldboard plowing.
Conservation tillage methods include no-till, strip-till, ridge-till and mulch-till
248

Why practice conservation tillage on your land?

Environmental benefits

Reduces soil erosion by as much as 60%-90% depending on the conservation tillage method;
pieces of crop residue shield soil particles from rain and wind until new plants produce a
protective canopy over the soil
Improves soil and water quality
Conserves water by reducing evaporation at the soil surface
Conserves energy due to fewer tractor trips across the field
Reduces potential air pollution from dust and diesel emissions
Crop residue provides food and cover for wildlife
Practical benefits

Fewer trips across the fields saves time and money (lowers fuel, labor and machinery
maintenance costs) and reduces soil compaction that can interfere with plant growth
Optimizes soil moisture, enhancing crop growth in dry periods or on droughty soils
water pollution by trapping and filtering any sediment that does leave the field

No-till farming (also called zero tillage or direct planting or pasture cropping) is a way of
growing crops from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage. No-till is an agricultural
technique which increases the amount of water and organic matter (nutrients) in the soil and decreases
erosion. It increases the amount and variety of life in and on the soil.
Tilling -removes weeds, shape the soil into rows for crop plants and furrows for irrigation.
Unfavorable effects of tilling, - soil compaction; loss of organic matter; death or disruption of
soil microbes and other organisms including and earthworms and soil erosion where topsoil is blown or
washed away
Studies have found that no-till farming can be more profitable if performed correctly.
Less tillage of the soil reduces labour fuel, irrigation and machinery costs
No-till can increase yield because of higher water infiltration and storage capacity, and less erosion.
Because of the higher water content, instead of leaving a field fallow it can make economic sense to plant
another crop instead

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http://www.mda.state.mn.us/protecting/conservation/practices/constillage.aspx

Drip irrigation
Also sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20
litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers.
Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted unlike surface
and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile.
With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods
and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish.
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall. Water
is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through
sprinkler.

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Integrated Nutrient Management

Managing plant nutrients for maintaining and improving soil, where both natural and man-made sources of plant
nutrients are used.
Improved and high yielding varieties of crops require application of fertilizers and controlling infesting pests to get
the best benefit of growing such varieties.
But, continuous and imbalanced use of agro chemicals like pesticides and fertilizers affect the soil health by way of
adversely affecting the useful soil microorganisms, and the left over chemical residues become toxic to plants.
Integrated nutrient management (INM) is practiced by applying the organic manures and fertilizers in combination
after assessing what the soil can provide through soil testing, and the crop nutrient requirements to give certain
amount of yield.
INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Integrated Nutrient Management refers to the maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an
optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible
sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner.

What is it
1. Regulated nutrient supply for optimum crop growth and higher productivity.
2. Improvement and maintenance of soil fertility.
3. Zero adverse impact on agro ecosystem quality by balanced fertilization of organic manures, inorganic

fertilizers

Advantages
1. Provides balanced nutrition to crops
2. Improves soil.
3. Healthy ecosystem

Sufficient and balanced application of organic manures and fertilizers is the focus in INM.
In integrated nutrient management (INM) approach all organic manures like farm yard manure, compost etc. are
first considered for application. The balance crop nutrient requirements are supplemented with the appropriate
fertilizer application.
Improved method of application along with proper timing of application are also considered to achieve the best
efficiency of used organic manures and fertilizers.
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Integrated pest management (IPM)

Involves use of different crop pest control practices like cultural, biological and chemical methods in a combined
and compatible way to suppress pest infestations.
The main goal of IPM is to manage pests and the environment so as to balance costs, benefits, public health,
and environmental quality.

Eg- Use of neem twigs while storing grains also practiced by our forefathers.
Such practices not only minimize the expenditure on pesticides and their application but also help in maintaining
the biological balance in nature.

Fertile soil has the following properties:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

It is rich in nutrients necessary for basic plant nutrition, including nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium.
It contains sufficient minerals (trace elements) for plant nutrition,
It contains soil organic matter
Soil pH is in the range 6.0 to 6.8 for most plants but some prefer acid or alkaline conditions.
A range of microorganisms that support plant growth.
It often contains large amounts of topsoil.

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Green Manure
Green undecomposed material used as manure is called green manure.
It is obtained in two ways:
by growing green manure crops
or
by collecting green leaf (along with twigs) from plants grown in wastelands, field bunds and forest.
The plants that are grown for green manure known as green manure crops. The most important green
manure crops are sunhemp, ,clusterbeans
In agriculture, a green manure is a type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the
soil. Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period, and then plowed under and incorporated into the
soil while green or shortly after flowering.
Green manure crops are commonly associated with organic agriculture, and are considered essential for
sustainable. agriculture

SEWAGE SLUDGE
Sewage sludge is the growing and continuous mountain of hazardous waste produced daily by city sewage plants.
The sewage sludge industry also calls it biosolids

BIOFERTILIZERS

A biofertilizer (also bio-fertilizer) is a substance which contains living microorganisms which, when applied to seed,
plant surfaces, or soil, promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plan
Ego

Azolla
Rhizobium

253

What Are Seed Gene Banks and How Do They Work?

Gene banks help preserve genetic material, be it plant or animal. In plants, this could be by freezing cuts
from the plant, or stocking the seeds. In animals, this is the freezing of sperm and eggs in zoological
freezers until further need
In an effort to conserve agricultural biodiversity, gene banks are used to store and conserve the plant
genetic resources of major crop plants
There are many gene banks all over the world, with the Svalbard Global Seed Vault being probably
the most famous
Community gene banks in Andhra Pradesh

o The primary purpose of establishing a gene bank is to preserve examples of threatened or

endangered species. Each year, untold numbers of plant and animal species become extinct because
of natural processes and more commonly, as the result of human activities. Once those species
become extinct, their gene pools are lost forever.
o Their purpose is to catalog, store, and protect as many varieties of plants as possible.
o These banks are useful to plant breeders trying to find crop species that are more drought or disease
resistant, for example.
o They also provide a resource for countries in recovery after natural or man-made catastrophes.
For example, after the tsunami in Malaysia in 2004, rice growers were able to obtain salt-tolerant varieties
of rice not normally gown in that area.

254

GLOBAL FOOD IMBALANCE

The worlds existing food system is failing half of the people on the planet.
Economic inequality among nations and other factors have contributed to a global food system whereby a
billion people are hungry (lacking access to sufficient amounts of macronutrients, e.g. carbohydrates, fats
and proteins), another billion suffer from hidden hunger (lacking crucial vitamins and minerals from their
diet), while yet another billion are substantially over-consuming (spawning a new public health epidemic
involving chronic conditions such as type 2 diabetes and widespread cardiovascular disease).
The cost of food worldwide will rise sharply in coming decades, increasing the likelihood of food-based
conflicts and migration, and that people wont be able to feed themselves without destroying the planet
unless we can transform the global food system on the scale of the industrial revolution.
Farmers have to grow more food at less cost to the environment, That may sound simple, but many
factors determine if production of a given food is economically viable.

Famine is the term given to an extreme shortage of food. In a world of such huge wealth imbalances - it
would only be expected that there would also be a huge food imbalance too.
The extent of famine is much larger than most people expect:

Around 1.2 billion people suffer from hunger (deficiency of calories and protein);

Between 2 and 3.5 billion people have micronutrient deficiency (not enough vitamins and
minerals)

Over 9 million people die every year because of hunger and malnutrition. 5 million are children.

But at the same time:

"1.2 billion suffer from obesity (excess of fats and salt, often accompanied by deficiency of
vitamins and minerals);"

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If the wealth & food was spread out equally, it could be argued that there would be no more famine.
The people of developed countries actually waste a considerable amount of food. This of course, could have
been used to feed the hungry and prevent suffering.

Overall, 20 billion ($38 billion) worth of food is thrown away each year

In the USA 40-50% of all food ready for harvest never even gets eaten

Of the food that does eventually reach households, 14% is wasted

In some parts of Africa a quarter or more of the crops go bad before they can be eaten. High losses in
developing nations can be due to a lack of technology, infrastructure, insect infestations, microbial growth,
damage and high temperatures and humidity.

The direct medical cost of hunger and malnutrition is around $30 billion each year.

CAUSES
1) Wealth inequality
2) Wastage
3) Crop gets destroyed-due to climate change, lack of technology, ..etc

Solutions
1) Spreading of existing knowledge and technology to the developing world to boost yields.
2) Reduce food waste
3) Invest in genetically modified crops and cloned livestock, despite the potential risks
4) And choosing locally produced food over that which is shipped in from far away will help reduce our
foods carbon footprint. and nations economy and farmers
5) Also, support the efforts of groups working to end hunger and malnutrition

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Green Revolution
Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring
between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world,.
Due to the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico, its technologies spread worldwide in the 1950s and 1960s

The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving over
a billion people from starvation, involved

the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains,

expansion of irrigation infrastructure,
modernization of management techniques,
distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.

The introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds and the increased use of fertilizers and irrigation
are known collectively as the Green Revolution, which provided the increase in production needed to
make India self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_seed

High-yielding wheat was first introduced to India in 1963 by Dr. Borlaug.

M. S. Swaminathan and his team had contributed towards the success of green revolution. Due to the rise in
use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers there were many negative effects on the soil and the land such as
land degradation

Features of Green Revolution

Use of high yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds

Better methods
Use of insecticides and pesticides
Consolidation of holdings
Land reforms
Improved rural infrastructure
Supply of agricultural credit
Use of (chemical) fertilizers
Opening of agriculture colleges

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Impacts of the Green Revolution

Since fertilizers are largely what made the Green Revolution possible, they forever changed
agricultural practices because the high yield varieties developed during this time cannot grow
successfully without the help of fertilizers.
Irrigation also played a large role in the Green Revolution and this forever changed the areas where
various crops can be grown.
To improve quantity- the development of high yield varieties meant that only a few species of say,
rice started being grown.
The use of Green Revolution technologies exponentially increased the amount of food production
worldwide. Places like India and China that once feared famine have not experienced it since
implementing the use of IR8 rice and other food varieties.

Criticism of the Green Revolution

The increased amount of food production has led to overpopulation worldwide.

Places like Africa have not significantly benefited from the Green Revolution. The major problems
surrounding the use of these technologies here though are a lack of infrastructure, governmental
corruption, and insecurity in nations.

Despite these criticisms though, the Green Revolution has forever changed the way agriculture is
conducted worldwide, benefiting the people of many nations in need of increased food production.

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http://www.indiaonestop.com/Greenrevolution.htm
edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/bio/green.htm
http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/pubs/pubs/ib/ib11.pdf

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CHAPTER 6
BIODIVERSITY
CONSERVING OUR GENETIC RESOURCES _IN SITU
Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the
conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are internationally recognized, nominated by
national governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located.
Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as 'living laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating integrated
management of land, water and biodiversity.

What are the functions of biosphere reserves?

Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfil 3 basic functions, which are complementary and mutually
reinforcing:
o a conservation function - to contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and
genetic variation;
o a development function - to foster economic and human development which is socio-culturally and
ecologically sustainable;
o a logistic function - to provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange
related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development.
What are the biosphere reserve zones?
Biosphere reserves are organized into 3 interrelated zones:
the core area
- the buffer zone
- the transition area

What are the benefits of biosphere reserves?

The designation of a site as a biosphere reserve can raise awareness among local people, citizens and
government authorities on environmental and development issues.
It can help to attract additional funding from different sources.
At the national level, biosphere reserves can serve as pilot sites or learning places to explore and
demonstrate approaches to conservation and sustainable development, providing lessons which can be
applied elsewhere

o INSTITUTEO NATIONAL de BIODVIERSIDAD(INBio)-Costa Rica-good national scheme

to manage and conserve and preserve biodiversity
o Project Tiger
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National Parks
1. National parks are formed by Central or State Legislation.
2. Protect the biodiversity in its natural habitat
3. No human habitation is permitted in main area.
4. Harvesting timbers, cultivation, collection of forest products are restricted. Eg.Corbett National Park.

Wildlife Sanctuary
Demarcated area where wildlife is protected from predators. An area with sufficient biodiversity and ecological
importance can be declared as a sanctuary. A Chief Wildlife Warden looks after a Sanctuary.

The core zone is a protected zone where human interference is strictly prohibited. This zone supports the
prime wildlife habitats and dense vegetation.
The concept of buffer zone evolved from the desire to better
protect the core
areas of conservation areas or the conservation area
as a whole by minimising
t h e n e g a t i v e impacts of human activities on nature.

Ex-situ conservation
"off-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal outside its natural
habitat; for example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location,
which may be a wild area or within the care of humans.
Comprises some of the oldest and best known conservation methods, it also involves newer, sometimes
controversial laboratory method

EG_ Colony Relocation

ZOOS and Botanical Gardens

Used as a Last resort-as natural habitat is difficult to recreate

Often expensive
Cryogenic methods-frozen species-when in natural habitat, it has lost much of its adaptability

http://www.unesco.org/mab/doc/faq/brs.pdf
http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Habitat

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WILDLIFE HARVESTING
Hunting became illegal in India in 1972. Wildlife is strictly protected under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972
except the laws are different in terms of stringency and are weaker in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Reasons
Hunting for food either for self-consumption or to bring in income
For commercially valuable by-products like horns, antlers, pelt, bones, feathers, casques, etc.
Sport hunting is also prevalent in many parts of our country
Retaliatory hunting is carried out against crop raiding ungulates or cattle lifting predators.

The hunted
Spotted deer, sambar, barking deer, wild pig; Eeven birds like pigeons, hornbills, smaller mammals like giant
squirrels, flying squirrelsTigers, rhinos and elephants are hunted for the high mercantile value they attract in the
international markets
o
o

Hunting on foot at night using locally crafted muzzle-loading guns is one of the most popular means of
hunting the bounty for lending their shotguns.
Snares , jaw traps

Effect of hunting
Several species could be locally stamped out; hunting of herbivores would directly affect carnivores that are
dependent on them.
Even if small populations persist in an area, they could be ecologically extinct, that is they no longer fulfilling their
ecological role in the forest, which affects the forest composition itself.

Prey depletion
Dr.Karanth -The Way of the Tiger: Prey depletion is one of the most serious threats to tigers, the
population densities, survival rates and chance of persistence are all strongly tied to the densities of their
principal prey. This massive elimination of the prey will immediately eliminate large carnivores like the
tiger that are at the apex of the forest ecology. A tiger annually needs about 50-60 deer-sized animals for
its survival. As a thumb rule for every 50 deer hunted in a year there will be room for one less tiger on this
earth.

Mechanism for strict implementation of the law

Patrolling, licensed firearms, better surveillance; strict implementation of laws, trained guards

Problems faced by our enforcement agencies

Lack of training, lack of staff, corruption, lack of technology
Dr.Karanth -The Way of the Tiger

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http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/wildlife-harvesting

Wildlife Conservation Laws

Many people are under the impression that India does not have strong wildlife conservation laws. On the
contrary, we have some of the most stringent legislations to protect wildlife and habitats.
The Government of India has introduced various types of legislation in response to the growing destruction
of wildlife and forests. These are:

1. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Last amended in 2006)

The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA), 1972 is an important statute that provides a powerful legal
framework for:

Prohibition of hunting
Protection and management of wildlife habitats
Establishment of protected areas
Regulation and control of trade in parts and products derived from wildlife
Management of zoos.

The WLPA provides for several categories of Protected Areas/Reserves:

National Parks
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Tiger Reserves
Conservation Reserves
Community Reserves

National parks and Tiger Reserves are by law more strictly protected, allowing virtually no human activity
except that which is in the interest of wildlife conservation.
The WLPA provides for investigation and prosecution of offences in a court of law by authorized officers
of the forest department and police officers

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2. The Indian Forest Act (1927) and Forest Acts of State Governments
The main objective of the Indian Forest Act (1927) was to secure exclusive state control over forests to
meet the demand for timber. Most of these untitled lands had traditionally belonged to the forest dwelling
communities. The Act defined state ownership, regulated its use, and appropriated the power to substitute
or extinguish customary rights. The Act facilitates three categories of forests, namely

Reserved forests
Village forests
Protected forests

Reserved forests are the most protected within these categories. No rights can be acquired in reserved
forests except by succession or under a grant or contract with the government. Felling trees, grazing cattle,
removing forest products, quarrying, fishing, and hunting are punishable with a fine or imprisonment.
Although the Indian Forest Act is a federal act, many states have enacted similar forest acts but with some
modifications.
3. The Forest Conservation Act (1980)
In order to check rapid deforestation due to forestlands being released by state governments for agriculture,
industry and other development projects (allowed under the Indian Forest Act) the federal government
enacted the Forest Conservation Act in 1980 with an amendment in 1988. The Act made the prior approval
of the federal government necessary for de-reservation of reserved forests, logging and for use of forestland
for non- forest purposes.
This powerful legislation has, to a large extent, curtailed the indiscriminate logging and release of
forestland for non-forestry purposes by state governments.
4. The Environment (Protection) Act (1986)The Environment Protection Act is an important legislation
that provides for coordination of activities of the various regulatory agencies, creation of authorities with
adequate powers for environmental protection, regulation of the discharge of environmental pollutants,
handling of hazardous substances, etc. The Act provided an opportunity to extend legal protection to nonforest habitats (Ecologically Sensitive Areas) such as grasslands, wetlands and coastal zones.
5. The Biological Diversity Act (2002) India is a party to the United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity. The provisions of the Biological Diversity Act are in addition to and not in derogation of the
provisions in any other law relating to forests or wildlife.
6. National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) replaces the earlier Plan adopted in 1983 and was
introduced in response to the need for a change in priorities given the increased commercial use of natural
resources, continued growth of human and livestock populations, and changes in consumption patterns.
7. National Forest Policy (1998) The National Forest Policy, 1988, (NFP) is primarily concerned with the
sustainable use and conservation of forests, and further strengthens the Forest Conservation Act (1980).

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http://www.conservationindia.org/ready-reckoner/the-legal-framework-for-wildlife-conservation

Project Tiger
Past
Project Tiger: Project Tiger, launched in 1973-74, is one of our most successful conservation ventures in
the recent times.
o The project aims at tiger conservation in specially constituted 'tiger reserves',
o It strives to maintain a viable tiger population in the natural environment.
a) First ever all India tiger census was conducted in 1972 which revealed the existence of only 1827
tigers.
b) In 1970, a national ban on tiger hunting was imposed and in 1972 the Wildlife Protection Act came
into force. A 'Task Force' was then set up to formulate a project for tiger conservation with an
ecological approach.
The project was launched in 1973, and various tiger reserves were created in the country on a
'core-buffer' strategy. The core areas were freed from all sorts of human activities and the
buffer areas were subjected to 'conservation oriented land use'.

Management plans were drawn up for each tiger reserve, based on the principles outlined below:
1. Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and biotic disturbance from the core area and
rationalization of activities in the buffer zone.
2.Recovery of the eco-system to its natural state.
3. Monitoring the faunal and floral changes over time and carrying out research about wildlife.
Initially, 9 tiger reserves were established in different States during the period 1973-74, by pooling the
resources available with the Central and State Governments.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Manas (Assam),
Palamau (Bihar),
Similipal (Orissa),
Corbett (U.P.),
Kanha (M.P.)
Melghat (Maharashtra),
Bandipur (Karnataka),
Ranthambhore (Rajasthan)

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o Sunderbans (West Bengal).

The W.W.F. has given an assistance of US $ 1 million in the form of equipments, expertise and literature.
The various States are also bearing the loss on account of giving up the forestry operations in the reserves.
The main achievements of this project
Excellent recovery of the habitat and consequent increase in the tiger population in the reserve areas, from
a mere 268 in 9 reserves in 1972 to 1576 in 27 reserves in 2003.
Thus, 'Project Tiger', is basically the conservation of the entire eco-system and apart from tigers, all other
wild animals also have increased in number in the project areas.

Present
Wireless communication system and outstation patrol camps have been developed within the tiger reserves,
due to which poaching has declined considerably.
Fire protection is effectively done by suitable preventive and control measures
Voluntary Village relocation has been done in many reserves, especially from the core, area. In Kanha,
Bandipur and Ranthambhore, all the villages have been shifted from the core, and after relocation, the
villagers have been provided with alternate agricultural lands and other community benefits.
This has resulted in the improvement of the carrying capacity of the habitat.
Live stock grazing has been controlled to a great extent in the tiger reserves

Future
Use of Information and Communication technology in Wildlife Protection and Crime Risk Management in
Tiger reserves.
Wildlife protection requires a widely distributed Information Network, using the state-of-art Information
and Communication Technology
Geographic Information System is the most relevant of these technologies.

Vision For the Future

The mandate of project tiger is to conserve tigers in a holistic manner.

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http://projecttiger.nic.in/past.htm

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna

and Flora)
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an
international agreement between governments. Was signed on 3rd March 1973
Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten their survival.
o Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be worth
billions dollars and to include hundreds of millions of plant and
animal specimens.
o Diverse trade- - live animals and plants to a vast array of wildlife
products derived from them, including food products, exotic leather
goods, wooden musical instruments, timber, tourist curios and medicines.
o Levels of exploitation of some animal and plant species are high and the trade in them, together
with other factors, such as habitat loss, is bringing some species close to extinction.
1) Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the effort to
regulate it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from over-exploitation.
2) CITES was conceived in the spirit of such cooperation. Today, it offers varying degrees of
protection to more than 30,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live
specimens, fur coats or dried herbs.
3) CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN
(The World Conservation Union). There are 175 member countries
4) Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected by CITES against
over-exploitation through international trade They include some whales, dolphins sea turtles,
parrots, corals, cacti and orchids.
5) Example of CITEs being effective: African elephants-were reduced by 50% from 1981 to 1989 . In
1989, CITEs took a decision to ban ivory trade at a meeting in Laussanne.and this stopped further
poaching greatly
WHY WAS CITES STARTED
It was started because there was large scale poaching of elephants for tusks, tigers for skin and rhinos for their
horns ; overexploitation of fish resources and plant resources by illegal traders for large scale profits in the
international market.

