Technical Atricle

Engineering article useful for electrical and mechanical engineers prepared on the basis of practical experience in the
different industries.
Tuesday, 6 December 2011

Calculation of Electrical Maximum Demand

Abstract:
The Electricity provider does charge the fixed charges on the basis of consumers maximum
Electrical Demand. Consumer shall restrict the power consumption under the contracted maximum
demand. This article furnishes calculation for Maximum Contract Demand.
1. Introduction:
The Electricity provider does record maximum demand in pre-defined interval (e.g. 30 minutes or 15
minutes) through duly sealed and calibrated energy meter. Generally Maximum Demand denotes in
kVA for billing purpose.
Consumer need to sanction Maximum demand from Electricity Provider considering type of industry
and operation pattern of the equipments. Consumer shall pay fixed charges on the basis of
Maximum Demand obtained from the provider i.e. the maximum rate at which an electrical power
has been consumed during any period of defined consecutive minutes in the billing month.
2. Analysis:
General Formula to calculate the Maximum Demand is described below:
Maximum Demand= Connected Load * Load Factor / Power Factor.
Where,
Connected Load = Total Connected load in the facility in kW.
Load Factor = Utility Factor * Diversity Factor.
Power Factor = System average Power Factor.
Example:
Total connected load of facility: 6500 kW
Load Factor: 0.4 (Considering steel plant type)
Power Factor: 0.95
Maximum Demand= 6500 * 0.4 / 0.95
= 2737 kVA
Utility Factor and Diversity Factor can be finding out by the Time Profile of load and usage of the
equipment. All equipments of facility may not operate at similar time and also may not run with
full load.
Hence, Diversity Factor in percentage = Installed load / running load.

3. Conclusion:
Consumer should sanction Maximum Demand after studying the load pattern of the electrical
installation. Obtaining higher Maximum Demand shall result higher minimum fixed charges plus
higher deposit, and if sanctioned Maximum Demand exceed than consumer shall confront penalty.
Posted by Krishnasinh K. Jadeja at 03:46
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1 comment:
1.

Gopal30 June 2014 02:38

Very useful sir....
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demand
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Contents

[hide]

1- Factor of maximum utilization (ku)

2- Diversity factor - Coincidence factor (ks)

3- Diversity factor for an apartment block
4- Rated Diversity Factor for distribution switchboards
5- Diversity factor according to circuit function

All individual loads are not necessarily operating at full rated nominal power
nor necessarily at the same time. Factors ku and ks allow the determination of
the maximum power and apparent-power demands actually required to
dimension the installation.

Factor of maximum utilization (ku)

In normal operating conditions the power consumption of a load is sometimes

less than that indicated as its nominal power rating, a fairly common occurrence
that justifies the application of an utilization factor (ku) in the estimation of
realistic values.
This factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular attention to
electric motors, which are very rarely operated at full load.
In an industrial installation this factor may be estimated on an average at 0.75
for motors.
For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor always equals 1.
For socket-outlet circuits, the factors depend entirely on the type of appliances
being supplied from the sockets concerned.
For Electric Vehicle the utilization factor will be systematically estimated to 1,
as it takes a long time to load completely the batteries (several hours) and a
dedicated circuit feeding the charging station or wall box will be required by
standards.

Diversity factor - Coincidence factor (ks)

The determination of ks factors is the

responsibility of the designer, since it requires a
detailed knowledge of the installation and the
conditions in which the individual circuits are to
be exploited.

For this reason, it is not possible to give precise

values for general application.
It is a matter of common experience that the simultaneous operation of all
installed loads of a given installation never occurs in practice, i.e. there is
always some degree of diversity and this fact is taken into account for
estimating purposes by the use of a factor (ks).
This factor is defined in IEC60050 - International Electrotechnical
Vocabulary,as follows:

Coincidence factor: the ratio, expressed as a numerical value or as a

percentage, of the simultaneous maximum demand of a group of electrical
appliances or consumers within a specified period, to the sum of their
individual maximum demands within the same period. As per this definition,
the value is always 1 and can be expressed as a percentage

Diversity factor: the reciprocal of the coincidence factor. It means it will

always be 1.

