Heat treatment of welded joints

Job Knowledge
Heat treatment is an operation that is both time consuming and costly. It can affect the strength and toughness of a welded joint, its corrosion resistance and
the level of residual stress but is also a mandatory operation specified in many application codes and standards. In addition it is an essential variable in welding
procedure qualification specifications.
Before discussing the range of heat treatments that a metal may be subjected to, there is a need to clearly define what is meant by the various terms used to
describe the range of heat treatments that may be applied to a welded joint. Such terms are often used incorrectly, particularly by non-specialists; for a
metallurgist they have very precise meanings.

Fig. 1 Heat treatment of welded joints

Solution treatment
Carried out at a high temperature and designed to take into a solution elements and compounds which are then retained in solution by cooling rapidly from the
solution treatment temperature. This may be done to reduce the strength of the joint or to improve its corrosion resistance. With certain alloys it may be
followed by a lower temperature heat treatment to reform the precipitates in a controlled manner (age or precipitation hardening).
Annealing
This consists of heating a metal to a high temperature, where recrystallisation and/or a phase transformation take place, and then cooling slowly, often in the
heat treatment furnace. This is often carried out to soften the metal after it has been hardened, for example by cold working; a full anneal giving the very
softest of microstructures. It also results in a reduction in both the yield and the tensile strength and, in the case of ferritic steels, usually a reduction in
toughness.
Normalising

This is a heat treatment that is carried out only on ferritic steels. It comprises heating the steel to some 30-50C above the upper transformation temperature
(for a 0.20% carbon steel this would be around 910C) and cooling in still air. This results in a reduction in grain size and improvements in both strength and
toughness.
Quenching
This comprises a rapid cool from a high temperature. A ferritic steel would be heated to above the upper transformation temperature and quenched in water, oil
or air blast to produce a very high strength, fine grained martensite. Steels are never used in the quenched condition, they are always tempered following the
quenching operation.
Tempering
A heat treatment carried out on ferritic steels at a relatively low temperature, below the lower transformation temperature; in a conventional structural carbon
steel this would be in the region of 600-650C. It reduces hardness, lowers the tensile strength and improves ductility and toughness. Most normalised steels
are tempered before welding, all quenched steels are used in the quenched and tempered condition.
Ageing or Precipitation hardening
A low temperature heat treatment designed to produce the correct size and distribution of precipitates, thereby increasing the yield and tensile strength. It is
generally preceded by a solution heat treatment. For steel, the temperature may be somewhere between 450-740 degree C, an aluminium alloy would be aged
at between 100-200C. Longer times and/or higher temperatures result in an increase in size of the precipitate and a reduction in both hardness and strength.
Stress relief
As the name suggests, this is a heat treatment designed to reduce the residual stresses produced by weld shrinkage. It relies upon the fact that, as the
temperature of the metal is raised, the yield strength decreases, allowing the residual stresses to be redistributed by creep of the weld and parent metal.
Cooling from the stress relief temperature is controlled in order that no harmful thermal gradients can occur.
Post heat
A low temperature heat treatment carried out immediately on completion of welding by increasing the preheat by some 100C and maintaining this
temperature for 3 or 4 hours. This assists the diffusion of any hydrogen in the weld or heat affected zones out of the joint and reduces the risk of hydrogen
induced cold cracking. It is used only on ferritic steels, where hydrogen cold cracking is a major concern i.e. very crack sensitive steels, very thick joints etc.
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
So what does the term 'post weld heat treatment' mean? To some engineers it is a rather vague term that is used to describe any heat treatment that is carried
out when welding is complete. To others however, particularly those working in accordance with the pressure vessel codes such as BS PD 5500, EN 13445 or
ASME VIII, it has a very precise meaning. When an engineer talks of post weld heat treatment, annealing, tempering or stress relief it is therefore advisable.
Heat treatment following welding may be carried out for one or more of three fundamental reasons:

to achieve dimensional stability in order to maintain tolerances during machining operations or during shake-down in service
to produce specific metallurgical structures in order to achieve the required mechanical properties