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www.cites.org

According to the World Wildlife Federation (WWF) the top 10 most endangered
animals/birds/mammal species are:

1. Black Rhino
2. Giant Panda
3. Tiger
4. Beluga Sturgeon
5. Goldenseal
6. Alligator Snapping Turtle
7. Hawksbill Turtle
8. Big Leaf Mahogany
9. Green-Cheeked Parrot
10. Mako Shark

Endangered plant species

.

1)
2)
3)
4)

Baobab tree
Red sandalwood tree
Loulu
St. Helena Gumwood

http://www.extravalue.com/pm.shtml http://www.ehow.com/about_5438947_information-endangered-plants-india.html

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The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, called the Ramsar Convention, is an
intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for
the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem. The
treaty was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and the Convention's member countries cover all
geographic regions of the planet.

The Ramsar mission

The Convention's mission is "the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national
actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development
throughout the world".
The Convention uses a broad definition of the types of wetlands covered in its mission, including lakes and
rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, nearshore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies,
reservoirs, and salt pans.

The Wise Use concept

At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the wise use concept. The wise use of wetlands is defined as
"the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem
approaches, within the context of sustainable development". "Wise use" therefore has at its heart the
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands and their resources, for the benefit of humankind.

The Paris Protocol to amend the Convention- 3 December 1982

http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-home/main/ramsar/1_4000_0__

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Convention on Biological Diversity

Signed by 150 government leaders at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, the Convention on Biological Diversity is
dedicated to promoting sustainable development.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an
international legally binding treaty. The Convention has three main goals:
1. conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);
2. sustainable use of its components; and
3. fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
Its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development.

Some of the many issues dealt with under the convention include:

Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

Technical and scientific cooperation.

Education and public awareness.

Provision of financial resources

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity
http://www.cbd.int/convention/

Role of Women in Conserving the Environment and Biodiversity

Chipko movement was women centered
Navdanya is women centered
a) Women are able to understand and appreciate the importance of biodiversity and the
environment in our lives. They source medicines and food from the rich flora.
b) They are able to understand and implement pollution free cooking methods (smokeless
choolahs) in rural areas; use of biogas for cooking..etc
c) They are able to encourage their children to conserve the environment and ensure that this is
done. .This will ensure that the importance of the environment passes on to the next
generation.
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Any programme of environment conservation must involve women .

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION
Important features:
a) Habitat study
b) Habitat protection
c) Habitat improvement-SANCTUM SANCTORUM-very protected pasrks, sanctuaries, warterholes,
salt-licks..etc
d) Statistical data
e) Legal provisions to be strengthened and implemented
f) Stop poaching and hunting and logging
g) Veterinary services
h) Census
i) Introduce exotic wild life
j) Breeding farms-carefully regulated-for threatened species
eg- PT G.B. Pant High Altitude Zoo in Nainital, Uttarakhand
o Ex situ conservation of Himlayaan species
o Creat e awareness
o Rescue and rehabilitate injured species

Objective of Wildlife Mangement

o Preserve various species of wildlife
o Secure maximum population-consistent with other land uses
o Control population of undesirable species

Population Density -The number per unit area

Annual Population Cycle- Each species has a characteristic birth and death rate
Reproductive Increment -The difference beween the maximum and the minimum population in a given
year
Population Change - The difference between successive annual population census taken in the same season

Modern Wildlife Management

Habitat management
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Predator Control
Introduction of exotic species where required
Consumer oriented measures- information, awareness, responsible tourism

1)Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

Biodiversity for a world without hunger
Maintaining biodiversity for food and agriculture is a global responsibility.

The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture is a permanent forum
where governments discuss and negotiate matters relevant to biodiversity for food and
agriculture.
The main objectives of the Commission are to ensure the conservation and sustainable
utilization of genetic resources for food and agriculture, as well as the fair and equitable
sharing of benefits derived from their use, for present and future generations

Plant genetic diversity is threatened by genetic erosion, a term coined by scientists for
the loss of individual genes and of combinations of genes, such as those found in locally
adapted landraces

Traditional efforts to counter this genetic erosionconcentrated on conservation of seeds in

crop genebanks(ex situ). Today, it has become clear that the best strategy combines ex situ
conservation with on-the-ground (in situ)conservation by farmers

http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al384e/al384e00.pdf

2) Centre for Proteomic and Genomic Research (CPGR)

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CHAPTER 7
ENERGY
Nuclear Energy
Presently, nuclear energy provides for approximately 16% of the world's electricity. The nuclear
reactors that we have today work on the principle of nuclear fission. Scientists are working to make
fusion reactors which have the potential of providing more energy with fewer disadvantages than
fission reactors.
Production
Changes can occur in the structure of the nuclei of atoms. These changes are called nuclear
reactions.
Energy created in a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy, or atomic energy.
Nuclear energy is produced naturally and in man-made operations under human control.

Naturally: Some nuclear energy is produced naturally. For example, the Sun and
other stars make heat and light by nuclear reactions.
Man-Made: Nuclear energy can be man-made too. Machines called nuclear
reactors, parts of nuclear power plants, provide electricity for many cities. Manmade nuclear reactions also occur in the explosion of atomic and hydrogen bombs.

Nuclear energy is produced in two different ways, in one, large nuclei are split to release
energy. In the other method, small nuclei are combined to release energy.

Nuclear Fission: In nuclear fission, the nuclei of atoms are split, causing energy to
be released. The atomic bomb and nuclear reactors work by fission. The element
uranium is the main fuel used to undergo nuclear fission to produce energy since it
has many favorable properties.
Uranium nuclei can be easily split by shooting neutrons at them. Also, once a
uranium nucleus is split, multiple neutrons are released which are used to split other
uranium nuclei. This phenomenon is known as a chain reaction.

Nuclear Fusion: In nuclear fusion, the nuclei of atoms are joined together, or fused.
This happens only under very hot conditions. The Sun, like all other stars, creates
heat and light through nuclear fusion. In the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse to make
helium.
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The hydrogen bomb works by fusion.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy

The Earth has limited supplies of coal and oil. Nuclear power plants could still
produce electricity after coal and oil become scarce.
Nuclear power plants need less fuel than ones which burn fossil fuels. One ton of
uranium produces more energy than is produced by several million tons of coal or
several million barrels of oil.
Coal and oil burning plants pollute the air. Well-operated nuclear power plants do
not release contaminants into the environment.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

1)Nuclear explosions produce radiation.
2)One possible type of reactor disaster is known as a meltdown. In such an accident, the
fission reaction goes out of control, leading to a nuclear explosion and the emission of
great amounts of radiation.

In 1979, the cooling system failed at the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor
near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Radiation leaked, forcing tens of thousands of
people to flee. The problem was solved minutes before a total meltdown
would have occurred. Fortunately, there were no deaths.
In 1986, a much worse disaster struck Russia's Chernobyl nuclear power
plant. In this incident, a large amount of radiation escaped from the reactor.

3)Nuclear reactors also have waste disposal problems. Reactors produce nuclear waste
products which emit dangerous radiation. Because they could kill people who touch
them, they cannot be thrown away like ordinary garbage. Currently, many nuclear
wastes are stored in special cooling pools at the nuclear reactors.

In 1957, at a dump site in Russia's Ural Mountains, several hundred miles

from Moscow, buried nuclear wastes mysteriously exploded, killing dozens
of people.

4) Nuclear reactors only last for about forty to fifty years.

www.indianuclearenergy.net

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NUCLEAR FUSION

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

The fuel for fusion reactions are readily available. Deuterium and Tritium are virtually
inexhaustible.
Unlike the burning of coal or other fossil fuels, fusion does not emit harmful toxins into the
atmosphere. The combustion of most fossil fuels involves some form of the reaction

Disadvantages

Scientists have not yet been able to contain a fusion reaction long enough for there to be a net
energy gain.
Many countries are phasing out fusion research because of the failure to reach a breakthrough

hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/fusion.html
opscience.iop.org/0029-5515

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A Summary -The Nuclear Energy Debate

Nuclear Energy is by far the most controversial source of renewable energy after the crisis at
Japans Fukushima Daiichi Power Station
Nuclear energy has become a widely used and widely contested source of electricity worldwide. Currently
in the spotlight due to the near-meltdown at the Fukushima Daiichi Power Station as a result of the
devastating earthquake and tsunami of March 11, 2011, nuclear energy has come to the forefront of
political, technological, and public-safety discussions.
The cost of nuclear power plants is huge.
In addition to all these problems there is always a danger from the radioactive emissions that are created by
these power plants.
Lack of disposal grounds for such nuclear waste which remains radioactive for quite awhile, side effects of
such radioactive wastes can lead to different types of diseases most commonly leukaemia (cancer) and
many other deadly diseases. They may not be noticed on first but they can appear after 50 years. They also
affect the n number of children born in that area. Those children are immune to many diseases and can be
born with deformities; they in many cases get mental retardation.
There are also positives to such power they are the cleanest form of energy and the energy output or the
per kilowatts output can go upto 12000 billion megawatts of energy which can power most of India.
The plutonium is also abundant on the Earth. It not only supplies with lot of energy it also of all energy
sources, nuclear energy has less impact on the environment Nuclear energy is an emission-free energy
source because it does not burn anything to produce electricity.
Nuclear power plants produce no gases such as nitrogen oxide or sulfur dioxide that could threaten our
atmosphere by causing ground-level ozone formation, smog, and acid rain.
Nor does nuclear energy produce carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases suspected to cause global
warming.

world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future.../The-Nuclear-Debate

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ALTERNATE ENERGY
Biomass: Natures Most Flexible Energy Resource

Biomass is plant materials and animal waste that can be used as a fuel source for our energy
needs. It is a chemical energy that is among the most precious and flexible resources on Earth.
It is also a renewable resource because plants to make biomass can be grown over and over.
How biomass works is very simple. The waste wood, tree branches and other scraps are gathered together
in big trucks. The trucks bring the waste from factories and from farms to a biomass power plant. Here the
biomass is dumped into huge hoppers. This is then fed into a furnace where it is burned. The heat is used to
boil water in the boiler, and the energy in the steam is used to turn turbines and generators
SIMPLIFIED CARBON CYCLE Unlike fossil fuels, biomass doesnot increase atmospheric greenhouse
gases when burned.