Note: In practice, the most commonly used term is the diversity factor, but it is
used in replacement of the coincidence factor, thus will be always <= 1. The
term "simultaneity factor" is another alternative that is sometimes used.
The factor ks is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a
distribution or sub-distribution board).
The following tables are coming from local standards or guides, not from
international standards. They should only be used as examples of determination
of such factors.
Diversity factor for an apartment block

Some typical values for this case are given in Figure A10, and are applicable to
domestic consumers without electrical heating, and supplied at 230/400 V (3phase 4-wires). In the case of consumers using electrical heat-storage units for
space heating, a factor of 0.8 is recommended, regardless of the number of
consumers.
Number of downstream consumers

Diversity factor (ks)

2 to 4

5 to 9

0.78

10 to 14

0.63

15 to 19

0.53

20 to 24

0.49

25 to 29

0.46

30 to 34

0.44

35 to 39

0.42

40 to 49

0.41

50 and more

0.38

Fig. A10: Example of diversity factors for an apartment block as defined in

French standard NFC14-100, and applicable for apartments without electrical
heating
Example (see Fig. A11):
5 storeys apartment building with 25 consumers, each having 6 kVA of
installed load.
The total installed load for the building is: 36 + 24 + 30 + 36 + 24 = 150 kVA
The apparent-power supply required for the building is: 150 x 0.46 = 69 kVA
From Figure A10, it is possible to determine the magnitude of currents in
different sections of the common main feeder supplying all floors. For vertical
rising mains fed at ground level, the cross-sectional area of the conductors can
evidently be progressively reduced from the lower floors towards the upper
floors.
These changes of conductor size are conventionally spaced by at least 3-floor
intervals.
In the example, the current entering the rising main at ground level is:

the current entering the third floor is:

Fig. A11: Application of the diversity factor (ks) to an apartment block of 5

storeys

Rated Diversity Factor for distribution switchboards

The standards IEC61439-1 and 2 define in a similar way the Rated Diversity
Factor for distribution switchboards (in this case, always 1) IEC61439-2 also
states that, in the absence of an agreement between the assembly manufacturer
(panel builder) and user concerning the actual load currents (diversity factors),
the assumed loading of the outgoing circuits of the assembly or group of
outgoing circuits may be based on the values in Fig. A12.

If the circuits are mainly for lighting loads, it is prudent to adopt ks values close
to unity.
Type of load

Assumed loading factor

Distribution - 2 and 3 circuits

0.9

Distribution - 4 and 5 circuits

0.8

Distribution - 6 to 9 circuits

0.7

Distribution - 10 or more circuits

0.6

Electric actuator

0.2

Motors

100 kW

0.8

Motors > 100 kW

1.0

Fig. A12: Rated diversity factor for distribution boards (cf IEC61439-2 table
101)
Diversity factor according to circuit function

ks factors which may be used for circuits supplying commonly-occurring loads,

are shown in Figure A13. It is provided in French practical guide UTE C 15105.
Circuit function

Diversity factor (ks)

Lighting

Heating and air conditioning

Socket-outlets

0.1 to 0.2 (1)

Lifts and catering hoist (2)

For the most powerful motor

For the second most powerful motor
For all motors

1
0.75
0.60

(1) In certain cases, notably in industrial installations, this factor can be higher.
(2) The current to take into consideration is equal to the nominal current of the

motor, increased by a third of its starting current.

Fig. A13: Diversity factor according to circuit function (see UTE C 15-105
table AC)
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Chapter - General rules of electrical installation design

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Estimating Power Demand Using IEC Methods

By Steven McFadyen on July 27th, 2011

Estimating power demand is combination of science and art. It is an area of electrical engineering where
there is no correct answer. Plug the figures in your preferred method of calculation and then as an
engineer you need to relay on instincts to say if the answer feels right or not. This is a look at one
method inline with what could be considered IEC practice.

reproduced from
Schneider's 'Electrical Installation
Guide - According to IEC International Standards' Estimating power demand is combination of science
and art. It is an area of electrical engineering where there is no correct answer. Plug the figures in your
preferred method of calculation and then as an engineer you need to relay on instincts to say if the
answer feels right or not.
Individual loads do not necessarily operate at full rated nominal power nor at the same time. Estimating
power demand involves both looking at the total connected load and the maximum expected demand
on the system. As we will see these are not the same.
Contents [hide]
IEC Method
Typical Utilisation & Simultaneity Factors
Utilization Factor (ku)
Simultaneity Factor (ks)
Basic Demand Data and Preliminary Planning
Related Links

