2.

0 PROCESS FLOW

2.1 What is process flow?

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic represeentation of a process. Each step in the
process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the process
step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the flow direction.

2.2 Flow chart symbols and their meanings

Process/operation symbols :
Symbol

Name
(alias)

Description

Process

Show a Process or action step. This is the most

common symbol in both process flowcharts and
process maps.

Predefined
Process
(Subroutine)

A Predefined Process symbol is a marker for another

process step or series of process flow steps that are
formally defined elsewhere. This shape commonly
depicts sub-processes (or subroutines in programming
flowcharts). If the sub-process is considered "known"
but not actually defined in a process procedure, work
instruction, or some other process flowchart or
documentation, then it is best not to use this symbol
since it implies a formally defined process.

Alternate
Process

As the shape name suggests, this flowchart symbol is

used when the process flow step is an alternate to the
normal process step. Flow lines into an alternate
process flow step are typically dashed.

Delay

The Delay flowchart symbol depicts any waiting

period that is part of a process. Delay shapes are
common in process mapping.

Preparation

As the names states, any process step that is a

Preparation process flow step, such as a set-up
operation.

Manual
Operation

Manual Operations flowchart shapes show which

process steps are not automated. In data processing
flowcharts, this data flow shape indicates a looping
operation along with a loop limit symbol (which is not
supported by Microsoft Office, but a Manual Operation
symbol rotated 180 will do the trick.)

 Branching and control of flow symbols :

Symbol

Name
(alias)

Description

Flow
Line
Flow line connectors show the direction that the
(Arrow,
process flows.
Connector)
Terminator
(Terminal
Point, Oval)

Terminators show the start and stop points in a

process. When used as a Start symbol, terminators
depict a trigger action that sets the process flow
into motion.

Decision

Indicates a question or branch in the process flow.

Typically, a Decision flowchart shape is used
when there are 2 options (Yes/No, No/No-Go,
etc.)

Connector
(Inspection)

Flowchart: In flowcharts, this symbol is typically

small and is used as a Connector to show a jump
from one point in the process flow to another.
Connectors are usually labeled with capital letters
(A, B, AA) to show matching jump points. They
are handy for avoiding flow lines that cross other
shapes and flow lines. They are also handy for
jumping to and from a sub-processes defined in a
separate area than the main flowchart.
Process Mapping: In process maps, this symbol
is full sized and shows an Inspection point in the
process
flow.
[Just to confuse things further, some people will
use a circle to indicate an operation and a square
to indicate an inspection. That's why it's important
to include a symbol key in the flowchart.]

Off-Page
Connector

Off-Page Connector shows continuation of a

process flowchart onto another page. When using
them in conjunction with Connectors, it's best to
differentiate the labels, e.g. use numbers for OffPage Connectors and capital letters for
Connectors. In actual practice, most flowcharts
just use the Connect shape for both on-page and
off-page references.

Merge
(Storage)

Flowchart: Shows the merging of multiple

processes
or
information
into
one.
Process Mapping: commonly indicates storage of
raw materials.

Extract
(Measurement)

Flowchart: Shows when a process splits into

parallel paths. Also commonly indicates a
Measurement, with a capital 'M' inside the

Symbol

Name
(alias)

Description
symbol.
Process Mapping: commonly indicates storage of
finished goods.

Or

The logical Or symbol shows when a process

diverges - usually for more than 2 branches. When
using this symbol, it is important to label the outgoing flow lines to indicate the criteria to follow
each branch.

Summing
Junction

The logical Summing Junction flowchart shape is

shows when multiple branches converge into a
single process. The merge symbol is more
common for this use, though. This symbol and the
Or symbol are really more relevant in data
processing flow diagrams than in process
flowcharts.

Input and output symbols :

Symbol

Name
(alias)

Description

Data
(I/O)

The Data flowchart shape indicates inputs to and outputs

from a process. As such, the shape is more often
referred to as an I/O shape than a Data shape.

Document

Pretty self explanatory - the Document flowchart

symbol is for a process step that produces a document.

MultiDocument

Same as Document, except, well, multiple documents.

This shape is not as commonly used as the Document
flowchart shape, even when multiple documents are
implied.

Display

Indicates a process step where information is displayed

to a person (e.g., PC user, machine operator).

Manual
Input

Manual Input flowchart shapes show process steps

where the operator/ user is prompted for information
that must be manually input into a system.

Card

This is the companion to the punched tape flowchart

shapes. This shape is seldom used.

