Professional Documents
Culture Documents
0 PROCESS FLOW
Name
(alias)
Description
Process
Predefined
Process
(Subroutine)
Alternate
Process
Delay
Preparation
Manual
Operation
Name
(alias)
Description
Flow
Line
Flow line connectors show the direction that the
(Arrow,
process flows.
Connector)
Terminator
(Terminal
Point, Oval)
Decision
Connector
(Inspection)
Off-Page
Connector
Merge
(Storage)
Extract
(Measurement)
Symbol
Name
(alias)
Description
symbol.
Process Mapping: commonly indicates storage of
finished goods.
Or
Summing
Junction
Name
(alias)
Description
Data
(I/O)
Document
MultiDocument
Display
Manual
Input
Card
Punched
Tape
Name
(alias)
Description
Stored Data
Sequential
Access Storage Although it looks like a 'Q', the symbol is supposed to
(Magnetic
look like a reel of tape.
Tape)
1) Process documentation
Another common use for flowcharts is to create process documentation. Although this
reason overlaps with regulatory and quality management requirements (below), many
non-regulated businesses use flowcharts for their documentation as well. These can
range in form from high-level procedures to low-level, detailed work instructions.
2) Workflow Management and Continuous Improvement
Workflows don't manage themselves. To ensure that you are meeting your customers'
needs, you need to take control of your business processes. The first step to workflow
management is to define the current state of your processes by creating an "As-Is
Flowchart". That allows you to analyze your processes for waste and inefficiency.
After you have identified areas for process improvement, you can then craft new
flowcharts to document the leaner processes.
3) Programming
Information technology played a big influence on the use and spread of flowcharts in
the 20th century. While Dr. W. Edwards Deming was advocating their use in quality
management, professionals in the data processing world were using them to flesh out
their programming logic. Flowcharts were a mainstay of procedural programming,
however, and with the advent of object oriented programming and various modeling
tools, the use of flowcharts for programming is no longer as commonplace as it once
was.
4) Troubleshooting Guides
Most of us have come across a troubleshooting flowchart at one time or another. These
are usually in the form of Decision Trees that progressively narrow the range of
possible solutions based on a series of criteria. The effectiveness of these types of
flowcharts depends on how neatly the range of problems and solutions can fit into a
simple True/False diagnosis model. A well done troubleshooting flowcharts can cut
the problem solving time greatly.
5) Regulatory and Quality Management Requirements
Your business processes may be subject to regulatory requirements such as SarbanesOxley (SOX), which requires that your accounting procedures be clearly defined and
documented. An easy way to do this is to create accounting flowcharts for all your
accounting processes.
HEAT ON
No
Average
13
HEAT ON or HEAT OFF
End
Yes
HEAT OFF
Based on Figure 1.1, we can see that the backbone represent the straight line that connects all
the ribs (categories). The ribs are the categories of the problem. Meanwhile the medium size
bone shows the secondary causes of the problem and the small bones are the root causes.
Causes in a cause & effect diagram are frequently arranged into four major categories.
While these categories can be anything, you will often see by Manpower (people), Methods,
Materials, Measurements, Mother Nature (environment) and Machinery (6Ms) that
recommended for manufacturing industries. Meanwhile for administration and service
industries, the causes (or input) we can see by Equipment, Policies, Procedures, Price,
Promotion, Processes, Place/plant, Product (service) and People (8Ps and 1E).The 4Ss is
recommended for the service industries. The 4Ss is including Surroundings, Suppliers,
Systems and Skills.