Biomass has many important uses.

a) It provides food that all animals can eat.
b) Biomass also provides building materials, paper, fabrics, medicines and chemicals.
c) Biomass has been used for energy purposes ever since fire was first discovered.
d) Biomass materials can be converted into fuels capable of just about any energy service,
from powering airplanes and cars to making electricity to heating the family living room
e) Vehicle Fuels- Biomass can also be turned into alcohol. Ethanolis an alcohol created from
biomass. The gasoline that we use in our cars often includes a small amount of ethanol. If
we added 10% ethanol to our gasoline, our cars would perform better, and they would not
produce as much air pollution.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What is biomass?
Biomass is the organic matter produced by plants. The solar energy trapped by these plants can be
converted to electricity or fuel.

How is biomass used?

People have used biomass for heating and cooking for thousands of years. With todays technology, plant
materials can be used to generate electricity, heat, or liquid fuels for motor vehicles that have substantially
lower environmental impacts than traditional fossil fuels.

What are the benefits of using biomass for energy generation?

Reduced greenhouse gas emissions, reduced dependence on foreign oil, an improved balance of trade, an
improved rural economy, and the creation of a major new industry

What are the environmental benefits of biomass?

It can help mitigate climate change; reduce acid rain; prevent soil erosion and water pollution; minimize
pressure on landfills; provide wildlife habitat; and, help maintain forest health through better management.
The use of biomass will greatly reduce the nations greenhouse gas emissions. Biomass also releases
carbon dioxide as it burns, but the plants need CO2 to grow thus creating a closed-carbon cycle. All the
CO2 released during the combustion of biomass materials is recaptured by the growth of these same
materials.
In addition, substantial quantities of carbon can be captured in the soil through biomass root structures,
creating a net carbon sink.
Biomass has other environmental benefits as well. The nation has many vast tracts of unused agricultural
land the byproduct of increasingly efficient agricultural techniques that might otherwise be converted to
residential or industrial use. These lands could instead be used to grow biomass crops that will restore soil
carbon, reduce erosion and chemical runoff, and enhance wildlife habitat.

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http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter10.

288

Chernobyl Accident 1986

The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design that was operated with
inadequately trained personnel.

The resulting steam explosion and fires released at least 5% of the radioactive reactor core into the
atmosphere and downwind

Two Chernobyl plant workers died on the night of the accident, and a further 28 people died within
a few weeks as a result of acute radiation poisoning.

The April 1986 disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine was the product of a flawed Soviet reactor
design coupled with serious mistakes made by the plant operators. It was a direct consequence of Cold War isolation
and the resulting lack of any safety culture.
Immediate impact of the Chernobyl accident
o The accident caused the largest uncontrolled radioactive release into the environment ever recorded for any
civilian operation, and large quantities of radioactive substances were released into the air for about 10 days.
o This caused serious social and economic disruption for large populations in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.
o Two radionuclides, the short-lived iodine-131 and the long-lived caesium-137, were particularly significant for
the radiation dose they delivered to members of the public.

What has been learnt from the Chernobyl disaster?

o The safety of all Soviet-designed reactors has improved vastly. This is due largely to the development of a
culture of safety encouraged by increased collaboration between East and West, and substantial investment in
improving the reactors.
o Automatic shut-down mechanisms now operate faster, and other safety mechanisms have been improved.
o Automated inspection equipment has also been installed.
o A repetition of the 1986 Chernobyl accident is now virtually impossible, according to a German nuclear safety
agency reporthttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safety-and-Security/Safety-of-Plants/Chernobyl-Accident/ References

o Many other international programmes were initiated following Chernobyl.

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safety-and-Security/Safety-of-Plants/Chernobyl-Accident/#.Udum4Dswcv0

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290

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

1) CNG is ordorless, colorless and tasteless and consists mostly of methane (CH4).
2) CNG, although a fossil fuel, is different from gasoline, diesel and coal because it does
not contain the same harmful compounds found in other fossil fuels.
3) CNG has a negligible sulfur dioxide content, does not contain lead, has a low nitrogen
dioxide content, a low particulate content, and a low carbon monoxide content.
4) As well, CNG does not require carcinogenic (cancer-causing) additives to boost octane
levels because natural gas is naturally high in octane.
5) CNG is not toxic or corrosive and will not contaminate ground water.

Is CNG Safe?
CNG is one of the safest transport fuels available.
CNG is actually safer than petroleum. In its natural state, natural gas is odourless. As a safety measure, the gas is
odorised with Mercaptan to provide a ready means of leak detection.
Natural gas has no known toxic or chronic physiological effects (it is not poisonous).
CNG is lighter than air. Unlike other fuels such as diesel, petrol or LPG, which are heavier than air, and pools on
the ground creating a fire hazard and potential pollution to waterways. Should a CNG leak occur, the gas will
disperse rapidly upwards into the atmosphere and dissipate

Benefits from using CNG:

5)
6)
7)
8)

Reduces urban smog reduction, burns cleaner and produces lower levels of harmful pollutants.
Its safe and lighter-than-air, CNG is nontoxic and disperses quickly.
Contains no particulates like diesel fuel and reduces emissions of carbon dioxide - the principal "greenhouse" gas.
The particulate materials that are produced during the combustion cycle cause engine oil to get dirty are not
present in the CNG

CNG What are the Emissions Benefits

Reduction of Benzene
Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides
Reduction of Carbon Dioxide and CO
Reduction of Lead and Sulfur

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Disadvantages-still under research

5) The CNG stations are few and often not accessible to many users
6) Among its disadvantages is the loss of luggage space. CNG cylinders take up a lot of storage space and
generally have to be placed in the boot of the car.
7) It must also be noted that vehicles operating on CNG cost more than vehicles running on gasoline. This is
because natural gas vehicles have to be installed with additional components for the storage of fuel, which
is more costly than gasoline tanks
8) The conversions of gasoline powered vehicles to use CNG are expensive and time consuming.

Fuel Characteristics

CNG
Toxic to skin

No

Toxic to lungs

No

PETROL

Moderate
Moderate

DIESEL
Moderate
Moderate

www.cngstations.com/disadvantages-of-cng/ http://www.cngexperts.in/disadvantages.htm
http://www.altecheco.com/pages/About_CNG.htm

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295

CHAPTER 8
WASTE
Landfills
Solid waste landfills must be designed to protect the environment from contaminants which may be present in the
solid waste stream.
The landfill siting planwhich prevents the siting of landfills in environmentally-sensitive areasas well as on-site
environmental monitoring systemswhich monitor for any sign of groundwater contamination and for landfill gas
provide additional safeguards.
In addition, many new landfills collect potentially harmful landfill gas emissions and convert the gas into energy.
Location restrictionsensure that landfills are built in suitable geological areas

away from faults, wetlands, flood plains, or other restricted areas.

Composite liners requirementsinclude a flexible membrane (geomembrane)
Leachate collection and removal systemsmanaged, the leachate is at risk for

mixing with groundwater near the site, which can have dire effects
Operating practicescontrol odour, litter..etc
Groundwater monitoring requirements

Some materials may be banned from disposal in municipal solid waste landfills including common household items
such as paints, cleaners/chemicals, motor oil, batteries, and pesticides. Leftover portions of these products are called
household hazardous waste. These products, if mishandled, can be dangerous to your health and the environment.
Many municipal landfills have a household hazardous waste drop-off station for these materials.
Landfills can also receive household appliances (also known as white goods) that are no longer needed. Many of
these appliances, such as refrigerators or window air conditioners, rely on ozone-depleting refrigerants and their
substitutes.

296

http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/landfill.htm

Solid waste management

Overview
Collect, treat and dispose of solid wastes generated by all urban population groups in an environmentally
and socially satisfactory manner using the most economical means available.
Concerns
It is common that 30-60 percent of all the urban solid waste in developing countries is uncollected
In most developing countries, open dumping with open burning is the norm
health and environmental impacts of accumulated uncollected waste and clandestine disposal sites
health and environmental impacts of solid waste facilities, including transfer, composting and
landfill facilities
o air emissions from waste collection and transfer vehicles
o special handling and disposal of hazardous wastes, including healthcare and industrial hazardous
waste
o
o
o
o

Prevention of waste is at the top of the list as far as waste management techniques are concerned,
but as this is humanly impossible for us humans with the lifestyles that we are used to, the next best
is the recycling and reuse of materials.

While this may not yet be very prevalent in developed countries, many developing countries
practice this method of Recycling and Reuse because of the economics of recycling and reuse
which gives incomes to the underprivileged strata of people in the business.

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Methods
1)Source Reduction and Reuse
Source reduction, also known as waste prevention, means reducing waste at the source. It can take many
different forms, including reusing or donating items, buying in bulk, reducing packaging, redesigning products,
and reducing toxicity. Source reduction also is important in manufacturing. Lightweighting of packaging, reuse,
and remanufacturing are all becoming more popular business trends.
Source reduction can:

Save natural resources

Conserve energy
Reduce pollution
Reduce the toxicity of our waste
Save money for consumers and businesses alike.

2)Recycling/Composting
Recycling is a series of activities that includes the collection of used, reused, or unused items that would
otherwise be considered waste; sorting and processing the recyclable products into raw materials; and
remanufacturing the recycled raw materials into new products. Consumers provide the last link in recycling by
purchasing products made from recycled content. Recycling also can include composting of food scraps, yard
trimmings, and other organic materials.
Recycling prevents the emission of many greenhouse gases and water pollutants, saves energy, supplies valuable
raw materials to industry, creates jobs, stimulates the development of greener technologies, conserves resources
for our children's future, and reduces the need for new landfills and combustors.
Methane gas, a byproduct of decomposing waste, can be collected and used as fuel to generate electricity

3) Energy Recovery
Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into useable heat, electricity, or
fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolization, anaerobic digestion, and
landfill gas (LFG) recovery. This process is often called waste-to-energy (WTE).

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4) Incineration is a practical method of disposal that saves a lot of money on transport of

waste to landfills and thus also the carbon footprint that such transport leaves behind.
Advantages
o Much less space is required
o Landfills look ugly and also give rise to a lot of pests and insects. An incinerating plant will
look like any other industrial structure.
o Waste to Energy (WTE) incinerating plants have a huge advantage that they can produce
electricity which in the long run can help to reduce costs. Some cold countries also use the
heat from incinerators for heating of offices and houses in locations near the plant.
o The waste that is produced in the incineration is totally free of any environmental risk. In
fact there are efforts to convert even this waste to other materials.

Disadvantages
o The high cost of incineration plant has been a turnoff of for municipal authorities and is only now
being addressed with the introduction of WTE plants. The need for huge waste to incinerate has led
to abandonment of other plans for recycling and reuse of waste.
o Dioxins are produced in the treatment and is a cancer forming chemical. These are produced in the
smoke stack.
o The plants require skilled personnel for operation and continuous maintenance.

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5) Landfills
Solid waste landfills must be designed to protect the environment from contaminants which may be present in the
solid waste stream.
The landfill siting planwhich prevents the siting of landfills in environmentally-sensitive areasas well as on-site
environmental monitoring systemswhich monitor for any sign of groundwater contamination and for landfill gas
provide additional safeguards.
In addition, many new landfills collect potentially harmful landfill gas emissions and convert the gas into energy.
Location restrictionsensure that landfills are built in suitable geological areas

away from faults, wetlands, flood plains, or other restricted areas.