to reduce the risk of in-service problems such as stress corrosion or brittle fracture by reducing the residual stress in the welded component
The range of heat treatments to achieve one or more of these three objectives in the range of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys that may be welded is
obviously far too extensive to cover in great detail within these brief Job Knowledge articles. The emphasis in the following section will be on the PWHT of
carbon and low alloy steels as required by the application standards although brief mention will be made of other forms of heat treatment that the welding
engineer may encounter in the ferrous alloys. There are two basic mechanisms that are involved, firstly stress relief and secondly microstructural modifications
or tempering.
Stress Relief
Why is it necessary to perform stress relief? It is an expensive operation requiring part or all of the welded item to be heated to a high temperature and it may
cause undesirable metallurgical changes in some alloys. As mentioned above there may be one or more reasons. The high residual stresses locked into a
welded joint may cause deformation outside acceptable dimensions to occur when the item is machined or when it enters service. High residual stresses in
carbon and low alloy steels can increase the risk of brittle fracture by providing a driving force for crack propagation. Residual stresses will cause stress
corrosion cracking to occur in the correct environment eg carbon and low alloy steels in caustic service or stainless steel exposed to chlorides.
What causes these high residual stresses? Welding involves the deposition of molten metal between two essentially cold parent metal faces. As the joint cools
the weld metal contracts but is restrained by the cold metal on either side; the residual stress in the joint therefore increases as the temperature falls. When
the stress has reached a sufficiently high value (the yield point or proof strength at that temperature) the metal plastically deforms by means of a creep
mechanism so that the stress in the joint matches the yield strength. As the temperature continues to fallre the yield strength increases, impeding deformation,
so that at ambient temperature the residual stress is often equal to the proof strength (Fig 1).
To reduce this high level of residual stress, the component is reheated to a sufficiently high temperature. As the temperature is increased the proof strength
falls, allowing deformation to occur and residual stress to decrease until an acceptable level is reached. The component would be held at this temperature
(soaked) for a period of time until a stable condition is reached and then cooled back to room temperature. The residual stress remaining in the joint is equal to
the proof strength at the soak temperature.
Figure 1 shows that residual stress in a carbon manganese steel falls reasonably steadily from ambient to around 600 degree C but that the high strength creep
resistant steels need to be above 400 degree C before the residual stress begins to fall. Stainless steel is hardly affected until the temperature exceeds 500
degree C. There is therefore a range of soak temperatures for the various alloys to achieve an acceptable reduction in residual stress without adversely
affecting the mechanical properties of the joint. In carbon manganese steels this temperature will be between 550-620 degree C, in creep resistant steels
somewhere between 650-750 degree C and for stainless steels between 800-850 degree C.
The next article will cover tempering of ferritic steels and will be followed by further information on other alloys and methods of applying and controlling heat
treatment activities.

Heat treatment of welded joints - Part 2

Job Knowledge

Part 1 of this series of articles gave definitions of some of the heat treatments that may be applied to a welded joint and dealt with the operation of stress
relieving a ferritic steel assembly. The temperature range within which stress relief takes place will also cause tempering of those regions in the HAZs where
hard structures may have formed.

Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment that is only relevant to steels and is carried out to soften any hard micro-structures that may have formed during previous heat
treatments, improving ductility and toughness. Tempering also enables precipitates to form and for the size of these to be controlled to provide the required
mechanical properties. This is particularly important for the creep resistant chromium-molybdenum steels. Tempering comprises heating the steel to a
temperature below the lower critical temperature; this temperature being affected by any alloying elements that have been added to the steel so that for a
carbon-manganese steel, the temperature is around 650C, for a 2CrMo steel, 760C . Quenched steels are always tempered. Normalised steels are also
usually supplied in the tempered condition although occasionally low carbon carbon-manganese steel may be welded in the normalised condition only, the
tempering being achieved during PWHT. Annealed steels are not supplied in the tempered condition.
Tempering of tool steels may be performed at temperatures as low as 150 degrees C, but with the constructional steels that are the concern of the welding
engineer the tempering temperature is generally somewhere between 550- 760C, depending on the composition of the steel.

Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

As mentioned in Part 1, PWHT is a specific term that encompasses both stress relief and tempering and is not to be confused with heat treatments after
welding. Such treatments may comprise ageing of aluminium alloys, solution treatment of austenitic stainless steel, hydrogen release etc. PWHT is a mandatory
requirement in many codes and specifications when certain criteria are met. It reduces the risk of brittle fracture by reducing the residual stress and improving
toughness and reduces the risk of stress corrosion cracking. It has, however, little beneficial effect on fatigue performance unless the stresses are mostly
compressive.
It is an essential variable in all of the welding procedure qualification specifications such as ISO 15614 Part 1 and ASME IX. Addition or deletion of PWHT or
heat treatment outside the qualified time and/or temperature ranges require a requalification of the welding procedures. PWHT temperatures for welds made in
accordance with the requirements of EN 13445, ASME VIII and BS PD 5500 are given below in Table 1.
Table 1: PWHT Temperatures from Pressure Vessel Specifications

Steel Grade BS EN 13445 ASME VIII

Temp range
C
C Steel

550-600

BS PD 5500

Normal holding temp Temp range

C
C

593

580-620

Steel Grade BS EN 13445 ASME VIII

BS PD 5500

C 1/2 Mo

550-620

593

630-670

1Cr 1/2 Mo

630-680

593

630-700

2 1/4 Cr/Mo 670-720

677

630-750

5CrMo

700-750

677

710-750

3 1/2 Ni

530-580

593

580-620

Note from Table 1 that ASME VIII specifies a minimum holding temperature and not a temperature range as in the BS and EN specifications.
As mentioned above, PWHT is a mandatory requirement when certain criteria are met, the main one being the thickness. BS EN 13445 and BSPD 5500 require
that joints over 35mm thick are PWHTd, ASME VII above 19mm. If, however, the vessel is to enter service where stress corrosion is a possibility, PWHT is
mandatory, irrespective of thickness. The soak time is also dependant on thickness. As a very general rule this is one hour per 25mm of thickness; for
accuracy, reference must be made to the relevant specification.
These different requirements within the specifications mean that great care needs to be taken if a procedure qualification test is to be carried out that is
intended to comply with more than one specification. A further important point is that the PWHT temperature should not be above that of the original tempering
temperature as there is a risk of reducing the strength below the specified minimum for the steel. It is possible to PWHT above the tempering temperature only
if mechanical testing is carried out to show that the steel has adequate mechanical properties. The testing should, obviously, be on the actual material in the
new heat treatment condition.
Maximum and minimum heating and cooling rates above 350-400C are also specified in the application codes. Too fast a heating or cooling rate can result in
unacceptable distortion due to unequal heating or cooling and, in very highly restrained components, may cause stress cracks to form during heating.

Application of PWHT
The method of PWHT depends on a number of factors; what equipment is available, what is the size and configuration of the component, what soaking
temperature needs to be achieved, can the equipment provide uniform heating at the required heating rate? The best method is by using a furnace. This could
be a permanent fixed furnace or a temporary furnace erected around the component, this latter being particularly useful for large unwieldy structures or to
PWHT a large component on site. Permanent furnaces may be bogie loaded with a wheeled furnace bed on to which the component is placed or a top hat
furnace that uses a fixed hearth and a removable cover. Typically, a furnace capable of heat treating a 150tonne pressure vessel would have dimensions of
around 20m long, a door 5x5m and would consume around 900cu/metres of gas per hour.
Furnaces can be heated using electricity, either resistance or induction heating, natural gas or oil. If using fossil fuels care should be taken to ensure that the
fuel does not contain elements such as sulphur that may cause cracking problems with some alloys, particularly if these are austenitic steels or are nickel based