IEC Method
Depending where you are, different methods, figures and procedures are used to estimate the power
demand of an installation. This is a look at one method inline with what could be considered IEC
practice.
To get going it is useful to understand some basic definitions:
voltage V - the voltage of the electrical system
load current Ib - the current required to operate an item of equipment
apparent power kVA - the product of the voltage V and load current Ib
real power kW - the actual power consumed by the load or equipment
power factor - the ratio of the real power to apparent power (kW/kVA)
utilisation factor ku - see below
simultaneity factor ks - see below
Utilisation factor ku - name plate ratings invariably list higher values of current than will be seen in use,
motors rarely run at full load, etc. A utilisation factor can be applied to these ratings to establish a more
realistic load current, thereby not overestimating the demand.
Simultaneity factor ks - not all equipment runs a the same time; for example one motor may be duty and
the other standby. The same applies to installations; for example a group of houses or apartments will
not all consume the full design current at the same time. Applying a simultaneity factor takes care of
this. Often the term diversity is used and has the same meaning.
The diagram illustrates how the utilisation and simultaneity factors are used to estimate the power
demand of an installation. Click on the image for a larger version.
Following the diagram, the apparent power of the load or equipment is multiplied by the utilisation
factor to give a realistic power demand to be supplied by a distribution board. Summing these power
demand figures gives the total connected apparent demand (at that board). The distribution board
would normally be sized for this demand.
An appropriate simultaneity factor is applied to the connected apparent demand at the distribution
board and this [diversified] load is carried upstream to higher levels boards. Repeating this procedure
will lead to an expected total demand for the full installation.
In a nutshell, thats all there is to it - in principal at least. There are often problems in deciding what
simultaneity factor to use and here experience can be really useful.

Tip: estimating power demand this is normally carried out using either apparent or real power. I prefer
real power as it gives me the actual kW required and is an algebraic sum. Many people will use apparent
power, which strictly speaking is a vector sum. As we are dealing with estimates (ball park figures
even), using either real or apparent power will yield usable results.
Typical Utilisation & Simultaneity Factors
Ideally utilisation and simultaneity factors should be developed specifically for each application and
based on a knowledge of how that particular system will operate. For certain situations it may be
necessary to use factors given by supply authorities or some other industry adopted factors.
The factors below are based on those given in the Schneider Electrical Installation Guide and can be
used in the absence of other sources or to provide reality checks on figures being used.
Utilization Factor (ku)
Actual power used in equipment is often less than the rated power. A utilization factor (ku) is used to
give a more realistic estimation of maximum power.
Typical values of Utilization Factor ku:
Type of load

ku

Motors (Typical 0.75

Lighting Circuits 1
Socket Outlets 0.1 to 0.2
Simultaneity Factor (ks)
If is rare in practice that all loads operate simultaneously. The simultaneity factor ks is applied to each
group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-distribution board). Simultaneity factor is
sometimes called diversity factor.
Typical values of Simultaneity Factor ks by circuit function:
Type of load

ks

Building Installations ks

Apartment Blocks ks

Lighting

Escalator

0.5

2 to 4

General Heating 1

Elevator

0.3

5 to 9

0.78

Space Heating

Sanitary systems

0.5

10 to 14

0.63

0.8

Air Conditioning 1

Sprinklers

0.1

15 to 19

0.53

Socket Outlets

0.1 to 0.2

Heating

0.8

20 to 24

0.49

Lifts/Hoists

Most powerful
motor

Air conditioning

0.8

25 to 29

0.46

Cooling water system 0.7

30 to 34

0.44

Refrigeration

35 to 39

0.42

40 to 49

0.41

50 and more

0.40

Second most
0.75
powerful motor
For all motors

0.6

0.7

Assemblies -Number of Circuits ks

2 and 3

0.9

4 and 5

0.8

6 to 9

0.7

10 and more

0.6

We've produced an Excel spreadsheet for estimating building total connected load and maximum
demand.
If your interested in obtaining a copy, you can get it here.
Basic Demand Data and Preliminary Planning

Siemens produce a series of publications providing typical demand figures for various building functions
[see Steven's Technical List, Buildings Technology for a list of these]. The following tables are based on
values given in these publications:
Buildings according to their type of use:
Building Use

Average
Power
Demand

Bank

40-70 w/m2 0.6

Library

20-40 w/m2 0.6

Office

Simultaneity
Factor

Different functional and building areas

Functional Area/
Building Area

Average
Power
Demand

Simultaneity
Factor

Hallway, anteroom or
lobby

5-15 w/m2 0.3

Staircase

5-15 w/m2 0.3

General utilities

5-15 w/m2 0.3

Foyer

10-30
w/m2

1.0

Access ways
(e.g. tunnel)

10-20
w/m2

1 .0

Recreation
room/kitchenette

20-50
w/m2

0.3

Toilet areas

5-15 w/m2 1 .0

30-50 w/m2 0.6

Shopping centre

30-60 w/m2 0.6

Hotel

30-60 w/m2 0.6

Department store

30-60 w/m2 0.6

Small hospital
(40-80 beds)

250-400
w/m2

Hospital
(200-500 beds)

50-80 w/m2 0.6

Warehouse (no
cooling)

2-20 w/m2

0.6

Travel centre

60-80
w/m2

0.8

Cold store

500- 1,500
w/m2

0.6

Office areas

20-40
w/m2

0.8

Apartment complex
(without
night storage or
continuous-flow
water heater)