Composite liners requirementsinclude a flexible membrane (geomembrane)
Leachate collection and removal systemsmanaged, the leachate is at risk for

mixing with groundwater near the site, which can have dire effects
Operating practicescontrol odour, litter..etc
Groundwater monitoring requirements

Some materials may be banned from disposal in municipal solid waste landfills including common household items
such as paints, cleaners/chemicals, motor oil, batteries, and pesticides. Leftover portions of these products are called
household hazardous waste. These products, if mishandled, can be dangerous to your health and the environment.
Many municipal landfills have a household hazardous waste drop-off station for these materials.
Landfills can also receive household appliances (also known as white goods) that are no longer needed. Many of
these appliances, such as refrigerators or window air conditioners, rely on ozone-depleting refrigerants and their
substitutes.

http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/landfill.htm
www.brighthubengineering.com

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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT FAQ'S

1. What Is Integrated Solid Waste Management?
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is a comprehensive waste prevention, recycling, composting,
and disposal program. An effective ISWM system considers how to prevent, recycle, and manage solid
waste in ways that most effectively protect human health and the environment. ISWM involves evaluating
local needs and conditions, and then selecting and combining the most appropriate waste management
activities for those conditions.
2. What is recycling?
Recycling is a process that involves collecting, reprocessing, and/or recovering certain waste materials
(e.g., glass, metal, plastics, paper) to make new materials or products. Some recycled organic materials are
rich in nutrients and can be used to improve soils.
3. What is Anaerobic digestion?
It is a controlled process involving microbial decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.
4. What is Aerobic digestion?
It is a process involving microbial decomposition of organic matter in presence of oxygen.
5. What are Biodegradable substances?
The substance that can be degraded by microorganisms.
6. What is composting?
It is a process of converting organic matter to manure by microorganisms.
7. What is vermin composting?
It is a process which involve earthworms for conversion of biodegradable waste into compost.

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E WASTE
What is e-waste?
E-waste is electronic waste - the result of discarded electronic equipment. It includes a broad and
growing range of electronic devices from computers to hand-held cellular phones, stereos, consumer
electronics, and monitors. Unfortunately, electronic waste is among the fastest growing segments of our
nation's waste stream.
Why is e-waste a problem?
As technology rapidly evolves, people are constantly upgrading to new equipment, and retiring their
old equipment. The typical electronic product may contain more than 1,000 different substances, some of
which are potentially hazardous to human and environmental health. If old equipment is not properly
recycled, these substances could seep into air, soil, and water. The characteristics, scale and complexity of
the e-waste situation create a significant challenge.
What hazardous materials are in electronic products?
Electronic components such as printed circuits, Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) and LCD screen assemblies
often contain a variety of heavy metals and other substances known to pose hazards to human and
environmental health when disposed of improperly. Cadmium, lead, mercury, antimony and arsenic are
some of these substances.
How these e-wastes are harmful to our environment?
Electronic components assemblies often contain a variety of heavy metals and other substances like
Cadmium, lead, mercury, antimony, arsenic etc. If these materials are released into earth or water they can
be dangerous to the environment and the living beings around, in a long term.
What recyclable materials are in electronics products?
Consumer electronics contain a variety of recyclable materials like metals, glass, and plastics. All of these
materials can be recaptured and used to create new products, lessening the need to mine the earth for raw
resources.
What electronic equipment is recyclable?
Chances are that most electronic products that still work could find a home elsewhere whether resold or
donated. If the product no longer works, most of its materials can be recovered and recycled

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BIOMEDICAL WASTE
Consists of solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory waste that are potentially infectious or dangerous. It must
be properly managed to protect the general public, specifically healthcare and sanitation workers who are
regularly exposed to biomedical waste as an occupational hazard.
Biomedical waste differs from other types of hazardous waste, such as industrial waste, in that it comes from
biological sources or is used in the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Common producers of
biomedical waste include hospitals, health clinics, nursing homes, medical research laboratories, offices of
physicians, dentists, and veterinarians, home health care, and funeral homes.

RECENT TECHNIQUES IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Some of the recent techniques in waste management include
1.
2.

Collection of methane gas from landfill. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes
and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

3.

Biological processing which include composting and vermi composting.

Waste to energy - The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as
a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel.

SOLID WASTE CONVERSION

Conversion technologies refer to a wide array of state of the art technologies capable of converting
unrecyclable solid waste into useful products, such as green fuels and renewable energy, in an
environmentally beneficial way. Utilizing conversion technologies to recover solid waste from disposal can:

reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other criteria pollutants;

reduce dependence on landfilling and imported fossil fuels;

enhance recycling efforts

303

Vermicomposting
Vermiculture or worm farming is the science of raising and managing worms. This activity is practiced on a
large-scale commercial level as well as in private homes .
Vermicomposting is the process of feeding of earthworms with organic waste and conversion of this waste
material into vermicompost - organic manure by the earthworms. It is the accelerated and controlled
decomposition of organic waste, using composting worms and mesophilic bacteria active in the temperature
range of 20 degC to 45 degC.
What is organic waste or biodegradable waste/wet garbage?
Organic waste or biodegradable waste / wet garbage means waste of plant and animal origin. It includes
kitchen waste including: tea leaves, egg shells, fruit and vegetable peels, cooked food scraps, meat and
bones, garden waste including leaves and grass, carton waste, cardboard waste and paper waste. These types
of wastes are 100% recyclable and comprise around 67% of the solid waste in a residential complex or hotel.
Is vermicomposting an Environmentally sound technology?
It is an Environmentally Sound Technology (EST) according to the criteria defined by the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP). They define an EST as being less polluting, using resources in a sustainable
manner, recycling more of their wastes and products and handling all residual wastes in a more
environmentally acceptable way than the technologies for which they are substitutes.
What are all raw material used for solid waste compost
Organic material like crop residues, green manure, common compost, mushroom compost, animal manure
(cattle, swine, and poultry), municipal refuse, residues after oil extraction, and residues from processing
animal products.
How many days take for vermicomposting
It takes 60-90 days for a vermin compost to harvest.
Nutrient value of vermicompost
Compost provides the basic nutrients of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) as well as dozens
of micro- and macro nutrients that are vital for healthy plants. The nutrient value of compost includes:
Organic matter 9.3%
N 8.3%
P 4.5%
K- 1.0 % (water soluble)
Ca 0.4 %
Mg 0.1 %
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What is the remedy for non degradable waste?

The non-degradable waste like Tin, aluminium, other metal items, plastic bags and glass bottles
can either be recycled or can be reused into different forms.
The disposal of plastics seems to be the major problem all over the world because the carry bags,
cups, bottles, plates etc cannot be recycled if it is less than 20 microns . Many industries produce
environmental friendly products but though they sound so are not really friendly to the environment.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has ranked 47 chemical plants which emit carcinogens in the
environment and in that highest number (35) of plants are plastic producing industries.
The non-biodegradable material plastics can be used to produce fuel and can be used to make bitumen
roads.

ejournal.icrisat.org/agroecosystem/v2i1/v2i1vermi.pdf
waterquality.ifas.ufl.edu/FAQs/FAQs-waste.htm

SUSTAINABLE OPTIONS FOR HANDLING WASTE in the FUTURE

o
o
o
o
o

Reduce, Recycle, Reuse

Practice Integrated Solid Waste Management
Waste conversion
Vermicomposting
Waste to energy

Elaborate each of these points .

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\
Biotechnology- Future solid-waste applications ;
:
detoxification, to selectively remove heavy metal ions, leaving only trace amounts of
pollutants;
digestion of wastes with an organic content;
transformation of waste into biogas

Eco friendly alternatives and also reduce waste

a) Environmentally friendly alternatives to these wood-based materials include
products that use polyurethane resins, which can help reduce or eliminate the formaldehyde that
otherwise would be emitted into the air.-adding to the SICK BUILDING syndrome

b) Unlike plastic, which often is derived from fossil fuels, glass is made from sand. This renewable resource
doesn't contain chemicals that can leach into your food or body. Can be recycled

c) Cloth bags instead of plastic or even paper bags

d) Natural leaf plates or steel or glass plates instead of plastic or thermocol plates

e) Bamboo, hemp, cork, jute

http://shine.yahoo.com/healthy-living/9-eco-friendly-materials-easily-start-using-today-142300496.html

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307

CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
Global Environmental Population

As the population increases, there are rippling effects felt on the environment

o
o
o
o
o

Resources get exhausted

Deforestation due to increasing industrialization and housing needs
Pollution increases
Biodiversity gets destroyed due to human actions
Food security becomes a concern-this may cause BT to be explored as an option-with its possible
environmental consequences

Economic Development and Environmental Degradation

o
o
o
o
o

As a nation prospers, industrialization is often one aspect of this

This adversely affects the environment-deforestation; pollution; over consumption of resources
Often economic needs force developing nations to agree to certain terms which may affect their
environment and their biodiversity.
The entry of MNCs into the agricultural sector-often leads to monocultures and soil degradation
Entry of MNCs also may cause pollution(Coca Cola in Kerala; Bhopal Gas Disaster) or deforestation(illegal
mining in Goa and the Aravalis)

308

TRADE,AID,TRADE PRACTICES AS TOOLS TOWARDS GLOBAL EQUALITY

For Qs relating to
o TRADE AND AID
o TRADE AS A TOOL TO REDUCING GLOBAL UNEQUITY-Misuse of this
o UNFAIR TRADE PRACTICES
Trade is a powerful engine of economic growth; however, it can also fuel massive inequalities.
The World Trade Organization makes the rules that govern international trade, rules that unfait to poor
nations
There are massive benefits for rich countries and multinational companies. Developing countries have
received very little benefits
Global poverty could be radically reduced if poor countries could benefit from existing scientific
knowledge and medicines and fair trade
Foreign debt is crippling these countries. More money is flowing back into the developed countries from
developing countries than what they are receiving in aid.
Borrowing at extremely high interest rates for massive "development" projects (largely determined by the
developed countries-such as Mining Projects, Dam development projects.) has led to the serious debt
situation that is crippling so many of these struggling nations today.
Countries receiving Structural Adjustment Loans (SALs) are forced to concentrate on increasing their
exports so as to increase their income of hard currency, needed for servicing their debts. For the majority
of countries, particularly those on the African continent, this means increasing their production and exports
of cash crops and raw materials for use in developed countries industries. This means that growing food
for the people in poor nations has been sacrificed to pay foreign debts.
Governments of these countries have been forced to cut back and even eliminate funding for social
programs such as basic health and education.
economics.mrwood.com.au/unit2/ecorelations/trade/trade1.asp
www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/a4t_e/aid4trade_e.htm

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ww.odi.org.uk/events/93-trade-aid-partners-rivals-development-policy

Unfair Trade Rules

International trade could be a powerful tool to end poverty; however, in reality, injustices exist in the
international trading system.
The world is a large market in which we all participate, regardless of whether we are producers or
consumers. Due to the effects of globalisation in the 21st century, we are all closely connected through
trade.