 corrosion resistant cladding for example. Whichever fuel is used the furnace atmosphere should be closely controlled such that there is not excessive
oxidation and scaling or carburisation due to unburnt carbon in the furnace atmosphere. If the furnace is gas or oil fired the flame must not be allowed to touch
the component or the temperature monitoring thermocouples; this will result in either local overheating or a failure to reach PWHT temperature.
Monitoring the temperature of the component during PWHT is essential. Most modern furnaces use zone control with thermocouples measuring and controlling
the temperature of regions within the furnace, control being exercised automatically via computer software. Zone control is particularly useful to control the
heating rates when PWHTing a component with different thicknesses of steel. It is not, however, recommended to use monitoring of the furnace temperature
as proving the correct temperatures have been achieved in the component. Thermocouples are therefore generally attached to the surface of the component at
specified intervals and it is these that are used to control the heating and cooling rates and the soak temperature automatically so that a uniform temperature
is reached. There are no hard and fast rules concerning the number and disposition of thermocouples, each item needs to be separately assessed.
As mentioned earlier, the yield strength reduces as the temperature rises and the component may be unable to support its own weight at the PWHT
temperature. Excessive distortion is therefore a real possibility. It is essential that the component is adequately supported during heat treatment and trestles
shaped to fit the component should be placed at regular intervals. The spacing of these will depend on the shape, diameter and thickness of the item. Internal
supports may be required inside a cylinder such as a pressure vessel; if so, the supports should be of a similar material so that the coefficients of thermal
expansion are matched.
Whilst heat treating a pressure vessel in one operation in a furnace large enough to accommodate the entire vessel is the preferred method this is not always
possible. In this case the pressure vessel application codes permit a completed vessel to be heat treated in sections in the furnace. It is necessary to overlap
the heated regions the width of the overlap is generally related to the vessel thickness. BS EN 13445 for instance specifies an overlap of 5Re where R =
inside diameter and e = thickness; ASME VIII specifies an overlap of 1.5 metres. It should be remembered that if this is done there will be a region in the
vessel (which may contain welds) that will have experienced two cycles of PWHT and this needs to be taken into account in welding procedure qualification
testing. There is also an area of concern, this being the region between the heated area within the furnace and the cold section outside the furnace. The
temperature gradient must be controlled by adequately lagging the vessel with thermally insulating blankets and the requirements are given in the application
codes.
It is, of course, possible to assemble and PWHT a vessel in sections and then to carry out a local PWHT on the final closure seam. Local PWHT will be discussed
in the next part of this series on heat treatment.
The next article will cover further information on other alloys and methods of applying and controlling heat treatment activities.

Heat Treatment Part 3

Job Knowledge
When it is not possible to place the entire component in a furnace for heat treatment (because of the size of the fabrication, circumferential welds in a pipework
system or when installing equipment on site, for example), then a local PWHT may be the only option. Local PWHT needs careful planning to ensure that
heating and cooling rates are controlled and that an even and correct temperature is achieved. Uneven and/or rapid heating can give rise to harmful
temperature gradients producing thermally induced stresses that exceed the yield stress. This may result in the development of new residual stresses when the
component is cooled.
Local PWHT may be carried out using high velocity gas burners, infra red burners, induction heating and high or low resistance heating elements. Electrical
equipment is more easily installed and controlled than heating using natural gas or propane, particularly on site. High voltage resistance heating is rarely used