Punched
Tape

If you're very good at stretching all the life out of a

machine, you may still have use for the Punched Tape
symbol - used for input into old computers and CNC
machines.

 File and information storage symbols

Symbol

Name
(alias)

Description

Stored Data

A general Data Storage flowchart shape used for any

process step that stores data (as opposed to the more
specific shapes to follow next in this table).

The most universally recognizable symbol for a data

Magnetic Disk
storage location, this flowchart shape depicts a
(Database)
database.
Direct Access Direct Access Storage is a fancy way of saying Hard
Storage
Drive.
Internal
Storage

Used in programming flowcharts to mean information

stored in memory, as opposed to on a file.

Sequential
Access Storage Although it looks like a 'Q', the symbol is supposed to
(Magnetic
look like a reel of tape.
Tape)

2.3 The reasons to use flow chart

1) Process documentation
Another common use for flowcharts is to create process documentation. Although this
reason overlaps with regulatory and quality management requirements (below), many
non-regulated businesses use flowcharts for their documentation as well. These can
range in form from high-level procedures to low-level, detailed work instructions.
2) Workflow Management and Continuous Improvement
Workflows don't manage themselves. To ensure that you are meeting your customers'
needs, you need to take control of your business processes. The first step to workflow
management is to define the current state of your processes by creating an "As-Is
Flowchart". That allows you to analyze your processes for waste and inefficiency.

After you have identified areas for process improvement, you can then craft new
flowcharts to document the leaner processes.

3) Programming

Information technology played a big influence on the use and spread of flowcharts in
the 20th century. While Dr. W. Edwards Deming was advocating their use in quality
management, professionals in the data processing world were using them to flesh out
their programming logic. Flowcharts were a mainstay of procedural programming,
however, and with the advent of object oriented programming and various modeling
tools, the use of flowcharts for programming is no longer as commonplace as it once
was.

4) Troubleshooting Guides
Most of us have come across a troubleshooting flowchart at one time or another. These
are usually in the form of Decision Trees that progressively narrow the range of
possible solutions based on a series of criteria. The effectiveness of these types of
flowcharts depends on how neatly the range of problems and solutions can fit into a
simple True/False diagnosis model. A well done troubleshooting flowcharts can cut
the problem solving time greatly.
5) Regulatory and Quality Management Requirements
Your business processes may be subject to regulatory requirements such as SarbanesOxley (SOX), which requires that your accounting procedures be clearly defined and
documented. An easy way to do this is to create accounting flowcharts for all your
accounting processes.

2.4 Application of flow chart

A factory determines its heating by averaging three temperatures taken in the factory. If the
average is below 13 degrees C the heating is turned on, whereas the same temperature or
above this, the heating is turned off. Enter the three temperatures, find the average and display
"HEAT ON" or "HEAT OFF" message.
Solution:
Analysis:
Input
Process
Output

: Temperature 1, Temperature 2, Temperature 3 (in

)
: Average for three temperature = (
: HEAT ON or HEAT OFF

Using Flow Chart:

Start

Temp 1( ), Temp 2( ), Temp( )

3
Average = (

HEAT ON

No

Average
13
HEAT ON or HEAT OFF

End

Yes

HEAT OFF

3.0 ISHIKAWA (FISHBONE) DIAGRAM

3.1 What is Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram?
The Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram is used to explore all the potential or real causes (or
inputs) that result in a single effect (or output). Causes are arranged according to their level of
importance or detail, resulting in a depiction of relationships and hierarchy of events. This can
help you search for root causes, identify areas where there may be problems, and compare the
relative importance of different causes.
Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram also known as cause and effect diagrams. The cause and
effect diagram can also be drawn as tree diagrams, resembling a tree turned on its side. From
a single outcome or trunk, branches extend that represent major categories of inputs or causes
that create that single outcome. These large branches then lead to smaller and smaller
branches of causes all the way down to twigs at the ends. The tree structure has an advantage
over the fishbone-style diagram. As a fishbone diagram becomes more and more complex, it
becomes difficult to find and compare items that are the same distance from the effect because
they are dispersed over the diagram. With the tree structure, all items on the same causal level
are aligned vertically.