10-30 w/m2 0.6

Bookstore

80-120
w/m2

0.8

Flower shop

80-120
w/m2

0.8

Museum

60-80 w/m2 0.6

Bakery/butcher

250-350

0.8

0.6

Parking garage

3-10 w/m2

0.6

Production plant

30-80 w/m2 0.6

Data centre

500-2,000
w/m2

w/m2

10-30 w/m2 0.6

Gym hall

15-30 w/m2 0.6

Stadium (40,00080,000 seats)

70-120
w/seat

Old peoples home

15-30 w/m2 0.6

0.6

Greenhouse (artificial 250-500

lighting)
w/m2

Office Equipment Demand Recommendations

All in one Printer/

Fax/Scanner

Average
Power
Demand
75 w

80-120
w/m2

0.8

Bistro/ice cream
parlour

150-250
w/m2

0.8

Cafe

180-220
w/m2

0.8

Diner/restaurant

180-400
w/m2

0.8

Tobacco shop

80-120
w/m2

0.8

Hairdresser

220-280
w/m2

0.8

Dry-cleaners or
laundry

700-950
w/m2

0.7

Storage area

5-15
w1/m2

0.3

1 .0

School

Equipment

Groceries

Data
Source

Other areas:
Area

Average power
demand
65-1 00 w/m2

CIBSE

Electric floor heating

bedrooms
Electric floor heating
bathroom

130-150 w/m2

Night storage heating:

Low-energy house

60-70 w/m2

Ceiling Projector Lift

50 w

Estimated

Ceiling Projector
Screen

80 w

Estimated

Colour Printer/Copier

200 w

CIBSE

Colour Scanner

50 w

CIBSE

Night storage heating:

house with standard
insulation

Computer Peripherals

400 w

Estimated

Small air conditioning unit 60 w/m2

Convenience Sockets

200
w/socket

DEWA

Photovoltaic (maximum
output of the modules)

Cost Recovery Devices

3,000 w

Estimated

Desktop

100 w

CIBSE

DVD Player

70 w

Estimated

Fixed Camera

30 w

Estimated

Laptop

100 w

CIBSE

Large Smart Board

300 w

Estimated

Monitor

200 to 400
W

CIBSE

Paper Shredder

50 w

CIBSE

Personal Printer/Fax

50 w

CIBSE

Portable Wireless
Controller

20 w

Estimated

Projector

300 w

CIBSE

Rack Equipment in
Credenza

400 W

Estimated

Shredder

190 w

Estimated

Technology Wells in Table 200 w

Top

Estimated

100-110 w/m2

100-130 w/m2

Teleconference Module

50 w

Estimated

Wall Mounted Controller 20 w

Estimated

Wall Mounted LCD

Estimated

200 w

Related Links
Maximum Demand for Buildings - Post
Power Demand, Buildings, Energy

More interesting Notes:

Possibly related posts:
Power Factor
What is Aircraft Ground Power
9 power supply issues solved by using a UPS
Three Phase Current - Simple Calculation
UPS - Uninterruptible Power Supply

Steven McFadyen
Steven has over twenty five years experience working on some of the largest construction projects. He
has a deep technical understanding of electrical engineering and is keen to share this knowledge. About
the author

Please enable JavaScript to view the &lt;a href="http://disqus.com/?ref_noscript"&gt;comments

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View 15 Comments (old system)

aymenomer says:
9/1/2011 9:11 AM
Hi,
How can I pick the values for Ku and Ks

Steven says:
9/1/2011 9:11 AM
We have some typical values in the Wiki
- see /wiki/maximum-demand-estimation.aspx for example
Ku depends on situation and often I tend to leave it at 1. If I know the mechanical/process guys are over
sizing I may use a lower figure. Ks is the same as diversity - besides the typical given in the Wiki, people
have their own they like to use or sometime supply Authorities require certain values. A good starting
point for finding values are the Siemens building applications manuals, which I think you can download
from their site.

ahmed01451 says:
9/1/2011 9:11 AM
If you could give me calculation step giving with one example if i have 6 motors each 15kw , out of which
5 duty and 1 standby , how i can apply ks and ku .one example so that i can implement

Steven says:
9/1/2011 9:11 AM

With the given information I think it would be unlikely that the motors would be critically sized and I
would be tempted to use ku=0.8. You may even consider lower if you have some background as to how
the motor duties have been selected. On diversity you could use ks = 0.83 (5/6). This would give a
diversified load of 60 kW (6x15x0.8x0.83). I would size the individual supplies to each motor for 15 kW.
If these are being supplied by an MCB or DB it would be sized for the connected load 72 kW (15x6x0.8).
For any upstream switchboards I would assume they need to supply an average of 60 kW for these
motors.

