Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ARCHITECTURE
HANDLEDBY
HANDLED
BY
C.PRADEEPA,
ASSISTANTPROFESSOR.
GLOBALCLIMATICFACTORS
GLOBALPRESSURE&WIND
North Pole 90N
HIGH
Tropic of Cancer
23.5N
Equator 0
LOW
Tropic of Capricorn
23.5N
HIGH
ZONE of greatest
g produces
p
heating
LOW PRESSURE
CLIMATE
SOLARRADIATIONQUALITY
Thespectralenergydistributionvaries
Thespectralenergydistributionvaries
with altitude due to the filtering effect of
withaltitudeduetothefilteringeffectof
theatmosphere.Someoftheshorter
theatmosphere
.Someoftheshorter
wavelengthsareabsorbedbythe
atmosphere and reradiatedatmuch
atmosphereand
reradiated at much
longerwavelengths.eg.Longinfraredup
to10000nm
WhentheSunisverticallyabovetheequator,
thedayisofequallengthalloverEarthi.e.on
n21
21
Marchand23September.
RADIATIONATTHEEARTHS
SURFACE
Theangleofincidence
THEEARTHSTHERMALBALANCE
The total amount of heat
absorbed by the earth each year
is balanced by a corresponding
heat loss.
loss
Without this cooling the
thermal balance of the earth
could not be maintained.
The temperature of the earth
and its atmosphere would
increase and would soon cease
to be favourable to most forms of
life.
Lengthofpaththroughtheatmosphere
Atthemaximumheatingzoneairis
heated bythehotsurface,itexpands
itspressureisdecreased itbecomes
lighter, itrisesverticallyandflowsoff
atahighleveltowardscolder
regions.
i
Partofthisair,havingcooleddown
at the high level descends to the
atthehighlevel,descendstothe
surfaceinthesubtropicregions,from
wherethecoolerheavierair isdrawn
in towards the equator fromboth
intowardstheequator
from both
northandsouth.
Hurricane in Florida
Tornado in USA
Theactualwind istheresultantof
thermal forces and the coriolis force
thermalforcesandthecoriolisforce
northeasterlywindsnorthofthe
equatorandsoutheasterlywinds
q
southoftheequator.theseareknown
asNortheastandsoutheasttrade
winds.
POLARWINDS
ANNUALWINDSHIFTS
LITTLE
WIND
CLEAR SKIES
INFLUENCEOFTOPOGRAPHY
VISIBLITY REMAINS
BETTER IN MOUNTAINS LESS POLLUTION
CLIMATERESPONSIVE
ARCHITECTURE
Temperature: data
T
d
Humidity: data
Precipitation Climatic information
Temperature:measurement
Driving rain
Sky conditions
Solar radiation:measurement
Solar radiation: data
Wind: measurement
Wind : data
Special characteristics
Vegetation
Graphic representation
CLIMATIC INFORMATION
CLIMATICINFORMATION
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENT
Thermograph canbeused,
whichisbasedonabimetallic
whichisbasedonabimetallic
thermometer andgivesa
continuous
continuousgraphicrecording
graphic recording
oftemperaturevariations.
oftemperaturevariations.
Thedrybulbortrueair
Thedrybulbortrueair
temperature isavalue
takenintheshade,the
k i h h d h
insidealouvered
woodenbox,knownas
the Stevenson
the
Stevensonscreen
screen
screen
ataheightof1.20to
1.80thermometerbeing
mounted
mountedmabovethe
m above the
ground
TEMPERATUREDATA
Locationsofclimatestationswithmean
temperaturedata.
HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
HUMIDITYMEASUREMENT
wetanddrybulbhygrometer
Psychometricchart.
HUMIDITY DATA
HUMIDITYDATA
VAPOURPRESSURE
PRECIPITATION
Raingauge
Roofdrainage
Valuesindicatingthetotal
precipitationforeachmonthofthe
yearwouldshowthepatternofdry
andwetseasons.
E
Everrecordedmaximaandminima
d d
i
d i i
wouldgiveanindicationofthe
reliabilityofrains.
reliabilityofrains.
DRIVINGRAIN
SKYCONDITIONS
Pyranometer
solarimeter
WIND MEASUREMENT
WINDMEASUREMENT
Anemometer
Anemograph
WIND DATA
WINDDATA
SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIALCHARACTERISTICS
VEGETATION
LIGHTING
If the building envelope is thought of
as a barrier between the internal,
controlled environment and the
external perhaps undesirable
conditions it must be realized that it
should be as a selective barrier or
rather a filter which excludes the
unwanted influences whilst admits
those which are desirable.