POOR GAS
MILEAGE
Step 3: identify the different areas where problems may arise from
METHODS
MACHINERY
POOR GAS
MILEAGE
MANPOWER
MATERIALS
METHODS
MACHINERY
UNDERINFLATED
TIRES
DRIVE TOO
FAST
USE WRONG
GEARS
CARBURETOR
ADJUSTMENT
POOR GAS
MILEAGE
POOR
DRIVING
HABIT
POOR
MAINTANANCE
WRONG
OCTANE GAS
IMPROPER
LUBRICATOR
MANPOWER
MATERIALS
METHODS
UNDERINFLATED TIRES
Cant hear engine
Impatience
CARBURETOR ADJUSTMENT
USE WRONG
GEARS
POOR GAS
MILEAGE
POOR DRIVING
HABIT
POOR
MAINTANANCE
Poor training
WRONG OCTANE
GAS
No recommended octane
No awareness
MANPOWER
IMPROPER
LUBRICATOR
MATERIALS
Wrong oil
Step 6: use the finished the diagram to brainstorm solutions to the main problems
Missing Books.
2.
Misplacements.
3.
Library usage.
4.
5.
Delivery of journals.
Number of copies per title.
6.
7.
A committee was initiated to study the above problems and come out with efficient
solutions to meet the requirements of the management. Lot of brainstorming was conducted
and it was decided to solve these problems by implementing 'Quality Circle Program'.
A group was created and the problem of missing books was selected for observation on
preferential basis. It was decided to solve the above problem by cause and effect analysis and
the same was presented in the following diagram before the management committee:
The management acknowledged the solutions and accepted to implement the same on
urgent basis. It helped the library to come out with great solutions. It was also noticed during
the above operation that Quality Circles, if productively put into practice it can crack
countless variety of problems in any context of expertise.
One of the basic quality tools for improvement is check sheet. A check sheet is generic
tool which provide data in a structured and prepared form. In other words, it is a simple form
you can use to collect data in an organized manner and easily convert it into readily useful
information. Sometimes, it is also known as defect concentration diagram. Its main function
is to present the information in a design of table or form which is more efficient and
systematic. Check sheet is also useful to organize the data by category. Commonly, we will
use the check sheet by registering how often different problems occur and the frequency of
the incidents in order to take corrective actions.
One of the main functions of providing check sheet is to identify any kind of defects
which exist in the production process. It is also can be used to determine where the common
defects part are located at certain level. The cause of defectiveness can also be trace by
classifying the type of defect. Based on these functions, we can conclude that check sheet is
one quality tool which is very important for the procedure of quality control in production
process.
There are certain advantages of using check sheet. Most importantly, it is an effective
way of displaying data without putting a large amount of effort. Plus, it is very easy to use as
a reference for any individual person. By using check sheet, we can also identify the main
cause of certain problems in production process. Check sheet can also be considered as first
approach before constructing other types of graphical tools. Thats mean firstly, we must
prepare check sheet so that the process of preparing other graphical tools will be much easier.
Furthermore, it can also provide a structure for uniform data collection. Other advantage is
check sheet can be used to substantiate or refute any kind of allegations at certain period of
time.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Test a draft copy of a check sheet by conforming that all possible observations
or events
vii.
viii.
There are some important elements in a check sheet such as description of data, places to
put the data, room for comments and also room for potential statistical data. All these
elements are very critical while providing check sheet in order to improve the quality of the
data gathered. We are also need to make sure that operational definitions are established very
clearly for each of the variable.
The figure below shows a check sheet used to collect data on telephones interruptions.
The tick marks were added as data was collected over several weeks.
Another example of using check sheet is related to quality control. This kind of check sheet
can be referring as the Location Plot or Concentration Diagram. A picture of a certain product
or item will be drawn and any part of the item which contains defections can be mark.
Attribute Data: This category of Control Chart displays data that result from
counting the number of occurrences or items in a single category of similar
items or occurrences. These count data may be expressed as pass/fail,
yes/no, or presence/absence of a defect.
Acceptance charts
Shewhart charts
Acceptance charts are based on the specified tolerances and control the share of scrap in the
process. With these charts, the limits are extended if a long-term reduction in the process
dispersion can be achieved by means of technical or organizational changes.