real_brute says:
9/11/2011 9:16 AM
gents.... be careful in using the IEC guide.... make sure you read all paragraphs in there....
there is no straight forward guide and rule when estimating maximum demand...
the manual says that, the values are based in extensive research.... i agree... i also agree on the
paragraph that says "experienced electrical engineer"... which defies all values stated in the reference
tables...
this means that the manual is trying to save it's own ass.... and i also agreed with it....
i just want to let everyone know that those values can never be accurate... tho accuracy is not
required...it will just give the engineer an indication of the derived values if within acceptable limits....
but then again, there is no easy substitute to extensive load studies and analysis... which should include
load profiling and energy studies....
i have used the manual and i have known that the straight forward values are easy to use but quite
misleading....
my suggestions is to categorize the loads effectively, get benchmark from existing projects, make
accurate load profiles including HVAC which has at least 60% effect on the outcome of the analysis...

Yuri Fernandez says:

11/18/2011 5:37 PM
What refers to IEC standard?
Thanks for the response

Steven says:
11/22/2011 7:27 AM

The article is not in reference to a particular standard. The IEC Method in the title refers more to the
terminology and procedures that you will find if you read guides/books published in a context of using
IEC standards (as opposed to say NEC or IEEE)

Wael Roustom says:

5/14/2012 2:18 AM
Thanks a lot for your information and your efforts.
I think it is better to draw an general example like a twin tower one residential and the other offices
including mall in the ground and first floor. Think we can share our knowledge to estimate the maximum
demand load.
Thanks again.

Steven says:
5/14/2012 2:19 AM
Thanks for the comment Wael.
Towards the end of last year I was busy writing a detailed guide explaining how to calculate demand for
buildings, including an example of a mixed use development. Currently it is about 80% complete. At the
beginning of the year, I took the decision to stop for a few months before returning for final editing a
think taking this break will make it a better guide. I hope to return to the project soon and get it finished
within the next few months.
If you want to keep an eye out Ill be posting details on the site and in our newsletter as soon as its
finished

Carlos says:
3/11/2013 10:13 AM
Hi Steven,
Thanks for the useful information on this page. Did you by any chance finish the guide you were working
on. I would like to get hold of a copy if you are willing to share it?

Steven says:

3/13/2013 12:23 AM
I had a change in personal situation which put things on the back burner. Its about 70% complete and I
hope to get back to it soon.

SYAM says:
3/13/2013 4:05 AM
Dear sir,
I came across another method of calculation like
MD= 1x Continous load+ 0.6x Intermittent load + .2 x Standby load
Is the mentioned method right or is it applicable for industries...?
Thanks in advance.

Steven says:
3/19/2013 3:24 AM
Personally Ive never seen a method as described. It seems a bit arbitrary to myself and I would have
some doubts about any results from the method.

Akira says:
3/19/2013 2:39 AM
IEC rules is difficult for me to understand Japanese . However, I would like to have a clear answer so that
we design in the Middle East.I have always reference to Electrical installation guide 2010 when doing
working. I under stand that this guide book iseferring IEC Standards.. Please lets me know What IEC
reference numberwith Chapter that described page A16 Factor of simultaneity for an
apartment block Regars. I would like to know the grounds listed in theIEC standard .

Steven says:
3/19/2013 3:22 AM

Akira, I use the installation guide as well. Unfortunately it does not refer to any direct IEC standard for
the typical Simultaneity values given, so it may be these are Schneiders own or from some other
standard. I think the important thing is that any figures are just a guide and not fixed.
Each application is different and more detailed understanding of the energy use or better historical data
can help you employ more appropriate Simultaneity values. Estimating power is something that worries
a lot of engineers (myself included). Its almost impossible to get correct and has consequences for both
over and under estimating.

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- See more at: http://myelectrical.com/notes/entryid/74/estimating-power-demand-using-iecmethods#sthash.eoeFt69i.dpuf

Understanding Demand and Consumption

Demand

Consumption =

KW
KWH

The difference between demand (KW) and consumption (KWH) is vital to your choices
in
reducing your energy costs. A simple way to see the difference between demand and
consumption is by considering two examples.
LIGHTING EXAMPLE: One 100-watt light bulb burning for 10 hours consumes 1,000
watt-hours
or 1 kWh. The entire time it is on, it requires or "demands" 100 watts or 0.1 kW from
the utility.

That means the utility must have that 0.1 kW ready whenever the customer turns the
lamp on.