Unfair trade seriously affects the livelihood of the worlds 2.5 billion poor farmers. Rich countries
provide their domestic producers huge subsidies. This subsidised produce is then dumped onto poor
countries at prices below production cost, making it impossible for local smallholder farmers to compete.
Over the past few years the prices of produce have declined, giving smallholder farmers even fewer
bargaining tools and leaving them unable to cover production costs. For instance, the price of coffee beans
in the international market has at times tumbled by over 50 per cent.
Tens of thousands of workers in developing countries work overtime nearly every day, and still,
they cannot afford even daily necessities, much less medical care and education for their families.
Unfair Trade Practices Include:
Restricted market access
Forcible opening of markets
Patent rights

Dumping

Dumping is an unfair trade practice whereby products are exported at prices below their production
costs. The World Trade Organization (WTO) has an Anti-Dumping Agreement, which allows its
members to protect their domestic products against unfair competition from products produced in
other countries. Nevertheless, there are criticisms that the contents of the agreement are too general,
and that economically powerful countries, such as the European Union (EU) and the United States
can exploit loopholes to accuse other countries of dumping practises usually targeting developing
countries.

The EU and the US dump their produce and goods with large subsidies on developing countries
while concurrently keeping international prices at low levels, which seriously affect the livelihoods
of smallholder farmers. Still the WTO has failed to put a stop to such unfair tactics. Making or
defending against allegations of dumping requires substantial input of human and financial
resources, and this is often beyond the means of the developing countries.
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What is Fair Trade

Fair Trade ensures a fair return for small producers labour. It enables a respectable livelihood, creates a
balaned relationship between producers and businesses, reduces environmental degradation, provides safe
workplaces and ultimately enables a sustainable, just society.
Background
Trade is supposed to be a strong tool to help people in developing nations fight poverty. However, under
unfair international trade rules, the returns of farmers are lowered to such a level that they can neither
support their daily needs nor cover production costs. This type of trade does not benefit them, but makes
them even poorer.
Trade is a model of trading that allows producers (especially those from poor countries) who are
disadvantaged by the mainstream economy to have opportunities for sustainable development.
Fair Trade ensures that farmers and producers are able to earn decent incomes, ensuring their ability to
support themselves and their families, and to sustain production. It aims to provide higher wages than
typically paid to producers as well as helping producers develop knowledge, skills and resources to
improve their lives.
FairTrade is one of the ways for farmers in developing countries to fight poverty.
Fair trade certified commodities must adhere to sustainable agro-ecological practices, including
reduction of chemical fertilizer use, prevention of erosion, and protection of forests. ( Eg-Coffee
plantations are more likely to be fair trade certified if they use traditional farming practices with shading
and without chemicals.) This protects the biodiversity of the ecosystem and ensures that the land will
be usable for farming in the future and not just for short-term planting.

Sustainability
Smallholding farmers not only frequently lack access to markets, they lack access to resources that lead to
sustainable farming practices. Lack of sustainability can be due to pests, diseases that attack crops, lack of
farming supplies, and lack of knowledge about modern farming techniques

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_trade
www.oxfam.org.hk

311

Trade , Aid and Debt, Debt Traps

o Unjust and unpayable debt is an ongoing problem in many low- and middle-income countries
where it often diverts huge sums of public money away from government spending on vital welfare
and social services.
o These debt repayments not only hamper economic development but also facilitate a significant
transfer of financial resources from poor countries to wealthy creditors in the developed nations
Solutions

The unconditional cancellation of all unjust and unpayable developing country debts is essential to

achieve a more equitable distribution of the worlds financial resources.

On average, developing countries are returning over 400% more in debt service repayments than

they receive in aid.

Current progress on debt cancellation remains dangerously slow.

There is also an urgent need for stronger rules that will ensure more responsible lending and
borrowing in the future, in order to prevent the accumulation of further unsustainable and illegitimate
debts.

Farmers in India caught in DEBT TRAP

o Farmers esp in Vidarbha Maharshtra and in Andhra Pradesh are caught in a debt trap
They take loans for farming

o Because of climate concerns or soil infertility-they are unable to make profits-and hence unable; to
pay back the loan
o Large scale farmer suicides

312

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident in India, considered the
world's worst industrial disaster.
It occurred on the night of 23 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal,
Madhya Pradesh.
Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals.
The toxic substance made its way in and around the slums and neighbourhoods located near the plant.
Estimates vary on the death toll. The official immediate death toll was 2,259. The government of Madhya Pradesh
confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release. Others estimate 8,000 died within two weeks and
another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related diseases

Contributing factors
1)
2)
3)
4)

storing MIC in large tanks and filling beyond recommended levels,

poor maintenance
failure of several safety systems due to poor maintenance,
and safety systems being switched off to save money including the MIC tank refrigeration system
which could have mitigated the disaster severity.
5) The situation was worsened by the mushrooming of slums in the vicinity of the plant, non-existent
disaster management plans, and shortcomings in health care and socio-economic rehabilitation.
Other factors identified by the inquiry included:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

use of a more dangerous pesticide manufacturing method

large-scale MIC storage,
plant location close to a densely populated area,
undersized safety devices,
and the dependence on manual operations.

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Immediate aftermath

1) The initial effects of exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation and a feeling of
suffocation.
2) The acute symptoms were burning in the respiratory tract and eyes,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blepharospasm, breathlessness, stomach pains and vomiting.

3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

People awakened by these symptoms fled away from the plant.

Those who ran inhaled more than those who had a vehicle to ride.
Owing to their height, children and other people of shorter stature inhaled higher concentrations.
Many people were trampled trying to escape.
Thousands of people had succumbed by the morning hours.
There were mass funerals and mass cremations. Bodies were dumped into the Narmada River, less
than 100 km from Bhopal.
9) 170,000 people were treated at hospitals and temporary dispensaries.
10) 2,000 buffalo, goats, and other animals were collected and buried.
11) Within a few days, leaves on trees yellowed and fell off.
12) Supplies, including food, became scarce owing to suppliers' safety fears.
13) Fishing was prohibited causing further supply shortages.
14) Within a few days, trees in the vicinity became barren, and 2,000 bloated animal carcasses had to be
disposed of

The causes of deaths

1) choking,
2) circulatory collapse
3) pulmonary oedema.
The stillbirth rate increased by up to 300% and neonatal mortality rate by around 200%

29 years later
1) Rehabilitation and releif has been not effective enough
2) The poor still continue to suffer
3) There are documented stories of inefficient government services and how the BHOPAL MEMORIAL
HOPSITAL sand other hospitals set up has not been able to provide adequate help and relief
4) Television coverage showed how litigation continues over who is responsible for cleaning up the toxic area
around the plant
5) The legal case and proceedings against UCL and DOW Chemicals continue
This tragedy also brings the focus on a larger debate-the responsibility of MNCs towards the environment
o
o
o

Did UIC observe all the precautions while setting up and running the plant
After the accident-did they accept responsibility
Has the Indian Govt been able to bring the company to book(hold them accountable)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster
http://www.bmhrc.org/Bhopal%20Gas%20Tragedy.htm
http://www.bmhrc.org/Bhopal%20Gas%20Tragedy.htm

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MEASURES TO REGULATE ACTIVITIES OF MNCs IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES
A multinational corporation (MNC) or multinational enterprise (MNE) is a corporation that is registered in more
than one country or that has operations in more than one country

The move to more competitive nations often means moving to states who have reduced regulation or
lower tax incentives in order to attract the fickle eye of multinational corporations. This in turn means
other countries must regulate less in order to attract investment and employment.
It has become impossible for nations, even if they are willing, to impose any obligations upon MNCs to
contribute to the communities from which they are extracting resources and making vast profits. Any
attempt to do so would reduce that nations competitiveness.
The nation has been weakened in terms of managing human rights obligations and the first to be abandoned
are social, economic and cultural rights, .
MNCs have massive budgets, are driven essentially by profit, use the smallest number of workers possible,
move from jurisdiction to jurisdiction with relative ease, import labour to the detriment of local labour, and
they do not always take into account the social needs of the country in which they are operating.
The regime of nation states is built on the principle that the people in any national jurisdiction have a right
to maximize their well-being, as they define it, within that jurisdiction.
The MNC, on the other hand, is bent on maximizing the well-being of its stakeholders from global
operations, without accepting any responsibility for the consequences of its actions in individual national
jurisdictions.
Most governments have been unwilling to forgo the potential benefits of foreign investment, yet few have
been willing to allow foreign firms to operate without restriction.
Most governments have used national regulations and have bargained with individual MNCs to ensure that
the operations of foreign firms are consistent with national objectives
In India, the government prohibits foreign firms from engaging in certain activities, and allows them to
engage in others. All of these regulations have been oriented towards the same goal: extracting as many of
the benefits from the FDI as possible. Governments did block foreign investment in some sectors of the
economy. For example, MNCs were excluded from ownership of public utilities, iron and steel, retailing,
insurance and banking and extractive industries. When foreign firms already owned enterprises in these
sectors, governments nationalized the industries. Through nationalization, the host-country government
took control of an affiliate created by an MNC.
bemoodle.emu.edu.tr/mod/resource/view.php?id 8850
www.nuigalway.ie/sites/eu-china.../ds0406c/daniel%20aguirre-eng.doc

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FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT

cross border investment made by a resident in one economy in an enterprise in another economy, with
the objective of establishing a lasting interest in the investee economy.
FDI is also described as investment into the business of a country by a company in another country.

Why Countries Seek FDI

(a) Domestic capital is inadequate for purpose of economic growth;
(b) Foreign capital usually brings it with other scarce productive factors like technical know how, business
expertise and knowledge

What are the major benefits of FDI :

(a) Improves forex position of the country;
(b) Employment generation and increase in production ;
(c) Helps in transfer of new technologies, management skills, intellectual property
(d) Increases competition within the local market and this brings higher efficiencies
(e) Helps in increasing exports;
(f) Increases tax revenues

Why FDI is Opposed by Local People or Disadvantages of FDI :

(a) Domestic companies fear that they may lose their ownership to overseas company
(b) Small enterprises fear that they may not be able to compete with world class large companies and may
ultimately be edged out of business;
(c) Large giants of the world try to monopolise and take over the highly profitable sectors;
(d) Such foreign companies invest more in machinery and intellectual property than in wages of the local
people;
(e) Government has less control over the functioning of such companies as they usually work as wholly owned
subsidiary of an overseas company;

http://www.allbankingsolutions.com/Banking-Tutor/FDI-in-India.htm

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CHAPTER 10
TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Global Interdependence
Globalization is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and
other aspects of culture.
Globalization refers to processes that increase world-wide exchanges of national and cultural resources.
Advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise of the telegraph and its posterity
the Internet, are major factors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities

Global Village
The world has been contracted into a village by electric technology and the instantaneous movement of information. It refers to
the bringing all social and political functions together . Every one of us and every nation is affected by events all over the world.