Figure 1.1: basic layout of fishbone diagram

Based on Figure 1.1, we can see that the backbone represent the straight line that connects all
the ribs (categories). The ribs are the categories of the problem. Meanwhile the medium size
bone shows the secondary causes of the problem and the small bones are the root causes.
Causes in a cause & effect diagram are frequently arranged into four major categories.
While these categories can be anything, you will often see by Manpower (people), Methods,
Materials, Measurements, Mother Nature (environment) and Machinery (6Ms) that
recommended for manufacturing industries. Meanwhile for administration and service
industries, the causes (or input) we can see by Equipment, Policies, Procedures, Price,
Promotion, Processes, Place/plant, Product (service) and People (8Ps and 1E).The 4Ss is
recommended for the service industries. The 4Ss is including Surroundings, Suppliers,
Systems and Skills.

Figure 1.2: example of fishbone diagram for manufacturing industries

Figure 1.3: fishbone diagram for administration and services industries

Figure 1.4: cause and effect diagram for services industries

3.2 What are the objectives of fishbone diagram?

The objective of the fishbone diagram is to illustrate by graphical way the relationship
between the given outcome and all the factors that influence that outcome. The aims of the
tool are to determine the root (factor) of a problem, focus on a specific issue without resorting
to complaint and irrelevant discussion, and identify which area lack of data.

3.3 What are the advantages of Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram?

There are many benefits of fishbone diagrams that can simplify our works and study. For
example, fishbone diagrams allow a thoughtful analysis that avoids overlooking any possible
root causes for a need. Besides that, the cause and effect diagram is easy to implement and
shows an easy-to-understand visual representation of the factors, the categories of the factors,
and the outcome. On the other hands, by using an Ishikawa (fishbone) diagram, we are able to
focus the group on the big picture as to possible causes or factors that influencing the
problem. The others benefit of causes and effect diagram are, it can encourages group
participation during discussion or teamwork when discussing about a problem, it can
increases our knowledge of the process by helping everyone to learn more about the factors at
work and how we relate, and it can identifies the areas for collecting data.
Even fishbone diagram has many advantages, but it still has their weakness such as the
simplicity of the fishbone diagram may make it difficult to represent the truly interrelated
nature of problems and causes in some very complex situations.

3.4 How to create the cause and effect diagram?

There are 6 steps to create the fishbone diagram as follows in poor gas mileage problem.
Step 1: identify the problem
Decide on the effect to be examined. Effects are stated as particular quality characteristics,
problems resulting from work, planning objectives, and the like.

Step 2: draw spine and bones

POOR GAS
MILEAGE

Step 3: identify the different areas where problems may arise from

METHODS

MACHINERY

POOR GAS
MILEAGE

MANPOWER

MATERIALS

Step 4: identify what these specific causes could be

METHODS

MACHINERY
UNDERINFLATED
TIRES

DRIVE TOO
FAST
USE WRONG
GEARS

CARBURETOR
ADJUSTMENT

POOR GAS
MILEAGE

POOR
DRIVING
HABIT
POOR
MAINTANANCE

WRONG
OCTANE GAS
IMPROPER
LUBRICATOR

MANPOWER

MATERIALS

Step 5: add detailed levels

MACHINERY

METHODS

Difficult air stems

UNDERINFLATED TIRES
Cant hear engine

Fuel mix too rich

DRIVE TOO FAST

Impatience

CARBURETOR ADJUSTMENT

USE WRONG
GEARS

POOR GAS
MILEAGE
POOR DRIVING
HABIT
POOR
MAINTANANCE

Poor training

WRONG OCTANE
GAS
No recommended octane

No awareness

MANPOWER

IMPROPER
LUBRICATOR

MATERIALS

Wrong oil

Step 6: use the finished the diagram to brainstorm solutions to the main problems

3.5 Application of fishbone diagram

The management of Indira group of institutes has decided to promote the library as a
central library of all the institutions run by Indira. Facing such an immense responsibility in a
very short span of time made it obligatory to the library staff to organize the library system in
a more better and competent way. Still being at its initial stage, the library activities were
encountering many small problems frequently. To name few were:
1.

Missing Books.

2.

Misplacements.

3.

Library usage.

4.
5.

Delivery of journals.
Number of copies per title.

6.

Allocation of work among the staff.

7.

Purchase related problems etc.

A committee was initiated to study the above problems and come out with efficient
solutions to meet the requirements of the management. Lot of brainstorming was conducted
and it was decided to solve these problems by implementing 'Quality Circle Program'.
A group was created and the problem of missing books was selected for observation on
preferential basis. It was decided to solve the above problem by cause and effect analysis and
the same was presented in the following diagram before the management committee:

The management acknowledged the solutions and accepted to implement the same on
urgent basis. It helped the library to come out with great solutions. It was also noticed during
the above operation that Quality Circles, if productively put into practice it can crack
countless variety of problems in any context of expertise.