on site due to the need for the radiant heaters to be positioned a set distance from the surface and, more significantly perhaps, the health and safety risks
involved with the use of high voltage current. Low voltage electrical resistance heating and induction heating are the two most commonly used methods.
High velocity gas burners are more advantageous when large areas need to be heat treated, particularly if, for example, firing can take place within a pressure
vessel which then becomes its own furnace. For local PWHT of vessel circumferential seams internal insulating barriers can be used to localise the heat source.
Motorised valves and micro-processor control of the combustion conditions enabled precise management of the heating cycle to be achieved.
Low voltage electrical resistance heating uses flexible ceramic heating elements, colloquially known as corsets, an appropriate number being assembled to
cover the area to be heat treated. Induction heating uses insulated cables that can be wrapped around the joint or shaped to fit the area to be heated or
specially designed fitting for repetitive PWHT operations as illustrated in Fig 1. To perform the PWHT, temperature control thermocouples are firstly attached,
often by capacitor discharge welding, the elements placed in position and the area then lagged with thermal insulating blankets to reduce heat loss and to
maintain an acceptable temperature gradient.
There are no standard terms used to describe the various regions within the locally PWHT'd area. In this article the terms 'soak band', 'heated band', 'gradient
control band', 'temperature gradient', which may be axial and through thickness, and 'control zone' as suggested by the ASME will be used (see Fig 2).
The soak band is the area that is heated to, within the specified PWHT temperature and time range. It comprises the weld, the two HAZs and part of the
surrounding parent metal. The heated band is the area covered by the heating elements, the temperature at the edge of the heated band generally being
required to be at least half that of the soak temperature. The temperature gradient control band is the region where thermal insulation, perhaps supplemented
by additional heating elements, is applied to ensure that an acceptable axial temperature gradient is achieved from PWHT temperature to ambient. A control
zone is the region where a number of heating elements are grouped together and controlled by a single thermocouple, enabling different regions to be heated
independently; particularly useful with large diameter items or where there are variations in thickness.
Temperature gradients may be axial (along the length of a pipe or vessel) and through thickness. The through thickness temperature gradient is caused by
heat losses from the internal surface and is a function of both thickness and internal diameter, the larger the diameter, the greater the effect of radiation and
convection losses. Both the width of the soak band and the temperature achieved can be substantially less than that on the outside of the pipe or tube.
Insulation on the inner surface will reduce the temperature/width differential but may not be possible on small diameter tubes or pipework systems. This
through thickness gradient is one of the reasons that specifications and codes require the soak or heated band to be a minimum width, generally related in
some way to the thickness of the component.
As mentioned above, there are rules in the application codes concerning the size of the heated area, normally related to the thickness. In a circular component
such as a pipe butt weld or a pressure vessel circumferential seam the width of the band is easy to calculate. ASME VIII for instance requires the soak band
width to be twice the thickness of the weld or 50.8mm either side of the weld, whichever is the lesser.
ASME B31.3 requires the soak band width to be the weld width plus 25.4mm either side of the weld. BS EN 13445 does not specify a soak band width but
instead specifies a heated band width of 5Rt centred on the weld and where R = component inside radius and t = component thickness. There are no
requirements in the ASME codes regarding heated band width. A very approximate rule of thumb for flat plate is that the heated band should be a minimum of
twice the length of the weld although practical considerations may prevent achieving this ideal.
There are no requirements, in any code or specification, on the width of the thermally insulated band although BS EN 13445 recommends 10Re. It is essential
that the relevant specification is referred to for specific guidance on what is required and it is worth remembering that the specification requirements on soak or
heated band widths are minima and very little is lost by ensuring the specified dimensions are comfortably exceeded.
What is an acceptable axial temperature gradient? Again, there is little advice in the codes and specifications. It is generally assumed that if the temperature at
the edge of the heated band is above half that of the soak temperature then the temperature gradient will not be harmful. During heating and cooling BS EN
13445 specifies a maximum temperature difference of 150C in 4500mm below 450C (1C in 3mm) and 1000C in 4500mm above 4500C (1C in 4.5mm).

To ensure that gradients and temperatures are controlled within acceptable limits sufficient thermocouples need to be attached to provide both temperature
control and recording. For small diameter tubes, eg less than 100mm diameter, one control zone and one recording thermocouple are regarded as sufficient;
between 100-200mm one control zone and one recording thermocouple at each of the 12 oclock and 6 oclock positions; above 250mm diameter one control
zone and one recording thermocouple at each 900 quadrant, 12, 3, 6 and 9 oclock, are suggested.
These thermocouples should be placed on the centre line of the weld. Thermocouples will also be needed at the edge of the soak band and the edge of the
heated band. Ideally, thermocouples should also be placed on the opposite surface to the heating elements to ensure that the correct through thickness
temperature has been achieved although this is rarely possible on pipe systems. It is advisable to double up on the thermocouples to cope with the possibility
of a thermocouple failure.
Thermocouples use a hot and a cold junction to measure the temperature, the hot junction being attached to the component, the cold junction within the
temperature recorder. For accurate temperature measurement the hot junction must obviously be at the temperature of the component. Errors can be
introduced if the junction is not firmly attached, either by capacitor discharge (CD) welding, by mechanically fixing the wires to the component or by
overheating of the thermocouple junction.
CD welding of the thermocouple wires gives the most accurate results, particularly if the two wires are separated by 3-4mm. Mechanically attached wires will
probably need to be insulated by covering the junction with heat resistant putty to prevent overheating of the thermocouple by the overlying heater. If the wire
covering is stripped back then the bare wires also need to be insulated. It is advisable to specify the positions of the thermocouples on a drawing and to include
these within a formal written heat treatment procedure document that covers both the specification and best practice requirements.
For more information, please contact us.