Economic globalization
The increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in crossborder movement of goods, service, technology and capita
o
o

The fiscal crisis in the US affects the whole world

The fall of the Indian Rupee has global implications in trade

Environmental Globalization and Interdependence

Global climate and biodiversity are affected by the actions of every nation

Earlier, the effect was more localised

One city was affected by a lake getting polluted
Now-there are rippling effects across the world
If the fish from that lake is exported , then other r countries are affected

Nowa)
b)
c)
d)

Arctic regions are a sink for polutants from industrialised nations

The whole world is affected by the Ozone depletion casued by the developing nations
Singapore was affected by the forest fires in Indonesia-and this affectes the economy all over the world.
People travel and there is a lot of transfer of disease and virus across borders Eg-Avian fluetc
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http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C13/E1-45-03-16.pdf

Advantages of Globalisation
o
o
o
o

Better communication and sharing of information and knowledge

Exchange of Technical know how
Better standard of living
Cultural exchanges

Disadvantages of Globalization
o Unfair international trade
o Virus spreads- eg: Bird flu
o Inequality is often heightened in developing nations-The rich can afford all the goods and services
available while the poor cannot
o International MNCs often exploit the developing nations

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SHARED RESPONSIBILITY OF NATIONS

A sustainable global economy in the 21st Century must reflect and support humanitys interdependence.
The process of economic sharing can ensure that the worlds essential resources, goods and services are
made accessible to all
International aid has proven largely ineffective, inadequate, and incapable of enabling governments to
secure the basic needs of all citizens.
Governments must implement an international program of emergency assistance to eliminate hunger and
unnecessary deprivation, followed by a longer-term transformation of the global economy in order to
secure an adequate standard of living for all within ecological limits.
Vast discrepancies in living standards between the Global North and South, which provides no basis for a
stable and secure future, -there has to be a more equitable distribution of resources at the international level.
Nations must cooperate more effectively, share their natural and economic resources, and ensure that global
governance mechanisms help the whole world..
At present, the main institutions that govern the global economy are failing to work on behalf of humanity
as a whole. In particular, the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and World Trade Organisation are
all widely criticised for being undemocratic and furthering the interests of large corporations and rich
countries.
A more inclusive international framework urgently needs to be established through the United Nations
(UN) and its agencies.
Emergency redistribution
Responsibility for mobilising the needed resources rests with the governments of more affluent countries.
Any resources donated must be free of all conditions that favour the donor countries.
Where possible they should be provided directly to communities and utilised in a way that respects and
empowers local people, local economies and traditional cultures.
This would lessen the possibility of corruption by political, economic or commercial interests, as is often
the case with the current system of overseas aid.

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RESOURCES
Water, seeds, oil, gas, forests, minerals and even the atmosphere are all forms of global commons that can
be shared more equitably and sustainably.
One option is to ensure that such resources are recognised as a shared commons and protected through a
trust or similar international mechanism.
If such an agreement is negotiated between nations or through a global body (such as the United Nations), a
shared resource could be managed in the interests of all citizens, protected from exploitation by the private
sector, and managed in an environmentally sustainable manner that preserves it for future generations.
Other basic goods and services that are essential for life and health should also be made accessible to all
Where required, governments can be offered assistance from UN bodies to provide welfare services to their
citizens, and this could gradually replace private sector alternatives that the poor often cannot afford.
Specialist agencies such as the World Health Organisation and UNESCO could facilitate universal access
to primary healthcare and education.

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.stwr.org/economic-sharing-alternatives/sharing-theworlds-resources-an-introduction.html&safe=active

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The Global Environment Facility

The GEF unites 182 countries in partnership with international institutions, civil society
organizations and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting
national sustainable development initiatives.
Today the GEF is the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment.
An independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides grants for projects related to
biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and
persistent organic pollutants.
The GEF work focuses on the following main areas:

Biodiversity
Climate Change (Mitigation and Adaptation)
Chemicals
International Waters
Land Degradation
Sustainable Forest Management
Ozone Layer Depletion

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Rio Summit, Rio Conference, Earth Summit

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio
Summit, Rio Conference, Earth Summit was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro
from 3 June to 14 June 1992.

Overview
172 governments participated
The issues addressed included:

systematic scrutiny of patterns of production particularly the production of toxic components, such as
lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals
alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which are linked to global climate change
new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and
the health problems caused by polluted air and smog
the growing scarcity of water

An important achievement was an agreement on the Climate Change Convention which in turn led to the
Kyoto Protocol. Another agreement was to "not carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous peoples
that would cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate".
The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

Agenda 21
Convention on Biological Diversity
Forest Principles
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Critics, however, point out that many of the agreements made in Rio have not been realized regarding such
fundamental issues as fighting poverty and cleaning up the environment.
The Green Cross International was founded to build upon the work of the summit

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The Rio+20 or the Earth Summit 2012

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 20th - 22nd June 2012

The objectives of the Summit:

to secure renewed political commitment to sustainable development; to assess progress towards internationally
agreed goals on sustainable development and to address new and emerging challenges.
The Summit will also focus on two specific themes:
o
o

a green economy in the context of poverty eradication and sustainable development,

an institutional framework for sustainable development.

What does 'Rio+20' refer to?

The UN Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 was also referred to as 'Rio+20' because it took
take place in 2012, twenty years on from the original 'Earth Summit', the Rio Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) that took place in Rio in 1992.
What did the Summit aim to achieve?
A sustainable development pathway that leads to a future in which the whole global population can enjoy a decent
standard of living whilst preserving our ecosystems and natural resources

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The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for
the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the
production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.
The treaty was opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989, followed by
a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989.
Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993
(Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing).
It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by
2050.
Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international cooperation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date
has been the Montreal Protocol".

Effect
Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important
chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.
While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from
undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high.
In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental
agreement to date.
The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is
working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some
early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery.

Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts. Policy
decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other

ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/montreal_protocol.ph
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Protocol

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The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an
international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases.
The UNFCCC is an environmental treaty with the goal of preventing "dangerous" anthropogenic (i.e., humaninduced) interference of the climate system.

As part of the Kyoto Protocol,

a) Many developed countries have agreed to legally binding limitations/reductions in their emissions of
greenhouse gases in two commitments periods. The first commitment period applies to emissions between
2008-2012, and the second commitment period applies to emissions between 2013-2020. The protocol was
amended in 2012 to accommodate the second commitment period,
b)
Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed under the
treaty to reduce their emissions.
c)
Actions taken by developed and developing countries to reduce emissions include support for renewable
energy, improving energy efficiency, and
reducing deforestation.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol - cite_note-19
d) Under the Protocol, emissions of developing countries are allowed to grow in accordance with their
development needs
e) The treaty recognizes that developed countries have contributed the most to the anthropogenic build-up
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and that carbon dioxide emissions per person in developing countries
are, on average, lower than emissions per person in developed countries

unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.ph
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol

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CAIRO-UN CONFERENCE ON POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT

513 September 1994

To consider the broad issues of and interrelationships between population, sustained economic growth and
sustainable development, and advances in the education, economic status and empowerment of women.
1. Universal education: Universal primary education in all countries by 2015. Urge countries to provide wider
access to women for secondary and higher level education as well as vocational and technical training.
2. Reduction of infant and child mortality:
3. Reduction of maternal mortality:
4. Access to reproductive and sexual health services including family planning

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Sustainable development
The most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It also includes sustainable agriculture, agroforestyr,
urban forestry, ..etc
Why Sustainable Development
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Resources are limited

The environment and the biodiversity is getting destroyed
Ecosystems are getting damaged
Global warming and Climate change
The Ethical argument

Features
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Survival of humans and all life forms

Satisfy basic human needs
Economic growth
Conserve biodiversity
Inter and intra generational equity
Social justice and democracy
Stabilisation of the human population

Examples of development that is NOT SUSTAINABLE

o
o
o

Illegal mining in Goa and Aravlais

Tourism in Simla and Kodaikanal that has exhausted the resources and spoilt the natural biodiversity
Construction projects in industrial areas in the NCR without green belts

Examples of development that is SUSTAINABLE

o
o
o
o

Eco friendly tourism which also gives importance to the local culture and improves the economic
sustainability of the locals: eg-many homestays in OOty, HPetc
Auroville township near Pondicherry-which uses alternate energy
Construction projects and development projects that maintain green belts-TISCO in Jamsehdpur
Navdanya, Ralegan Siddhi, BBA..etc

How to ensure Sustainable Development

a) Involve local community
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b) Use alternate energy

c) Integrated Rural Development Programmes
d) Strict implementation of all laws related to envt-such as Air Act

http://www.iisd.org/sd/

Green building and Alternatives to Timber

Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to a
structure and using process that is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a
building's life-cycle: from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and
demolition. This requires close cooperation of the design team, the architects, the engineers, and the client
at all project stages. It keeps in mind-economy, utility, durability, and comfort.
Common objective is that green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built
environment on human health and the natural environment by:

Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources

Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to focus on the use of
natural materials that are available locally.

Building materials typically considered to be 'green' include lumber from forests that have
been certified, rapidly renewable plant materials like bamboo and straw, coconut, wood fibre plates
The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal
combustion products, foundry sand, and demolition debris in construction projects
Building materials should be extracted and manufactured locally to the building site to minimize the
energy embedded in their transportation.
Green buildings incorporate- Waste reduction (composting, bio toilets..), energy efficiency(solar panels..),
water efficiency(rainwater harvesting; use of grey water for on site irrigationetc)

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_architecture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building

Remote Sensing Satellite

The satellite which carry the sensors that help to acquire information about an object without physically
coming in contact with the object is called remote sensing satellite . The remote sensing satellite
monitors the different aspects of a country and helps the government to carry out development projects. It
also forecasts the threats to the country and is important base for telecommunication system.

Characteristics of a remote sensing satellite:

Altitude: Altitude is the height of operation of a remote sensing satellite . The nature of an imagery
captured by a remote sensing satellite varies depending on the altitude.
Orbit: Orbit is the elliptical path followed by a remote sensing satellite around the earth
Sensors: Sensors are of two kinds-passive and active. Passive sensors are those which accept reflectance
from natural object whereas active sensors accept reflectance from man-made objects

Function of a remote sensing satellite systems :

Tracking and control system: Determining the orbit along with controlling it.
Operation control system: Planning of the main goal, data evaluation etc.
Data acquisition system: Acquisition of data and processing the data

Geostationary remote sensing satellite

When the remote sensing satellite follows the earth orbit parallel to the equator and takes the time of 24 hrs,
then the orbit of the remote sensing satellite is called geostationary. Some of them are:
GMS : These are meteorological satellites launched on 17 th March of 1995.
FY-2: Launched on 10June, 1997, this remote sensing satellite contains visible and infrared scan
radiometer.
INSAT: These are Indian sattelites launched for meteorological observations.