4.0 CHECK SHEET

4.1 What is a Check Sheet?

One of the basic quality tools for improvement is check sheet. A check sheet is generic
tool which provide data in a structured and prepared form. In other words, it is a simple form
you can use to collect data in an organized manner and easily convert it into readily useful
information. Sometimes, it is also known as defect concentration diagram. Its main function
is to present the information in a design of table or form which is more efficient and
systematic. Check sheet is also useful to organize the data by category. Commonly, we will
use the check sheet by registering how often different problems occur and the frequency of
the incidents in order to take corrective actions.

A check sheet is used for:

Collecting data or information from a production process
Collecting data of defect information by using structured and standardized formats
Observing any process at production level
Keeping the process of collecting data as easy as possible
Grouping and categorize the data
Provide creativity in collecting data.

4.2 Main Functions of Check Sheet

One of the main functions of providing check sheet is to identify any kind of defects
which exist in the production process. It is also can be used to determine where the common
defects part are located at certain level. The cause of defectiveness can also be trace by
classifying the type of defect. Based on these functions, we can conclude that check sheet is
one quality tool which is very important for the procedure of quality control in production
process.

4.3 Advantages of using Check Sheet

There are certain advantages of using check sheet. Most importantly, it is an effective
way of displaying data without putting a large amount of effort. Plus, it is very easy to use as
a reference for any individual person. By using check sheet, we can also identify the main
cause of certain problems in production process. Check sheet can also be considered as first
approach before constructing other types of graphical tools. Thats mean firstly, we must
prepare check sheet so that the process of preparing other graphical tools will be much easier.
Furthermore, it can also provide a structure for uniform data collection. Other advantage is
check sheet can be used to substantiate or refute any kind of allegations at certain period of
time.

4.4 How to Construct a Check Sheet

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

Define the problem or process that need to be recorded :

-

Identify the type of the data

Perform the brainstorming technique if you work in a team

Define the period for data recording and suitable intervals :

-

The time period should be representative

Keep up with any changes in the process involved

Make a suitable design for the check sheet :

-

Summarizing the data within the time intervals

The recording process should be continuous

The design should be easy to understand by any individual person

Develop a check sheet :

-

Label all the column involved

v.

Start collecting the data within certain period :

vi.

Ensure everyone understand the tasks

Classify the data according to their relevant categories

Analyzing the data collected :

-

Identify any events or problem which unusually occur

Test a draft copy of a check sheet by conforming that all possible observations
or events

vii.

Train all personnel that involved in gathering the data

viii.

Finally, plot the information on the check sheet :

-

Take any corrective actions if necessary

4.5 Elements of a Check Sheet

There are some important elements in a check sheet such as description of data, places to
put the data, room for comments and also room for potential statistical data. All these
elements are very critical while providing check sheet in order to improve the quality of the
data gathered. We are also need to make sure that operational definitions are established very
clearly for each of the variable.

4.6 Application of Check Sheet

The figure below shows a check sheet used to collect data on telephones interruptions.
The tick marks were added as data was collected over several weeks.

Another example of using check sheet is related to quality control. This kind of check sheet
can be referring as the Location Plot or Concentration Diagram. A picture of a certain product
or item will be drawn and any part of the item which contains defections can be mark.

5.0 CONTROL CHART

5.1 Definition of control chart

A control chart is a statistical tool used to distinguish between variation in a process

resulting from common causes and variation resulting from special causes. It presents a
graphic display of process stability or instability over time . Every process has variation.
Some variation may be the result of causes which are not normally present in the process.
This could be special cause variation. Some variation is simply the result of numerous, everpresent differences in the process.
This is common cause variation. Control Charts differentiate between these two types
of variation. One goal of using a Control Chart is to achieve and maintain process stability.
Process stability is defined as a state in which a process has displayed a certain degree of
consistency in the past and is expected to continue to do so in the future. This consistency is
characterized by a stream of data falling within control limits based on plus or minus 3
standard deviations (3 sigma) of the centreline . We will discuss methods for calculating 3
sigma limits later in this module.

5.2 Example of control chart :

5.3 Types of Control Charts

There are two main categories of Control Charts, those that display attribute data,
and those that display variables data.

Attribute Data: This category of Control Chart displays data that result from
counting the number of occurrences or items in a single category of similar
items or occurrences. These count data may be expressed as pass/fail,
yes/no, or presence/absence of a defect.