On
O such
h desirable
d i bl effect
ff t iis d
daylight.
li ht
TRANSMISSION:
Materials when exposed to light,
t
transmit
it a large
l
partt off itit
Transparent.
Materials which block the p
passage
g of
light- Opaque.
Behind an opaque object there will be
no light
li ht i.e
i it will
ill castt a shadow.
h d
Materials which transmit a part of the
incident light but break its straight
passage scatter it in all directions,
creating diffuse light.
Light
Li ht iincident
id t on an object
bj t can b
be
distributed in 3 ways
reflected.
Absorbed.
Transmitted.
REFLECTION:
If the paralled rays of incident light remain
paralled after reflection from a surface,, the
p
surface is a plane mirror- Specular reflection.
The angle of reflection is the same as the angle of
incidence.
Convex mirror- reflected rays divergent.
Concave mirror reflected rays convergent.
Light reflected from a matt surface diffused.
diffused
Mixture of the two kinds of reflection will occur.
a) semi diffuse - depend on the relative
magnitude
it d off the
th
2 components
t
b) spread
-Some materials have same reflectance for all
wavelenghts of light.
-Other materials are selective in their reflectance.
COLORED LIGHT
Colored light from different sources can be
mixed.
Resultant color
color- wavelengths range
range- sum of
the wavelength ranges of components.
it is a additive process.
COMPLEMENTARY COLORS: Colors which
add up to from white light.
Colored
C l d lilight
ht can also
l b
be produced
d
db
by filt
filters.
These are materials with a high, but selective
transmittance.
They may reflect or absorbs most of the
wavelengths transmitting only the specified
narrow band.
b d
Subtractive process.
MUNSELL SYSTEM
Classification of surface colors- Munsell
y
system.
It distinguished 3 colors concepts:
1. Hue: concept of color using the common
color terms; red, yellow, green, blue and
purple and further subdividing each into 5
categories.
g
2. Value: the light or dark appearance of
the color.
3. Chroma: the degree of colorfulness or
intensity of color distinguishing 14 classes.
PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES
The intensity of a light source is measured
in units of candela.
candela
Flux is a light symbol.
Illumination amount of flux falling
g on unit
area- lux.
Luminance Measure of brightness of a
surface.
surface
ILLUMINATION:
Illumination from a point source reduces
with the square of the distance.
DEVIATIONSWITHINTHEZONE
SITE CLIMATE
SITECLIMATE
The term site climate has been chosen deliberately rather than the
synonymously used term micro climate.
The latter can imply any local deviation from the climate of a larger
area whatever the scale may be.
The botanist may consider the microclimate of a single plant leaf,
with its temperature and moisture conditions, its population of
insects and micro organisms on the scale of a few centimeters.
For the urban geographer the term microclimate may mean the
climate of a whole town. site climate establishes the scale;
whatever the size of the project, it implies the climate of the area
available and is to be used for the given purpose, both in horizontal
extent and in height.
LOCAL FACTORS
Topography
Ground surface
AIR TEMPERATURE
At night
night,, particularly on clear
nights, the ground loses
much heat by radiation and
soon after sunset its
t
temperature
t
falls
f ll below
b l
th
thatt
of air.
air.
The direction of heat flow is
reversed; from the ground
ground.
Night
TEMPERATUREINVERSION
HUMIDITY
Day
Night
PRECIPITATION
SOLAR RADIATION
SOLARRADIATION
UNITII
SOLARGEOMETRYAND
SO
G O
DESIGNOFSUNSHADING
DEVICE
THESUNSPOSITION
Thesunspositiononthesky
hemisphere can be specified by
hemispherecanbespecifiedby
twoangles;
Thesolaraltitudeangle(y):
g (
Thealtitudeangle(alsoknownas
the"solarelevationangle")
describestheanglemeasured
betweenalinefromthe
p
tothesun
observer'spositionO
andthehorizon.
Thesolarazimuthangle(a):
IntheNorthernHemisphere,the
solar azimuth angle is the angular
solarazimuthangleistheangular
distancebetweendueSouthand
theprojectionofthelineofsight
tothesun.
Thus
North=0degor360deg
East=90deg
South=180deg
West=270
Thesetwoanglescanbereaddirectlyforanydateoftheyearandany
hourofthedayfromthesolarchartsorsunpathdiagrams.