Fig 1. Induction PWHT of Pipework

Fig 2 Schematic of Temperature bands within a local PWHT (Reproduced with permission of the American Welding Society (AWS), Miami, Florida, USA)

Heat Treatment of welded joints Part 4 - Precipitation or age hardening

Job Knowledge
There are several methods that may be used to increase the strength of a metal; alloying, quenching of steel, work hardening, and one very specific form of
heat treatment, that of precipitation or age hardening (the two terms are synonymous). Many ferrous and non-ferrous alloys are capable of being age hardened
and, as the name suggests, this method of increasing the strength relies upon the formation of precipitates. To achieve the optimum combination of mechanical
properties the heat treatment cycles must be very closely controlled.
Unfortunately, to understand how the precipitates affect the mechanical properties it is necessary to introduce some fundamental metallurgy.
The precipitation hardening mechanism requires the solubility of the alloying element, the solute, in the metal, the solvent, to increase as the temperature
increases as shown in the phase diagram in Figure 1 where the solvus line shows decreasing solubility of alloying element B in the solvent A as the temperature
falls.
An analogy is that of salt in water; as the temperature increases more salt can be dissolved but the converse happens as the solution is allowed to cool when
salt crystals begin to form or precipitate.
The same process occurs in suitably alloyed metals except that the processes of dissolving and precipitating take place in the solid and are hence much slower
as atoms find it more difficult to move in a solid than a liquid solution.
A consequence of this is that once the precipitates have been dissolved by taking the metal alloy to a sufficiently high temperature, ie above the solvus line,
they can be prevented from re-forming by rapid cooling or quenching.
This heat treatment is known as solution heat treatment and is carried out to form an unstable super-cooled solid solution which, if reheated to a lower ageing
or precipitation hardening temperature, will begin to re-form the precipitates, these growing in size as the heat treatment proceeds. A schematic of such a heat
treatment cycle is also given in Figure 1 for alloy N.

Figure 1: Phase diagram showing decreasing solubility of B in A and heat treatment cycle

In the solution heat treated metal the atoms of the alloying element, the solute, are randomly distributed throughout the matrix but once the temperature is
raised the precipitates begin to form by a nucleation and growth process. At relatively low temperatures and in a short timescale the solute atoms begin to
cluster together to form extremely small and very finely dispersed precipitates known as Guinier-Preston (GP) zones, named after the two metallurgists who
first identified them. The GP zones are so small that they are not visible using normal optical microscopes but can be seen using electron microscopy at
magnifications of around x100,000.
The GP zones are described as coherent, in other words they have the same crystal structure as the solvent metal. However, they distort the crystal lattice, the
framework on which the atoms are positioned. This makes it more difficult for dislocations to move through the lattice and it is dislocation movement that
enables metal to deform; tensile strength and hardness therefore increase but ductility and toughness decrease. As the ageing treatment continues or the
temperature is raised the tensile strength also continues to increase as the precipitates grow and coarsen whilst still remaining coherent. At some point,
however, the precipitates begin to lose their coherency; they become incoherent, forming separate particles within the metal with a different crystal structure
from the solvent and at this stage they become visible using an optical microscope.
Just before this point is reached is when the alloy has the very highest tensile strength. As these incoherent particles form and grow in size the tensile strength
progressively decreases. The alloy then is said to be overaged although the precipitates still contribute towards the tensile strength of the alloy. The high
strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are a good example of this where incoherent, overaged precipitates are used to give a substantial increase in the tensile
strength.
In order to achieve the best combination of properties the precipitates need to be evenly distributed throughout the grains of the alloy and of an optimum size.
The ageing temperature and/or time can obviously be changed to tailor the distribution and size of the precipitates; longer times and/or higher temperatures
generally result in a reduction in strength but an increase in ductility, an overaged structure giving the lowest tensile strength but the highest ductility.

Typical heat treatment times and temperatures of a range of different alloys are given in Table 1. The ferritic and nickel based alloys are generally used in the
overaged condition in order to ensure a reasonable degree of ductility. It can be seen that with some alloys, eg 17/4PH stainless steel, the precipitation
mechanism is sufficiently sluggish that the component can be cooled in still air or, as with the A286 stainless steel, long ageing times are required.
On the other hand the aluminium-copper alloy 2219 is capable of ageing at room temperature if left for a couple of days. Some of the 6000(Al-Si-Mg) and
series 7000 (Al-Zn-Mg) alloys will similarly age at ambient temperature. This is known as natural ageing; aging at an elevated temperature is known as
artificial ageing.