Variables Data: This category of Control Chart displays values resulting

from the measurement of a continuous variable. Examples of variables data
are elapsed time, temperature, and radiation dose.
The standard control charts are:

Acceptance charts

Shewhart charts

Acceptance charts are based on the specified tolerances and control the share of scrap in the
process. With these charts, the limits are extended if a long-term reduction in the process
dispersion can be achieved by means of technical or organizational changes.

With Shewhart charts, the limits become tighter in such a case. These charts only take
internal process parameters into account and not external tolerance specifications. In a
constantly recurring statistical test, the hypothesis - that the defined "in-control" status of the
process has not (yet) changed - is tested.

In addition to the standard types of control charts, other types of charts are also used in
industry today. These include charts with extended limits, pre-control charts, cusum charts
and various moving-average charts.

5.4 Elements of a Control Chart

Each Control Chart actually consists of two graphs, an upper and a lower, which are escribed
below under plotting areas. A Control Chart is made up of eight elements.

1. Title. The title briefly describes the information which is displayed.

2. Legend. This is information on how and when the data were collected.

3. Data Collection Section. The counts or measurements are recorded in the

data collection section of the Control Chart prior to being graphed.

4. Plotting Areas. A Control Chart has two areasan upper graph and a lower
graphwhere the data is plotted.

a. The upper graph plots either the individual values, in the case of an Individual
X and Moving Range chart, or the average (mean value) of the sample or
subgroup in the case of an X-Bar and R chart.

b. The lower graph plots the moving range for Individual X and Moving Range
charts, or the range of values found in the subgroups for X-Bar and R charts.

5. Vertical or Y-Axis. This axis reflects the magnitude of the data collected. The Y-axis
shows
the scale of the measurement for variables data, or the count (frequency) or percentage
of occurrence of an event for attribute data.

6. Horizontal or X-Axis. This axis displays the chronological order in which the data
were
collected.

7. Control Limits. Control limits are set at a distance of 3 sigma above and 3 sigma
below the
centerline . They indicate variation from the centerline and are calculated by using the
actual values plotted on the Control Chart graphs.

8. Centerline. This line is drawn at the average or mean value of all the plotted data. The
upper
and lower graphs each have a separate centerline.

5.5 When to Use a Control Chart

When controlling ongoing processes by Finding and correcting problems occur as for hire.

When predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process.

When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control).

 When analyzing patterns of process variation from special Causes (non-routine events) or
common Causes (built into the process).

When determining whether your quality improvement project Should Aim To prevent
specific problems or to make fundamental changes to the process.

6.0 HISTOGRAMS

6.1 What is a Histograms

A histogram is a graphical representation showing a visual impression of the distribution
of data. It is an estimate of probability distribution of a continous variable and was first
introduced by Karl Pearson. A histogram consists of tabular frequencies, shown as adjacent
rectangles, erected over discrete intervals (bins), with an area equal to the frequency of the
observations in the interval. The height of a rectangle is also equal to the frequency density of
the interval, i.e., the frequency divided by the width of the interval. The total area of the
histogram is equal to the number of data. A histogram may also be normalized displaying
relative frequencies. Histograms are used to plot density of data, and often for density
estimation: estimating the probability density function of the underlying variable. The total
area of a histogram used for probability density is always normalized to. If the length of the
intervals on the x-axis are all, then a histogram is identical to a relative frequency plot.
Typical applications of histograms in root cause analysis include:
Presenting data to determine which causes dominate
Understanding the distribution of occurrences of different problems, causes,
consequences, etc.
Besides that, histogram also can typically help we answer the following questions:
What is the most common system response?
What distribution (center, variation and shape) does the data have?
Does the data look symmetric or is it skewed to the left or right?

Figure 1.1 Example histogram of heights of 31 Black Cherry tree

Histogram statistics:
For histograms, the following statistics are calculated:

Mean The average of all the values.

Minimum The smallest value.
Maximum The biggest value.
Std Dev An expression of how widely spread the values are around the mean.
Class Width The x-axis distance between the left and right edges of each bar in the
histogram.
Number of Classes

The number of bars (including zero height bars) in the

histograms.
Skewness Is the histogram symmetrical? If so, Skewnessis zero. If the left hand tail is
longer, skewnesswill be negative. If the right hand tail is longer, skewnesswill be
positive. Where skewnessexists, process capability indices are suspect. For process

improvement, a good rule of thumb is to look at the long tail of your distribution; that
is usually where quality problems lie.
Kurtosis Kurtosisis a measure of the pointinessof a distribution. The standard normal
curve has a kurtosis of zero. The Matterhorn, has negative kurtosis, while a flatter
curve would have positive kurtosis. Positive kurtosis is usually more of a problem for
quality control, since, with "big" tails, the process may well be wider than the spec
limits.