Similarly, ten 100-watt light bulbs burning for 1 hour consume 1,000 watt-hours or 1
kWh. Note that in both
examples, the consumption is 1 kWh, however, look how differently the second
situation impacts the utility
from a demand perspective. The serving utility must now be prepared to provide ten
times as much 'capacity'
in response to the "demand" of the 10 light bulbs operating all at once.
If both of these customers are billed for their consumption only, both will get the
same bill for 1 kWh of energy.
And that is the way most residential customers are billed. But the requirement for the
utility to meet this energy
requirement is very different. In the second case, the utility has to have 10 times
more generating 'capacity' to
provide the second customer's brief high demand for power compared to the first
case.
Commercial and industrial customers are often billed for their hourly consumption
patterns and their peak demand
for energy. These customers often have special meters that measure both, unlike
residential meters that just
record total consumption in a time period, usually one month.

So, you might ask, "why doesn't the utility bill all customers for demand and
consumption?" Seems like that is only fair.
And it would be, but the fact is that most homes have a pretty similar demand profile
and the meters capable of measuring
both demand and consumption are much more expensive. Far too expensive to justify
having one on every home. So all
most residential customers need to be concerned with now is consumption billing. As
the cost of metering drops, and as
automatic metering advances, we may see increased use of demand billing for homes.

Analogies for Understanding Demand and Consumption

WATER EXAMPLE:
Another way of understanding demand and consumption is with a "filling the bucket"
analogy.
Suppose you want to fill a 5 gallon bucket with water. You can use an inexpensive
hose connection
to your sink providing 1 gallon per minute to do it, and it will take 5 minutes.
Or you can get to a more expensive large faucet that provides 5 gallons per minute, it
will fill in just one minute.
The flow rate is the equivalent to demand, and the 5 gallons of water are equivalent
to consumption.
In this example, filling both buckets has the same "consumption" but very different
"demands."

The same is true of electricity. While you may be able to accomplish the same thing
by operating a small
wattage appliance for many hours as operating something of higher wattage for just a
few, the higher
wattage piece of equipment will create a higher demand on the utility. Using our
analogy, you are asking
for a larger pipe, and that costs more. If time is of the essence, it might be worth
having the more expensive
high flow rate or wattage. This is why utilities often charge some customers for both
demand and consumption.
A customer that sets a high demand requires more services from the utility-additional generating plant capacity,
and more expense in lines, transformers and substation equipment.
Some people like to use a automobile analogy to explain and understand how demand
and consumption relate.
The car's speedometer is like the demand meter and the odometer is like a
consumption meter.
Two cars could travel the same 100 mile road, one at 10 miles per hour for 10 hours
and the other at
100 miles per hour for 1 hour. It takes a much more capable and expensive engine to
power the car
at 100 miles per hour than it does to power the one going only 10 miles per hour.

How Demand Changes Are Computed and Billed

As you have just learned, electric power use is metered in two ways: on maximum
kilowatt use during a
given time period (i.e., kW demand typically measured in 15-minute or 30-minute
intervals) and on total
cumulative consumption in kilowatt hours (kWh). A customer's electric rate is set
using a complex process

of tracking cost of services and often seeking regulatory approvals.

The general theory is that demand charges reflect the utilities' fixed costs of
providing a given level of
power availability to the customer, and energy charges reflect the variable portion of
those costs as the
customer actually uses that power availability.
Power companies often use a meter that records the power use during either a 15- or
30-minute time window.
The average power used during that window is used to calculate the kW demand. The
peak demand used for
billing purposes in any month can be:
1. Time of Day: Dependent on the time of day (i.e., on-peak {usually during the day}
and off-peak
{usually at night time periods) and/or the day of the week (e.g., Monday through
Friday and separately for weekends):
The metering system tracks the highest usage anytime during the month under the
appropriate time windows.
These pricing schedules are generally referred to as Time of Use (TOU) rates.
2. Seasonally Differentiated: For example, the demand charge might be higher
during the summer than during
the winter, or vice versa.
3. Declining Blocks: This is where the demand charge up to a given level is at one
price with the price declining
above that level. For example, the demand charge might be $10 per kW up to 10,000
kW demand, and drop to
$6 per kW for demands in excess of 10,000 kW.
4. Interruptible Blocks: The demand charge depends upon whether the customer can
reduce electrical demand to
a given level if it is notified in advance by the utility. The price reduction often varies
with the time of notice
(i.e., the discount is higher if shorter notice is given). Some utilities also offer direct
load control for air conditioning
and water heating equipment, the utility itself can cycle this equipment on and off
for brief periods.
5. Ratchet: Certain rate designs incorporate minimum billing demands based upon
historical peak demands.
For example, if the peak demand last summer was 500 kW and the rate design has a
50% ratchet, the minimum
billing demand would be 250kW (500 kW times 50%) for the following eleven months,

regardless of whether the

actual demands were lower.
The meter recording kWh power use during either a 15- or 30-minute time window
also tallies total kWh use.
This meter is read at roughly monthly intervals and total power use is billed according
to applicable pricing schedules.
The type of energy charge pricing in common use includes:
1. Time of day: For example, on-peak and off-peak time periods and/or the day of
the week (e.g., Monday through Friday):
These pricing schedules are generally referred to as Time of Use (TOU) rates.
2. Seasonally Differentiated: For example, the energy charge might be higher during
the summer than during the winter, or vice versa.
3. Declining Blocks: This is typically where the energy charge to a given level is at
one price and that price declines
above that level. For example the energy charge might be $0.05 per kWh for the
first 100,000 kWhrs used in a month
and drop to $0.04 per kWh for the next 100,000 kWhrs.