Table 1: Typical ageing heat treatments and properties of a range of age hardening alloys

The close control of heat treatment times, temperatures and cooling rates is therefore essential if the required properties are to be obtained. For the solution
treatment of aluminium alloys a salt bath is frequently used, artificial ageing taking place in a forced air circulation furnace. Illustrated in Figure 2 is the effect
of varying the time and temperature on the ultimate tensile strength of an Al-4%Cu alloy such as alloy 2025 where it can be seen that a difference as small as
40OC in the ageing temperature can have a major effect on the strength. The higher temperature needed by the nickel and ferrous alloys generally requires the
use of gas fired or electrical furnaces with sufficient thermocouples to ensure the correct temperatures are consistently achieved throughout the component.

Figure 2: Effect of varying ageing times and temperatures on tensile strength

Complying with NACE hardness requirements

Job Knowledge

Carbon steels in service in the offshore and oil refinery industries are susceptible to a cracking mechanism known as sulphide (SSC) or hydrogen (HSC) stress
cracking when in sour service, ie when hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is present in the process fluid. Although the cracking is described as stress cracking, the main
problem is the hardness of the parent metals, the weld and its heat affected zones (HAZ).
NACE (formerly the National Association of Corrosion Engineers) has published two specifications that provide guidance on reducing the risk of in-service
cracking, one of these also being an ISO standard. The major difference between these two primary specifications is the definition the environmental and
service conditions for sour service. The first standard, ANSI/NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, Petroleum and natural gas industries - Materials for use in H2Scontaining environments in oil and gas production, is intended for offshore applications and NACE MR0103, Materials Resistant to sulphide stress cracking in
corrosive petroleum refining environments, for onshore process plant. The latter specification refers to a recommended practice document for controlling

welding activities to ensure a low and acceptable weldment hardness; NACE SP0472, Methods and controls to prevent in-service environmental cracking of
carbon steel weldments in corrosive petroleum refining environments.
Whilst both MR0175 and MR0103 cover a wide range of materials (carbon, duplex and stainless steels, nickel and aluminium alloys) SP0472 and this article are
concerned with carbon steels only, classified as P1 in ASME IX, ie hot finished carbon steels with a specified ultimate tensile strength less than 480MPa
(70,000p.s.i.) and how weldment hardness in these steels can be controlled. Note that the BS EN 10028 steels are now assigned P numbers in ASME IX.
Both MR0175 and MR0103 have virtually identical requirements for specifying parent metal properties of carbon steels for sour service; the principal additional
requirement being a maximum hardness. All steels that have been cold-worked must be stress relief heat treated to ensure the hardness is less than 22HRC
(Rockwell hardness, equivalent to 248Hv or 235HB). Carbon steels other than P1 can be used provided that their hardness is also less than 22HRC.
It should be remembered that parent metals may be weld repaired as part of the plate production regime. These base metal repairs must also comply with the
NACE requirements with respect to weld metal and HAZ hardness. In addition, although SP0472 is concerned with the results of welding any thermal cutting
process will produce a heat affected zone which, if not removed or welded over may result in HSC. It will be necessary to require some 3mm of material to be
removed to ensure that there are no areas of unacceptably high hardness.
SP0472 requires that the HAZs of all pressure boundary welds and internal attachment welds in pressure containing equipment comply with a maximum
hardness of 248Hv10, as are repair welds and some external attachment welds. Welding processes covered by SP0472 are the more common processes;
manual metallic arc (MMA), MAG, FCAW,TIG and submerged arc welding.
To minimise the risk of producing unacceptably hard HAZs it is recommended to use steels with a carbon equivalent (CE) less than 0.43 based on CE =
C+Mn/6+(Cr+Mo+V)/5+(Ni+Cu)/15. This is less of a problem with many of the BS EN steels as these are specified to have low carbon contents or a maximum
CE less than 0.42. The ASME steels are permitted far higher carbon contents with no requirement to specify all of the elements required by the CE formula so
care needs to be taken when ordering pressure containing materials against the ASME codes; ASME A 516 Gd70, for instance, can have a CE as high as 0.52. It
will also be necessary to specify limits on micro-alloying elements such as niobium (Nb), titanium (Ti) and boron (B).
The hardness of production weld metal is limited to 200HB (211Hv) although E60XX and E70XX electrodes and TIG and MAG deposits made with ER70S2, -S3
and -S4 and S6 (with less than 0.1% carbon and less than 1.6% manganese) are exempt from this production testing requirement. This implies that
additional filler metal certification and batch control on the shop floor is necessary to demonstrate compliance. It is also difficult to achieve this maximum
hardness figure when there is a large amount of dilution from the parent metal, for example when depositing root passes or from single pass fillet welds where
very close control of the welding parameters is required. In addition to the control of the parent metal composition, HAZ hardness may be controlled by four
separate methods; close control of the cooling rate, temper beading, post weld heat treatment (PWHT) and procedure qualification testing.
Control of the cooling rate requires the time to cool from 800-500OC (t8/5) to be controlled such that hard microstructures are avoided. This cooling rate must
be specified for production welding, formulae for the calculation of t8/5 taking into account the relevant variables. Thickness, process heat input, joint
configuration, preheat etc are given in Appendix C of SP 0472. The method is qualified by carrying out a pre-production weld test on representative parent
material using the fastest cooling rate at which the HAZ hardness is acceptable; several tests may therefore be required. A successful test qualifies all other
production welds made with cooling rates slower than that of the test piece, calculated from the formulae in Appendix C. This may require the welders to be
specifically trained to deposit weld metal within very tight limits on travel speed, weaving etc and will require close supervision during production welding.
Temper beading is a method of reducing the hardness of HAZs by using the heat input from subsequent weld runs to refine and temper the HAZ of underlying
weld passes. Clause QW290 of ASME IX specifies the requirements for temper bead welding, essential variables and weld procedure qualification. Hardness
testing is mandatory and the positions of the hardness impressions are given in SP0472; the maximum hardness being required by the NACE specification.
The technique is very useful when there is a need to carry out a local weld repair but requires very precise placing of weld runs and substantial skill on the part
of the welder to ensure a correct and consistent bead overlap and travel speed and that the temper bead layer does not overlap onto the base metal HAZ. A