With Shewhart charts, the limits become tighter in such a case. These charts only take
internal process parameters into account and not external tolerance specifications. In a
constantly recurring statistical test, the hypothesis - that the defined "in-control" status of the
process has not (yet) changed - is tested.
In addition to the standard types of control charts, other types of charts are also used in
industry today. These include charts with extended limits, pre-control charts, cusum charts
and various moving-average charts.
2. Legend. This is information on how and when the data were collected.
4. Plotting Areas. A Control Chart has two areasan upper graph and a lower
graphwhere the data is plotted.
a. The upper graph plots either the individual values, in the case of an Individual
X and Moving Range chart, or the average (mean value) of the sample or
subgroup in the case of an X-Bar and R chart.
b. The lower graph plots the moving range for Individual X and Moving Range
charts, or the range of values found in the subgroups for X-Bar and R charts.
5. Vertical or Y-Axis. This axis reflects the magnitude of the data collected. The Y-axis
shows
the scale of the measurement for variables data, or the count (frequency) or percentage
of occurrence of an event for attribute data.
6. Horizontal or X-Axis. This axis displays the chronological order in which the data
were
collected.
7. Control Limits. Control limits are set at a distance of 3 sigma above and 3 sigma
below the
centerline . They indicate variation from the centerline and are calculated by using the
actual values plotted on the Control Chart graphs.
8. Centerline. This line is drawn at the average or mean value of all the plotted data. The
upper
and lower graphs each have a separate centerline.
When analyzing patterns of process variation from special Causes (non-routine events) or
common Causes (built into the process).
When determining whether your quality improvement project Should Aim To prevent
specific problems or to make fundamental changes to the process.
6.0 HISTOGRAMS
Histogram statistics:
For histograms, the following statistics are calculated:
histograms.
Skewness Is the histogram symmetrical? If so, Skewnessis zero. If the left hand tail is
longer, skewnesswill be negative. If the right hand tail is longer, skewnesswill be
positive. Where skewnessexists, process capability indices are suspect. For process
improvement, a good rule of thumb is to look at the long tail of your distribution; that
is usually where quality problems lie.
Kurtosis Kurtosisis a measure of the pointinessof a distribution. The standard normal
curve has a kurtosis of zero. The Matterhorn, has negative kurtosis, while a flatter
curve would have positive kurtosis. Positive kurtosis is usually more of a problem for
quality control, since, with "big" tails, the process may well be wider than the spec
limits.
To clarify the presentation of data. The same information can be presented in a table,
however, the graphic presentation format usually makes it easier to see relationships and to
determine the spread or variation of a set. These charts also can help show the most data
frequent.
There are many benefits of histograms that can simplify our works and study. For
example allows we to understand at a glance the variation that exists in a process. besides
that, The shape of the histogram will show process behavior. Often, it will tell we to dig
deeper for otherwise unseen causes of variation. The shape and size of the dispersion will
help identify otherwise hidden sources of variation. The others benefit of histogram it can
used to determine the capability of a process and Starting point for the improvement process.
However, histogram also have a weakness. There are two weaknesses of histograms
that we must know. The first is that histograms can be manipulated to show different pictures.
If too few or too many bars are used, the histogram can be misleading. This is an area which
requires some judgment, and perhaps some ex perimentation, based on the analyst's
experience. Histograms can also obscure the time differences among data sets. In quality
control, a histogram of a process run tells only one part of a long story. There is a need to
keep reviewing the histograms and control charts for consecutive process runs over an
extended time to gain useful knowledge about a process.