6.2 What is the purpose of histograms?

To clarify the presentation of data. The same information can be presented in a table,
however, the graphic presentation format usually makes it easier to see relationships and to
determine the spread or variation of a set. These charts also can help show the most data
frequent.

6.3 What are the advantages and weakness the histograms?

There are many benefits of histograms that can simplify our works and study. For
example allows we to understand at a glance the variation that exists in a process. besides
that, The shape of the histogram will show process behavior. Often, it will tell we to dig
deeper for otherwise unseen causes of variation. The shape and size of the dispersion will
help identify otherwise hidden sources of variation. The others benefit of histogram it can
used to determine the capability of a process and Starting point for the improvement process.

However, histogram also have a weakness. There are two weaknesses of histograms
that we must know. The first is that histograms can be manipulated to show different pictures.
If too few or too many bars are used, the histogram can be misleading. This is an area which
requires some judgment, and perhaps some ex perimentation, based on the analyst's
experience. Histograms can also obscure the time differences among data sets. In quality
control, a histogram of a process run tells only one part of a long story. There is a need to
keep reviewing the histograms and control charts for consecutive process runs over an
extended time to gain useful knowledge about a process.

6.4 How to create the histograms?

Frequency distribution table, histogram, and stem-and-leaf plots are methods for showing thr
frequency with which certain classes of values occur.
Suppose you have the following data values
Data(ID) 1

10

11

Data (X) 12

40

27

15

31

21

34

40

35

37

45

Step 1: Sort your data set.

Position

10

11

Sorted

12

15

21

27

31

34

35

37

40

40

45

Step 2: Histogram displays the distribution of a quantitative

variable by showing the

frequencies (counts) or percents of the the values that fall in various frequency classes. For
our example, define frequency classes as tens, twenties, thirties, and forties. Frequency
distribution table show how many tens, twenties, thirties, and forties we have:

Frequency class

Frequency

10 19

20 - 29

30 -39

40 -49

Step 3: Make a histogram, which is a ste of bars showing the number of occurrences, which
the classes being numbers in the tens, twenties, thirties, and forties :

5
4
3
2
1
0

10 - 19

20 - 29

30 39

40 - 49

6.5 Application of Histogram

Question
Lets say the owner of XXY Pizza wants a distribution of Thursday nights sales. Data
set from last Thursday (slices of pizza)
02122413121224341432232122122142212122121212121
21222121211222314223222123224224412223221224212
421721223121121222122121222424
Solution
slice of
pizza
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Frenquency
1
34
66
9
13
0
0
1

Mean = 2.032258
Max = 7
Min = 0
Range = 7 For 7 columns,
width = 7/7 = 1
70

histogram

60
50
40
30
20

times ordered

10
0
1

7.0 PARETO CHART

7.1 Definition of Pareto Chart

The Pareto chart is a graphical overview of the process problems, in ranking order of
the most frequent, down to the least frequent, in descending order from left to right. Thus, the
Pareto diagram illustrates the frequency of fault types. Using a Pareto, you can decide which
fault is the most serious or most frequent offender. The basic underlying rule behind Pareto's
law is that in almost every case, 80% of the total problems incurred are caused by 20% of the
problem cause types; such as people, machines, parts, processes, and other factors related to
the production of the product.

Therefore, by concentrating on the major problems first, you can eliminate the majority of
your problems. The few items that have the largest amount of occurrence is your more
frequent problem, than are the many items that only happen once in a while. This is called the
"vital few over the trivial many" rule. Quite often, once you cure several of the "big hitters"
you also eliminate some of the smaller problems at the same time. So then, what exactly is a
Pareto diagram? The Pareto prioritizes problem areas. Sometimes a quality problem is so
cluttered with so many smaller problems, it is difficult to know just where to begin the solving
process. Let's take an example.

Below is a table from a manufacturing process that charted all of their quality problems.
While the original defect chart listed many problems at various stages of the process, the
overall problems were grouped into five main process areas. In the left column is the name of
the process where the defects occur. In the next column is the amount of defects recorded
from their daily check sheets, recorded during a one week period. In the third column is the
percent of defectives from the overall production (N = 2165). In the fourth and final column,

is the percent of the total defects. That is, for example, of all the defects recorded (416), poor
Caulking is 47.6% of the entire problem. It should be obvious then, where the primary
problem is and what should be focused upon first.