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 GOES: These are launched over America.

METEOSAT: European remote sensing satellite launched over Europe and Africa

HOW REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES WORK

REMOTE sensing is the science of studying an area or object without actually coming into contact with it.
All objects on the earth emit electromagnetic energy.
Scientists have developed sensors and cameras which can detect and record this energy transmitted from
the surface of the earth. These cameras and sensors are placed aboard earth-orbiting satellites that record
and transmit the data to receiving stations on the earth in digital form. Technologists use computers and
other devices to produce images that can be analysed and interpreted to obtain meaningful information on
conditions on the earth.
For instance, water bodies turn up as dark blue or black in satellite imagery because of the low level of
energy that they emit. Shallow water bodies are usually found in different shades of blue depending on the
turbidity. Green vegetation shows up as red or deep purple because of the photosynthetic activities of
plants.

Remotely sensed images can be used in many applications, for example:

mineral exploration
monitoring ocean currents
land use planning
monitoring the condition of forest and agricultural areas.

The uniqueness of satellite remote sensing lies in its ability to show large land areas and to detect
features at electromagnetic wavelengths which are not visible to the human eye.
Data from satellite images can show larger areas than aerial survey data and, as a satellite regularly passes
over the same plot of land capturing new data each time, changes in the land use and condition can be
routinely monitored.
How remotely sensed data are used

monitoring wind erosion, waterlogging and the condition of remnant vegetation

Droughts, weather changes
Emergency relief measures
Predictionand prevention

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Advantages of Satellite remote sensing

It can significantly enhance the information available from traditional data sources because it can provide
synoptic views of large portions of Earth.
Some satellite sensors cover areas that may be physically or politically inaccessible or that are too vast to
survey with traditional methods.
Remote sensing can also provide consistent repeat coverage at relatively frequent intervals, making
detection and monitoring of change feasible.
Data is digital

The disadvantages of satellite remote sensing

o The inability of many sensors to obtain data and information through cloud cover(although
microwave sensors can image Earth through clouds)
o The relatively low spatial resolution
o Satellite remote sensing creates large quantities of data that typically require extensive processing as
well as storage and analysis.
o Finally, data from satellite remote sensing are often costly if purchased from private vendors

Combining satellite imagery with aerial photography and other information works well

http://www.csiro.au/en/Organisation-Structure/Divisions/Mathematics-Informatics-and-Statistics/EMMRemoteSensing.aspx
http://www. http://www.downtoearth.org.in/node/30386
http://gis.mapsofworld.com/remote-sensing/remote-sensing-satellite.html
nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10257&page=24

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ALTERNATE TECHNOLOGY

Alternative technology is a term used to refer to technologies that are more environmentally friendly than
the functionally equivalent technologies dominant in current practice.
It is technology that, as an alternative to resource-intensive and wasteful industry, aims to utilize resources
sparingly, with minimum damage to the environment, at affordable cost and with a possible degree of
control over the processes.
Alternative technologies themselves are part of environmentalist politics. Common political issues related
to alternative technologies include whether they are practical for widespread use; whether they are costeffective; how to encourage rapid adoption;
o which technologies government regulations should favor
o what technological research should be done and how it should be funded;
o and which of a field of competing alternative technologies should be pursued.
Some "alternative technologies" have in the past or may in the future become widely adopted, after which
they might no longer be considered "alternative." For example the use of wind turbines to produce
electricity.
Alternative technologies include the following:

Anaerobic digestion
Composting
Fuel cells
Fuels for automobiles (besides gasoline and diesel)
o
o
o

Alcohol (either ethanol or methanol)

Biodiesel
Vegetable oil

Solar panels

Landfill gas extraction from landfills

Mechanical biological treatment
Recycling
Wind generators

Important Areas of Discussion

337

1)
2)
3)
4)

What is AT
Why we need AT
Any four examples of AT
Problems in using AT-economics, efficiency, availability, installation difficulties
Eg-Problems with Reva car- can only go for about 100 km before it needs a recharge.
Recharge pods are not available everywhere
Hybrid Cars-very expensive

Self sustaining society

Examples
Auroville near Pondicherry

Self sustaining society is a society that is less dependent on outside help and resources for its needs and
development

Adopting Alternate technology to help to create self sustaining societies

1) Societies using Biomass plants
The waste can be used
The biomass plant will provide all the energy needs
The villagers can be employed in the various processes
Tourism to view this village can generate funds
2) Societies using Tidal energy
Coastal areas-so costs of energy generation are reduced
Gegenerates employment
Non polluting source of energy
3) Societies which recycle
Give examples to show that such societies have
o

Almost zero waste

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o
o
o
o

Use of resources is wise

No garbage-so no pollution
Can employ people in making crafts from recycled waste
Can export their goods
Can attract tourists and hence earn well

Using Alternative Technology To Create Self Sustaining Societies

The required alternative society must involve far lower rates of resource consumption and environmental
damage
PRINCIPLES
-- Material living standards must be much less affluent. In a sustainable society per capita rates of
use of resources must be a small fraction of those in rich countries today.
-- A very different economic system must be developed, one not driven by market forces or the
profit motive, and in which there is no growth. It must be geared to meeting needs and maintaining
the welfare of all.
-- There must be mostly small scale highly self-sufficient local economies, whereby local resources
are devoted to meeting local needs.
--There must be mostly cooperative and participatory local systems whereby small communities
control their own affairs. (This does not mean there can be no private firms or property.)
-- There must be much use of alternative technologies, which minimise the use of resources, such as
organic gardening and building with earth.
We could all live well with a far smaller amount of production, consumption, work, resource use, trade,
investment. Because most of our food, energy, materials, leisure activity, artistic experience and
community will come from the soils, forests, people, ecosystems and social systems close around us we
will all recognise the extreme importance of keeping these in good shape.

Follow principles of
o Eco friendly housing suing local material and local labour
o 3 Rs
o Local agriculture, grocers, bakersetc-buy local
o Community gardens and markets
o Local art and craft
Example
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Food production would involve little or no fuel use, packaging, storage, refrigeration, pesticides, marketing
or transport.
Having food produced close to where people live would enable nutrients to be recycled back to the soil
through compost heaps, composting toilets and garbage gas units.
Therefore there would be no need for sewers, pumping stations or treatment works.
This is crucial -- a sustainable society must have complete nutrient recycling, and therefore it must have a
local agriculture.

ENERGY
o We will dramatically cut the demand for energy and materials. Energy demands will be met by eco
friendly methods-such as biogas plants, solar energy, windmillsetc. These projects will also
generate employment.
o Industrial production will be greatly reduced, and most of it will take place in small local enterprises
operating in labour-intensive ways.

o Most cooking would be by wood, or gas produced from biomass wastes.

TECHNOLOGY
o Hand tools can produce excellent food, clothes, furniture, houses, etc., and craft production is in
general the most satisfying way to produce.
o There would be intensive research all the time into improving crops and techniques, especially for
deriving chemicals, drugs and materials from local plant sources, and developing the best plant
species for our area.
This system enables even the poorest countries to work miracles with very little capital, using mostly local
land, labour and traditional technologies, preserving traditions and ecosystems, and avoiding dependence
on foreign investors, loans, trade or the predatory global market.
https://socialsciences.arts.unsw.edu.au/tsw/TheAltSoc.lng.html

Example
1) Ooty-Tourist attraction
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Practice eco friendly tourism-employ locals in the tourism industry

Eco friendly construction using local material and local labour
Eco friendly vehicle like toy trains
Local arts and crafts
Alternate energy to meet the energy needs
Biogas plants to handle the waste generated-this will help to meet the energy needs
Organic farming
Community markets
All these generate employment also
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2) Auroville Township
Sustainable development
Follows eco friendly construction, community markets, community farming, community oriented
education practices, alternate energy mechanisms

Role OF NGOs in Working Towards A Sustainable Future

Very important-they are often trusted by the locals
Able to implement at the grassroots
A bridge between the communities and the Government
Eg
o
o
o
o

Greenpeace
WWF
Navdanya
Dastkaar

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)

The term intergovernmental organization (IGO) refers to an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good
faith, on issues of common interest.
The main purposes of IGOs were to create a mechanism for the world's inhabitants to work more successfully together in the
areas of peace and security, and also to deal with economic and social questions
IGOs cover multiple issues and involve governments from every region of the world
. Among the oldest IGOs are the United Nations, , and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

UNEP-United Nations Environment Programme

FAO-Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN
GEF
World Bank

IGOs
o
o
o

Can help to implement policies across countries

Can formulate legally binding agreements
Can bring funding and know how to developing nations

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BIOTECHNOLOGY AND FOOD SECURITY IN INDIAQUICK OVERVIEW-Notes from a workshop in India in 2011
New safeguards proposed for GM crops. - screening and evaluation
. Bt Brinjal has been adequately tested and found to be functional and safe. Enhanced public awareness on
this body of positive evidence will promote informed decisions and wider acceptance of this technology.
BT can help in food security
This area of biotechnology could become an area of promise which can lead to a second Green Revolution.
With Indias population estimated to reach 1.3 billion by 2017, the Government of India estimates that the
country may fall short of 14 million metric tons of food grains.
Various Indian public and private sector institutions are conducting extensive agriculture and plant research
to increase food security and provide nutritionally-enhanced food to meet the nations growing food and
nutrition.
The workshop found that plant biotechnology offers significant and tangible benefits to farmers,
consumers and the environment, from increased agricultural productivity, to improved food quality,
increased farmer incomes, and reduction in the environmental impacts of agriculture.

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What Are Seed Gene Banks and How Do They Work?

Gene banks help preserve genetic material, be it plant or animal. In plants, this could be by freezing cuts
from the plant, or stocking the seeds. In animals, this is the freezing of sperm and eggs in zoological
freezers until further need
In an effort to conserve agricultural biodiversity, gene banks are used to store and conserve the plant
genetic resources of major crop plants
There are many gene banks all over the world, with the Svalbard Global Seed Vault being probably
the most famous
Community gene banks in Andhra Pradesh
o The primary purpose of establishing a gene bank is to preserve examples of threatened or
endangered species. Each year, untold numbers of plant and animal species become extinct because
of natural processes and more commonly, as the result of human activities. Once those species
become extinct, their gene pools are lost forever.
o Their purpose is to catalog, store, and protect as many varieties of plants as possible.
o These banks are useful to plant breeders trying to find crop species that are more drought or disease
resistant, for example.
o They also provide a resource for countries in recovery after natural or man-made catastrophes.
For example, after the tsunami in Malaysia in 2004, rice growers were able to obtain salt-tolerant varieties
of rice not normally gown in that area.

seedmagazine.com/content/article/in_seeds_we_trust/
www.bgci.org Journal Archives BGCNews
ww.bbsrc.ac.uk/...biotechnology/111115-pr-uk-india-collaboration.asp...

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