1.Azimuthangle
1
Azimuth angle
2.Elevationangle
3.Sun'spathtoday
4.Sun'spathonthe21stJune
5.Sun'spathonthe21st
December
6.Sun'spathduringtheequinox
7 Sunrise
7.Sunrise
8.Sunset
9.Horizon
Sunpathdiagram (alsoknownas"solarpathdiagram","sunchart"or
"solarchart")isavisualizationofthesun'spaththroughthesky.
Thispathisformedbyplottingazimuth(leftright)andelevation(up
down) angles of the sun in a given day to a diagram
down)anglesofthesuninagivendaytoadiagram.
Tofindoutthepositionazimuth=60,elevation=30,forexample,imagine
standingatthecenterofthediagramheadingtothetruenorth.
Tofindtheazimuthangle60,youmustturn60degreestotheright.
Nowthealtitudeangle30canbelocatedbyraisingyourhead30degrees
fromthehorizon.
Itcanbeseenfromthediagram(3."Sun'spathtoday")thatthesunrises
from the NorthEast
fromtheNorth
East(azimuth=60)inTampereat05:37.Sunsethappens
(azimuth = 60) in Tampere at 05:37 Sunset happens
at21:20whenthesunisintheNorthWest(azimuth=300).
Onthatdaytheelevationangleisapproximately50degreesatnoon.
ANGLEOFINCIDENCE&OTHERANGLES
Thealtitudeandazimuthbearingsofthe
sunenablesomefurtherimportantsets
ofanglestobecomputed.
The first is the angle of incidence i e This
Thefirstistheangleofincidence,i.eThis
isimportantinformationastheintensity
ofdirectirradianceisafunctionofthe
angleofincidencebeingamaximumat
0 (theangleofincidenceisalways
0
(the angle of incidence is always
measuredfromthenormaltothe
surface),anddroppingoffasthecosine
oftheangleofincidence,untilitreaches
zero at 90 incidence.
zeroat90
incidence
Thesecondaretheshadowangle,thatis
theanglethesunmakesonsection(the
verticalshadowanglee)andonplan(the
vertical shadow angle d) These angles
verticalshadowangled).Theseangles
enabletheshadowscastandthepatches
ofsunlightonsurfacesinsideandoutside
buildingstobepredictedandplottedon
sections and plans
sectionsandplans.
ANGLEOFINCIDENCE
Fromthesetwoanglesthesunspositionin
relationtothewallsurfaceofanyorientation(thus
theangleofincidence)canbeestablished.
Thehorizontalcomponentoftheangleof
incidence() willbethedifferencebetweenthe
solarazimuthandthewallazimuth.If,forthe
o)):
p ,
g
(
aboveexample,thewallisfacingwest(270
=270239=31o
Theverticalcomponentisthesameasthesolar
altitudeangleitself(y),theangleofincidence( ),
i e the angle between a line perpendicular to the
i.e.theanglebetweenalineperpendiculartothe
wallandthesunsdirection,canbefoundbythe
sphericalcosineequation.
Cos =cos xcosy
Inourexample:
Cos =cos31o xcos40o =0.8572x0.7660=
0.6566
=49
= 490
Thisangleofincidencewillberequiredbothforselectiontheappropriate
g
q
pp p
solargainfactorinheatgaincalculationsthroughwindowsandfor
calculatingtheincidentradiationonanopaquesurface,e.g.whenthesol
airtemperatureistobeestablished.
A fi t t it
Asafirststep,itmustbedecidedwhenshadingisnecessary,atwhat
t b d id d h
h di i
t h t
timesoftheyearandbetweenwhathoursoftheday.
Thebestguidetothisisthedefinitionoftheoverheatedperiod.
This should be quite easy if the climatic data has been complied
Thisshouldbequiteeasy,iftheclimaticdatahasbeencomplied.
Alternatively,atemperatureisoplethchartcanbeused.
SHADOW ANGLES
SHADOWANGLES
Theperformanceofshadingdevicesisspecifiedbytwoangles,the
horizontalandtheverticalshadowangles.
Thesearebothmeasuredfromalineperpendiculartotheelevation,and
indicatethelimit,beyondwhichthesunwouldbeexcluded,butwithin
whichthesunwouldreachthepointconsidered.
HEAT:
Energy
Appearing
pp
g as molecular movement in substances or as
radiant heat.
A certain wavelength band of electromagnetic radiation in
space (700-10000nm).
Joules
J l (J)
(J).
HEAT FLOW RATE:
POWER: ability to carry out a certain work in unit time.
Joules.