The left vertical axis (border) shows the number of defects for each defective category, and
the right vertical axis shows the percentage of each defect of the total defects. The horizontal
axis (bottom) lists the defective items starting with the most frequent one on the left

(Caulking), progressing over to the least frequent occurrence on the right side (Torque).
Therefore, the Pareto diagram visually indicates which problem should be solved first, or in
this case, the Caulking problem. With this bar graph, it is easier to see which defects are most
important of all the defects that exist. If we solve all or most of the problems in Caulking, it
could affect some of the problems observed in connecting, gapping, fitting, and torque.

How To Make A Pareto Diagram

Step 1 :
Determine the category classifications that you are going to use to group your defect data by
use your check sheets to collect the data for the Pareto.
Step 2 :
Decide on the time period to be used to record your information. One week, a month, etc. It is
best to be consistent so that you have a standard to compare to if the data collection exercise
is to be repeated again. You can't measure results achieved accurately without consistent
measurement periods.
Step 3 :
From the Check Sheet, total the occurrence of each item for the period measured. Each total
will be represented by the length of a vertical bar, much like the Pareto chart example above.
Step 4 :
(It is easier to keep your scale accuracy correct if you use graph paper). Draw horizontal and
vertical axes on graph paper; or if no graph paper available, use a ruler to measure and draw
evenly scaled vertical and horizontal lines that meet evenly.
Step 5 :
Make your scale units at even multiples, such as 10, 20, etc. so as to have an even scale
system.

Step 6 :
Draw in the bars that correspond to the total numbers collected from your Check Sheet,
starting on the far left, with the most frequent (highest number recorded) defective item. It is
recommended that you leave a gap between each item bar for reading clarity. (Note: If you
have several defective items with very small quantities, you can group them together in a
category called "other", as long as their total is less than the previous bar height).
Step 7:
Under the horizontal axis (line), label each of the bars so that you know which defect is
represented by which bar.
Step 8 :
Draw another vertical line and label the percentage scale in the same manner that you did on
the left side.
Step 9 :
Plot a dot for each item on the graph, starting from the left side, on or above the bar
corresponding to the related percentage of defectives for each item.
Step 10 :
Graph and briefly write the source of the data below the graph, that describes the data and
method used to gather. Include all pertinent facts which will define the method of observation
(for example, time period, production line, and whether this was before or after any
modifications to the line). Recording this data on the bottom of your chart, will help further
analysis as well as to provide a record of what was done on this date, for consideration in
future studies.

8.0 SCATTER PLOT

8.1

History
Japanese quality consultant : Kaoru Ishikawa are useful in providing an
understanding on how to use and interpret a scatter diagram. Ishikawa believed that
there was no end to quality improvement. In 1985, he was suggested that seven base
tools be used for collection and analysis of quality data. Among the tools was the
scatter diagram.

8.2

Definition of scatter plot?

A scatter plot is a useful summary of a set of bivariate data that is consists of two
variables. A scatter plot also been known as scatter graph, scatter diagram, or
correlation chart. Usually the scatter plot is drawn before working out a linear
correlation coefficient or fitting a regression line. It gives a good visual picture of the
relationship between the two variables, and aids the interpretation of the correlation
coefficient or regression model. In short, the relationship that presented in scatter plot
is shows the correlation - positive correlation : If the data points make a straight line
going from the origin out to high x- and y-values and negative correlation : If the line
goes from a high-value on the y-axis down to a high-value on the x-axis.

By displaying data points on a two-dimensional graph shows the relationship. The variable
that might be considered
a) Independent variable

 Plotted on the horizontal axis

Plotted as x-axis
Known as an explanatory
Variable in regression that could be controlled or manipulated

b) Dependent Variable
Plotted on the vertical axis
Plotted as y-axis
Known as response variable
Variable in regression that could not be controlled or manipulated.
Scatter plots are especially useful when there are a large number of data points. They provide
the following information about the relationship between two variables:

8.3

Strength

Shape - linear, curved, etc.