lengthy training period for the welder is likely to be required before the welder can successfully pass the qualification test and apply the technique in
production.
PWHT will reduce both the hardness of a weld and the residual stresses and both will reduce the risk of cracking. Depending on the construction code there
may, in any case, be a requirement to PWHT - ASME VIII, Unfired pressure vessels, requires PWHT over some 32mm thick, ASME B31.3, process piping, when
thickness exceeds 19mm. As high a PWHT temperature as possible should be used to achieve the maximum amount of tempering. BS EN 13445 Part 4 the
pressure vessel code - permits PWHT temperatures as low as 550OC and there is also an option in BS PD 5500 to use a similar low temperature. Such low
temperatures may not give the required reduction in hardness.
Welding procedure qualification is the most common method of complying with the hardness requirements. It is carried out in accordance with the ASME IX
requirements using actual production material or a steel of the same grade but with the maximum carbon equivalent of material to be used. The welding
variables are recorded during welding of the test piece and hardness testing is mandatory, the hardness of the test weld HAZ to be less than 248Hv, that of the
weld metal less than an average of 210Hv. In addition to the ASME IX requirements, SP0472 requires butt welds and fillet welds to be qualified separately;
although not mandatory, it would also be advisable to qualify separately single and multi-pass fillet welds. The hardness in a single pass fillet weld can easily
exceed 300Hv, particularly when welding on thick steel, say over 25mm thick.
Test piece thickness (and hence the cooling rate) may be an issue since ASME IX allows production components to be twice the thickness of the qualification
test piece. Where PWHT is not carried out on the thicker components, thought needs to be given to whether the procedure qualification test is carried out using
the thinnest test piece allowed by the code or using a test piece matching the maximum production thickness.
The welding procedure specifications (WPS) to be used in production must contain parameters matching those of the qualification test piece. Production welds
must not differ more than -10% and +25% of the test piece and heat input, preheat and interpass temperatures must be the same as or greater than those of
the test piece. Production welding is restricted to the same specification and grade of steel with matching or lower carbon equivalents.
Quality control must be based on best practice with well trained and qualified welders supervised by an adequate number of competent welding foremen and
inspectors. Post weld inspection and NDE will be as required by the construction code. SP0472 does not make hardness testing of production welds a
mandatory requirement but, since an acceptably low hardness is crucial to satisfactory in-service performance and is sensitive to so many variables, it is
advisable to perform some checking of weld and HAZ hardness on completion. This requires the use of portable hardness testing equipment and Job Knowledge
articles numbers 74 and 75 discuss some of the methods available.