Explanation of KW and KWH provided by Duke Energy.

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Unfollow Padmanabha Follow Padmanabha

Why is making capacity 2.5 times higher than breaking capacity of a circuit breaker?
Padmanabha GowdaSr. Manager at ALSTOM Grid

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February 4, 2013
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Nataliya Hvir, Mani Kanda Perumal G like this
7 comments

John

John Brunke
Senior Project Manager at POWER Engineers
Closing and latching is peak current with full asymmetry. It is based on the rated short circuit current.
You will find the same approximate ratio for switches between short time and peak withstand ratings.
Unlike Like (1)
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February 5, 2013
Padmanabha G. likes this

Cioc
Cioc Teodor
Power Systems Engineer
Exactly 2.5 times? This might be a question for manufacturers. In general making capacity is larger
because arching time is smaller (maybe you know this but I said I would write it anyway) and the arch
shall disappear when the contacts close.
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February 5, 2013

Sasan
Sasan Garjani
Senior Electrical Engineer, Looking for a new position
Dear Sir
In making condition, it is probable CB close on fault; it will see DC transient current so it shall be
withstand on DC+AC current. Ratio of" First period of current peak "to "steady stat ac current "is

approximately 2.55. It is a function of X/R ration of network and it may less than 2.55. You can find
formulas in technical book.
Rgds, Sasan
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February 5, 2013
Padmanabha G., Cioc T. and 2 others like this

Bruce
Bruce Carroll
Senior Electrical Engineer at CRB Consulting Engineers
Because if the breaker closes onto an existing fault it needs to have a close and latch capability to
properly engage the contacted prior to the trip latch allowing the four bar link to collapse. The energy
available for damagein this senario is much greater than simple fault clearing due to the longer time
delay in allowing the mechanism to properly function.
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February 5, 2013

Alex Tich
Alex Tich Mudoni
Power Systems Engineer at Power Network Projects
Because you will not be breaking any current yet
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February 5, 2013

Predrag
Predrag Radosavljevid
Design and commissioning engineer at P.D. Elektroistok izgradnja d.o.o.
According to standard IEC 62271-100,
when CB is closing on fault making current will be:
Imc=Iscmax=2Iac+Idc(t=10ms) = 2Iac+2Iacexp(-t/)
MC-making capacity
SC-short circuit
Peak of short circuit current will become 10ms after fault happen:
t=10ms, for 50Hz network
=X/R=45ms typical network ratio according IEC 62271-100,
but it should be calculated for specific node in network where the switch is installed
Imc=2Iac+2Iacexp(-10/45)=2Iac(1+0,8)=2,55Iac
So CB should withstand thermal and mechanical stress of Imc when it's closing on fault.
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February 6, 2013
SANKAR NATH S., Shriniwas M. and 7 others like this

Dhanaji
Dhanaji Wakade
SIEMENS LIMITED
Yes,
Making Current = 2.55 X Breaking Current

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Interrupting Capacity
Overload and maximum interrupting capacities are specified for each series, defined as the
maximum current levels that can be switched safely for a minimum of 40 operations, and a
minimum of 3 operations respectively. For thermal circuit breakers back-up protection is advised
if higher currents are possible. Please contact us for further advice on specific applications.
IEC 60934/EN 60934 defines interrupting capacity as the rated conditional short circuit current
performance. According to category PC1, this is the value of rated conditional short circuit
current (interrupting capacity) for which the prescribed conditions do not include fitness of the
CBE for its further use. PC2 is defined as the value of rated conditional short circuit current for
which the prescribed conditions do include fitness of the CBE for its further use.

Switching Sequence
The switching sequence for short circuit tests is normally abbreviated as follows, according to
relevant international CBE standards.

O Break operation (open)

The circuit breaker in the closed position is caused to open through a short circuit current applied
by means of a separate switch. Referenced as co (closed open) in earlier specifications.