10
11
Data (X) 12
40
27
15
31
21
34
40
35
37
45
10
11
Sorted
12
15
21
27
31
34
35
37
40
40
45
frequencies (counts) or percents of the the values that fall in various frequency classes. For
our example, define frequency classes as tens, twenties, thirties, and forties. Frequency
distribution table show how many tens, twenties, thirties, and forties we have:
Frequency class
Frequency
10 19
20 - 29
30 -39
40 -49
Step 3: Make a histogram, which is a ste of bars showing the number of occurrences, which
the classes being numbers in the tens, twenties, thirties, and forties :
5
4
3
2
1
0
10 - 19
20 - 29
30 39
40 - 49
Question
Lets say the owner of XXY Pizza wants a distribution of Thursday nights sales. Data
set from last Thursday (slices of pizza)
02122413121224341432232122122142212122121212121
21222121211222314223222123224224412223221224212
421721223121121222122121222424
Solution
slice of
pizza
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Frenquency
1
34
66
9
13
0
0
1
Mean = 2.032258
Max = 7
Min = 0
Range = 7 For 7 columns,
width = 7/7 = 1
70
histogram
60
50
40
30
20
times ordered
10
0
1
The Pareto chart is a graphical overview of the process problems, in ranking order of
the most frequent, down to the least frequent, in descending order from left to right. Thus, the
Pareto diagram illustrates the frequency of fault types. Using a Pareto, you can decide which
fault is the most serious or most frequent offender. The basic underlying rule behind Pareto's
law is that in almost every case, 80% of the total problems incurred are caused by 20% of the
problem cause types; such as people, machines, parts, processes, and other factors related to
the production of the product.
Therefore, by concentrating on the major problems first, you can eliminate the majority of
your problems. The few items that have the largest amount of occurrence is your more
frequent problem, than are the many items that only happen once in a while. This is called the
"vital few over the trivial many" rule. Quite often, once you cure several of the "big hitters"
you also eliminate some of the smaller problems at the same time. So then, what exactly is a
Pareto diagram? The Pareto prioritizes problem areas. Sometimes a quality problem is so
cluttered with so many smaller problems, it is difficult to know just where to begin the solving
process. Let's take an example.
Below is a table from a manufacturing process that charted all of their quality problems.
While the original defect chart listed many problems at various stages of the process, the
overall problems were grouped into five main process areas. In the left column is the name of
the process where the defects occur. In the next column is the amount of defects recorded
from their daily check sheets, recorded during a one week period. In the third column is the
percent of defectives from the overall production (N = 2165). In the fourth and final column,
is the percent of the total defects. That is, for example, of all the defects recorded (416), poor
Caulking is 47.6% of the entire problem. It should be obvious then, where the primary
problem is and what should be focused upon first.
The left vertical axis (border) shows the number of defects for each defective category, and
the right vertical axis shows the percentage of each defect of the total defects. The horizontal
axis (bottom) lists the defective items starting with the most frequent one on the left
(Caulking), progressing over to the least frequent occurrence on the right side (Torque).
Therefore, the Pareto diagram visually indicates which problem should be solved first, or in
this case, the Caulking problem. With this bar graph, it is easier to see which defects are most
important of all the defects that exist. If we solve all or most of the problems in Caulking, it
could affect some of the problems observed in connecting, gapping, fitting, and torque.
Step 1 :
Determine the category classifications that you are going to use to group your defect data by
use your check sheets to collect the data for the Pareto.
Step 2 :
Decide on the time period to be used to record your information. One week, a month, etc. It is
best to be consistent so that you have a standard to compare to if the data collection exercise
is to be repeated again. You can't measure results achieved accurately without consistent
measurement periods.
Step 3 :
From the Check Sheet, total the occurrence of each item for the period measured. Each total
will be represented by the length of a vertical bar, much like the Pareto chart example above.
Step 4 :
(It is easier to keep your scale accuracy correct if you use graph paper). Draw horizontal and
vertical axes on graph paper; or if no graph paper available, use a ruler to measure and draw
evenly scaled vertical and horizontal lines that meet evenly.
Step 5 :
Make your scale units at even multiples, such as 10, 20, etc. so as to have an even scale
system.