Unit work is carried out in unit time.
Power as the rate of energy flow.
ENERGY FLOW:
Flow of heat through a
wall, the heat removed by
a cooling
gp
plant,, the radiant
heat flow-from a electric
radiator.
The flow of electricityy
through a light bulb, sound
energy emitted by a loud
speaker.
Sound energy output of an
electric motor.
Measured in Watts.
CONDUCTIVITY:
In conduction through a body or through
b di in
bodies
i di
directt contact
t t the
th spread
d off
molecular movement constitutes-flow of
heat.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:K value.
Rate at which the molecular movement
spread
d varies
i with
ith different
diff
t materials
t i l and
d
is described as property of material.
CONDUCTANCE:
Heat flow from air on one side through
the body to air on the other side.
Conductivity and resistivity are properties
of material, the corresponding properties
of a body of a given thickness as
described as conductance ( C ).
CONDUCTION:
Heat is transferred by the bodily movement of
a carrying medium, usually a gas or liquid.
This movement may be self-generating i e.,
due to thermal forces alone or may be applied
force.
Rate of heat transfer in convection depends
on 3 factors:
Temperature difference.
Rate of movement of the carrying
y g medium.
Kg/s.
Specific heat J/kg deg C.
Resistivity 1/k.
Resistance: Product of is thickness and the
resistivity of its material.
Bx1/k R-b/k , where b- thickness in m
Bx1/k.
m.
SURFACE CONDUCTANCE:
In addition to the resistance of a body to the flow of
heat , a bodyy to the flow of heat,, a resistance will be
offered by its surface, where a thin layer of air film
separates the body from the surrounding air..
Measured- surface or film resistance ( 1/f) m2 deg C/W.
F surface or film conductance (W/m2 deg C).
Surface
S f
conductance
d t
convective
ti + radiant
di t
components of heat exchange.
TRANSMITTANCE: U value
Reciprocal of this air- to air resistance is the air- to air
transmittance or U value.
U = 1/Ra.
Unit same as conductance w/m2 deg C
C.
Used : Building heat loss and heat gain calculations.
RADIATION:
Partly absorbed and partly reflected.
Proportion of these 2 components ( a ) and reflectance ( r).
a + r = 1. .
Light colored, smooth and shiny surfaces higher reflectance
SOL
SOL-AIR
AIR TEMPERATURE:
TEMPERATURE
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE CONCEPT :For building
design purposes, it is useful to combine the heating
effect of radiation incident on a building with the effect of
warm air.
Ts = T0 x I x a/
a/f0.
Ts- sol air temperature in deg C
T0 outside temperature in deg C.
I radiation intensity.
a- absorbance of the surface.
F0- surface conductance w/m2 deg C
C.
a xU
ForWarmHumid
Climate.
0.04
0.8
Hotdryseason
(composite)
0.03
0.6
VENTILATIONANDAIRMOVEMENT
FUNCTIONSOF
VENTILATION
Ithasthreedistinctlydifferentfunctions:
It
has three distinctly different functions:
1.supplyoffreshair
2
2.convectivecooling
i
li
3.physiologicalcooling
CONVECTIVECOOLING
Theexchangeofindoorairwith
f h
freshoutdooraircanprovide
d
i
id
cooling.
Themovingairactsaheat
The moving air acts a heat
carryingmedium.
PROVISIONOFVENTILATION:
STACKEFFECT
Ventilation,i.e.,boththesupplyoffreshair
andconvectivecooling,involvesthe
y
movementofairatarelativelyslowrate.
Themotiveforcecanbeeitherthermalor
dynamic(wind).
Thestackeffectreliesonthermalforces,set
The stack effect relies on thermal forces, set
upbydensitydifference(causedby
temperaturedifference)betweentheindoor
andoutdoorair.
Itcanoccurthroughanopenwindow;the
warmerandlighterindoorairwillflowoutat
thetopandthecooler,denseroutdoorair
willflowinatthebottom.
ill fl i t th b tt
Theprincipleissameaswindgeneration.
VENTILATION SHAFT
VENTILATIONSHAFT
Thehighertheshaft,thelarger
thecrosssectionalareaandthe
greaterthetemperature
t th t
t
difference;thegreaterthe
motiveforcetherefore,the
moreairwillbemoved.
Themotiveforceisthestack
pressuremultipliedbythecross
sectionalarea.