CO Make operation with subsequent break operation (close open)

The circuit breaker in the open condition is closed onto a sustained short circuit and must
immediately re-open. This operating mode requires the circuit breaker to be fail-safe as the
actuator cannot be released as quickly as the circuit breaker mechanism will open. Referenced as
oco (open close open) in earlier specifications.

t Time period between switching operations

Normally 3 minutes, or the period required before the circuit breaker can be re-set.

Common switching sequences are: O-t-CO or O-t-CO-t-CO.

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Knowledgebase Article

How to correctly size kA ratings of circuit breakers

Introduction
One of the most important safety aspects to consider when designing an electrical circuit is to correctly size the circuit
breaker fault current rating (commonly called the kA rating). Unfortunately many electricians are unaware of this
concept, and it remains one of the most common design faults found in electrical circuits. In the last 10 years it has
become very common in domestic wiring, because of changes in the way power is distributed to new houses.

So what is the kA rating?

The value of the kA rating determines how much current the circuit breaker can withstand under fault conditions. The
circuit breaker only has to withstand this for a brief period of time, usually the time it takes for the circuit breaker to
trip. For example, a value of 6kA means that the circuit breaker can withstand 6,000 amps of current during the brief
time it takes to trip.

Why is the kA rating so important?

Under fault conditions (such as a short circuit) much more current flows through the circuit than what it was designed
for. A circuit that was designed for a maximum of 20A may suddenly be drawing hundreds, if not thousands of amps.
The circuit breaker will trip if this occurs.

However, what if during a short circuit there is more current flowing through the circuit than the kA rating of the circuit
breaker? In this case the circuit breaker will fail, often in either one of two ways. One possibility is that the contacts in
the circuit breaker will weld, thus preventing the circuit breaker from tripping. The best case scenario for this is that
the cable in the circuit is damaged. The worst case is that a fire is started. Another possibility is that the circuit
breaker explodes, as a result of the copper in the circuit breaker overheating and turning into dangerous plasma. This
could be very dangerous to people nearby, for example the electrician turning the circuit breaker on after a fault.

How to calculate the correct kA

The maximum amount of current that can flow through a circuit is determined by the size of the transformer feeding
the circuit and the length of the cable run from the transformer. This is often called the downstream short circuit
current. This will determine the maximum kA rating required for the main circuit breaker.

For example, a typical 500kVA transformer has a short circuit current of 35kA at its terminals. The cable run from the
2
transformer to the main breaker is 10m and is run with 90mm cable. The resistance in the cable limits how much
current comes from the transformer, and so after calculations it was determined that the short circuit current at the
end of the cable would be 26kA. In this case, a 20kA circuit breaker cannot be used in the installation.

It is outside the scope of this document to show how to calculate the short circuit current, but tables for this can be
found on the internet. Another source is page 9-20 of the NHP Circuit Breaker Products catalogue.

Cascading
Fortunately, not every circuit breaker in the installation needs to be rated above 26kA. Cascading is what happens
when you place a smaller kA rated circuit breaker on the load side of a larger kA rated circuit breaker (for example, a
6kA circuit breaker downstream from a 20kA circuit breaker). In these cases, the larger circuit breaker limits a certain
amount of the fault current, thus enabling you to safely use smaller rated circuit breakers downstream.

You can determine what size circuit breakers can be cascaded from the manufacturers. These are usually listed as
cascade tables. You need to consult these tables, because you can't just use any smaller breaker size downstream.
For example, the cascade tables may show that you can use a 6kA breaker downstream from a 20kA breaker.
However, you probably can't use a 3kA breaker - the 20kA breaker just doesn't provide enough protection.

Most common mistakes

The most common mistake on large installations is that the kA rating of the circuit breaker was not taken into account
when designing the circuit. Instead, the cheapest circuit breaker is chosen that meets the required standard current
draw. The author has seen this himself a number of times (in fact, the example used above in the document did
actually occur - a 20kA circuit breaker was used on the site when it needed a minimum rating of 26kA).

It is becoming more and more common for larger transformers to be used to power domestic installations. This has
created a situation where the short circuit currents are much higher than they used to be. A typical transformer to
power a street of houses may have been 100kVA. Now it is not uncommon to see 300kVA or even 500kVA
transformers. This can result in short circuit currents of 20kA and above. To make matters worse, a number of well
known manufacturers sell cheap low quality circuit breakers that have a rating of only 3kA. Electricians are continuing
to use these to wire these without understanding the full ramifications of their decision.

Conclusion
The kA rating of a circuit breaker is a very important safety aspect to consider when designing a circuit. Without it,
there is a good chance that a serious accident will occur. It only takes a few minutes to do the calculations when you
have the correct tables.

The author has personally seen an incident where an incorrect kA rating caused a man to receive burns to 60% of his
body. It could happen to you. Be safe and always consider the kA ratings in your design.

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