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Perhaps the most important current use of n-type semiconductors is in p-n junctions.
These are p-type and n-type semiconductors brought together in close contact, creating what
is called the depletion region. The importance of this contact or junction is the creating of a
region between the p and n layers where p-type holes can recombine with n-type free
electrons producing light, such as in light emitting diodes (LEDs). P-n junctions form the
basis of how a lot of current technology works by creating diodes. In a diode, current can
flow easily in one direction but not the other, which is a basis for digital electronics.
The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a conducting region by removal
of all free charge carriers, leaving none to carry a current. Understanding the depletion region
is key to explaining modern semiconductor electronics: diodes, bipolar junction
transistors, field-effect transistors, and variable capacitance diodes all rely on depletion
region phenomena.
The following discussion is limited to the pn junction and the MOS capacitor, but depletion
regions arise in all the devices mentioned above.
At gate-to-source voltages above the threshold voltage (VGS > Vth) but still below saturation
(less than "fully on", (VGS Vth) > VDS), the transistor is in its 'linear region', also known as
ohmic mode, where it behaves like a voltage-controlled variable resistor.
When referring to a junction field-effect transistor (JFET), the threshold voltage is often
called "pinch-off voltage" instead. This is somewhat confusing since "pinch off" applied
to insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET) refers to the channel pinching that leads to
current saturation behaviour under high sourcedrain bias, even though the current is never
off. Unlike "pinch off", the term "threshold voltage" is unambiguous and refers to the same
concept in any field-effect transistor.
The forward voltage is the voltage drop across the diode if the voltage at the anode is
more positive than the voltage at the cathode (if you connect + to the anode).You will be
using this value to calculate the power dissipation of the diode and the voltage after the diode.
The reverse voltage is the voltage drop across the diode if the voltage at the cathode is more
positive than the voltage at the anode (if you connect + to the cathode).This is usually much
higher than the forward voltage. As with forward voltage, a current will flow if the connected
voltage exceeds this value. This is called a "breakdown". Common diodes are usually
destroyed but with Z and Zener diodes this effect is used deliberately.
Forward-bias is when the anode (the pointy part of the symbol) is positive and the cathode
(the bar) is negative. Reverse-bias is when the anode is negative and the cathode is positive.
A lot of current flows when the diode is forward-biased provided that the voltage is higher
than 0.6V or so for a silicon diode or 0.3V or so for a germanium device. A very small
amount of current flows if a diode is reverse-biased.
If you have a DVM and some diodes, you can check it for yourself. Diode cathode leads are
usually identified with a band, so if you switch the DVM to a low resistance setting, and
connect the leads across the diode in both directions, you should see a low resistance in one
direction and a high resistance in the other direction, provided that the DVM is supplying a
high enough voltage. Some DVMs have a special diode test setting that is easier to use. LEDs
usually have a flat against the cathode lead.
In any electrical installation, some current will flow through the protective ground conductor
to ground. This is usually called leakage current. Leakage current most commonly flows in
the insulation surrounding conductors and in the filters protecting electronic equipment
around the home or office. So what's the problem? On circuits protected by GFCIs (Ground
Fault Current Interrupters), leakage current can cause unnecessary and intermittent tripping.
In extreme cases, it can cause a rise in voltage on accessible conductive parts.
The causes of leakage current
Insulation has both electrical resistance and capacitance and it conducts current
through both paths. Given the high resistance of insulation, very little current should actually
leak. But -- if the insulation is old or damaged, the resistance is lower and substantial current
may flow. Additionally, longer conductors have a higher capacitance, causing more leakage
current. That's why GFCI breaker manufacturers recommend one-way feeder length be
limited to 250 feet, maximum.
Electronic equipment, meanwhile, contains filters designed to protect against voltage surges
and other disruptions. These filters typically have capacitors on the input, which adds to the
overall capacitance of the wiring system and the overall level of leakage current.
Test single-phase circuits by clamping the phase and neutral conductor. The measured value
will be any current flowing to ground.