Thestackpressurecanbe
The stack press re can be
calculatedfromtheequation:
Ps=0.042xhxt
Where h =height
heightofthestack
of the stack
Whereh
(m),
t=temperaturedifference
(degC)
Airalthoughlighthasamassandasitmoves,hasamomentum,
whichistheproductofitsmassandasitmoves,hasavectorial
quantity which can be change in direction or in magnitude only
quantity,whichcanbechangeindirectionorinmagnitudeonly
byanotherforce.
Whenthemovingairstrikesanobstaclesuchasbuilding,thiswill
slowdowntheairflowbuttheairflowwillexertapressureon
theobstructingsurface.
Thispressureisproportionatetotheairvelocity,asexpressedby
This pressure is proportionate to the air velocity as expressed by
theequation;Pw
=0.612xv2
where P w =windpressure(N/m
whereP
= wind pressure(N/m2),V=windvelocity(m/s)
) V= wind velocity (m/ s)
Thisslowingdownprocesseffectsaroughlywedgeshaped
massofaironthewindwardsideofthebuildingwhichinturn
f i
th i d
d id f th b ildi
hi h i t
divertstherestoftheairflowupwardsandsideways.
Aseparationlayerisformedbetweenthestagnantairandthe
buildingontheonehandandthelaminarairflowonthe
otherhand.
Thelaminarairflowitselfmaybeacceleratedattheobstacle
Th l i
i fl i lf
b
l
d
h b
l
astheareaavailablefortheflowisnarroweddownbythe
obstacle.
Attheseparationlayerduetofrictiontheuppersurfaceof
thestagnantairismovedforward,thusaturbulenceor
vortex is developed
vortexisdeveloped.
Duetoitsmomentum,the
laminarairflowtendstomaintain
astraightpathafterithasbeen
h
h f
h b
diverted,thereforeitwilltake
sometimetoreturntotheground
surfaceaftertheobstacleto
occupyalltheavailablecross
section.
Thusastagnantmassofairisalso
formedontheleewardside,but
thisisatareducedpressure.In
p
fact,thisisnotquitestagnant,a
vortexisformed,themovementis
lightandvariableanditisoften
g
referredtoaswindshadow.
AIRFLOWTHROUGH
BUILDINGS
Airflowpatternsiscompletelypredictedonthebasisofempiricalrules
derivedfrommeasurementsinactualbuildingsorinwindtunnelstudies.
Awindtunnelisaresearchtooldevelopedtoassistwithstudyingthe
effectsofairmovingoveroraroundsolidobjects.
Thefollowingfactorscanbeisolatedwhichaffecttheindoorairflow;
Orientation
External features
Externalfeatures
Crossventilation
Positionofopenings
Si
Sizeofopenings
f
i
Controlsofopenings
ORIENTATION
Thegreatestpressureonthewindward
sideofabuildingisgeneratedwhenthe
elevationisatrightanglestothewind
g
g
direction,soitseemstobeobviousthat
thegreatestindoorairvelocitywillbe
achieved.
Awindincidenceof45 wouldreduce
thepressureby50%.
Thusthedesignerascertainthe
Th th d i
t i th
prevailingwinddirectionfromwind
frequencychartsofwindrosesand
mustorientatehisbuildinginsucha
t i t t hi b ildi i
h
waythatthelargestopeningarefacing
thewinddirection.
Building45 agreatervelocityis
createdalongthewindwardfaces,
therefore the wind shadow will be
thereforethewindshadowwillbe
muchbroader,thenegativepressure
willbeincreasedandanincreased
indoor air flow will result
indoorairflowwillresult.
Optimumsolarorientationand
optimumorientationforwinddonot
coincide.
coincide
Inequatorialregions,anorthsouth
orientationwouldbepreferablefor
sun exclusion but most often the
sunexclusionbutmostoftenthe
windispredominantlyeasterly.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
EXTERNALFEATURES
Windshadowscreatedby
obstructions upwind should be
obstructionsupwind,shouldbe
avoidedinpositioningthe
buildingonthesiteandin
positioningtheopeningsinthe
buildings.
buildings
Thewindvelocitygradientis
madesteeperbyanuneven
surface,suchasscattered
b ld
buildings,wallfences,trees.
ll f
Butevenwithamoderate
velocitygradientsuchasover
p g
smoothandopengroundalow
buildingscanneverobtainair
velocitiessimilartoatallerone.
Forthisreasonthebuildingis
often elevated on stilts
oftenelevatedonstilts.
EExternalfeaturesofthebuildingitselfcanstronglyinfluenced
lf
f h b ildi i lf
l i fl
d
thepressurebuildup.