Step 6 :
Draw in the bars that correspond to the total numbers collected from your Check Sheet,
starting on the far left, with the most frequent (highest number recorded) defective item. It is
recommended that you leave a gap between each item bar for reading clarity. (Note: If you
have several defective items with very small quantities, you can group them together in a
category called "other", as long as their total is less than the previous bar height).
Step 7:
Under the horizontal axis (line), label each of the bars so that you know which defect is
represented by which bar.
Step 8 :
Draw another vertical line and label the percentage scale in the same manner that you did on
the left side.
Step 9 :
Plot a dot for each item on the graph, starting from the left side, on or above the bar
corresponding to the related percentage of defectives for each item.
Step 10 :
Graph and briefly write the source of the data below the graph, that describes the data and
method used to gather. Include all pertinent facts which will define the method of observation
(for example, time period, production line, and whether this was before or after any
modifications to the line). Recording this data on the bottom of your chart, will help further
analysis as well as to provide a record of what was done on this date, for consideration in
future studies.
History
Japanese quality consultant : Kaoru Ishikawa are useful in providing an
understanding on how to use and interpret a scatter diagram. Ishikawa believed that
there was no end to quality improvement. In 1985, he was suggested that seven base
tools be used for collection and analysis of quality data. Among the tools was the
scatter diagram.
8.2
A scatter plot is a useful summary of a set of bivariate data that is consists of two
variables. A scatter plot also been known as scatter graph, scatter diagram, or
correlation chart. Usually the scatter plot is drawn before working out a linear
correlation coefficient or fitting a regression line. It gives a good visual picture of the
relationship between the two variables, and aids the interpretation of the correlation
coefficient or regression model. In short, the relationship that presented in scatter plot
is shows the correlation - positive correlation : If the data points make a straight line
going from the origin out to high x- and y-values and negative correlation : If the line
goes from a high-value on the y-axis down to a high-value on the x-axis.
By displaying data points on a two-dimensional graph shows the relationship. The variable
that might be considered
a) Independent variable
b) Dependent Variable
Plotted on the vertical axis
Plotted as y-axis
Known as response variable
Variable in regression that could not be controlled or manipulated.
Scatter plots are especially useful when there are a large number of data points. They provide
the following information about the relationship between two variables:
8.3
Strength
Presence of outliers
Details
Example
by
using
the
Diagram.
the town.
Select the two factors which you are One of these measures may
going to compare.
Collect
measurements
colour).
of
dependent factor for the selected factors that could also have a
values of the independent.
relationship.
Plot
the
Scatter
Diagram
This can be done using a spread data. This could mean having
sheet such as Microsoft Excel.
different
and/or
scales
having
for
each
the
axis
Interpret
The tighter the dots follow an best fit. These are beyond the
imagined line, the closer is the scope
correlation.
of
this
toolkit
description.
Take action
7.4
b) Curvilinear relationships
c) Strong relationship
d) Weak relationship
e) No relationship
7.5
Example
References:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram
2. http://www.skymark.com/resources/tools/histograms.asp
3. http://personnel.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/6E00B0CF-57D8-4AD3-92656CAACC40570F/0/Histograms.pdf
References
9.0 REFERENCES
1. http://www.syque.com/quality_tools/tools/Tools27.htm
2. ASQ (2004). Check Sheet. Retrieved from http://asq.org/learn-about-quality/datacollection-analysis-tools/overview/check-sheet.html
3. Shmula (2010). Check Sheets. Retrieved from http://www.shmula.com/check-sheets/3932/
4. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/navy/bpi_manual/mod5-c-ediag.pdf
5.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/213798-1194538727144/9Final-
Fishbone.pdf
6. http://learningzone.uum.edu.my/A122/file.php/1615/7_basic_quality_tools.pdf
7. http://www.breezetree.com/article-excel-flowchart-shapes.htm
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram
9. http://www.skymark.com/resources/tools/histograms.asp
10.http://personnel.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/6E00B0CF-57D8-4AD3-92656CAACC40570F/0/Histograms.pdf