Direction - positive or negative

Presence of outliers

Use of the Scatter plot

8.3.1 When to use it?

The scatter plot provides a graphical display of the relationship between two variables.
It is useful in the early stages of analysis when exploring data before actually calculating a
correlation coefficient or fitting a regression curve. For example, a scatter plot can help one to
determine whether a linear regression model is appropriate.

a) Strong positive correlation : the value of Y clearly increases as the value of X

increases
b) Strong negative correlation : the value of Y clearly decreases as the value of X
increases
c) Weak positive correlation : the value of Y increases slightly as the value of X
increases
d) Weak negative correlation : the value of Y decreases slightly as the value of X
increases
e) Complex correlation : the value of Y seems to be related to the value of X, but the
relationship is not easily determined.
f) No correlation : there is no demonstrated connetion between the two variables
When we supposedly use the scatter plot? Actually, scatter plot could be the one
technique to examine theories about cause and effect relationship This purpose could be
constructed by plotting two variables against one and another on a pair of axes. Scatter plot
could not be proved by only one variable causes another, but it does show how a pair of
variables is related and the strength of the relationship. Statistical test quantity the degree of
correlation between the variables. In addition, to search for root causes of an identified
problem and to design a control system. Plus, as to ensure that gains from quality
improvement efforts are maintained. It is more to understand the behaviour of a process.

8.3.2 How to use it?

The question is, how the scatter plot could be interpret to shows and could be the one
of the seven quality control basic tools? There is a step to use the scatter plot technique.

a) Identify the purpose

b) Determining the two factors to compare
c) Identify the measure
d) Collect the data
e) Plotting the scatter plot
f) Interpreting the scatter plot
g) Take an action
Details action could be explained by the table 7.4.2 (i)
Steps

Details

Example

Identify the purpose

Reduce all road accidents

Clarify what you are trying to

achieve

by

using

the

Scatter within the residential areas of

Diagram.

the town.

Be clear about what is included and

what is not included in the analysis.

Determine the two

factors to compare

Select the two factors which you are One of these measures may
going to compare.

well be a factor that you are

In a complex situation where there trying to change, for example

are many factors, you may do a road traffic accidents. Other
number of comparisons between measures may have suspected
separate pairs of variables.

relationships, e.g traffic

speed.

Identify the measures

Select the measurement units values The factors must both be

of the factors

variables - i.e. able to be

It must be possible to measure both measured on a continuous

factors at the same time, such that scale (such as speed) rather

they form pairs of values that can be than attributes (such as

plotted as single points
Collect the data

Collect

measurements

colour).
of

the Take care to control any other

dependent factor for the selected factors that could also have a
values of the independent.

relationship.

Alternatively collect 50-100 pairs of Pay particular care when

measures for the 2 factors.

measuring human factors as

measuring itself can cause an
effect.

Plot

the

Scatter

Diagram

Plot the collected data on an x y Select the scale of the axes to

graph.

give maximum spread of the

This can be done using a spread data. This could mean having
sheet such as Microsoft Excel.

different
and/or

scales
having

for

each

the

axis

commence at a non zero point

Interpret

Look for a correlation between the 2 Correlation Coefficient can

factors.

be calculated, as can a line of

The tighter the dots follow an best fit. These are beyond the
imagined line, the closer is the scope
correlation.

of

this

toolkit

description.

Note that correlation does not prove

cause-and-effect.

Take action

Act on your findings

Do further trials to verify

whether there is a real causal
relationship between the two
factors

Table 7.3.2 (i)

7.4

Types of Scatter plot

a) Linear relationship

b) Curvilinear relationships

c) Strong relationship

d) Weak relationship

e) No relationship

7.5

Example

References:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram
2. http://www.skymark.com/resources/tools/histograms.asp
3. http://personnel.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/6E00B0CF-57D8-4AD3-92656CAACC40570F/0/Histograms.pdf

References

1. Syque Quality (2008). The Check Sheet. Retrieved from

2.

9.0 REFERENCES

1. http://www.syque.com/quality_tools/tools/Tools27.htm
2. ASQ (2004). Check Sheet. Retrieved from http://asq.org/learn-about-quality/datacollection-analysis-tools/overview/check-sheet.html
3. Shmula (2010). Check Sheets. Retrieved from http://www.shmula.com/check-sheets/3932/
4. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/navy/bpi_manual/mod5-c-ediag.pdf
5.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/213798-1194538727144/9Final-

Fishbone.pdf
6. http://learningzone.uum.edu.my/A122/file.php/1615/7_basic_quality_tools.pdf
7. http://www.breezetree.com/article-excel-flowchart-shapes.htm
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram
9. http://www.skymark.com/resources/tools/histograms.asp
10.http://personnel.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/6E00B0CF-57D8-4AD3-92656CAACC40570F/0/Histograms.pdf