Forexample,iftheairflowisat45
For example, if the air flow is at 45o toanelevation,awing
to an elevation, a wing
wallatthedownwindendoraprojectingwingofanLshaped
buildingcanmorethandoublethepositivepressurecreated.
Asimilarfunnellingeffectcanbecreatedbyupward
l f
ll
ff
b
db
d
projectingeaves.
CLASSIFICATIONOF
TROPICAL CLIMATES
TROPICALCLIMATES
Climatic zones
Tropical climates
Warm humid climates
Warm humid island climate
Hot dry desert climate
Hot dry maritime desert climate
Composite or monsoon climate
Tropical upland climate
Air
Temperatu
re
M
Mean
M
Max:
Mean Min:
Humidity
RH:
Vapor
Pressure:
Warm Humid
climate
Warm Humid
Island
climate
Hot dry
desert
climate
Hot dry
maritime
desert
climate
27-32C
27
32C
18-24C
29-32C
29
32C
18-24C
43-49C
43
49C
27-32C
38C
24-30C
75%
55-100%
10-55%
50-90%
2500-000
N/sq.m
1750-2500
N/sq.m
750-1500
N/sq.m
500-2500
N/sq.m
Precipitatio
n
High
High
Slight and
variable
Very low
Annual
Rainfall
2000-5000
mm/annum
500
mm/month
1250-1800
mm/annum
200-250
mm/month
50-155
mm/annum
Composite or
Monsoon
climate
Tropical
Upland
climate
b/w warm
humid and hot
dry climate
24-30C
24
30C
10-13C
20-55%(Dry
Period)
Period),
55-95%(Wet
Period)
1300-1600
N/sq.m
45-99%
800-1600
N/sq.m
Intense and
prolonged
Variable
500-1300
mm/annum
200-250
mm in the
wettest
month.
1000mm
Sky
Conditions
Fairly cloudy
Normally
clear
Normally
clear
Little more
cloudy
Monsoon: Dull
Dry season:
clear with dark
blue color
Clear and
partly
cloudy
Solar
Radiation
Strong and
diffuse
diffuse.
cause painful
sky glare
Strong and
mainly direct
Direct and
strong
Strong
Alternates
between
warm
humid and Hot
dry desert
climates.
Direct and
strong
Winds
Strong winds
occur during
Rain squalls
Higher
velocities
Occur
during
cyclones
Local whirl
winds are
often
created
Local,
coastal
winds
caused
by unequal
heating and
cooling of
land and
sea
surfaces.
Monsoon
winds
are fairly
strong
and steady
bring rain
clouds
and humid
air.
Winds are
variable
drastically
deflected
by local
topography.
Vegetation
Grows
quickly.
The red or
brown late
rite soils.
Subsoil
water table
is high
Less
luxuriant.
Soil is often
dry with a
fairly low
water table
Sparse
Soils dry
quickly
after rain
and the
subsoil
water table
is very
low.
Sparse
The ground
and rocks
are brown
or red.
Sparse
The soil is
damp during
the rains but it
dries out
quickly.
Green
The soil is
damp during
the rains but it
dries out
quickly
Special
p
Characteri
stics
High
g
humidity
accelerates
mould and
algal
growth
growth,
rusting and
rotting.
The thunder
storms are
accompanie
d by
frequent air
to air
electrical
discharges.
Tropical
p
cyclones or
hurricanes
with wind
velocities
from 45 to
70 m/s
which
constitute a
serious
seasonal
changes.
During
g
certain
months
dust and
sand
storms
may be
frequent.
Dust and
sand
storms
may occur.
Thunder
storms with a
fair proportion
of electrical
discharges air
to ground
ground. Hail
may occur.
TEXTBOOK
1.
O.H.Koenigsberger,ManualofTropicalhousingandbuilding ClimaticDesign,Orient
Longman,Chennai,1975.
REFERENCEBOOKS
1
1.
M Evans Housing,Climate&Comfort,ArchitecturalPress,London,1980.
M.Evans
Housing Climate & Comfort Architectural Press London 1980
2.
E.Schild&M.Finbow EnvironmentalPhysicsinconstruction&itsapplicationin
ArchitecturalDesign,granadar,london,1981.
3.
B.Givoni Man,Climate&Architecture,AppliedScience,Essex1982.
4.
DonaldWatson&Kennethlabs ClimaticDesign McgrawhillNewYork1983.
5.
A.Konya DesignPrimerforHotClimates,ArchitecturalPress,London,1980.